text1,text2,same "Although there are many heroes in the who are rulers and leaders of men , the question of whether both heroism and leadership can co - exist simultaneously is by no means a simple one . Heroism in the epic poems of is not completely the same as the modern ideal of heroism that can be seen in comic book superheroes such as and Superman where values such as self - sacrifice , belief in a common good , and forgiveness are paramount . Therefore it would seem intelligent to define what heroism is in Homer 's epics and what we should understand by the term leadership before we move into the discussion of whether they are at all compatible in the poem . Heroism in Homer is brilliantly summarized by when he says : < quote>""Always to be the best , and superior to others . This sums up the heroic code ; it was the counsel with which sent his mighty son off to fight with the Greeks at Troy . "" < /quote> Edwards ( ) , p150 < /fnote > However , the heroic code is not quite that simple , it is not single thing but a collection of diverse virtues and duties that sometimes conflict with each other . These duties include everything from respecting the gods to fighting bravely in battle and killing the enemy whilst leadership involves making the right decisions for the good of the army and making sure that it functions in the efficient way that it should . < fnote > Redfield ( ) , p109 < /fnote > A clear example of a co - existence between these ideals of Homer 's epic can be seen through the actions of Patroclus in Book 16 where he heroically decides to lead ' army of Myrmidons into the battle whilst refuses to fight due to his dishonouring at the hands of . Nestor reminds Patroclus how his father Menoetius told him "" ... to give sound advice , make suggestions and give him ( ) a lead which he will follow to his own advantage "" , which suggests that Patroclus ' purpose in ' forces is not simply to be a good warrior and companion to but to control him to a certain extent especially when we consider that Patroclus is in fact older than Achilles . Nestor appeals to Patroclus to enter the battle in ' armour to save the Greek armies from defeat since they have been pushed back to their ships and to make the believe that has returned to the fighting . Thus Patroclus ' motives here are what make his actions an example of both good leadership and heroism . When he speaks to Nestor and when he eventually enters onto the battlefield with the Myrmidons in Book 16 he is doing so primarily to help relieve the strain on the other soldiers rather than to gain personal glory from the fighting . This makes him a good leader and hero because he seeks to win glory for the army before himself and thus will make sure that his men are organised and efficient . < fnote > Homer , , 11:787 - 789 < /fnote > Patroclus is given an arming scene before he assembles with the troops and enters battle indicating that he is going to be almost unstoppable in the conflict for a certain period of time ( the Greeks this called an "" aristeia "" ) . This heroic state would most probably nowadays be seen as a type of uncontrollable brutal madness which is anything but heroic but we must remember that at the time Homer was writing his epics , the audience that he would most probably have performed them to would have had a good understanding of war and would have recognised such a physical state . To an extent the hero who experiences an aristeia can also be read as encompassing both of the virtues of good leadership and heroism at the same time since part of being a leader is setting a good example to the rest of 's troops and to the other soldiers on the battlefield and a major part of heroism is success in battle . When Patroclus enters the fighting he is the of all the Myrmidons to kill and the man he kills is the Pyraechmes , the leader of the ( one of the contingents ) , and he eventually goes on to kill one of the most prominent heroes of the , the hero . Furthermore , as Patroclus becomes successful in his advance Homer begins to describe other heroes such as Menelaus beginning to kill again as Patroclus leads them away from the ships showing that Patroclus ' actions are having a positive effect on the Greeks and that he is leading them well . < fnote > Homer , , - 289 < /fnote> Homer , , - 312 < /fnote > Hector shows good leadership and heroism simultaneously by observing and obeying the advice of the prophet Helenus who tells him to return to the city with Aeneas and to tell the women of Troy to make an offering at the shrine of Athene in an attempt to stop ' rampage through the ranks by appeasing the goddess . Hector immediately acts upon this advice and is thus a good hero because he is respecting and obeying the advice of the divine . A more traditional and recognised form of good leadership in the poem is the way in which the heroes interact with their troops ; inspecting , organising and encouraging them before battle . There are frequent examples of this type of leadership in the poem such as in book when after having silenced Thersites , takes the sceptre to speak to the entire force encouraging them to continue fighting and not to give up and think of returning home . As with Patroclus when he enters the fighting in ' armour , it is ' motive for encouraging the Greek army that makes this a good example of good leadership being compatible with good heroism . Homer does not tell us that Odysseus gets up in front of the entire army because he wants to gain renown from showing his oratory skills , he tells us that , "" ... Odysseus had their interests at heart as he rose and addressed them . "" also shows us that he can be a good heroic leader when he chooses to be . In book we see him organising and encouraging his men before leads them out to battle : < fnote > Homer , , 2:283 < /fnote>""Achilles went the rounds of his huts and got all his under arms ... When had drawn them all up , men with their commanders in their proper ranks , he addressed them bluntly ... ' Well now , a bit of real work has come your way , the sort of fight you have been longing for . So , brave hearts , let the have it ! ' So he spoke and put fresh heart and courage into every man , and the ranks closed when they heard their lord . "" Homer , , 16:156 - 211 < /fnote > Here Achilles is motivating his so that Patroclus can lead them into battle gloriously and drive the back from the ships . In a way it could be argued that is doing this selflessly because he does not seem to get anything back from motivating his troops on behalf of Patroclus . However , it should be noted that as soon as Patroclus departs he immediately prays and sacrifices to the gods in an attempt to ensure that his companion is protected when he goes into battle . Another example of this type of leadership can be seen when goes down the battle lines inspecting all of the various contingents of the Greek army fighting under his complete command . He rebukes , Odysseus and Menestheus and praises , , and . When he comes to inspect 's forces we are presented with the one character that right through the poem is able to balance the values of heroism and leadership almost perfectly . On numerous occasions throughout the course of the Iliad Nestor organises and encourages the army or smaller groups of soldiers and is called upon as the voice of reason and wisdom . He does this not for his own gain or glory but for the glory of the Greeks as a people since , try as he might , he is far too old to fight against the , and he is trying to win and thus end the war as swiftly as possible . In book when inspects the forces we see that Nestor is simply a leader , he goes into battle specifically to order and organise his troops from his chariot . < quote>""There he came across Nestor the clear - voiced speaker from , whom he found preparing his men to fight and marshalling them under their leaders ... He placed his inferior troops in the middle so that even the unwilling would be forced to fight ... So Nestor used the experience he had gained in battles long ago to inspire his troops ... ' I shall still be with my charioteers and in command . Their tactics and orders come from me - that 's the privilege of age - even if the spear is left to the younger men than myself , who can rely on their muscle . "" Nestor is also called upon as the wise old warrior to settle the dispute between and that arises in book after is forced to return his prize and as compensation for his loss he takes ' prize . Nestor can not settle this dispute but I think it would be fair to say that angering the best Greek warrior by stealing his prize is a blatant example of bad leadership on 's part considering that had he accepted ' offer the war could have already been finished . The root of this feud is an example of a time when if had been more heroic and had given up on behalf of the army he would have been regarded as a far superior leader . However , is forced to take another hero 's prize because he is afraid of how the army he is leading will see him if he is without one . This fear amongst heroes of the opinions of their peers is known as aidos ( as explained in my literary criticism ) . "" The Homeric warrior is driven to action by a need for social validation : status respect , honour in the eyes of other men . "" This need for social validation is the key concept that makes the question of whether leadership is compatible with heroism in the a complicated one . Heroism is about escaping aidos through glorifying one 's name in battle by achieving fame ( kleos ) and therefore receiving the respect ( time ) of 's peers . My literary criticism discusses this in relation to Hector in book as he waits to face and therefore I will omit the topic of Hector in relation to aidos from this essay since it is examined elsewhere and instead I shall show how it used in a slightly different way in the poem . The sense of shame inherent in aidos is used by Ajax in Book to motivate the soldiers and to encourage them to continue to fight which is a clever use of this concept as a powerful form of leadership . 's comment that more lives will be saved because the warriors fear disgrace shows that this is an example of good leadership and heroism . < fnote > Fowler ( ) , p77 < /fnote>""Fellow warriors , be men , think of your reputations , and in the heat of battle fear nothing but dishonour in each other 's eyes ! When warriors fear disgrace , then more are saved than killed . There is no honour or safety to be found in flight . "" Homer , , < /fnote > Leadership is in essence a selfless quality as it involves putting the good of others before the good of yourself whereas heroism is a selfish quality where the better you are the more glory you can gain . This fact is the thing that makes it impossible to say without doubt that in the both leadership and heroism are compatible . It is true that to a certain extent both can coexist , we have seen this through the likes of Patroclus and Nestor , however , since neither nor Hector can sustain both good leadership and good heroism for long periods of time we are led to question whether it is fair to connect these virtues . In the end it would appear to me that heroes are primarily motivated by the chance to prove themselves in battle since there is no other way of gaining renown on the same scale as that which one can achieve from slaughtering the enemy . < quote>""The men of the heroic race command wonder because of their strength , their fierceness , their superhuman force , in some cases their heightened wisdom or skill in the arts of speech : to that extent they are models to be imitated by young men ... however , the energy that underlies such excellence is liable to push the hero to dangerous extremes of anger , passion and recklessness : so that his exalted status makes him deeply problematic if tries to take him as a model of moral excellence . "" Fowler ( ) , p80 < /fnote> In the , is being a good hero compatible with good leadership ? Literary Criticism : By < /heading>""So they spoke in tears to their dear son . But all their entreaties did not shake Hector 's resolve : he stayed where he was , awaiting the approach of awe - inspiring . As a mountain snake waits for a man beside its hole : it has swallowed poisonous herbs , its anger is dreadful and it stares intimidatingly at him , wreathing its coils round its lair - so Hector , his determination unquenchable , refused to retreat . He leaned his glittering shield against the projecting tower and , deeply troubled , reflected on the situation : ' What am I to do ? If I retire behind the gate and wall , will be the to point the finger of blame at me that , on this last accursed night when godlike rose up again , I did not take his advice and order a withdrawal into the town . It would have been much better if I had . As it is , having sacrificed the army to my own reckless stupidity , I would feel nothing but shame before the men and the women in their trailing gowns . I could not bear to hear some - rater say : ' Hector trusted in his own right arm and lost an army . ' But it will be said , and then it would be far better for me to stand up to and either kill him and come home alive , or be killed by him gloriously in front of . "" Homer , - 110 ( translated by , revised). The question of whether it is possible to be a good leader and a good hero simultaneously in Homer 's heroic society is one whose answer can vary depending on what specific part of the you read . By examining this passage in isolation we can learn much about the motivations and responsibilities of heroes and how this reflects on their leadership skills in turn . As I have alluded to in my main essay , heroism in Homeric literature is not the same as modern heroism , it is far more complex and thus many actions in the that may seem unheroic by our modern morals such as revenge are in fact the antithesis of this in Homer . This passage from Book 22 is a perfect example of this concept . The heroic society of the is one where status and reputation are of vital importance to the heroes . Their culture is a "" shame culture "" where heroes are motivated by the fear of being disgraced in front of their peers ( the Greek word aidos ) and to prevent this , heroes seek to achieve fame ( kleos ) and glory ( kudos ) by being successful in battle and thus receive the respect ( time ) from those around them that they deserve . This notion applies to Hector most prominently out of all the heroes in the poem . As we can see from the passage , Hector is unsure as to whether he has made the right decision in choosing to face alone in front of the walls of Troy and he admits to himself in his soliloquy that he has "" ... sacrificed the army to my own reckless stupidity . "" The passage describes Hector as a brave warrior , "" ... his determination unquenchable , refused to retreat . "" However when we put this passage into context , that is , that he has ignored the pleas of both his mother Hecabe and his father , "" So they spoke in tears to their dear son . But all their entreaties did not shake Hector 's resolve "" , begins to think that it is not really bravery keeping Hector where he is but more so than it is too late for him to turn back now . Hector has realised that he has made the wrong decision and doomed Troy to destruction but at the same time the aidos he will feel from the likes of is preventing him from returning to safety behind the walls . Hector would rather try to achieve glory by fighting even though he suspects , as he mentions when speaking to his wife Andromache in book , that will eventually fall . Furthermore , this duel between the greatest heroes of each army can be seen as a microcosm of the whole as a whole , and henceforth when Hector falls so does Troy . Hector 's soliloquy reminds us of another soliloquy , that of , at the end of Book 21 where he too questions whether he should face in battle or simply run away . The difference between these episodes however is that seems to have no fear of aidos as Hector does . Perhaps this is because is not quite as highly ranked as Hector is or it could simply be because he is not very susceptible to aidos like . This passage highlights the fact that the attainment of glory through heroism is in most cases a selfish practice that is not compatible with leadership since here Hector waits to fight not for patriotic reasons but because he seeks to glorify himself even if he must die doing so , without regard for what may happen to Troy . This makes Hector a somewhat tragic figure because his fatal flaw is his susceptibility to aidos which ultimately leads to his downfall . Hector 's heroism here does not show any of his qualities as a leader , it highlights how bad a leader he can be at times . Even the simile at the beginning of the passage is reminiscent of another example of his bad judgement as a leader when in Book he disregarded ' advice over the omen of an eagle carrying a snake in its mouth which it drops after being bitten by it . Hector misinterpreted this omen to mean that was with the . The simile itself represents how small and pathetic Hector is in comparison to "" awe - inspiring . "" Hector is the snake guarding his lair ( Troy ) whilst is the man who it should be noted can be hurt by the snake but can also easily kill him . The simile also foreshadows Hector 's death since it says that the snake "" has swallowed poisonous herbs . "" It should be noted that the act of Hector standing up to , even though he doubts that he will be able to beat him , is very heroic . It simply does not appear to be this way in this case because it is does not comply with what we believe he should do as leader of the .","< quote>""There can surely be nobody so petty and apathetic in his outlook that he has no desire to discover by what means and under what system of government the succeeded in in bringing under their rule almost the whole of the inhabited world , an achievement which is without parallel in human history . "" Polybius The Rise of the Roman Empire , < /fnote > Polybius dates 's expansion from in to , however ; broadly speaking one can date the city of 's transformation from a single city state into an entire empire stretching from and to the kingdoms and Asia Minor from . This period is widely acknowledged as being the time of Roman conquest and expansion . The motives behind this rapid expansion have been eagerly debated from the time of the actual events and continue to be debated by modern scholars who are still undecided as to whether 's empire was acquired by chance or by a series of aggressive premeditated actions against neighbouring peoples that come under the general heading of "" aggressive imperialism "" . < fnote , per.comm Lecture , < /fnote>""From the earliest days , war was at the heart of the life of the Roman people . They fought . rituals marked the opening and closing of the campaigning season . "" ( ) , p1 . < /fnote > War was a central part of Roman society and was in no way alien to the people of Rome . They expected it and revelled in it . War was an institution of ; it was an event and a way of life for all . The saw conflicts in a predominantly positive way in comparison to modern attitudes to war . Their fears of possible death were outweighed by the chance that war presented to every Roman man of gaining glory for himself , his family , and the gods , ( although one must note that after the Roman defeat at such confidence may have wavered slightly in the face of such horror ) . Furthermore , since it was necessary to be reasonably successful in warfare to join the elite , the trend of annual warfare played very much into the hands of the wealthy and ambitious men of the Republic given that success in war brought with it substantial benefits such as political power , prestige and a massive amount of money for those who held or aspired to high ranks in the Roman military or magistracies . < quote>""To become a full member of the aristocracy , it was necessary in Polybius ' time to complete annual campaigns , and to become an honoured and successful and powerful member of the aristocracy it was also necessary to achieve at least a moderate degree of success as a military leader . "" W.V. Harris ( ) p14 . < /fnote > Brunt cites as saying that if a general excelled himself in battle by killing of the enemy it was possible for him to be awarded 's ultimate accolade , a triumph . Through the triumph was able to aggressively celebrate its victories by public displays of plunder and processions of distinguished prisoners of war . A triumph would give a Roman commander a considerable amount of auctoritas and respect amongst other senators and a great deal of renown in regard to matters of state and future military campaigns which would stand him in good stead come the time of the senate 's elections . < fnote > Brunt , "" Laus Imperii "" ( ) . < /fnote > It could also be argued that the incessant warfare during the republic helped to stabilize and its empire by helping maintain control over its conquered provinces who had become its military allies . Constant conflict kept the armies of Roman colonies busy since they would fight side - by - side with the in battle ( although they were more often in the front lines since Roman commanders probably valued their own Roman troops more highly than their allied ones ) which in the eyes of the senate prevented them from scheming and organising rebellion against . A famous example of this principle can be seen in where he discusses 's true reasons for going to war with the which is a stark contrast to the contemporary belief that the fought them because the ambassador sent by the insulted the . < quote>"" ... they did not at all want the to become effeminate owing to the long peace , it being now since the war with Perseus and their campaigns in . They therefore determined to recreate , as it were , the spirit and zeal of their own troops by undertaking a war against the , and by striking terror into the to compel them to obey their commands . "" < /quote> Polybius , "" "" , < /fnote > Continuous warfare can also be seen to have provided stability in the city of according to Dionysius of Halicarnassos who describes how consuls saw war as a blessing since it provided an income and distracted the people and senate from matters that may have undermined the running of the state : < quote>""Those who assumed the consulship therefore considered the appearance of a new war as an answer to a prayer . They themselves invented pretexts and grievances for war when the enemy were quiet , since they saw that wars made the state great and prosperous , while internal sedition made it humble and weak . "" Dionysius of Halicarnassos "" Roman Antiquities "" < /fnote > Scholars such as seem to agree that 's policy of almost continuous warfare could very well have been simply a result of habit on the senate 's part since they had become accustomed to the benefits that such endeavors would nearly always bring . This begs the question of what these benefits in fact were since the most esteemed senators who would be able to sway votes on wars already possessed a more than considerable amount of political power and they most probably would have already gained much glory from fighting in previous wars . Thus it would seem that money played a large part in the senate 's decisions regarding conflict seeing that state and its citizens could line their pockets substantially in a variety of ways as a result of war . < fnote > W.V. Harris ( ed . ) , ( ) p20 . < /fnote > One way in which they enriched themselves was through the indemnity payments that they forced upon their conquered enemies . Indemnity payments from foreign colonies provided a steady and regular income for the state ; however it has been questioned whether these payments for defeat were meant to inflict economic damage on the enemy & profit or whether they were simply to assert 's dominance over the conquered in a more political way . The indemnities would seem to be more of a warning to other states and a constant reminder to the conquered of their loss to the since most indemnities seem to have been quite small and often had to be paid over long periods of time . < quote>""Carthaginian envoys in proposed to pay off their entire indemnity . Terms of the treaty after had obliged them to remit talents in a payment schedule that stretched over . Now , or so after the agreement , showed herself ready to discharge her obligation in a single lump sum . The patres , however , rejected the offer with alacrity . They would accept not a coin before the date fell due ( Livy 36.4.5 - 9 ) ...... , long - term payments emphasized the submission of the former enemy and gave a repeated reminder of her defeat , a lesson to other powers who might be recalcitrant or belligerent . The economic benefit was incidental . "" W.V. Harris ( ed . ) , ( ) , p62 - 63 . < /fnote > Land also played an important role in the possible economic reasons for 's aggressive expansion abroad . The economy had always been based on agriculture and thus land was a valuable commodity to the . could seize fertile land for themselves in conquered colonies and use captured prisoners of war to work the land and the state was always in need of land to settle the army 's veterans . Coupled with the desire of the rich to obtain new land and thus make more money there was a great deal of money to be made by means of trading with or through conquered states . Many of the colonies had an abundant supply of resources that could benefit and therefore many of the treaties that made with its left all the land in the hands of their defeated foes in favor of waving harbour dues and thus allowing the to trade more easily . < quote>""One famous senatorial action would seem to support the economic hypothesis . In the patres passed a decree awarding Ambracia the privilege of imposing whatever harbour dues she wished - so long as and were exempt from payment . "" ( ) , p71 < /fnote > Furthermore , if this evidence does not seem sufficient to prove that senators were greatly motivated to make war on foreign states so that they might gain from trade there is also the fact that when was introduced by the tribune of the plebs there was a massive amount of opposition to it in the senate despite it being passed . This law prohibited senators and their sons from owning any ship that was capable of carrying amphorae or more ( which was deemed to be large enough to transport the crops from a senator 's fields ) , as it was seen as unseemly for a senator to make money in such a fashion . < fnote > Livy , History of , < /fnote > In addition to the money that could be made from indemnities , land and trade , men could become extremely wealthy through booty acquired in war . Plunder could be spent in whichever way the general who obtained it chose and thus was a powerful tool for the rich . It could be distributed to the armies if the general wished to gain the support of the plebs and keep morale high since it provided a livelihood for the regular plebeian soldier on top of his pay , or it could be given to the state treasury to help solve the debt and land problems that constantly troubled . However , the rich often used the majority of the wealth that they acquired through booty to gain prestige and renown through dedications at shrines and the subsidizing of public games and buildings in their name . These public gestures of "" generosity "" clearly gave certain individuals a great deal of political power and influence in which led to generals desiring more and more power and wealth and thus they began to dictate their military policy without the senate 's permission . Wars fought without the senate 's permission would most certainly seem to have been aggressive in nature since the very fact that the senate was not consulted would seem to indicate that the commander either wanted to keep the profits from it for himself or he believed that the senate would not agree to fight it . An example of this is described by who speaks of Lucullus ' reasons and actions for attacking the Vaccei : < quote>""Lucullus being greedy of fame and needing money , because he was in straightened circumstances , invaded the territory of the Vaccei ( in , ) , another tribe , neighbours of the Arevaci , although he had no warrant from the , nor had they ever attacked the , or offended himself . "" < /quote> Appian , Wars , < /fnote > This desire for more money and glory coupled with the ingrained Roman belief that they could conquer the entire known world developed into competition and rivalries between the rich for individual power and greatness resulting in military commanders such as Caesar and Pompey amassing a huge amount of personal power and their own considerable empires and ending in the downfall of the Republic in civil war . < fnote > W.V. Harris ( ed . ) ( ) , p22 . < /fnote > Despite the fact that the majority of wars fought by seem to have originated from the imperialistic desires of the elite it must be stressed that not all the wars that they fought in and won were started by aggressive action . sums this point up best in the general context : < quote>""No doubt the war of against the Gauls , the First Macedonian War and the war against Antiochus III were in substantial part forced on to the , and other wars , started more or less voluntarily , had to be continued up to a point whether they liked it or not . These facts by no means change the fundamental character of mid - republican imperialism . "" W.V. Harris ( ed . ) ( ) , p21 < /fnote > Taking into account the evidence discussed in this essay I find it hard to agree with scholars such as ( ) who cling to the now outdated notion that 's empire came about purely through defensive imperialism , that is , that all Roman wars were fought in defense of their borders or of their allies . However I concede that after the Punic Wars when had suffered a heavy defeat at Cannae they may still have feared the figure of and therefore may have preemptively attacked foreign powers because they were afraid that another general in the same vain as may arise from abroad and hurt Rome again . Nevertheless , I find it hard to hold all of 's wars accountable to being afraid a figure that may never have surfaced . The wars following the defeat of Carthage could be attributed to this however it would not seem correct to believe that all of 's wars were defensive considering the benefits that were associated with war and the way in which they embraced these through exploiting the provinces . In my opinion the desire of the elite for money and power drove the war machine and as they continued to be successful in war their society began to foster and celebrate the ideology that their city was the ultimate superpower and that the world was theirs to conquer . < quote>"" ... since the deliberately chose to school themselves in such great enterprises , it is quite natural that they should not only have boldly embarked upon their pursuit of universal dominion , but that they should actually have achieved their purpose . "" Polybius "" "" . < /fnote >",1 "< heading > Introduction Rationale The Neolithic site of Çatalhöyük is situated on in southern . Figure illustrates the location of the site . It was originally excavated by in and has been subject to new excavations and research directed by . The aim of the project is to gain a better understanding of the Neolithic way of life at this unique settlement site . Modern field techniques are being combined with experimental archaeology , ethnography and scientific analysis to create an interdisciplinary research environment . < figure/>One of the key scientific methods employed is micromorphology ( e.g. Matthews 2005 ; ; Matthews et al . ) . This can provide the opportunity to observe microscopic remains in situ and provide information about microstratigraphy . This is a particularly relevant field of study at tell sites like which have been occupied for , accumulating numerous layers of habitation debris . Micromorphological analysis of deposits from different contexts can indicate what kinds of activities were being undertaken in particular buildings or spaces . Data collected can then be used in the interpretation of the function of that building or context , be that an obsidian workshop , animal corral , or oven rake out . of the benefits of this scale of analysis is that whereas excavation of a building can only provide a picture of moment in time , microstratigraphy can inform us of accumulating layers even on an , or basis ( Matthews 2005 : ) . < heading > Aim The aim of this report is to provide a detailed analysis of layer of a thin section which was taken from space in building , Level X. The context under analysis has been interpreted in the field as an oven rake - out ( Farid 1999 ) . It is hoped that this study will provide evidence to either support or refute this claim by establishing the nature of the deposit through the micromorphological analysis of the corresponding unit in thin section . < heading > Previous research . < /heading > Building 18 had previously been excavated by in his excavations . He recorded this structure as room and his description of the building is very brief . < quote>""The building immediately underneath , X , I , [ building ] had no features which definitely marked it as a shrine . The long narrow room along the north side was filled with strongly built , but empty grain - bins . A few worn smears of paint on the north and east walls of the main room suggested the possibility of geometric kilim paintings of familiar types , but they were too fragmentary to restore the pattern . "" ( Mellaart 1964 : 70) This was most likely due to his research bias towards the buildings which he interpreted as ' shrines ' . This is evident from the way he dismisses building in favour of the adjacent ' shrine , ' "" disappointing as this building was , its companion , Room X , I , provided us with a fine example of a X shrine "" ( Mellaart 1964 : ) . Unlike its 's predecessors , this report is intended to elucidate day to day activities being undertaken within the building rather than concentrating on the unique and spectacular ritualised behaviour which may have been performed around the site . However the distinction between these seemingly dichotomous categories of ' ritual ' and ' domestic ' may in fact not be as clear cut as they appear . "" Rituals and symbols permeate everyday life "" ( Bradley 2005 : ) and are "" not opposed to domesticity [ but ] often grow out of it "" ( Bradley 2005 : xiii ) . Even the mundane activities such as the maintenance of ovens or buildings as indicated by episodic re - plastering may have been imbued with symbolic meanings and may have formed part of a ceremonial act repeated or , perhaps at poignant times of year ( Matthews 2005 : ) . The notion of ritualised or symbolic activities being practiced in what appear to be ' domestic ' contexts is further strengthened by the discovery of figurines in building , of which were found in oven rake - out ( 1999 ) . The archive excavation provides more detailed observations of the building and the associated features . There are phases , each of which is associated with a fire installation in the south or southwest corner of the building ( Farid 1999 ) as appears to be the case generally throughout the site ( : ) . Throughout the occupation deposits of this building are the remains of features which have been interpreted as domed ovens and the floor layers are described as "" dirty "" , "" trample layers "" and "" oven rake - out "" . The exact location of the deposit sampled is unknown so it is impossible to identify the context or phase to which it belongs , particularly since the description of the various phases seems to indicate that similar types of deposits occurred on a number of floors belonging to different phases ( Farid 1999 ) . Even if this information was available , there would be considerable difficulty in reconstructing the sequence due to the disturbance to the stratigraphy caused by 's earlier excavations . < heading > Methodology Materials The thin section under analysis is W0197 which was taken from space in building at level X. This is located in the south area of the east mound and was re - excavated and samples taken in . A detailed explanation of the sampling strategy can be found below . A plan of the level X building phase in the south area is illustrated in figure and figure shows the location of this excavation area in relation to the whole of the east mound . The unit which is the focus of this study is the penultimate unit when counted from the base of the section . This is indicated in figure . < figure/>
Sampling Strategies The section examined here is one of a large number of samples taken from the south area in the field ( Matthews 1999 ) . The area to be sampled was cleaned with a palette knife to define the boundaries and then measured to the size required , as shown in figure . Samples were taken in blocks measuring approximately . These were removed from the deposit using a large knife to score around the area and cut away the excess sediments . Once removed , these samples were wrapped tightly in tissue paper and taped up , then placed in wooden packing cases to protect them while in transit from Çatalhöyük to the laboratories at . Figure shows a context section with samples removed . Once back in the laboratory the samples were allowed to dry then , under vacuum , impregnated with an unsaturated polyester resin and left to harden . Samples were then cut , ground and polished into a thin - section with a thickness of µm and a thin glass coverslip was overlaid to seal it . ( Matthews 2005 : ) < figure/>
Micromorphological Analysis Visual analysis was completed using an optical polarising microscope at magnifications of x40 , x100 and . Both plain polarised and cross polarised light were used to reveal different properties of the groundmass and inclusions in the fabric . Reflected light was also used to identify red ochre pigment particles because it is easier to distinguish from the groundmass in this type of light . Detailed observations of the various components within the deposit were recorded on a laboratory sheet which can be found in the appendix . This included description of the range of particles and inclusions , together with measurements of size and abundance in the sample . Measurements were made using the gradiometer built into the microscope , the scale of which was assessed using a micrometer . Micromorphological terms and definitions were used with reference to relevant literature ( Courty et al . ; . ) and from knowledge acquired during practical sessions . Minerals in thin section were identified using a reference atlas ( ) . < heading > Results Results of the analysis included in the appendix have been summarised in table form here for ease of reference . Table outlines the details of the deposit sampled for analysis . Since this report focuses on a single unit of a single thin section this table is very simple , whereas in comparative studies a more complex table could be constructed to include units from different sites or areas of the same site or within a single thin section . < table/>Table summarises the most important characteristics of the unit which will also briefly be described here . The deposit represented in the unit is between 4 - 6 mm thick and comprises of a sandy clay loam which appears beigy brown with dark brown / black flecks in plain polarised light . The coarse / fine ratio ranges with the nature of the fine material being organo - mineral . The groundmass has low - order birefringence and is crystallic , with limey clay inclusions undifferentiated in cross - polarised light . The microstructure includes chambers and planes which vary from abundance . The related distribution is embedded and the groundmass is unsorted . The basal boundary is a smooth gradual transitional anthropic boundary while the upper boundary is more diffuse . < table/> Inclusions The unit has a number of organic and inorganic inclusions which are summarised in table . The orientation of these inclusions is moderate and parallel with the boundary and the darker organic lens which can be found just left of the centre of the slide is strongly sorted with parallel orientation . Plant remains are observed in both charred and silicified preservation . The charred remains were dark brown / black in plain polarised light and were not birefringent . They ranged from - 7 mm in size with an abundance between . The more substantial fragments display large vessels of early growth and smaller vessels of later growth suggesting deciduous wood . These are visible on the example pictured in figure . The arrangement of these vessels indicates that the species represented in the sample are oak and ash . Some charred remains were woody or shrubby but no vessels were preserved so these were unidentifiable . The silicious plant remains were amorphous for the most part and their abundance in the unit was . Where the silicified remains retained a distinct form they represented tuba - like bulliform cell structure . Some ashes were also present . FORMULA 2.5 mm < figure/>
There was also evidence of burnt bone in the sample . These fragments were between 0.4 - 0.8 mm in size and were dark orange in plain polarised light which indicated that it had been burnt . In cross - polarised light it appeared brown and black with wavy extinction and this confirmed that it was bone . Figures and show an example of a burnt bone fragment from the unit in both plain and cross polarised lights . 0.8mm0.8 mm < figure/>
Microartefacts were observed in the unit , of which was a microcrystalline chert chip . This was a single triangular fragment measuring across which appeared clear in plain polarised light and sparkly blue under cross - polarised light , demonstrating order birefringence . Figures and illustrate a comparison between the appearance under plain and cross - polarised lights . mm1.5 mm < figure/>
A number of anthropogenic aggregates were observed in the sample including a basalt aggregate , fragments of limey clay plaster and a single burnt plaster aggregate . The basalt aggregate measured and was unique in the unit . In plain polarised light clear angular crystals were visible with inclusions of larger crystals and black flecks ( see figure ) . In cross - polarised light the basalt crystals were shiny pale blue and the larger crystals could be identified as feldspar as shown in figure . The limey clay aggregates measured in size and the abundance in the sample ranged from . These rounded fragments , as seen in figure , were beigy grey in plain polarised light and remained unchanged in cross - polarised light . Figure illustrates the burnt plaster aggregate which measured and appeared orangy brown in plain polarised light , with white inclusions identified as quartz . 0.7mm0.7 mm < figure/>
1 mm1 < figure/>
Other inclusions included red ochre particles , fragmented water lain sediments , spherulites and recrystallised salts . Red ochre flecks are most easily distinguishable in reflected light where it appears shiny orangy red . This is illustrated in figure . These flecks measured and were abundant in the sample . The water lain sediments , as shown in figure , appear brown in plain polarised light . The particles within the sediment itself are well sorted which indicates natural deposition , however its fragmentary nature suggest that it is not an in situ deposit . The fragments are think with the maximum length measuring . The re - crystallised salts observed in the sample can only be seen in cross - polarised light and appear as coatings on the interior of voids . These are visible in figures , and . Spherulites are also only visible in cross - polarised light where they are tiny pale yellow , pale blue and white sparkly circular particles characterised by a black cross . These measured and can only really be seen using magnification of x100 . mm0.2 mm < figure/>
Discussion As archaeologists "" our task remains to move between our interpretation of objects as determined by material science techniques and what these interpretations might tell us in terms of the intentional and meaningful aspects of material culture "" ( Jones 2002 : ) . This is expressed in diagrammatic form in figure . Micromorphology operates on a microscopic scale which can provide detailed insight and high resolution data which can not be achieved on the macroscale of excavation . However , in order to conduct a thorough investigation it is necessary to move between scales of interpretation . This process is particularly relevant to this study given that the results of the micromorphological analysis provides information about what the unit is comprised of , but this raw data needs to be interpreted in the wider cultural context of the site as a whole if it is to be useful and informative . A summary of interpretations is outlined in table . < figure/>
The chert fragment could be interpreted in different ways . , it could be interpreted as evidence for the use of fire - stones in the lighting of fires where percussion of stone against stone is used to create a spark . However , Cessford and Near have conducted research into pyrotechnology and the use of fire installations at and have concluded that fires were most likely to have been started using the friction created by wood rubbing against wood which leaves little trace in the archaeological record ( : ) . An alternative explanation for the presence of this chert chip could be that it represents flint knapping activity which has taken place in the vicinity . It might be expected that flint knapping would leave a larger assemblage or flint scatter , but this can be explained by other anthropogenic formation processes such as sweeping and cleaning the area . "" floor assemblages can not be presumed to be fossilised representations of past activities "" ( Schiffer : ) , deposits may have been removed , rearranged or re - deposited . This is particularly relevant to the interpretation of activity floors which would require the clearance of debris for the continuation of activities . The majority of this refuse may have been deposited elsewhere in a secondary context . The chert fragment , measuring , would be small enough to be overlooked by this clearance , perhaps by laying between the fibres of a broom - like sweeping implement or falling into a crack or depression in the floor . As a result , this and other microartefacts can become incorporated into the archaeological record . and note that "" microartefact studies on the floor matrix are required for isolating reliable samples of primary refuse from assemblages in well maintained houses "" ( : ) . Therefore , by examining the microartefactual evidence present in the thin section , such as the chert fragment , it may be possible to reconstruct the activities conducted and thereby ascertain the function of the building . Other microartefacts of cultural origin contained in the sample which may be included in this study are the basalt grains and the burnt oven plaster aggregate . The former could be the interpreted as evidence of the use or manufacture of grindstone tools , while the latter has been burnt so appears to indicate that at some stage in the history of this fragment it has been exposed to fire which could have been in a hearth or oven . Previous micromorpholocial analysis of oven plasters has shown the fabric to be characterised by sandy silt - clay loam particle size with quartz and feldspar inclusions and an orange oxidised surface and darker core ( Matthews 2005 : ) . The fragment observed here is not in situ and is only a small fragment ( c.1 ) , nevertheless it has a comparable particle size with quartz inclusions and appears to be orangy brown in plain light suggesting oxidisation . As a result of comparison with descriptions of known examples of oven plaster it is possible to infer that this is an oven plaster aggregate . It is not surprising to find remnants of oven plaster in an oven rake - out . Recent ethnographic studies of local villages around have revealed that ovens can be re - plastered after every firing ( Matthews 2005 : ) . Although this act may have been performed for a number of different reasons such as symbolic or ritualised renewal , as has been argued for wall and floor plaster ( Matthews 2005 : ) , a functional explanation for this practice may be that the clay plasters weaken under the intense heat , crack and disintegrate . If this is the case , then it would be usual to find fragments of broken up oven plaster in the oven rake - out . As previously discussed , the small size of this fragment may have facilitated its incorporation into the archaeological record while larger pieces may have been swept away . The limey clay plaster fragments are highly calcareous and are likely to have come from the surrounding Pleistocene lake deposits ( Matthews 2005 : ) . The wall and floor plasters throughout the site are made from this fine clay mixed with water and ethnographic studies of modern surrounding villages found that local people still utilise this resource ( ) . The aggregates in this unit can be interpreted as the remains of some kind of soft lime clay plaster flooring . The pieces are fragmented which suggests trampling , this supports the interpretation of floor plaster rather than re - deposition from a wall , ceiling or other installation . The rounded shape of the fragments may indicate sweeping activity which would have the effect of rolling the particles which would alter their shape . This sweeping action may demonstrate how this material was incorporated into the oven rake - out . Spherulites are produced in the digestive tract of herbivores and are incorporated into the archaeological record through deposition of dung . In this context the presence of spherulites could be interpreted as burning of dung as fuel . Ethnographic studies have shown that the use of dung as fuel is widespread and is often chosen by preference over other fuels ( Sillar 2000 : , ) and in some cultures dung is imbued with symbolic meaning or associated with ceremonial practices ( Sillar 2000 : ) . Alternatively , the choice of dung for fuel may be related to over - exploitation of wood resources for fuel and building leading to substitution of for the other . As remarks "" it is difficult to overexploit the use of dung as a resource "" given that cows , sheep and llamas annually produce times their body weight in dried dung ( : , ) . However , the presence of charred deciduous wood remains demonstrates that wood was still available . These charred remains may also be evidence of the fuel used to fire the oven . Given that evidence for both dung and wood exists , the most plausible explanation is that the villager exploited a mixture of fuels in their fire installations . Given the use of red ochre elsewhere in the site for painting , the particles included in the unit could be interpreted as the remains of paint from walls or perhaps from the oven itself . Since it is not associated with any plaster fragments this may seem unlikely . It could however , have been trampled into the floor as a raw material during a painting episode . described how the building next door was "" a fine example of a X shrine "" ( Mellaart 1964 : ) . The burnt bone may represent either the remains of dietary subsistence , having been incorporated into the oven rake out , or alternatively could be a chipping from the manufacture of bone implements which is attested at this level ( Hodder 1999 ) which could have accidentally been blown into the oven where it became burnt . A final possible interpretation could be that these remains could be human . Although this seems unlikely , there does exist a practice of burying neonates behind ovens at , and a single skeleton was found in space in the south - east corner ( 1999 ) . The tiny fragments which exist in the unit could easily have ended up in the oven without being noticed . < heading > Conclusion The aim of this study was to provide a detailed analysis of thin section W0197 in order to establish the nature of the deposit . The results of this analysis have provided support for the field interpretation of this context as an oven rake - out . Charred and silicified plant remains , ashes and burnt oven plaster provide evidence for significant temperatures being reached , with the interpretation of charred wood and dung spherulites as fuel residue confirming the most likely explanation as oven rake - out . has proposed that in levels IX and X the hearth or oven provided the focus for activities such as the knapping of obsidian and manufacture of bone beads , arguing that "" there seems to be some specialisation in craft production between different buildings , but obsidian knapping and storing seems to have been closely associated with hearths and ovens on the southern ' dirty ' floors in most buildings "" ( Hodder 1999 ) . Although there is no direct material evidence for obsidian knapping in the unit analysed , the interpretation is not necessarily disproved . It should be remembered that a thin section is only a µm - dimensional slice through the deposit , and as such may not necessarily be fully representative of the context as a whole . This interpretation of the hearth area is not disputed by the microartefactual remains , in fact , the chert chip and basalt grains support this notion of craft activities and if the bone fragments can be assumed to be the remnants of bone implement manufacture then this would also support this explanation . Micromorphological analysis can provide high resolution data about microstratigraphy and microartefactual remains which may not be evident in the macro - scale excavations . Through an interdisciplinary approach combining micromorphology with modern excavation techniques and ethnographic studies , it is hoped that a fuller , more detailed picture of the past may be reconstructed without losing sight of the wider issues .","< heading > INTRODUCTION The study of molluscan data can yield important palaeoenvironmental information about the changing landscape throughout history and prehistory , providing indications of long - term climate change and variation in land use . To provide a reliable interpretation of ancient environments , a multiproxy of bioarchaeological evidence should be considered , including mollusca , pollen , macroscopic plant remains , charcoal , and insects . Unlike pollen , which can be anemophilous ( and therefore distributed over a wide area ) molluscs are useful for examining micro - environments due to the specific nature of the distribution of shells in particular habits ( : ) . Similarly , mollusc analysis is suitable for samples from chalky and lime - rich areas , conditions which are not favourable to the preservation of pollen grains ( ibid . : ) . The subject of this investigation is the area , which is located in between and Newbury . has produced evidence for human activity at numerous sites along the river including sites between ) . Figure shows the location of and other sites in . < number of cores were taken from the river palaeochannel along a transect close to the site of . This report is the analysis of the mollusc assemblage from core , with particular reference to sample depth ( figure ) . A percussion corer was used to extract this core from the present ground surface to the bottom of the channel , a depth measuring . The identification of mollusc species and the examination of their distribution throughout the core sequence will be used to interpret the environmental landscape at . Changes in land - use , as indicated by the appearance of different species , may be inferred to be the result of human activity and impact on the environment . < figure/> METHOD Samples of soil were taken at varying intervals through the core . The molluscs were extracted from the sediment by wet sieving . This process also preserves other organic remains including charcoal , seeds , and insect remains . Microscopic analysis of each sample was undertaken a member of the class in order to separate the molluscs by species and to identify any other potentially interesting or informative remains . The method employed in the classification of mollusc species was detailed visual analysis of each shell . In addition to overall shape and size , characteristic features include : < list > Shape of the apertureDepth of the sutureTightness of the spiral at the apexPresence of ridges , furrows or hair pitsColourShiny appearance < /list > In some cases , comparison with the study collection was necessary to confirm the identification . For example , in the analysis of molluscs from sample depth , the similarity in appearance of Carychium tridentatum and C. minimum necessitated the comparison of shells from the sample with known examples of both species from the reference collection . It was only in contrast to the taller C. tridentatum that the unidentified shells could be verified as C. minimum . < heading > RESULTS
DISCUSSION Depth 53 - 65 cm The molluscan assemblage at depth contains a range of shade - loving ( ) , intermediate ( ) and open - country species ( ) but the largest group is represented by freshwater species ( ) . Freshwater species can be divided into groups by their preference for particular habitats ( : ) . These groups are defined as : < list > SlumCatholicDitchMoving Water Figure shows the percentage of freshwater species belonging to each ecological group from depth . The bivalves represented in the sample were not identified to species level making it impossible to assign them to these groups so they were omitted from the pie chart . The majority of the mollusc taxa at this depth belong to the ' slum ' group which is dominated by truncatula . This native species inhabits marshy grassland and can survive in bare mud in marshes ( Kerney 1999 : ) . Also present in this group is Anisus leucostoma which is commonly associated with truncatula and is most typically found in swampy ponds and ditches ( ibid . : ) . There are no species from this depth belonging to the ' catholic ' group and the ' ditch ' group is comprised of species , macrostoma . This species is rare , being mainly restricted to , and inhabits ditches in marshland and river floodplains ( ibid . : ) . The conditions favoured by these freshwater species indicate that the area may have been marshland , water meadow or fen . The ' moving water ' group of the molluscan assemblage , with piscinalis as the main component , represented by shells . This species thrives in still or slow moving muddy water ( ibid.:29 ) so it is quite plausible to expect a suitable niche to exist in a marshland environment . fluviatalis ( figure ) and tentaculata require slow - moving well - oxygenated water such as rivers and canals . It is conceivable that a small nearby stream or tributary could account for the presence of these moving water species . < figure/>
The terrestrial species from this sample come from both shade - loving or woodland species and open country species . This is due to the fact that snail habitats are much more localised than human environments , meaning that shade - loving species can live in grassland at the base of long grass alongside open - country species who favour shorter grass ( : ) . The marshland interpretation as suggested by the freshwater species is supported by the shade - loving terrestrial species represented by Carychium minimum and the species , both of which are common in marshes and other wet places ( Kerney 1999 : , - 77 ; : ) and by nitidus ( figure ) which is restricted to marshes ( ) . considers that intermediate or catholic species are of limited value in environmental analysis ( : ) . However , in this particular case , the presence of species which favour damp environments further substantiates observations made in the other ecological groups , such as pulchella which inhabits water meadows and marshes ( Kerny 1999 : ) . excentrica is abundant in this sample , which despite its preference for dry , open grassland , occasionally lives in marshy environments ( ibid.:109 ) . Conversely , muscorum is common to dry places particularly sandy or rocky ground , but is only represented by shells compared to individuals belonging to the species . < heading attempting the interpretation of the sequence as a whole , it is important to assess the comparability of the different samples . Given that the total number of shells is different in each sample , ranging from to shells , the fairest method of comparing them is to consider the representation of the ecological groups in relation to each other and compare the percentages . This is shown graphically in figure . However , this should be approached with caution to prevent misinterpretation of the evidence . At depth , the freshwater species represent of the total number of shells compared to at depth cm . If quoted in percentages these figures could be misleading because the actual number of shells that correspond with these percentages are and respectively . Likewise , the weight of the sieved sediments before the molluscs were extracted varied between samples . Depth weighed grams while cm weighed , therefore it is to be expected that the larger sample would yield a higher total of snails and that this is due to sampling methods rather than palaeoenvironmental factors . Another aspect to be considered is preservation of shells . Certain types of soils , such as lime - rich sediments preserve molluscs better than non - calcareous soils and this can also affect the number of shells in the sample . This might be the reason that depth - 115 cm , a context of silty clay contained shells while the deposit below ( 115 - 160 cm ) which was made up of silt with calcareous inclusions produced a total of shells ( figure ) . < heading > Core Sequence- Interpretation Throughout the sequence , freshwater species are predominant . There is a general trend showing an increase in open country species but there is not the decline in shade - loving species that would be expected to suggest widespread land - clearance . < heading from non - molluscan palaeoenviromental data can also provide information about the changing environment , climate and land use . Botanical remains such as seeds , if identifiable , can be used to verify the environmental interpretation of the molluscan assemblage . For example , the seeds found at depth - 173 cm included erecta , sp . , Carex ertille , Chenopodiaceae and Schoenplectus lacustris which are semi - aquatic species that live on the margins of water ( , pers . comm ) . This would support the interpretation of a marshland or water meadow environment . The presence of and species , however , would suggest grassland or open space in woodland ( : ) . < figure/>
Flint microdebitage was also discovered in some of the samples . This can not be assumed a priori to have an anthropogenic origin , given that flint is a naturally occurring material which can appear to be ' worked ' but its form may be the result of frost or plough damage . Careful inspection under the microscope revealed that pieces of microdebitage from depth - 173 cm showed some of the typical features of a flint flake such as the striking platform and the point , bulb and ripples of percussion ( figures ) . Depth - 173 cm also yielded possible pieces of worked flint . This suggests a human presence in the area at the time of these deposits which has implications for land use and could be reflected in the molluscan data ( : ) but in this case there is no increase in open country species to suggest land clearance at these depths . Charcoal can also indicate human activity , but like flint can be the result of natural processes . An abundance of charcoal came from depth - 173 cm , and its association with worked flint could infer that the burning was the result of human activity .",1 "< heading > Introduction First of all , the question "" Should digital property be given the same protections as physical property ? "" is a bit misleading . It suggests that we are at a point at which we have to decide this issue . In fact , it has already been decided by governments all over the world . property enjoys a variable amount of protection . This introduction touches on the existing legal frameworks and the way in which they are put into practice . The and the are about to pass or have recently passed corresponding reformed laws . As the computer magazine PC reported on its website on , the of has passed a new copyright law that is considered stricter than the old one . For example , videotaping films in cinemas is threatened with imprisonment . In spite of their poor quality , these so - called "" cams "" have become popular because of their small size . If they like the film , people may also download a near - DVD quality version ( DVD - rip ) that become available on file - sharing platforms soon after the DVD version is released . On the other hand , some passages were not implemented , especially on ad blockers and content blockers , although the film industry would have liked to see them passed . The discrepancy between the stances of consumerism groups and industry also becomes evident in the debate over a copyright reform in . The news magazine reports in its online edition on that the bill proposed by minister of justice does in fact abolish the right to make private copies , a move harshly critisized by consumer protection . The is working on a directive to allow software patents that is facing opposition from ) . Their petition has been signed by people ( on ) among these are personalities like , and , who have all gained a reputation in the Open Source community and beyond . They claim that software patents are dangerous for the entire economy , especially for the one . The following screenshot of URL taken on demonstrates that the list of signatures is ever - growing ... < heading > Abuse of patent rights A striking example of how patents can prove counter - productive and lead to absurd situations is given by - patents . The online edition of the science and culture magazine published a report about Tektronix , a company now producing high - performance oscilloscopes . In former times , Tektronix used to be active in the printer and display sector . Consequently , they applied for a number of related patents , for instance for projection of foreshortened objects on - dimensional displays , dithering , fast caching and online games . Tektronix never charged license fees , but was protected against other 's claims . Since the patents were due to expire , they were sold to solicitors , who had other plans . Although the techniques may have been in use for now and are at the basis of all current games and many applications , sued virtually all big names in the gaming industry : , , Take and to name but the biggest . , who got rich by buying patents on streaming media , seems to be the role model for this scheme . The judiciary has to decide in favour of the right holders ' morally questionable practice , despite the fact that , as the article points out , laws which were initially intended to protect the inventor serve to finance combines and lawyers . The media is full of other stories where the laws as they are produce less than satisfactory results . It is arguable whether they ever will , but I will show why the stance of the free software fraction is the winning one when compared to proprietary software and how digital data differs from houses , cars or the works of Goethe . < heading > Methodology Selection of sources The main sources of information that were used consisted of various contemporary science journals and popular science and news magazines appearing in different countries and respected worldwide . Among those are specialist journals like and , , Computer and Internet Lawyer , , Quarterly as well as publications by IDG ( PC Welt , Computerwoche ) , + Jahr ( ) and ( , c't ) . They are freely accessible at URL , through the ATHENS database or at their individual addresses . [ check if really used ; amend ] Besides , less official websites of the free software faction were acknowledged and critically evaluated . [ ... ] < heading > Range and limitations This essay is not the work of a lawyer or law professor but of a computer enthusiast and computer science student . A comprehensive knowledge of the original texts of laws or of numerous litigations can not be expected considering the vastness of the field . However , a sound understanding of the underlying technology may prove rather useful when it comes to pointing in the right direction . [ intention to address a range of perspectives or areas of emphasis ] < heading > Review of the literature Literature based on , , national laws and international law widely recognises that the ultimate purpose of granting ownership is to provide an incentive for economic activity and to foster progress and innovation ( , , , and , and Suthersanen ) . Opinions diverge on how this can be best achieved . There is unanimous support for physical property ( except perhaps from hard - core communists ) and intellectual property rights seem quite perfected as well after of development . There is a lack of consensus , however , when the law has to respond to new developments like electronic circuits ( hardware ) , new forms of information ( documents and media stored digitally , software ) and new channels of distribution ( internet file sharing ) . Recent reform attempts in the , and show that the law is in flux and a new compromise in accordance with the maxim stated before has to be found . The opposing schools of thought are represented by or Free Software movement of independent programmers and users on the one hand and a movement led by corporations promoting maximum protection and prosecution . I support the view that "" classical "" laws should not and can not be applied to all forms of digital data and that a distinction between digital property and intellectual property should be maintained . < heading > Discussion The why , how and when of property The concept of property is an old one . It has been around for so long that we like to take it for granted . It should not be forgotten , however , that it has been constructed by humans for a particular goal and as time progresses , it is essential that we keep examining its validity . explains the why , how and when of property in his paper "" "" ( ) and reaches the conclusion that inconsistencies arise . Dykes refers back to the , who were the to implement property laws in their legal frameworks that still form the basis of the - American system . Naturally , it was limited to tangible goods . The idea to protect intellectual property ( ) did not come up until it became possible to store considerable amounts of information in the shape of books . Another reason for the interest in lies in the opportunities for economic exploitation of information that arose after . Therefore , copyrights and patents are intended to protect "" market value "" ( , quoted in ) . "" The patent , granted in in , gave a monopoly on his invention , ensuring his monetary income . "" ( , ) . And this is exactly what has happened times since then and everyone was happy ... < heading > The digital revolution Until , , the digital revolution took place . Some of the implications of the digital revolution are summed up in a research report by ( c.f . press release by ) . , the amount of data and information ( where information can be defined as "" data which have been passed through a particular human mind and found meaningful within that mental context "" , , quoted in ; i.e. data becmes information if someone can make any sense of it ) has exploded : "" Worldwide information production has increased by , according to the team led by professors and of . "" ( , ) . And this only refers to ! and most importantly , "" of new information is stored on magnetic media , primarily hard drives . "" ( , ) , i.e. in digital form . Consequently , we have "" to determine if property should enjoy any validity at all on the net "" ( , ) . concludes that "" intellectual property exhibits inconsistency vis - à - vis the net . "" . Even , software piracy is seen as "" stealing "" by some . Dykes argues against this viewpoint by claiming that "" piracy develops popularity "" . This may sound inane , but it makes sense , at least for software applications . He does not elaborate on this topic , so I will explain it here . Companies have to use original software because people will get suspicious if your advertising company uses neither nor QuarkXPress . So "" piracy "" is actually private copying . When someone uses unauthorised software they may use it for small - scale projects like private homepages . If it was not possible to obtain free illegal versions of professional software , users would have to do with nearly - free home versions , but they would not buy the business version anyway . So there is no damage done to the software industry . Yet , on the other hand , there is a gain . Users who familiarise themselves with the "" big "" software packages are likely to apply their knowledge at work . Hence their employers will have to buy it . This fact has been recognised by a number of software companies which offer restricted versions of their software for home use free of charge . A successful example of this practice is . The reader for files is free and is installed on virtually every machine . makes its profits with the professional version used to create and edit these files . Dykes ' main argument is that property becomes null through culpable inactivity on the part of the owner . This idea dates back to . "" Hence , it is the responsibilty of a property ' owner ' to actively pursue violations of that ownership "" , sums up . It can be assumed that of all users have at least at some point employed pirated software . Obviously , an effective strategy to counter abuse has not been set up thus depriving the "" owners "" of their rights in a moral sense . It is not an option to pursue individual infringements because of cost and bad publicity which would lead to a "" decline in popularity among software buyers "" ( , ) . It is so easy to spread nowadays that it becomes "" irrelevant and worthless "" . Later when we take a look at digital protection mechanisms we will see why this generalisation is wrongful . < heading > Innovation dilemma Dutfield 's and 's article describes innovation as a process taking place in small steps - "" incremental "" - and builds upon earlier findings - "" cumulative "" . The balance that has to be found here is between a too low threshold of protection which hinders innovation in the place because it does not guarantee the inventor an income and too high threshold as it makes follow - on innovation too expensive or impossible . The authors speak of a "" fundamental problem "" with respect to our property right system . It is clear that this article is focused on the problems of researchers , but naturally this is relevant to the entire society . < heading>]Forms of protection < /heading > DRM etc and why is wrong","When I heard that a citizen does not have anything like an ( ID ) I thought it was a joke . Much to my bewilderment , I then found out it was true - at least for the time being . Having spent most of my life in , it did n't even come to my mind that there could still be countries that have n't thought of giving out those handy little cards to their citizens . Well , maybe apart from countries like the . On the continent , although you 're not going to be stopped by the police every day , it is taken for granted that the police have the right to check identity . The way this debate is lead and the strong opposition against their introduction seems even stranger for the foreign observer . When the government announced the rollout of new biometric IDs and passports there was merely some moaning about the price of over The are known to be conservative to the extent that they have a weakness for overhauled traditions ( you 've still got that monarchy thing going on , right ? ) , but then again , that does n't mean they do n't have a point . So what is all the fuss about ? The occasion for proposing compulsory IDs for everyone was , as for many other measures , the terrorist threat that has become apparent in terrorist attacks on and soil . In their aftermath , governments all over the world seem to have engaged in a race to come out with more comprehensive "" security packages "" , many of which are directly or indirectly impairing civil liberties . It is clear that convinced liberals will fundamentally oppose them , just like people who do not cherish liberty that much will embrace them for their promise of additional safety . Both viewpoints shall be examined here and although civil liberties have to be protected , it will become clear why identity cards are accordable with them . < heading > The war on terror Opponents describe the recent bill proposed by the Labour government as a "" well - intentioned but misguided attempt to counter terrorism "" , thus rebuting what the government claims to be the motivation behind the initiative . There is arguably no evidence for the effectiveness of IDs in tackling terrorism . A striking example may be the attackers who were in possession of legal documents . Although some plastic cards may not be the ultimate solution to crime and terror , the negative implications of them are greatly exaggerated . < fnote > Mark Littlewood in [ 1 ] < /fnote> Practical issues It is accepted there already exist some means of identification like passports or driving licences , so the real novelty would be that you would be required to produce some ID if the police stops you in the street . This wo n't , however , lead to a dramatic increase in street controls , nor to unjustified detainments or discrimination of certain "" suspect "" groups , as some suggest . This kind of harassment may have been one of the reasons wartime IDs were abolished in , but experience in other countries shows that such fears are not justified . of the benefits that comes to mind would be curbing underage drinking and smoking in public . And it will also be less tedious to open a bank account . Here 's an excerpt from website on how to open a bank account for international students : < quote > FORMULA Opening a bank accountYou may want to open a bank account for use while you are a student , but can be difficult for international students . You may find it helpful to arrange to be able to draw cash electronically , from your bank at home . To open a bank account you need original documents , which may include:- your offer letter ( from or the University ) - an attendance certificate ( please contact Office)- evidence of both your address and your address in your home country - your passport or national identity card - a reference from your bank and copies of your bank statements ( if you have another account ) < /quote > I can tell from my own experience that it is even more difficult if you 're not a student . < heading > Forging Forging or stealing is not a problem , either , since the state - of - the - art protection mechanisms included in modern IDs render this infeasible . Although this has been a concern in the past , the possibility of storing biometric information on chips is a great leap compared to the outdated smartcards used in , for example . If anyone is worried about security , please stop using those credit cards - and paper money as well . < heading > Costs On the other hand , there is no conclusive answer to the question whether the investment is really worth it . In addition to the actual "" hardware "" that has to be shipped , it is a considerable administrative burden to maintain databases . In order to access all the features of the new IDs , police has to be equipped with suitable devices , so consequential costs are likely to be higher than the initial investment . < heading > Immigration Fighting illegal immigration would be greatly simplified by IDs . Basically , the police or border guards could send everyone away who does n't have a valid ID . So the debate comes down to whether or not we think immigration is a good thing . It is not uncommon that the most affluent countries take the strictest precautions to deter poor asylum seekers from getting a piece of the cake - while was ready to accept refugees . Either way , being able to demand a form of ID at any time can be used for tighter controls and if this is what the government wants , it is a way to draw a line to immigration . But the should remember that it needs some immigrants and should avoid alienating them like the did with their visa regulations and border controls . < heading>""Terrorists win"" A somewhat more convincing train of thought is the idea that by undermining our tradition of freedom and democracy through state control we actually "" let the terrorists win "" , i.e. if we decide to give up some of our freedom for the sake of temporary security , we will finally lose both . The ideal of the "" freeborn Englishman "" seems at risk . Though this certainly applies to things like freedom of speech , it is hard to see how carrying a card that states who you are can constitute such a threat . < heading > Privacy issues This would only be the case if government agencies started to collect and centralise more and more of the electronically stored data about individuals . ( [ 1 ] ) makes a point in saying that the right to privacy is not recognised in the - as opposed to countries like who practice a more responsible handling of personal data . The buzzwords here are the existence of a legitimate aim and the principle of proportionality . A survey quoted in The Register found that of the population are very confident that the government would be able to hold personal information securely . Perhaps this should be considered as a more rewarding field of activity for the government should they win a term . < heading > Conclusion This leads to the conclusion that this is just the beginning . Much more has to be done to ameliorate problems like poverty ( which leads to immigration ) and the rift between the Western and the world as well as domestic crime . To sum up , identity cards would not inconvenience the public , but they would n't have the promised impact on crime and terrorism , either . But they will arrive , sooner or later ( on the UK ID Cards passed its reading in ) , and the hype will fade into practical irrelevance .",1 "and define a pattern as "" all the words and structures which are regularly associated with the word and which contribute to its meaning . "" Sinclair and many other corpus linguists propose that all language is patterned . This brings forward the concept of ' fixed phrases ' and this essay will discuss the relation of these with meaning . I will discuss the importance of the following theory : words that share a particular pattern tend also to share an aspect of meaning . The work of and and other linguists in this field such as will be included in this discussion . I will look at how the connection between pattern and meaning has been studied and what effects it has on the field of corpus linguistics . I will then refer to my own research from and conclude with reference to the literature I have studied and corpus evidence I have gathered . In his book in ' , highlights the need for language learners to understand patterns in grammar usage . He suggests that it is not only the meaning of a word that is important when learning the language , it is also important to learn the collocation patterns . It is only recently that patterns have become accessible to researchers through the development of Corpus Linguistics . Sinclair and pointed out how superior is over intuition , as it can work with a large body of authentic data . "" A corpus does not contain new information about language , but the software offers us a new perspective on the familiar . "" ( 2002:3 ) So is incredibly useful when looking at the connections between patterns and meanings . It is a source of computational semantics which not only looks at the meanings of morphemes and words but also at meanings derived from combinations of these morphemes and words . offer us an abundance of information on attestedness- one of the principles of communicative competence pointed out by . It describes what is really done in our language rather than what should be done or what we think is done . Pattern observation is done using a corpora of data which is preferably not annotated . Annotation can lead to inherent theories of grammar being stored in the data , which , if tagged automatically may lead to inaccuracies in results . The grammars used by computers for parsing and automatic tagging do not tend to be the same as the linguists construction of human linguistic competence or performance . There is an infinite set of possible sentences in the grammar of a human and there is only so much of human linguistic performance that a computer can be programmed to recognise . Patterns are investigated through a set of guidelines . For example , concordance lines are sorted into alphabetical order . If the lemma is a verb it is generally best to sort the data to the right because , as and point out , most verbs have a complementation pattern following them . It will however , depend on the investigation . Nouns tend to show complementation patterns on the right but will show modifiers if sorted to the left . These generalisations are examples of the importance of studying patterns . Early studies in the field of have highlighted tendencies , which make it easier for current and future researchers to carry out their own studies . It is now generally accepted that meaning and form are related . As stated , "" each meaning can be associated with a different formal patterning .... There is ultimately no distinction between form and meaning .... [ The ] meaning affects the structure and this is .... the principal observation of corpus linguistics in "" ( in Stubbs ) . The question is , can corpus analysis give any insight into meaning ? As points out , corpus linguistics in has focussed directly on semantics and the best way to find out about meaning is through the analysis of texts . makes it easier to carry out this text analysis and is therefore an incredibly useful vehicle for theorists studying meaning . pattern can not be defined . It is just a ' recurring sequencing structure ' . This is the viewpoint taken by many linguists who , in some instances , find objectionable , and therefore disagree with the concepts that develop from it . "" In this case , checking the frequency of a pattern ... does not add essential further insight beyond the vague hope expressed by and that large amounts of data ' can inspire new theories ' "" ( Weigand- URL ) Like others , sees corpora as simply a tool for analyzing language . From it , we have gained many useful resources such as the Cobuild dictionaries . However , from this tool , these linguists feel that we can only get phenomena , not full theories . Patterns tend to have groups of words regularly associated with them . It has been found that these words can be sorted into meaning groups . That is , they are similar in meaning . Each pattern can have a number of different meaning groups but it is rare to find an anomalous word that will not fit into a group . I have looked into this using the . I looked at the regularly occurring pattern , to V yourself . The following query was typed into : FORMULA hits were found in the . Of these , I selected a random sample of using the sample tool . I then sorted the concordance lines alphabetically and assigned each to a meaning group . The groups and the words assigned to each are as follows : < list , Offer- Providing a service for others . Ask , Persuade , Allow , Get , Let , Make , Stop- Bring about that something is done or not done . Introduce , Familiarise , Acquaint , Teach , Train , Speak- To educate yourself or others . Comfort , Please , Enjoy , Treat , Buy , ... up- Something positive is bought about . Hate , , , , Wet , Cut , Trip , Stuff- Something negative is brought about . Protect , Guard , Help- Save yourself from harm . Prove , Show , Compare , Do ... proud , Match- Competitive words . Words which put you up to a test . , Lose , Open , Find- Bring about an inner state of mind . Involve , Fling , Keep ... going , Pace - Usually referring to work . through a workload . Put ... in someone else 's shoes , Picture , See , Set , Feel , Sensitise- Instructing you to view the world from another 's position . Behave , Contain , Conduct- To induce a certain calmer quality in yourself . Express , , To bring about more thoughts . Claim , Call- Proclaim that you are something. These groups are my own thoughts and intuitions as to where each word should be placed , so obviously the meaning of the words in this case is subjective . It is often possible for an accomplished user of the language to predict which words from a meaning group occur most frequently in a given pattern . For example , I have researched the words ' understand ' and ' comprehend ' which could both appear in the pattern : ' I XXX that ' . Both words in this pattern would mean the same thing but as a native speaker of I predicted ( purely through intuition and experience ) that ' understand ' would be the most likely to occur in this pattern . I put this to the as a phrase query . ' I understand that ' showed hits and ' I comprehend that ' showed none . This shows that intuition can be quite a reliable source when researching language patterns , otherwise predictions such as this one could not have been made . There are , of course , words that are used very infrequently in a pattern but nonetheless , have occurred and therefore are included in a corpus . and call this "" an area of flux ... of which no complete list can be given "" ( and 2000:99 ) . The main words associated with a pattern can be listed and are called the core words . Analogy is the creativity that is available through pattern - usage . Once a pattern - meaning relation has been established , words with the same meaning can be used in this pattern through analogy . However , this is not always the case . Patterns have restrictions that mean certain words are unlikely to occur within the pattern . I note the use of the word unlikely though and raise the point that this does n't mean they can not be used . Words that are not found in a corpus are not necessarily non - existent in a pattern . No corpus can be large enough to account for every use of a word and the uses of words is always open to change . So and raise the point , "" can we state categorically that something ' can not ' be said ? "" ( and ) The main point that has to be raised is that use of words in patterns is based on intuition . I can intuitively predict that a certain word is unlikely to be used in a certain pattern but my intuition does not make it impossible . and raise the example ' to persuade someone into doing something ' which , using intuition , most people would deem incorrect . However , shows use of this form times . This is a prime example of how important it is to study patterns with a corpus of genuine data . It shows us tendencies that our intuition will not consider . It shows that meaning groups affect our use of patterns and that we consult these meaning groups unconsciously when constructing utterances and sentences . The debate still goes on as to whether patterns can have meanings or whether it is just the words within the patterns that contain the meaning . When used in a particular pattern , the meanings of some words can change . and look at the example of the word ' talk ' . ' To talk ' means something different than ' to talk one 's way out of something ' . The implications of the latter are that "" someone uses clever , devious , or forceful language to achieve a goal "" ( and Francis 2000:100 ) In this example it can be argued that it is the pattern that contains the meaning , not the word . This strengthens the case of creativity in that if this theory is correct , any word from the same group could be inserted into this pattern and the meaning would not be lost . The relationship between pattern and meaning is also important when tagging and analysing a corpus . A distinction between ' high - level ' and ' low level ' syntactic rules is made . Low level rules are mostly word - class rules but high - level rules are those which assign function . The following diagram shows the set - up of ( ) which was set up in and tagged using syntactic rules which were decided upon by linguists . The linguists formalised the high level rules according to their meaning . < figure/>The inputs and outputs ( rectangles ) in this diagram all show how important the processes ( circles ) , especially the formulation of a grammar based on meaning , are . Meaning is important in the study of patterns in that one word can mean many different things depending on the pattern it occurs in . "" One must take into account the assumptions with which readers approach texts . Classes of verbs such as ergatives and reporting verbs require much corpus based work before the range of meanings which they convey will become clear "" ( Stubbs ) . This point can mean that reader 's intuition can often be a good source . A linguist will look at meaning in a text in a different way than a reader but it is often the reader that can give the real meaning of a pattern , especially in specialist texts . Pattern grammar is a very important theory sprung from corpus linguistics . The relationship between meaning and pattern goes far beyond what can be said through intuition . As points out , lexis and syntax are "" inter dependent "" . One word can occur in several different grammatical distributions to mean several different things . Patterns change with time and meanings of these patterns change through analogy . "" even major parts of speech are not as solidly founded as they might be "" ( in Stubbs ) . It is necessary to study these patterns regularly to maintain knowledge of the connection between pattern and meaning . Meaning is not obvious through pattern alone . It takes a contextual knowledge to understand the semantics behind a pattern , and this is why it is so important to understand the connection between syntax and semantics .","When researching and , what is striking is the amount of literature that there is on the subject . This essay will look at some of this literature and draw conclusions as to the methodology of the researcher , the findings of investigations and the conclusions drawn by both the authors of previous research and myself . Since Language and is such an extensive subject , I have chosen to focus in particular on approaches to Male and Female speech : The Deficiency approach , The Difference approach and the Dominance approach . I will look at how these theories were devised , what research has been done to support them and the conclusions gained from this . I will focus on meaning rather than form and so my viewpoint will be sociological and qualitative . I will also look at the relationship between gender and power and how this affects the theories . I will give a brief overview of each of the approaches before more detailed comparisons . The deficiency theory was proposed by in . suggested that women speak an inferior version of the language spoken by males . She was the linguist to point out that women use more tag questions than men . It had been pointed out that women used several devices in their speech more than men . Along with tag questions , these included : more hedges , more overt prestige forms and over - reporting on usage of prestige forms , more intensifying devices , finer discriminations in , for example , colour terms , more baby talk and weaker expletives such as ' oh dear ' . These are still accepted as features of women 's speech but it was how interpreted this research that led to the ' deficiency theory ' . Lakoff saw language as reflecting society and suggested that women spoke an inferior version of the language because they were inferior in society . According to , women ' are socialised to believe that asserting themselves strongly is n't nice or ladylike or even feminine ' ( Lakoff 1975:54 in ) . Lakoff therefore described women 's language as , among other things , tentative and unassertive , hence the ' deficiency theory ' . This theory is now thought of as dated since changes in society , and follow up research have discounted many of the principles . 's observations are generally supported but her reasoning gained from the studies has been replaced by other more modern theories . It was noticed that most of the research done had been focused on female language . The focus may have been leading to false theories and further research was needed into male language . another similar theory was put forward by , which was named the dominance theory . The difference with this theory was that it saw language as both a construction and a reflection of society . It also looked at male language compared to female language . Spender saw female language as ' borrowed ' and highlighted that language is andocentric . Evidence for this includes gender marking . The male form is usually the unmarked form and the female form is usually marked . Semantic derogation also occurs on many words relating to females . Many of the words used to denote female could also imply that the female is either inferior or sexually promiscuous for example master / mistress , bachelor / spinster . Our language however , is historical and many of these presumptions contained in the language could be out of date . This will be discussed further later in the essay . Linguists are now generally split between the dominance theory and another approach known as the difference theory . This theory is more recent and strives towards a less negative view of female language . Some researchers in argued that "" the dominance model had become a deficit model , that is a way of interpreting the linguistic facts that represented men 's language as the norm and women 's language as deviant "" ( ) . The theory focuses on different conversational goals , and by doing so , does not see one as superior to the other . Research into the different theories on language and gender is very broad . As stated earlier , the later theories have overshadowed the deficiency theory now and many linguists do not count it as a valid and research - led approach . "" seems happy to present folklinguistic material without the support of any research findings to confirm her statements "" ( 1993:23 ) also suggests that may be trying to prescribe how women ought to talk rather than describing how they do talk . This perhaps spurred research and development of the difference theory . On reading some of the literature on the deficiency approach , I agree with in that 's society should look more to description rather than prescription . 's theory has not stood the test of time . Society has changed so much in and generally women are no longer seen as inferior . I will therefore take a focus from this point on the dominance theory and the difference theory . The dominance approach focuses on the male 's dominance in society and therefore concludes that the speech developed by the male of the species has inherent supremacy . Being man - made , language is not neutral . It contains attitudes and beliefs about what it is to be male and what it is to be female . The dominance approach views language as a gendered system . Before going any further in this discussion , it has to be pointed out that power has a large influence when studying the dominance theory of language and gender . A lot of the language that is seen as typical male language correlates with that seen as powerful language , and typical female language is sometimes pointed to as powerless . Research has been done and it has been found that males are more likely to use ' single - voiced discourse ' where the subject presents only their perspective . Females are more likely to use ' double - voiced discourse ' where , whilst maintaining their own perspective , they take the other person 's into account also . The dominance approach sees this as unassertive and therefore less powerful . Language can be used by males to assert social dominance , hence tendencies to brag , boast , heckle and threaten . This ' conversational dominance ' is described by as "" strategies which enable speakers to dominate their partners in talk "" ( ) . She highlights that since research has shown that men use more of these strategies , they are seen as dominant in conversation . of these strategies is interruption and research done by ( ) shows that "" interruptions were far more likely to occur than overlaps and both types of simultaneity were much more frequently initiated by males than females . For example ... of the interruptions were by males to females "" ( Zimmerman and West in ) . Male language asserts status and dominance also . A higher frequency of swear words is found in male conversation and features such as minimal responses which the research done by shows to be a source of strength rather than defeat ; making the partner feel that what they have to say is trivial and he is uninterested by it . These are seen as dominance strategies and the fact that men use them more frequently indicates to dominance theorists that men are dominant . Nevertheless , since 's society sees many women in high - status roles , is it gender or power that overrides the other where language is concerned ? is among the researchers who have looked into this . It is widely accepted that interruptions are used to convey dominance and control . "" Men 's interruptions of women in cross - sex conversations constitute an exercise of power and dominance over their conversational partners . "" ( West in ) . West 's research into power , status and gender was done on physician - patient relationships . patients were observed ( recorded with unobtrusive cameras and microphones ) , males and females . Her findings were that out of interruptions encountered in a patient - physician conversation where the physician was male , were initiated by the physician and by the patient . In a patient - physician conversation where the physician was female , however , the physician initiated of interruptions and the patient , . It can be seen that the figures are almost exactly reversed from the male doctor figures to the female doctor figures . This leads me to think that males and females may enforce dominance and control in different ways or possibly even view power from different perspectives . The study also shows the different ways not just in how women and men talk , but how they are talked about . The main point that comes across is that if the physician is female she is referred to as a ' lady doctor ' or ' female doctor ' with obvious gender marking whereas male physicians are simply referred to as ' doctors ' , with no morphological gender marking but often an inherent male gender . West concludes : "" gender can have primacy over status where women physicians are concerned "" ( West in ) . also looked at power relations in her work place study Talking from ) . Female managers are likely to soften a blow when criticising an employee whereas male managers are more direct with criticism . This shows differences in management styles . Women 's management style tends to be more consultative and inclusive , whilst men 's style seems to be more directive and task - oriented . The patient - physician study shows some evidence for the dominance theory but the management study by could take the difference perspective . The difference approach concentrates more on the contrasting qualities of male and female speech and points out that although the styles of speech may be different they are not necessarily unequal . It does not look at power and therefore does not see either male or female as dominant . The workplace study done by is not necessarily to do with power affecting gender or vice versa . It is to do with how each gender exercises power in different ways . In fact , men and women have different conversational goals and aims to fulfil through language and this may have underlying reasons . Women have the conversational goal of being co - operative and men have the aim of being competitive . It may indicate that values are different . It may also indicate that males and females have different sub - cultures and are socialised in different ways from a young age . For example it has been found that mothers often change their speech to match what the child can understand . A mother 's mean length of utterance is likely to correlate with her child 's level of comprehension . However , fathers tend to use longer more difficult words . When a father is talking with a child , they take turns less often than when a mother is talking with a child . Another socialisation difference is that girls tend to be socialised with other girls and males with males . "" At school , girls sit in circles talking and each mirroring the group 's body language . You can not identify a leader "" ( Pease 1999:147 ) This shows that girls are inclusive and co - operative from . "" Boys ' groups have a hierarchy with leaders who can be identified by their superior or assertive talk and body language , and each boy hustles for status in the group "" ( ) . This shows that a dominance hierarchy establishes at an early age , and you can tell the dominant males by their language . Although this mentions dominance , this particular dominance is not to do with gender . This is just an example of hierarchies within a gender . It does not suggest that males are dominant and females are powerless . It describes the behaviour of children at a young age and suggests this as a possibility as to why male speech and female speech are so different i.e. that they are brought up in different sub - cultures . ( ) documents diary studies of how male and female talk differs in an office . Her findings were that women chat informally far more than men in the workplace . She says this maintains social bonds and communication channels . 's research shows that women are more likely to talk about relationships , children , clothes and hairstyles . Men are more likely to talk about technology , cars and sport . This supports the idea that women tend to be more affective ( interpersonal ) in their speech and men more referential ( conveying information ) . researched into this and in her article Women 's Talk : The Question of Sociolinguistic Universals she flags an example of a man talking about his job as a school principal and mentioning in passing physical symptoms of stress that he had encountered . The woman picks up on this and concentrates her contribution to the conversation on this matter and asks if he has seen a doctor and if he is okay now . The men in the conversation see this as irrelevant because they were focussing on the information about the job and not the effects that it had on the speaker . Holmes concludes : "" women tend to focus on the affective functions of an interaction more often than men do "" ( Holmes in Coates ) . The general consensus is that men respond to things and women respond to people . Scientific research into brain functions show that girls respond to people and faces and boys respond to objects and shapes . "" At , girls can distinguish pictures of family from strangers , while boys can not , but boys are better at relocating a lost toy . "" ( Pease ) Pease cites an experiment into the different genders at pre - school age . Each child was given a pair of binocular eye - viewers that showed objects to eye and people 's faces to the other . When asked about this , the girls remembered more of the faces and emotions shown on these faces and the boys remembered more of the objects and their shapes . All these differences can potentially lead to miscommunication in male female relationships . Because of the different functions of talk for the different sexes , different vocabulary is used and that is a main area for miscommunication . This is the focus of many books about relationships between men and women . "" Because vocabulary is not a hotspot in a women 's brain , she can feel the precise definition of words is irrelevant . She 'll then take poetic license with words , or wo n't shy away from exaggeration simply for effect "" ( Pease 1999:105 ) . Much of this ' self - help ' style literature takes the difference approach and sees both male and female styles as equal but diverse . It also focuses on what lies behind the language , in attitudes and values . Most of the research carried out on the difference theory has benefited from the recent development of the technique of ( CA ) . The difference approach can take a more sociological perspective if CA is used and look more objectively at evidence if everything is orthographically transcribed in as much detail as possible . Since I am focussing on language and gender from a sociolinguistic point of view , most of the research I am looking at is qualitative . This may lead to more subjective results but I feel that it is impossible to get reasons from a quantitative study which is where the Conversation Analysis is needed . I feel that the dominance approach is not dissimilar to the deficiency approach in that it prescribes reasons for why language is used differently by males and females . These are focused around male dominance and an inherent male bias in the language . I agree with that language used to talk about males is often more complimentary than that used to talk about females . Although gender - marking is obvious and semantic derogation in certain instances can not be denied , I think that the dominance view is a little outdated when looking at the language used by the sexes . To say that males use different speech styles to females is undeniable but to say that men use dominant speech styles is debatable . I do agree that power affects language but I feel that gender is a different sociolinguistic variable from power and as women gain higher status positions , the language they use is not inferior , but different from that used by a man in the same position . This is due to the different values of males and females and the different conversational aims . The difference approach gives a description of the differences and offers reasons to do with socialisation and not power .",1 "provided the explanation for the means by which evolution takes place . This was by the process of natural selection . A key aspect of 's ideas was that species were not immutable , that they could change in their essential characteristics . It had been a common belief that species were immutable because of the writings in the . Genesis mentioned the species that God had created and it was assumed that only God could create new species . was worried about the implications of his ideas . In he wrote to claiming that it was ' like confessing a murder ' to suggest that species were not immutable . However , many of 's ideas had been in discussion by earlier natural historians and thinkers in before he published his Origin of Species by means of in . Romanticism began in the and reached its height in . The questioned old beliefs , requiring proof before they believed in something . They would study nature closely and believed that man was closely linked with the natural world . In this way was also a thinker . < fnote > Nichols , Ashton , ' , , , URL ( ) . < /fnote > 's theory of evolution involves natural selection , which comes as a result of ' a severe struggle for life ' . Those animals with characteristics better adapted to their environment will survive to breed and pass on those characteristics while the less well adapted will die off ; ' nature was seen as discarding as well as developing various forms of life ' . suggests that 's theory of evolution was ' based on a distinctly Romantic notion of conflict ' . The rejected classical notions of harmony and order , instead celebrating the wild and chaotic aspects of nature . < fnote , , On . A Facsimile of the First Edition , with an introduction by , ( , ) p.126 . < /fnote> Honour , H , Romanticism , ( , ) p.311 . < /fnote > Instead of merely accepting old beliefs , looked for other answers . They looked to nature as a tool for learning instead of books written by the ancients . takes this view in his poem "" "" . He writes : ' Books ! ' tis a dull and endless strife : / ... Let Nature be your teacher ' . adopted this philosophy , studying nature closely . This is how he arrived at his theory of evolution . While employed as a naturalist on , observed the wildlife on . He noticed that there were species of finch , all with slight variations . He saw that the finches had different shapes and sizes of beaks depending on what their food source was . Those finches eating insects and small seeds had beaks that were small and thin , ideal for catching insects and picking up small seeds . Those finches eating large seeds , on the other hand , had large , short and wide beaks that were capable of crushing the large seeds . These observations of the natural world helped come up with the idea of natural selection . The finches with beaks better adapted to the food supply were more likely to survive and pass on the same characteristics to successive generations . < fnote > , , ' , Representative Poetry Online , URL ( ) < /fnote > 's grandfather , , had ideas on the mutability and evolution of species before his grandson . In in , writes : ' ... as successive generations bloom , / New powers acquire , and larger limbs assume ' . Erasmus ' ideas on evolution and the natural world ' powerfully influenced ' the . complimented him as having ' perhaps , a greater range of knowledge than any other man in ' . referred to the ' experiments of Dr. ' in the introduction to the edition of . was influenced by Erasmus ' ideas that new species can be created . , in the opening pages of the novel , says to Captain : ' A new species would bless me as its creator ' . She is questioning the old beliefs that God was the only creator of species . < fnote , , The Temple of Nature , ( , ) quoted in . < /fnote> Nichols , ' . < /fnote> Shelley , , ( , ) p.12 . < /fnote> Shelley , , p.54 . < /fnote > The believed that if you understood nature , you would attain a greater understanding of yourself . ' Romantic poets and writers were hinting at the biological connectedness of all living things ' ; for example , spoke of the ' life within us and abroad ' in "" "" . It was believed that Man , the animals and all of inanimate nature were linked . This went against the ancient idea of where man was above nature in the hierarchy . In the view of nature ' animals were regarded not so much as sub - human as other - than - human ' . The natural world was not as ordered as was once believed . 's theory of evolution concurs with this line of thinking . He asserted that ' man and the lower animals do not differ in kind ' . notes how ' ... used human behaviour to illustrate aspects of animal behaviour ' , further suggesting their link . The also attributed human characteristics and emotions to nature . , in "" in "" , humanised nature when he mused that ' every flower / Enjoys the air it breathes ' , and personified a nightingale in "" "" by giving it human feelings with its ' soul abroad / In such an ecstasy ' . also ' hints at a link between human and nonhuman nature ' . In "" "" he writes : < fnote > Nichols , ' . < /fnote> Coleridge , . , ' The Eolian Harp ' quoted in , ' . < /fnote> Honour , Romanticism , p.311 . < /fnote> Howard , J , : A Very Short Introduction , ( , ) p.75 . < /fnote> Wordsworth , , ' Lines Written in , , ( , ) p. < /fnote> Nichols , ' . < /fnote> The Gods of the earth and sea thro ' Nature to find this Tree , But their search was all in vain : There grows in the Human Brain. Blake , , ' quoted in , ' . < /fnote > The metaphorical tree in the human brain unites man to inanimate nature . This relates to 's theory that Man evolved from more primitive forms of nature . After looking at all the evidence for evolution , speculated that ' probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from primordial form ' . This concept has been alluded to in the writings of some of the . For example , in his "" "" , writes : ' The sapless foliage of the ocean , know / Thy voice , and suddenly grow grey , with fear ' . The plants of the sea respond in the same way to the changing seasons brought on by the west wind as the plants on the land . This is a ' typically Romantic image of sympathetic interactions across ... boundaries ' . It is implied that sea plants and land plants behave in similar ways because they have a common origin . The were not evolutionary thinkers , but their view of nature was similar to 's in the way that they could see ' one grand natural system ' instead of individual species with no interaction or variation . < fnote , On , p.484 . < /fnote> Shelley , Percy , ' Ode to the West Wind ' , quoted in , ' . < /fnote> Nichols , ' . < /fnote> Some of the believed that understanding nature and becoming one with the natural world would bring them closer to the divine . Lord , for example , in a poem entitled "" "" writes : < quote > Little Flower - but if I could understand What you are , root and all , and all in all , I should know what God and man is . < /quote> Tennyson , Lord Alfred , ' Flower in Wall.html ( ) < /fnote > They believed that all of nature was divinely ordered and they thought that evolution could have been part of God 's plan . This is where 's theory countered this view . In his Origin of Species he explains how natural selection does not proliferate characteristics that are beneficial to another species , claiming that he ' would almost as soon believe that the cat curls the end of its tail when preparing to spring , in order to warn the doomed mouse ' . Natural selection is selfish . It does nothing for the good of another species . For , this detail ' discriminated between providential creation and evolution by natural selection ' . Also , the randomness of natural selection with chance mutations and the struggle for survival ' sounds more like a game of genetic that the kind of mechanism that would have been instituted by a wise and benevolent Creator ' . describes evolution in a purely naturalistic manner , removing the supernatural element . In explaining the world ' the naturalist has abolished ... God ' . However , not all Romantic thinkers still attributed the workings of nature to God . ' ode "" , < fnote , On , p.201 . < /fnote> Howard , , p.29 . < /fnote>'From to Modern Darwinism : An Overview ' , p.6 . < /fnote> Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness , bosom - friend of the maturing sun ; Conspiring with him how to load and bless With fruit the vines that round the thatch - eves run , < /quote> contains no allusions to the divine . Nature controls it 's own processes . ' 's "" nature "" , like [ and , exists without need for , or appeal to , any form of "" super nature "" . ' < fnote > Nichols , ' . < /fnote>'In the century before , a wide range of scientists and writers saw human beings as organisms with important connections to their environment ' . This included the . 's theory of evolution did not counter the Romantic view of nature . There were many similarities between 's ideas and those of the . They could see that nature was not static and unchanging , but that it was a dynamic system that ever changing . The had a sense that Man was connected to the natural world . took this idea a step further in his theory of evolution . Although 's purely naturalistic and secular theory opposed the views of some of the thinkers such as who believed that nature was God 's creation , certain like where questioning the divine nature of world . < fnote > Nichols , ' . < /fnote >","< heading > Aim: To carry our diazonium coupling reaction between a and phenol with reaction at the para position . Reaction via an electrophilic aromatic substitution mechanism . < heading > Theory: Diazonium coupling reactions are examples of electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions . In this experiment the diazonium salt is the electrophilic , which reacts with an electron rich nucleophile ( phenol ) . This reaction occurs mostly in the para position however is can be facilitated in the ortho position by protecting groups placed in the para positions . The product of this experiment , an - coupled product are commonly used as dyes as the extended conjugation of the Π electron system causes them to absorb in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum . < heading > Safty / Hazards: Chemicals : < /heading > Anthralic acid ( toxic ) ( corrosie ) ( Toxic ) Phenol ( Toxic ) Sodium Hydroxide(Corrosive) Precautions to be taken , appropriate lab wear to be worn at all times including , lab coat , goggles , gloves and hair tied back . All work is to be carried out in the fume hood . < heading > Experimental method: To begin anthranilic acid ( g ) and distilled water ( 25ml ) were mixed in a conical flask . Concentrated sulphuric acid ( ) was then added whilst swirling the solution . The mixture was then warmed until the amine dissolved , and then cooled on ice until below 10oC. Following this nitrite ( g ) and distilled water ( 10ml ) were missed in a conical flask and cooled on ice until below 10 oc . The sodium nitrite solution was then added to the amine solution , slowly and with swirling , ensuring the solution temperature did not exceed oC ( A yellow solution is created ) . Next Phenol ( g , mol ) and hydroxide solution ( , 25ml ) were heated together in a conical flask until the phenol dissolved . This solution was then cooled on ice until below 10 oC. The diazonium alt solution was then added to the phenoxide solution ( a lumpy precipitate formed ) and left to stand for . The mixture was then acidified with hydrochloric acid ( 4 M ) to PH1 . This solution was then filtered at the pump , and washed with ice cooled water ( * 10ml ) , leaving the crude products to dry under suction for . This product was followingly transferred to a conical flask and ice cold methanol ( 15ml ) was added , the mixture was then swirled and filtered at the pump , leaving to dry under suction for a further , The yield and melting point were then taken and the product recrystalllised from methanol . The purified product was then weighed , a melting point taken and a plate run ( eluting the plate with a toluene : ethyl acetate mix ) < heading > Results
TLC analysis - Rf values - product ; our plate was inconclusive and did not seem to develop properly . < heading > Discussion: Reaction mechanism to rationalise the formation of the dye : To begin substitution of hydrogen by ( reaction with concentrated acid and acid , at a temperature below ) To follow this reduction with h2 / Ni , Nitro groups are deactivating and meta directing . After this is reacted with concentrated sulphuric acid under reflux . Finally chloride is reacted with the reaction mixture ; SOCl2 ; then ( NH4)2CO2 , an source .",0 "< abstract>1.0 Executive Summary Liverpool 's visitor volume is estimated to increase with the status of the winner of and also through the regeneration projects . For this reason , it is fundamental to review as a tourist destination with the aim of identifying its opportunities to attract more visitors and meet the demand . The stakeholders have different perspectives and interactions in the provision of tourism at . Also , they have different involvement . As for the local government in , it acts as a key player in the tourism industry since the partnerships intend to promote to become a well - known city , which leads high interest of the industry 's performance . Besides , the local communities and employees including local people and businesses are the other parties that involve in tourism industry . Local businesses need to be kept satisfied because they may also the investors / suppliers or could be employees participating in the tourism industry . Furthermore , investors are also the key player in the industry . They act as the suppliers to provide services or product with the tourist . In order to increase the volume and value of tourism to , stakeholders in should set some objectives . For example , should be open to other foreign countries because the international tourism market offers a number of opportunities for the city to create the huge benefit . What is more , getting more visitors from overseas , is trying to give them special offers such as a wide range of restaurant . It is also effective that reflects placing in attractions have interpretations for other major languages so that they do not have language problems . Moreover , investors of the attractions should provide a wide range of facilities and arrangement to every people such as children , the elders , disabled people and family . As is a winner of , it should possess some competences . However , those competences are not necessarily making to be succeeded , although has created ideal opportunities for enhancing cooperation among its key stakeholders . In order to analyse the effectiveness of model , benchmarking may be a useful tool to compare with ( because it has a lot of similarities between ) and identify the opportunities for improvement . Owing to the failure of the Greenwich 's plan , has to make sure that the benefits of its designation and status are to be maximised . It should have a clear scope for developing a more integrated approach by increasing communication and cooperation . With the aim of developing a sustainable tourism in , changing the image of is a really good idea . Stakeholders should make full use of their natural advantages such as the beautiful seaside . Here , there are new projects to create water parks instead of having green public parks followed by floating restaurants , cafe and hotels as is a variable marine city . < /abstract>2.0 Introduction With the status of and also through the regeneration projects , 's visitor volume is estimated to increase . Therefore it is essential to review as a tourist destination with the aim of identifying its opportunities to attract more visitors and meet the demands . This report covers the stakeholders and their interactions in using theoretical models and also strategic response to problems which has been facing based on observations and experience that we had in . < heading>3.0 and Matrix The stakeholders map ( Appendix 1 ) shows the stakeholders that involve in tourism industry , indicating the relationships and interactions between the stakeholders . In order to identify the effectiveness of model , a ) may effectively illustrate the role of the stakeholders undertaken . Appendix shows of the stakeholders of tourism industry . There are public - private partnerships cooperating to carry out the regeneration and ' Liverpool 08 ' project , such as , . These are all the partners of local government . Local government acts as a key player in the tourism industry since the partnerships intend to promote to become a well - known city , which leads high interest of the industry 's performance . Additionally , it has the power to set regulations ( such as legal system - disability regulation ) and empower other stakeholders to provide services and products with the industry . Other parties that involve in tourism industry are the local communities and employees , which include local people and businesses . Local businesses need to be kept satisfied , because they may also the investors / suppliers or could be employees participating in the tourism industry . If the number of tourists increases , local people are willing to spend money for starting or investing in a business such as restaurants because they can get more profit from the tourists < heading>3.1 Marketing Liverpool 's Tourism - A Great Opportunity The fact that has chosen for encourages other government parties and to involve in the 's tourism industry , such as the governments and Funding . These parties may have minimal effort to but need to be kept satisfied . For instance , is a major sponsor to develop infrastructure of for the ' Liverpool 08 ' project , and needs to advertise itself in the countries . Moreover , also should be open to other foreign countries , because the international tourism market offers a number of opportunities for the city to create the huge benefit . However , apparently it is less certain that has been successful for attracting overseas visitors . In fact , even though was on the list showing top towns visited by overseas tourists , its ranking was quite low ( , ) . As possible ways to get more visitors from overseas , is trying to give them special offers . For instance , a wide range of restaurant such as and is example . It is also effective that reflects placing in attractions have interpretations for other major languages so that they do not have language problems . In terms of economic return per visit , the international tourism market is identified as a profitable market since they simply spend more money by overnight stay than domestic travellers . Besides , it is recognised that they are less price sensitive and unlikely to have a negative perception to . This might be a result of the media parties such as newspapers and TV programs since they have high power to effect tourists ' intention . < heading>3.2 's New Challenge - Attractions As Liverpool undertaking the regeneration project , investors are also the key player in the industry . They act as the suppliers to provide services or product with the tourist , for example , ' Liverpool 08 ' project has led to new investments in theatres , concert venues and national museums and galleries . This includes the transformation of into the world 's greatest city history museum ( , 2004 ) and also the investments in hospitality and transport sectors . Therefore , they have high interest in the tourism industry and have great power to affect the industry . Especially , in the case , their role can be really important to support the tourism since it has more museums than any other city outside of ( , ) . Also , 's cultural importance is represented by its range of traditional and modern galleries ( , ) . However , they should make sure that there are sophisticated arrangements and a wide range of facility in the attractions which are suitable to everyone such as children , the elders , disabled people and family . For example , has flat - access exits as well as toilets for the disabled ( , ) . As disabled people can not move easily , these facilities can make them much easier to visit museums or galleries . Similarly , has many facilities and enjoyable activities for children . of them is called ' and it allows kids to develop their creative ideas for drawing ( , ) . These activities can encourage more children to feel like going to museums , galleries or theatres , even if they are unfamiliar with those . As a result of it , this would increase the number of family who visit to these attractions . To create the atmosphere where family can spend fun time together might be a key aspect for the future decision . So far , it seems that has many advantages and gives tourists the image of well - organised city , but there are also some problems should be considered . For example , the closing time of the attractions is too early ( around 5 to 6 o'clock ) ( , ) . Therefore , it is hard for most of the business people to visit these attractions . In order to deal with it , they can have a special service for busy men such as making particular days when the attractions open until relatively late . < heading>4.0 As Liverpool is a victor in the contest to be named , it should possess some competences . However , those competences are not necessarily making to be succeeded , although has created ideal opportunities for enhancing cooperation among its key stakeholders ( As stated above ) . In order to analyse the effectiveness of model , benchmarking may be a useful tool to compare with other tourist destinations and identify the opportunities for improvement . < heading>4.1 Reasons for Choosing Greenwich Greenwich was a tourist destination chosen for the host of the exhibition in which is similar event to in . Furthermore , Greenwich and both gain the status as a and maritime tourism destinations . In the past , they both used to have a poor image due to the recession and the lack of investments ( , ) . These similarities tell that Greenwich may be a good tourist destination so that can produce strategic plans on the basis of its success and failure . < heading>4.2 Benchmarking - Greenwich vs. Liverpool Based on the exhibition in , Greenwich has put huge efforts in developing its tourism industry . However , it was an completely failure as by "" the much maligned had failed to meet its visitor targets , attracting of the visitors it need to break even""(Arlidge and Wintour , ) , although "" it was originally estimated that visitors would visit the "" ( , ) . According to Smith ( ) , it says that "" tourism development in has traditionally been piecemeal and lacking in coordination . "" Thus , from the failure of the dome , has to make sure that the benefits of its designation and status are to be maximised . It should have a clear scope for developing a more integrated approach by increasing communication and cooperation . In terms of the service sector , the transportation network in has to improve connections by examining the example of where transport congestion and the lack of parking area are seen . < heading>5.0 Problems and Strategic Responses As the other important service division , it is critically identified that needs to improve accommodation and restaurant sectors which cover the development of human resource management too . of all , the capacity of the accommodation in may need to be developed . It is believed that could attract extra visitors during the ' Liverpool 08 project ' ( , ) . Nevertheless , The Mersey Partnership shows the full list of accommodation available in , but there are accommodations totally and this figure includes Bed and , hostels , campuses and guest houses . Actual hotel number in is ( Visit Liverpool , ) . However , it is not the ideal figure for the city which has potential to be one of the top tourist destinations with ' Liverpool 08 ' project . Therefore , should be able to increase its capacity to meet the huge demand of customers . It is also critically identified that needs to improve accommodation and restaurant sectors and this covers the development of human resource management too . As regards the service which they offer , the experience from the field trip describes a disaster which is actually happening in now . It critically shows the lack of training and development of employees . In order to enhance this situation and succeed ' Liverpool 08 ' project , the human resource management sector has to put more effort . Employees need to understand working hospitality industry and what is more , practical training should be given . Practical training aims to increase the commitment of teams to rapid action and appropriate decision - making for customer needs . It would ensure that the superior quality of facilities and services and thus earn the loyalty of guests . For this reason , although it has minimal effort to this industry , education system is also important as another stakeholder , because higher education creates skilled employees . < heading>6.0 Re - imaging and the Sustainable Tourism As the important aspect which should consider is redevelopment the image of to achieve the sustainable tourism . In general , the image of is quite negative . It is likely to describe a dangerous and miserable city due to the decline of the sipping industry which used to heavily depend on . However , has enough resources to sell the city with a positive image , so it just has to find an effective way to take advantage of those . The and are all fantastic and great opportunities . Here , there are new projects to create water parks instead of having green public parks followed by floating restaurants , cafe and hotels ( , ) as is a variable marine city . In addition , has taken other actions to be friendly to visitors by placing sings and maps on the street which show the direction to major attractions . It is also certain that in order to achieve this , local communities give considerable supports to the city making nice atmosphere . With the purpose of the sustainable tourism , should have long term development plans . According to ( 2004 ) , there is a project of city having a large scale conference facility . It is a great opportunity to demonstrate as a new image of popular conference destination . It possibly encourages 's tourism to be sustainable . In other words , this scheme ensures that can generate further benefit in long term even after . < heading>7.0 Conclusion As the 's next , will see its profile rise . It intends to boost the tourism industry by increasing the amount of tourists and adding value of tourism to . Since was ever one of 's poorest cities , the re - imaging is the prior thing to implement . By undertaking the regeneration project , understanding the stakeholders within the tourism industry in is the crucial factor need to be considered . The authorities have to put all the stakeholders together and make them cooperate with each other so as to make the industry succeeded . Subsequently , they have to plan for the redevelopment strategically and thoughtfully in each of the sectors in the tourism industry in and response to the problems immediately . After putting all into action , the tourism industry in must have a great opportunity in .","As a result of terrorism , world health scares and war , the air transport industry has been re - shaped almost beyond recognition . Additionally , the impressive achievements of the low - cost airline operators lead some other airline operators suffer from these challenges . "" In , international tourism lived through another exceptionally difficult year in which negative factors came together : the Iraq conflict , SARS and a persistently weak economy , "" "" and the high level of uncertainty leading up to it depressed worldwide travel in . The unexpected outbreak of SARS brought the steady growth of and the temporarily to an abrupt halt , causing many destinations in the region to welcome of their usual number of arrivals in and May. "" ( , , th ) Additionally , "" increased its precautions against the twin health threats of Sars and bird flu as it entered its peak travel period ahead of . ""(Western Mail , Cardiff , th ) All these threats leaned to a downturn in the whole world tourism sectors . All the tourism sectors were suffered in , hopefully it will be recovered in . The transport industry seems the most affected tourism sector , this is because lack of consumer confidence on travel because of the world threats . < heading > Sector - Transport Due to the terrorist attacks on , the world transport industry faced a sharp sales drop down since then . It is still struggling to recover from the result of the terrorist attacks . Additionally , the train attack in on has raised fears for consumers ' confidence on travel . < figure/>From the international tourist arrivals graph shown above , and The had a huge change over , it dropped sharply since due to the impact of the unexpected SARS disease . and were the only regions which had increase number of tourist arrivals and recovered quickly along . had a slightly movement along the , which resulted a growth compare to . In , it had been a negative growth over in , but had recovered to slightly percentage changed compare to . "" For tourism these abrupt changes of conditions resulted not so much in a decrease in overall volume but , above all , shifts in demand towards trips to familiar destinations closer to home by car , coach or train instead of plane . "" ( Tourism , Vol . , st ) From this statement could shows that consumers are still losing confidence on traveling by plane , but instead the other transports . This shows that the air transports industry are still struggles to recover , however leans to the other transportations grow , such as trains , coaches , car hire and ferries . < heading > Economy The world economy and tourism has a direct impact on each other , weak economy means less national income and therefore disposable income from consumers spend on traveling . < figure/>From the growth of GDP graph above , it forecasts that the world economy in will have growth . This indicates that world economy is starting to recover in . From the business ' point of view , economy starts to recover may effect a decrease in unemployment , businesses and invertors carry forward investment and therefore more borrowing , so that rise in demand . Also , interest rate is likely to be rise and therefore affect rise in exchange rate . As the unemployment level is likely to decrease and businesses or invertors may carry forward their investment , these may lean to a growth in the transport industry due to the businessmen are likely to travel around . On the other hand , a recovery in economy may lean to raise in exchange rate . Exchange rate is also an element for tourists to depend upon whether travel or not . A strong currency makes the own country less attractive in the tourism point of view . The following graph is the exchange rate of against dollar . Since , the has been introduced ; the rate of exchange was rising since then . High exchange rate of may result less competitive to the other countries for tourists to travel to the . However , strong may encourage tourists travel from the to other countries , such as and . Therefore , this may lean to growth in air transport industry . < figure/> Sub - Sector - Airline For the airline sub - sector of tourism , it is still suffer to recover . This is due to : a ) th , b ) consumers are still losing confidence on traveling by air , c ) high competitive segment of low - cost airline . "" On the down side , the effects of cost the global airline industry in collectively . This was due to a reduction of income from the direct loss of traffic as well as the costs of new security measures to try and prevent any repetition of . "" And "" The long - expected war in that began in , almost immediately had a severe effect on world air transport , with the - member ( ) reporting immediate overall international passenger traffic losses of . "" ( , ) . This shows that consumers are fear from the terrorist attack and effect airline sector directly . Apart from the political factors , the other factor that directly affects the air transport industry is the social factors of SARS virus in and . This directly affected flights between , and and cause a serious sales drop between global airline companies . However , as the economy start to recover , consumers get wealthier and they can afford to travel further and more often . Additionally , due to the high exchange rate of , this leans to "" Those making journeys grew by and passenger numbers on international routes increased by . "" ( , ( ): Apr ) Even though , according to the scheduled passenger traffic forecast , the worldwide air travel industry and passengers ' confidence should start to be recovered . From this forecast , the seems be the most favorable region . This is possibly due to the "" Domestic and scheduled traffic performed well for , up and respectively , as the boom in low - cost travel continued . "" ( , ( ) , th ) < figure/>Low - cost airline runs successful over in , and now also within the and . More passengers now prefer to travel by the low - cost airline rather than other transports , such as coach or train . This is possibly due to the cheap air flight and time consuming . The following is an investigation on airline vs. train journey , both journeys could be booked online and the date and destination are the same . From the selections , it shows that the cheapest fare traveling to is still more expensive than travel by air . The time spend on train is where by plane is . Therefore , low - cost airlines could simulate the air travel industry and bring it to the recovery stage . < figure/>
Operator - Virgin Atlantic Virgin Atlantic was created in , and it now becomes the largest long - haul international airline operating services out of 's and to destinations all over the world . However , according to the passenger number and the profit earned by , the impacts from the world threats applied on as well . The passengers number boost to in , but fall down to and 4 millions in and respectively . According to the transport sector 's and airline sub - sector 's trend , sales will start to recover in . Additionally , focus on the innovation on aircraft and improving the service provided to customers . This may bring focus on the Class AB customers segment and increase profit , due to "" Virgin sees start of business class recovery "" and "" The business travel segment of the market has been hardest hit during the crisis that has engulfed the global aviation industry and caused record airline losses . "" ( . : Nov . pg . ) < figure/>
However , due to new low - cost airline entrants are now in the industry , "" itself has noted that ' this is not a temporary phenomenon and it will continue to challenge the full - service carriers "" ( , ) . Therefore , it may cause lose the competitive edge in the economy class segment . Even though , low - cost airlines are focus on the short - haul journey , it is still can not be competitive in the long - haul market . is providing long - haul journey , which may reduce threats from the low - cost airlines . In addition , launched new routes to , and the , and will increase services on current destinations . This may bring to increase sales in the global market . < heading > The Future As the 11 th and the conflict have been claimed down , the world economy start to recover , the health scared issues are under control , passengers start to be confidence on traveling around . This may not just bring the tourism industry to recovery , and also the transport sector , as traveling around requires transportation . Apart from this , airline sub - sector also start to recover due to the launch of low - cost airline . The operator of may also increase profit from the long - haul journey and high quality of service provided for passengers . According to the Tourism 2020 Vision is long - term forecast and assessment of the development of tourism up to of the new millennium , it forecast that the international tourist arrivals will continue to increase , and it will possibly has tourist arrivals in . This forecast shows the world tourism industry is going to grow in the future . < figure/ >",1 "< abstract> Abstract . < /heading>1 . Natural enemies of pest species can be very helpful in keeping pest populations at lower levels . The populations of aphids do not reach pest levels every year due to the present of many different natural enemies . Studies suggest that the mortality rate of madidus increase after treatment due to feeding of contaminated aphids , shown by examination of gut contents of field- trapped individuals . ( , ; , ) . The direct contact sub- lethal effect of at selected concentration to madidus was estimated . Dimethoate solution at appropriate concentration was applied on P. madidus . Sub- lethal effects are measured as the change in locomotion , foraging behavior , life span and fecundity . functions by interfering the activities of Acetylcholine esterase , which is critical for the proper functioning of nervous systems of both humans and insects The accumulation of acetylcholine at nerve endings cause over - stimulation of the synapses , leading to muscle cramps fasciculation , weakness , titanic paralysis and pallor , etc . . Decreased in turning speed , speed , fecundity and consumption were recorded . This indicates the negative physiological effects on direct contact of madidus . . Integrated pest management would be the solution to minimize the chance in evolution of pest pesticide resistance . < /abstract> Introduction Dimethoate ( C 5H 12NO 3PS 2 ) is an organo- phosphate pesticide ( OP ) . ( Jafferyal . ) It was introduced in and used extensively throughout the world on a large number of agricultural and horticultural crops for the control of pest such as aphids , spider mite and pea midge , etc . ( . ; Mathur ) . In addition , is also used as a residual wall spray in farm buildings for house flies . The action spectrum of organophosphate is very broad , it acts on wide range of organisms ; animals , plants and insect . ( . ) . The chemical and physical properties of Dimethoate together with its effectiveness contribute to the increasingly preference over the organochlorine pesticides ( e.g. : DDT ) during . is moderately soluble in water and highly soluble in most organic solvents . It is fairly stable in water and acid solution , but relatively unstable in alkaline solution . is often applied as fumigant . Actions of Dimethoate can be contact and/ or systemic , such systemic action can compensate for the poor initial coverage . It is particularly effective to aphids and other insects that suck a poisoned sap ; therefore , it could be quite safe for other insect to walk on the contaminated plant . Once Dimethoate absorbed following ingestion , inhalation or skin contact , it is highly toxic . ( . ) . Dimethoate functions by interfering the activities of Acetylcholine esterase , which is critical for the proper functioning of nervous systems of both humans and insects ( Hassal ; and ) . is very potent once it is inside the body and it undergoes active phosphorylation with the enzyme acetyl cholinesterase ( AchE ) . This cause inhibition and the build up of neurotransmitter in the central nervous system . The accumulation of acetylcholine at nerve endings causes over - stimulation of the synapses . Over - stimulation of nicotinic synapses results in physiological effects such as muscle cramps fasciculation , weakness , titanic paralysis and pallor . In addition , over- stimulation of the central nervous system often leads to anxiety , restless , dizziness , confusion and ataxia , etc . Such physiological and psychological effects alter the locomotory ( et al . , ) and foraging behaviors ( Dempster , ) of insects . Furthermore , a variety of studies suggested that is canerogenic and mutagenic . ( et al . ) is biodegradable , constantly breaking down via hydrolysis . The life of on plant varies amount . Degradation in soil is highly depends on the type of soil , temperature and pH. is a generalist pest , forming colonies on many crops . Aphid feed on plant material and produce a sweet , sticky extract called honeydew which a black fungus called sooty mould sometimes colonized on . A serious infection on leaves will lower the rate of photosynthetic rate ; this dramatically reduces the crop yield . ( et al . ) Ground beetles form one of the biggest groups within carabid species ; they are very abundant in arable habitats in . comprise a significant proportion of their diet and it is shown by examination of gut contents of field- trapped individuals . ( , ; , ) Therefore , certain carabid beetles species are considered to be important biological control agents for aphid pests in arable habitats . ( , ; et al . , ) Several lines of evidence of cereal aphid dislodgment from plants due to physical and biological factors have been recorded . The chance of aphid decolonization was shown to much lower in areas that own a high ground beetle density . ( Winder , is suggested that the phenomenon is due to the predation of aphids by ground beetles . Although ground beetles constantly control aphid 's population by acting as natural enemies , it is often not powerful enough to reduce the aphid 's population below the economic damage threshold . Pesticides are often used to prevent the reduction in yield and the spread of viruses . Pterostichus madidus is one of the most common ground beetles occur in , usually found under stones or logs in ; often in gardens . It is predatory , but also feeds on plant materials , including fruits . It is well known predator of insect pest such as aphids and slugs and it particularly plays an important role in controlling aphid 's population . ( , ; , ; ) The systemic action of kills off aphids colonies in a very fast rate . Although the action of is mainly systemic , it is frequently apply as fumigant and statistics of direct contact effect on non - target organisms are worrying . There is increasing evidence that application of organophosphate insecticide reduces carabid beetle activity density and altered community composition in the crop area . ( et al . , , ) The aim of this study is to investigate the direct effect of to Pterostichus madidus in different concentration . < heading > Methods Newly moulted adult of madidus is used for all experiments . The culture was kept at 15±1 OC long day- length ( ) , maintained with dried mixer dog food . obtained form a culture of Sitobion avaneae maintained on wheat ( Var rialto ) at OC 16:8 day length . Adult beetles were weighed using a microbalance prior to treatment . ( supplied as an emulsifiable concentrate with g ai / L , field rate 342g/ ha in a volume of ha ) was dissolves in water . using a pipette , a drop of at the appropriate concentration was applied to the abdomen of each beetle with the help of micro- applicator . The treated beetles were placed in individual culture boxes ( ) with dampened ® and dead aphids ( adults killed by freezing ) . Kept at and length . Beetles were fed daily and the numbers of aphids eaten are recorded . after application , beetles were placed individually in a circular arena ( dish ) , activity recorded for using computerised video system Ethovision ® version ( ) . Then returned to culture boxes , and observed for a further . Eggs produced and aphid consumption rate , life span , turning rate and speed of beetle are recorded . < heading > Results Effects of the contact toxicity in levels of doses ( , , , , ) of organophosphate pesticide ® ( emulsifiable concentrate with g ai /l , field rate / ha in a volume of l / ha ) against newly moulded adult of madidus . Kruskal- was used to test for the significance of reduction in fecundity , lifespan , consumption rate , turning rate , speed and weight with respect to the increase of contamination of to Pterostichus madidus . The effect of the increase of concentration contaminated to the degree in decrease fecundity was measured in terms of the number of eggs produced daily . The decrease of fecundity has proven to be significant ( DF=6 , , p<0.0001 ) ( . . ) ; as well as the life span , the hypothesis of the increase in contamination of to the decrease in life span of madidus is strongly favored ( . . ) ( DF=6 , H=102.23 , p<0.0001 ) . Accompany with the life span and fecundity , the decrease of consumption rate according to the increase of contamination was proven to be significant ( DF=6 , H=76.9 , p<0.0001 ) ( . . ) . Measurement of movement was record as moving speed , the decrease in moving speed against the increase in contamination of madidus was proven to be significant ( DF=6 , , p<0.0001 ) ( . ) . The response of Pterostichus madidus to its prey , the turning rate , decrease significantly with increase doses ( DF=6 , H=101.1 , p<0.0001 ) ( Fig.5 ) . The weight of Pterostichus madidus prior to the experiment were very even ( DF=6 , H=0.26 , p=1.000 ) ( . ) . < figure/>
The hypothesis that direct contact of to Pterostichus madidus contributes to the negative physiological effect appeared to be confirmed . The decrease in fecundity , lifespan , consumption rate , turning rate and speed in proportion to the degree of contamination of P. madidus was very significant . In insect , cholinergic synapses are confined in the central nervous system . Dimethoate metabolise acetylcholine esterase by oxidative desulfuration , this irreversible reaction denatured the active site of the enzyme esterase causing the accumulation of acetylcholine at the synapses , resulting in intoxication of the insect . Sympthoms include restlessness , hyperexcitability , tremors , paralysis , etc . Indication of those symptoms explains the decrease speed and turning rate of P. madidus . Accumulation of acetylcholine at nerve ending keeps the sodium channel open , this continuous depolarization leads to paralysis of the beetle , causing a delay response to the prey , explaining the reduction in consumption rate . All the factors that mention above contributes to the decrease in energy uptake of the beetle , this explains the reduction in fecundity and life span . Although insects normally put most effort in producing offspring , the unexpected waste of energy in paralysis dramatically reduce the proportion of energy spend on reproduction . In addition , the weights of beetle prior to experiment are very even and therefore we could predict that beetles under very similar conditions , such as equal fitness . < heading > Effect of Dimethoate on non- target organisms Dimethoate is a broad septum insecticide ; it is usually very effective against insects and animals . Consequently , the side effect of treatment to non- target organism would be very high . It is well demonstrated in this study that induce a negative physiological effect on the ground beetle madidus . Due to the fact that ground beetle make up the largest proportion of , we could predict that other spp generally response to Dimethoate in a similar way . is the most abundant predatory species in the class , frequently acting as natural enemies of pest such as aphids and snails . Killing of natural enemies will interrupt the natural balance between pest and its natural enemies , which in turn increase the chance of pest out break . In addition , Dimethoate residual produces a long term effect spreading though the food chain . < heading > Honey bees Birds Dimethoate is moderately to highly toxic to birds . This is because birds do not metabolize as fast as other organism do , which cause the high toxicity in birds . Birds generally have a low LD 50 . It has been reported that the acute oral LD 50 values are to mg / kg in mallards and mg / kg in pheasants . ( . ) < heading stocks < /heading > Dimethoate contaminated grass and water contribute to pesticide poisoning in farm animals . The reported actual oral LD50 for house , sheep and cattle are > 50 , and mg/ kg body weight . ( . , . ) Symptoms of intoxication include salivation , larchrymation , transitory diarrhoea , rhinitis and anorexia , which all directly or indirectly related to the decrease in acetylcholine esterase activities . . < heading > Aquatic organisms Dimethoate is moderately toxic to fish , with reported values of mg / L in rainbow trout , and mg / L in bluegill sunfish .It is more toxic to aquatic invertebrate species such as stoneflies and scuds . < heading > Rapid transport and distribution of residual between media Dimethoate is very volatile . It has the volatility of / m and this imply the popularity of aeriform Dimethoate . It has been recorded that could travel to over m away form the sprayed area . The concentration on of spraying ranged from to / m 2 form away , decreased during to to -0.014mg / m . ( , . The half- life of in soil is , highly depends on the temperature , , as well as the type of soil ( i.e. : the microbes ' composition of the soil ) . It is reported that the micro organisms in soil played little role in the degradation of . Due to the fact that is very soluble in water and organic solvents , in soil often leaks . It is often washed down to the freshwater ponds or river steams . Because is a board- spectrum insecticide , it is able to affect the aquatic organisms as well as other animals that use the water source , for example : goat , cattle , etc . Dimethoate resistances Evolution of resistant is the main difficulty in the design and application of pesticides . was introduced in . The Dimethoate resistant organism reported was in , ulmi , the red mite . ( Dicker ) Soon after that , large amount of resistant in aphids and mites are reported . The evolution of resistance falls into methodologies : ) increased capacity to detoxify the pesticide once it has entered the pest 's body ; ) a decreased sensitivity of the target site that the pesticide acts upon ; ) a decreased penetration of the pesticide through the cuticle , or sequestration of the pesticide within the organism . The single resistance mechanism can occasionally provide defense against a different pesticides , which is known as cross- resistance . Further decrease the range of pesticide available of individual pest . In addition , it can be predicted that organism have relatively short life cycle have a potential for evolving resistance . The cross- link of chromosome as well as mutation could give rise to the evolution of resistant gene . In addition , the spread of gene that could enhance survival is usually very fast in asexually reproduce organism such as aphids . As a result , is no longer a recommend pesticide for aphids , reported in the . Implementation failure of pesticide could speed up the evolution of resistance . Dimethoate spraying treatment should only take place in or when aphids are seen in crops . It is often that farmers do not follow the guidelines for pesticides application . It is very common for farmers to spray more that recommended . Also , farmer would spray even the pest are not seen to ensure their crops are free from pest . In the consequence of these , spraying pesticide would induce toxicity to non- target organisms . Moreover , the application of pesticides needs to be well organized . The outbreaks of pest are likely to happen in areas that pesticide application is not well controlled . Due to the fact that farmer tend to spray more pesticides more than needed , it is usually that case that farmers end up killing non- target organisms as well as the natural enemies of the target pest . Numbers of pest that are more tolerant to the pesticide will survive and migrate to areas near by . Pest would quickly colonies due to the lack of nature enemies and out break of pest frequently happens . It has been proved that the direct contact of to Pterostichus madidus contributes to various negative physiological effects such as decrease in fecundity , life span , consumption rate , etc . However , the trend relating the turning rate and speed , to fecundity , life span and consumption rate is not very clear . The turning rate and speed of the P. madidus remained relatively constant during the concentration , but there seems to be a decrease in fecundity , life span and consumption rate . There might be some other factors or mechanisms rather than turning speed and speed , affecting fecundity , consumption rate as well as the life span of P. madidus . Working on the effect of Dimethoate toxicity at low concentration will give more explanation in the residual effects to organism . The effect of at low concentration to P. madidus varies in a much bigger extant than the high concentration . This shows that the toxicity of become more acute to P. madidus in high concentration . At field concentration ® , the fairly much of the beetle were still alive , whereas at concentration , life span , fecundity and consumption rate of beetle are astonishingly low . Combination and integration of chemical and biological controls which known as ( ) could be the current solution to these problems . , monitoring techniques should be used to provide a justification where a pesticide treatment is necessary . , replace pesticide by biological control . , the system redesign is necessary ; area - wide management schemes can greatly increase the effectiveness of pesticides as well as preventing evolution of resistances . Acknowledgements Thank you for for comments and statistical help . ","< heading > Heuristic evaluation Heuristic evaluation is a usability engineering method for finding the usability problems in a user interface design so that they can be attended to as part of an iterative design process . Heuristic evaluation involves having a group of evaluators examine the interface and judge its compliance with recognized usability principles ( the "" heuristics "" ) ( Nielsen ) . The problem with using heuristics is that they can be interpreted subjectively . That makes it extremely significant to be conducted on a group of people , as a single participant will not be able to find all usability problems in examined interface . In a set of expert evaluators , each of individuals concentrates on different issues , using their own experiences and knowledge . Figure shows an example from a case study of heuristic evaluation where evaluators were supposed to find usability problems in a voice response system allowing customers access to their bank accounts ( ) . Each row represents of the evaluators and each column represents of the usability problems . Each square shows whether the evaluator represented by the row found the usability problem represented by the column : The black square- the problem was found The white square- the evaluator did not find the problem . The rows have been sorted in such a way that the most successful evaluators are at the bottom and the least successful are at the top . The columns have been sorted in such a way that the usability problems that are the easiest to find are to the right and the usability problems that are the most difficult to find are to the left . < figure/>The figure clearly shows that some usability problems are so easy to find that they are found by almost everybody , but there are also some problems that are found by very few evaluators . Furthermore , it is impossible to identify the best evaluator and rely exclusively on that person 's findings as : it is not necessarily true that the same person will be the best evaluator every time . some of the hardest - to - find usability problems were found by evaluators who do not otherwise find many easy - to - find usability problems . That is why , it is necessary to involve multiple evaluators in any heuristic evaluation . General recommendation is to use evaluators since using larger number does not improve result of the tests in comparison to the extra costs which would be required . In order to ensure independent and unbiased results heuristic evaluation is performed by having each individual evaluator inspecting the interface alone . Only after whole group of experts has been examined , are the evaluators allowed to communicate and have their findings amassed . The results can be traced as written reports ( after the test ) or verbalized remarks ( during the examination ) . In my test I record the comments during the test , in my opinion that should make my work more effective . Typically , a heuristic evaluation session for an individual evaluator lasts . Longer evaluation sessions might be boring for the tester , and therefore the test will not be very effective . If the evaluation subject is a large or very complicated interface with a substantial number of dialogue elements it would be better to split the test into several smaller sessions , each concentrating on a part of the interface . During the evaluation session , the evaluator goes through the interface several times and inspects the various dialogue elements and compares them with the list of heuristics supplied by examiner . These heuristics are general rules that seem to describe general properties of usable interfaces . In addition the list of general heuristics can be extended by developed category - specific heuristics that apply to a specific class of products , or by the evaluator himself . way of building a supplementary list of category - specific heuristics is to perform competitive analysis and user testing of existing products in the given category and try to abstract principles to explain the usability problems that are found ( ) . It is highly recommended that evaluators go through the interface at least twice , however standard says , that they decide on their own how they want to proceed with evaluating the interface . The pass should give them general scope of the system and the way it works . The ( next ) pass allows the evaluator to concentrate on specific interface elements and flaws while knowing how they fit into the entire system . ( Nielsen ) . If the system is intended as intuitive use interface for the general population or if the evaluators are field experts , it should be possible to let the evaluators use the system without further assistance . If the system is sophisticated and the evaluators are fairly inexperienced with the area the system works in , it will be necessary to help the evaluators e.g. by supplying them with typical usage scenario . Such scenario will list the different steps for a user to take to perform a sample set of realistic tasks . One has to remember that it is not enough for evaluators to simply say that they do not like something . They must explain why they do not like it with reference to usability principles . Every tester provides subjective result of using the heuristic evaluation method , which is a list of usability problems in the user interface with references to heuristics that were dishonoured by the design . The evaluators should be as specific as possible and list each usability problem separately . There are main reasons to note each problem separately : even if it was fully replaced with a new design , there is a risk of repeating some problematic aspect of a dialogue element , unless is aware of all its problems . it may not be possible to fix all usability problems in an interface element or to replace it with a new design , but it could still be possible to fix some of the problems if they are all known . Heuristic evaluation does not offer a systematic way to fix the usability problems or to assess the quality of any redesigns . However , because of the way that heuristic evaluation results are composed , it will often be fairly easy to modify design or fix many usability problems according to the guidelines provided by them . Heuristic evaluation is explicitly intended as a "" discount usability engineering "" method . Independent research ( Jeffriesal . ) has indeed confirmed that heuristic evaluation is a very efficient usability engineering method . As a discount usability engineering method , heuristic evaluation is not guaranteed to provide "" perfect "" results or to find every last usability problem in interface . < heading > Heuristics Collection There are a few different collections of heuristics that can be used . During my research I decided to use principles for good human - centred interactive systems designproposed by in ' and also recommended during a lecture . < heading > Learnability Visibility Things should be visible so that user can see what functions are available and what the system is currently doing . It is easier to recognize things than to have to recall them . Making things ' visible ' through the use of sounds < heading > Consistency Consistency in the use of design features Consistency with similar systems and standard ways of working . Consistency between the system and external things which the system is related to . Consistent behaviours and consistent use of colours , names , layout etc professionally and culturally . < heading > Familiarity Take under account all cultural and professional aspects to choose the right symbols ( language ) . Try explaining any unique techniques which have been used < heading > Affordance Design things so it is clear what they are for , so that the user will know at the spot how to use them Affordances are culturally determined . < heading > Ease of Use Navigation Provide support to enable people to move comfortably in the system < heading > Control < /heading > Make it clear who or what is in control and allow people to take control . Make clear the relationship between what the system does and what happens in the world outside the system . < heading > Feedback Quickly send back information from the system to users so that they know what effect their actions have had . Constant and consistent feedback will enhance the feeling of control . < heading > Robustness Recovery Enable recovery from actions , particularly mistakes and errors , quickly and effectively . < heading > Constraints Provide constraints so that users can not do things that are inappropriate . Secure the system using confirmation of dangerous operations . This should prevent making serious errors . < heading > Accommodation Flexibility Allow multiple ways of doing things to enable users with different levels of experience to use the system . Provide people with the opportunity to change the way things look or behave ( e.g. language ) so that they can personalize the system . < heading > Style Designs should be stylish and attractive < heading > Conviviality Interactive systems should be polite , friendly , and generally pleasant . Conviviality also suggests joining in and using interactive technologies to connect and support people . ( Every P. , ) < heading > Process of usability testing I have carried out a usability test of the website http : // URL test has been carried out on the public version of the website . < heading > Test settings The heuristic evaluation was conducted on a PC running Windows XP with usage of and Internet Explorer 6 . < heading > Test Participant Profiles The tests were carried out with test participants who were somewhat experienced Internet users . < table/> Results Home Page Severity : HighHeuristic : Accommodation : StyleDescription : The design of the page is clear and simple . It is written with usage of easy scripts and does not contain sophisticated flash animations . This solution enables the quick loading and browsing of the website but makes it very unstylish . Composition of colours , fonts and site deployment give even worse and less attractive overview on page design . Solution : Redesign the website to make it more attractive and user satisfying . Rationale : The design of this website looks extremely unattractive . Try to encourage users to browse the website by making it more stylish < /list> Mystery Letters Severity : MediumHeuristics : Learnability : FamiliarityEase of Use : NavigationDescription : The letters on the main site are links , which can not be recognized . We can not also say what kind of services they apply to . Finally the links lead nowhere . Additionally the letters are seen differently in MS Internet Explorer and in . Solution : Describe usage of the letters , make them look like links ( list , buttons ) and link them with appropriate http addresses . Alternatively delete the letters from the main site . Rationale : The letters , in the way that they are implemented now , are completely useless . Nobody knows what services they are linked to , and what is more , they are not linked at all. Mozilla Firefox < picture/>MS Internet Explorer < picture/> Left menu : FORMULA sign Severity : MediumHeuristics : Learnability : FamiliarityDescription : Menu on the left contains signs which suggest that after clicking on it nothing on this site will change except from a list which should appear , in the same menu , under selected item . Unfortunately menu in most cases contains just a link to another page without any list . Solution : Delete the FORMULA signs in cases they anyway do not work . Rationale : On websites the FORMULA sign means that the list of sub subjects will appear. Left menu : Consistency Severity : MediumHeuristics : Learnability : ConsistencyDescription : When clicking on the FORMULA sign which works as dropdown list the sub subjects appears menu changes its colours from yellow to white . Solution : Instead of changing a colour try changing a font i.e. to italic . Rationale : Menu looks in a very different way after the sub subjects list is shown. Search this site Severity : HighHeuristics : Learnability : AffordanceEase of Use : NavigationDescription : Text written in top right corner of the screen "" Search this site "" suggest that it is a link , but after clicking on it one can only write in the same field and acknowledge with "" Go ! "" button . What makes it even worse clicking on the text field does not erase "" Search this site "" text from the field ; it does not even highlight it so that it would be easier to delete it . has to delete it letter by letter . Solution : Change the text field into link , or erase the text from the field and change the "" Go ! "" button into "" Search "" button Rationale : "" Search this site "" text field does not look as text field and does not work correctly . This action is extremely important for this service as number of sub sites is very large . < /list> Welcome to Derby Severity : LowHeuristics : Learnability : ConsistencyDescription : On the main page the top image is a link to the current page ( we suspect that its role is the same as "" home "" button ) . When we start surfing the service image still stays on top , but link disappears . Solution : Let this link be available on all sub sites , it will also help in navigation . Rationale : It is useful to have a link to Home page always in the same place , especially when the picture is anyway displayed on all sub sites. Text version Severity : MediumHeuristics : Learnability : VisibilityDescription : of the test participants had problems finding the text version of the page . They did not notice the link at the top of the page . Solution : Give the choice between text and graphical version before displaying the Home page . Rationale : It is good to have flexible page but interested user must be able to easily find text version if he wishes to use it . < /list> Page Linking Severity : HighHeuristics : Ease of Use : NavigationDescription : I.e. after clicking on "" Business "" link on the left , and than "" Parking Permits "" , there is no way to go back except from clicking the browser back button . We can go to main page ( home button ) but we can not come back to previous page because category already changed from "" Business "" into "" Transport and , Roads and Parking "" . Solution : Add a "" Previous Page "" link or a page map which will help user to use the service . Rationale : This page is extremely complex and we can get very deeply into it . Unfortunately it does not allow going to previous page . Therefore the user after choosing the wrong option from different ( than current ) category must use the back button in the browser. Survey Severity : LowHeuristics : Robustness : ConstraintsDescription : On the right side of main page there is a survey "" What Do You Think ? "" . You can vote as many times as you wish and in this way make this survey unreliable . Solution : Add a script which will disable multiple voting ( i.e. based on IP filtering)Rationale : If we want to obtain any reliable data we can not allow the same user to vote many times. Contact us Severity : MediumHeuristics : Robustness : ConstraintsDescription : When going into a business section there is a possibility to send some questions or comments concerning this section . In order to do that user has to fill in some information about him . Unfortunately system allows user to perform all kinds of inappropriate actions as writing telephone number with letters or giving email address without any "" . "" or "" @ "" . Example given below was submitted successfully . Solution : System must check the content of all fields with regard to expected content ( e.g. only numbers should be allowed in phone number).Rationale : How much sense does it make to ask i.e. for phone number if user can type in anything he wants ? If we expect people to contact us it is better to do that anonymously or if their personal data is needed we should check its reliability before collecting it Summary After conducting usability test of Website ( http : // URL ) participants managed to find different usability problems . Regrettably of them have been recognised as the ones of the highest severity and therefore need urgent attention . Inspected website is extremely complex and consists of numerous sub pages ; this fact will undoubtedly make the changes extremely difficult to perform . It is worth noticing that the most severe problems were found in style and navigation and the best solution to eliminate them would be to redesign the whole system .",0 "The Bunyavirus genus contains several human pathogens which cause major diseases such as and virus , which causes severe hemorrhagic fevers . Others such as virus can cause encephalitis . These viruses are viewed as emerging infections as these arboviruses are easily transmitted by arthropod vectors . With climate change altering vector habitats and bacterial infections curbed by antibiotics , deaths from these viruses will increase , studying their virulence may allude to a possible treatment . < heading > Virus structure Bunyamwera , , is a member of the family which contains distinct genera with serotypes . As BUN maybe viewed as a prototype , its characteristics can be applied to other viruses within the Bunyavirus genus such as . However , is known to cause disease in agriculturally important animals . Bunyavirus virions range in size from - 120 nm in diameter and most are spherical . These viruses contain a negative sense double - stranded genome surrounded by a lipid membrane envelope , obtained through intracellular budding at the Golgi apparatus . Wild type contains a segmented genome . The largest or L - segment encodes an polymerase transferred to the host during uncoating . The M segment encodes the structural glycoproteins G1 and G2 , the former of which is essential for attachment . The smallest or S - segment encodes the N protein and the NSs protein in an overlapping reading frame towards the N - terminus of the genome . To discover the main functions of this protein , a mutant of wild type BUN was constructed with the NSs open reading frame removed . This mutant named BUNdelNSs contained amino acid substitutions with one at the start and another at the stop codon to remove the reading frame and prevent reversion . < heading > The functions of NSs The NSs protein plays no essential role in the major virus possess such as transcription or assembly as NSs deleted mutants were able to replicate and produce infectious progeny . Bridgen A et al 2001 , Weber F et al and et al 2003 performed a series of experiments to determine the functions of NSs . < heading > NSs plays a limited role in wild type BUN virulence BALB / c mice were injected intracerebally and intraperitoneally with both wild type BUN and BUNdelNSs . After , all mice inoculated intracerebally died but those infected via intraperitoneally only those infected with wild type BUN yielded a detectable virus titre . Brain sections were studied and subjected to immunostaining , revealing tropism of the virus was unaffected , however BUNdelNSs demonstrated a reduced spread within the neurons . This evidence suggests that NSs aids the spread of within the host but does not lead to increased pathogenesis within the host . < heading > NSs shuts off host cell protein synthesis The reduced spread of BUNdelNSs maybe due to its inability to curb host protein synthesis which would detract resources from the virus preventing efficient replication . cells were labelled with 5pfu / cell wild type BUN and BUNdelNSs and labelled with 35S methionine . Autoradiography if samples run on PAGE identified that protein synthesis was prevented in cells by wild type BUN whereas BUNdelNSs did show a slight reduction when compared to mock infected controls . This experiment confirmed that NSs shuts off protein synthesis to allow efficient replication . < heading > NSs inhibits - β induction 's are an extremely important component of the innate immune system as they induce an antiviral state which allows the spread of virus to be contained . , - β is a type 1 IFNs and are regulated by NK - kB and IRF-3 ( regulatory factors ) which are induced by double stranded . 's mediate the antiviral state by increasing protein kinase R which phosphorylates eIF2 , preventing GDP - GTP exchange and hence renewal of the translation initiation complex . Transient transfection of an - β promoter to a luciferase gene into / c cells allows luciferase activity to be monitored . When these cells were infected with mock , wild type BUN and BUNdelNSs , wild type BUN luciferase activity was at a similar level to mock infected cells whereas BUNdelNSs levels were higher . In a similar experiment using responsive reporter plasmid with luciferase activity in BF cells , wild type BUN produced very low amounts of - β whereas BUNdelNSs produced over units more - β . These experiments indicated NSs is an inhibitor of the - β induction . Inhibition was found to occur at the transcriptional step as analysis of cell lysates infected with wild type BUN and BUNdelNSs by reverse - transcriptase concluded that wild type contained undetectable amounts of - β mRNA whereas mRNA from BUNdelNSs infected cells could easily be detected . synthesis was unaffected as β - actin mRNA levels were constant in both virus and mock infected cells . Both IRF-3 and NF - kB are required to activate the - β promoter as luciferase activity when linked to NF - kB binding sites or - β , wild type BUN did not lead to - β activation . IRF-3 is activated by both wild type and BUNdelNSs due to L protein activity . As / TGH and / SV5 - v cell infection , which have intact and deficient interferon systems respectively were infected with mock , wild type and BUNdelNSs . Blotting with anti - IRF-3 indicated induction in both cells for both viruses . < heading > NSs has anti - apoptotic activity Infection of and / SV5 - v cells were infected with wild type BUN and BUNdelNSs and their resulting morphology observed . After BUNdelNSs infected cells showed signs of apoptosis whereas fewer wild type BUN cells did . There was no difference between the cell types indicating signalling does not induce apoptosis . However , when cells were stained with Annexin V and 7 to distinguish between early and late apoptotic stages , more cells infected with BUNdelNSs showed late stage apoptosis than wild type BUN after . As such , NSs prevents apoptosis by inhibiting IRF-3 through inhibition of IRF-3 after its activation . Activation of the IRF-3 promoter was confirmed by using transient transfection of reporter plasmids with - luc gene with apoptosis promoters . No activity for any other promoter could be detected apart from that of IRF-3 whose activity was greater in BUNdelNSs than wild type BUN . Also cells infected with BUNdelNSs and wild type BUN and stained for apoptosis indicated that apoptosis was not increased and numbers of apoptotic cells were similar for both viruses . < heading > Conclusions The NSs protein of virus has multiple functions within the cell . It enables efficient viral spread , possibly because it can inhibit host protein synthesis and dampen the immune response . Host protein synthesis is inhibited by the binding of NSs to the C - terminal domain of polymerase . It down regulates phosphorylation at phosphoserine , preventing efficient However , the main role of NSs appears to be through inhibition of the - β pathway . NSs prevents apoptosis induced by this pathway by inhibiting activated IRF-3 from binding to the - β promoter , preventing subsequent transcription as confirmed by the mini - replicon and experiments . NSs also inhibited - kB binding to the - β promoter . These experiments indicate that by preventing apoptosis and - β signalling , the innate immune response is unable to counteract wild type BUN infection as effectively when compared to BUNdelNSs . As a result of this , the virus can replicate and spread within neurons to a more efficient extent .","< heading > Description of the farm The farm is organic . A whole range of crops are grown in the farm and particularly different crops . The farm consists of the field , the polytunnels and greenhouses as well as the garden . The field is divided into blocks and each block covers an area of hectare . The polytunnels and greenhouses are used for over wintering salads . The garden , which consists of blocks , is a unique site of the farm because of the special microclimate it has . So , it can get extremely hot in and extremely cold during . It also goes through floods every 5 to 6 years . Generally , it can either be very hot or cold , very dry or wet . The garden covers of the farm land but it is very labour intensive since it takes of the labour . In the garden , there are not grown any of the crops grown in the field apart from carrots . All crops grown in the garden are done in a relatively small scale , mostly by hand and are semi - mechanized . On the contrary , in the field everything is mostly mechanized . The garden is fairly challenging and very useful part since it produces early crops , is characterized by good fertility , it has remain water , electricity and propagation house for plant raising available and it is also close to the packaging house of the farm . In terms of the farm 's soil , it is medium clay loam , with high stone content and therefore not suitable for root crops . It is very prone to dry in and also tends to be fairly wet in . The basic idea of the farm is that people owning the farm do not buy any plants but produce their own . All the plants are bear - root transplants raised by them and planted by hand . In terms of planting , there is a semi - automatic system , which requires some labour as well . The farm supplies the central Reading and most of market . < heading > Wildlife management and biodiversity The way they manage the field margins , boundaries and verges by the use of hedges brings biodiversity to the farm since the hedges planted all over the farm attract living organisms such as predators , insects , birds . The hedges need to be cut every . In particular , one side of the hedges is cut in and the other side is done . So , the hedges need in order to become an interesting feature of the farm . Apart from the hedges , another interesting feature of the wildlife and biodiversity issues of the farm is the way they manage the crop residues . After harvesting the crop the residues are left in the field and attract beneficial predators as well as birds since they act as feed source . The cut flower crop ' is also used to expand the farm 's biodiversity . The flowers of the crop encourage predatory insects and over wintering larvae , particularly hoverfly and lacewing larvae . The predators then will pupate and move to the hedges . So , there will be a bank of predators for the following season and they will move back into the crop in . Another conservation policy of the farm is the planting of a double row of trees within the field acting as windbreak and also as a bank of beneficials . The field is divided into blocks . Between the blocks there is a piece of ground planted with a mixture of different herbs , clovers and grasses , which acts as a bank for beetles . The idea behind this break is that it acts as a bank for them to move around from the hedges into the field during . Moreover , there are hedgehogs in the farm . Special nesting places for the hedgehogs are prepared in the polytunnels . These nesting places are made of leaves and straw and help hedgehogs live during . < heading > Soil fertility management In terms of managing the soil fertility , the basic idea on which the farm is based is the avoidance of animal and fertilizer input . Instead of that , the basic principle of the farm is to keep the soil covered during . A wide range of green manure crops are planted to accomplish that purpose . The benefits deriving from green manure crops are the improvement of organic as well as nutrient content of the soil . Furthermore , if the soil is left uncovered during a lot of damage can be done to that since the rain will leach out a lot of nutrients and as a result the following spring the soil will be very compact and depleted of nutrients . Obviously , the basic idea of the farm is to try keeping the fertility they have within the soil and make the best possible use of it rather than trying to bring in lots of fertility from outside the farm in order to plug all the losses . Crop rotations are also another integral part of soil fertility management of the farm . Within the farm there are rotations being in operation ; the field , garden as well as the polytunnel and greenhouse rotation . If the crop is grown on the same piece of land for many years this may result in soil being depleted of nutrients . So , alternating the crops belonging to different groups such as , legumes , roots , cereals etc , there will be a balance between those fixing and consuming nitrogen or between light and heavy feeders . In the crop rotation program there are also green manure crops that enrich the soil with nutrients and consequently minimize the need for adding chemical fertilizers . < heading > Weed control Weeds are considered to be a significant problem for organic farmers since they can not be eradicated by use of chemicals . A common practice for weed control used in the farm is the heat - based weed control . Weeds always come out before the crop . So , before the weed seeds break the soil surface and emerge they burn them off and then the crop comes up into clean land . of the weeds are destroyed by this technique if it is properly applied and also the labour cost is reduced since hand weeding is too expensive . Other ways of weed control practiced in the farm is by tractor mechanization or by cultivation . There are several green manure crops used in the farm that are fairly good at suppressing weeds , such as clover . < heading > Pest and disease control Since the farm is organic , no chemicals can be applied to control pests and diseases . The use of rotations is of great value to the organic farm since it reduces the risk of pests and diseases . Growing different crops after interrupts pest life cycles and therefore keeps their populations down . So , as the crops are alternated the chance of pathogens build - up is reduced . Also , the habitat management of the farm with all those elements encouraging predators , contributes to pest and disease control . As long as there is a suitable environment ( food , water , place to be protected and breed ) , predators can successfully control pests and diseases . < heading > Environmental sustainability of the farm The farm is environmental sustainable since it promotes wildlife and biodiversity . Integral parts of the farm 's environmental sustainability are the hedges planted all over the farm , the nesting places , the grassy areas , the crop residues left on the soil . All these features attract living organisms and therefore increase biodiversity . Apart from all these , there could be a water habitat in the farm , such as a lake for encouraging other types of organisms ( e.g. , amphibians ) and therefore providing wider biodiversity . Moreover , the farm is environmental friendly because it uses alternative methods for managing soil fertility and not inorganic fertilizers . However , there could be used animal manure as an input since there are horses in the farm . < heading > Social sustainability of the farm The farm also addresses sustainability in terms of social issues . Since customers are interested to know what is going on in the farm , there are open days in operation . The social event of open brings people together since customers can visit the farm and have a personal communication with the producers . The fact that the whole system of the farm is based on semi - degree of mechanization provides opportunities for people to be employed in the farm . < heading > Economic sustainability of the farm The farm can be considered as economically sustainable since it is a profitable business . It covers the central Reading and most of market . Also , the fact that is based on a crop rotational system reduces the financial risk in the case that crop does not yield or sell well . Apart from solving the problem of build - up of diseases and soil nutrient depletion , the system of polyculture ( growing a variety of different crops ) can provide important turnover since it gets over the financial risk being involved in a monoculture system . So , in the unfavourable event that a crop fails it does not necessarily mean that the whole business will fail since there are other types of crops . On the contrary , it is inevitable for the farm to have failures since different crops are grown at the same time . Another fact that makes the farm economically sustainable is the useful income obtained from over wintering salads grown in the greenhouses and polytunnels . Also , the fact that greenhouses and polytunnels bring early crops and extend the growing season makes them integral part of the farm 's economic sustainability .",0 "< heading > Summary of Case Study Name : Rosemary Age : Diagnosis : Multiple Sclerosis aged . Occupation : Part time job at day centre for people with Multiple Sclerosis . Home : Lives with husband in a ground floor flat adapted to accommodate her needs as a wheelchair user . Family : adult children who live within . 's husband is her main carer ; he has noticed a change in . Hobbies : Using computer and cooking . Personal : has adjusted well to her illness and embraced the challenges that have come with it . However recently she has become frustrated and anxious . History of interventions : has been open to adaptations in the past . < heading > Reasons for referral1 ) is experiencing an exacerbation in her condition and is therefore finding her motor skills have deteriorated making it difficult and frustrating to handle small objects and to work on her computer . These motor skills need to be assessed and equipment provided as indicated . ) is anxious about having to leave the day centre when she is and would like to explore other vocational interests . < heading > Summary of Multiple Sclerosis < /heading > A Progressive Neurological condition . Multiple plaques of demyelination occur which are caused by the immune system attacking the neurons within the central nervous system ( and Clark ) . Visual , motor , sensory , cognitive , psychological , bowel and bladder systems can be affected ( and Atchison 2000 ) . Fatigue is common ( Tipping in Turner ) . There are different types of MS but it is generally characterised by exacerbations , remissions or a progression which result in temporary , transient or permanent loss of function ( Pedretti and ) . < heading > Information Gathering Information from other disciplines G.P : Patterns to 's condition ; Medical treatments and effects ; Other relevant medical information . 's husband : Is he willing and able to support with her goals ? How can we plan a client centred approach that does not disrupt family life ? The day centre : technology ; alternative vocations or roles . The disability employment advisor : Employer responsibilities ; 's rights . Physiotherapist : Exercise programs . < heading > Assessments Non - Standardised = This assessment focuses on the areas of self care , productivity and leisure . The individual being assessed rates the importance of tasks within these areas . This will confirm and possibly introduce where needs support . < heading > Standardised = The Ashworth Spasticity Scale This assessment will measure on a scale of the levels of spasticity within muscle groups and their control over movement ( Silcox 2003 ) . In order to ensure it is valid would need to take this test at different times of day on different days . This test will reliably establish 's motor skills . < heading > Initial Interview An informal discussion with to establish whether initial information and referral is akin to 's perspective and to determine social and cultural needs which are at present unclear . < heading > Planning Intervention Rosemary 's Priorities Exploration of alternative vocations . Consideration of adaptations . Maintenance of motor skills . Ability to use phone and computer . Maintenance of independence . Occupation on leaving day centre. Defining the problem Leisure Using keyboard and mouse ; poor co - ordination , muscle weakness and tremors. Work Holding telephone receiver ; difficulty grasping and muscle weakness . Concern about having to leave the day centre at and having no occupation. 's problems occur in work and leisure and are a result of reduced manual dexterity and changing roles . Productivity and leisure are usually the most important occupations for those with MS because they allow the individual to maintain a sense of purpose in life ( , , in ) . < heading > 's Strengths Positive attitude to therapy interventions . Love of new challenges . Successful completion of computer course . Being a good cook . Supportive and close family . Valued member of centre both to staff and clients . < /list> Intervention and Rationale Model I have chosen to use the Person - Environment - Occupation Model ( PEO ) . This model focuses on the individual engaging in purposeful activities and tasks within their chosen environment to fulfil various roles . Occupational performance is central to this model . This will suit 's desire to continue in activities of work and leisure by exploring and solving the associated problems . Within this model the environment is more amendable to change than the person ( ) . < heading > Frame of reference : Rehabilitation Reduced manual dexterity can not always be improved by therapeutic activity and the provision of assistive devices is usually necessary ( , ) . I will therefore include adaptive technology and orthosis . This avoids over tiring limbs which can exacerbate the symptoms of ) . will be able to use her love of meeting new challenges and her positive attitude to adaptations and skills in technology to overcome problems with motor skills and concern over her future . By focusing on the environment will not be under pressure to continually learn new skills without having to continuously re - learn motor skills which can be frustrating and cause feelings of depression or anxiety ( in Turner 2000 ) . < heading > Goal Planning Overarching aim For Rosemary to continue to be occupied by work and leisure activities within her chosen environments . < heading > Long term aim To maintain motor function and to be independent with tasks needed for occupations of work and leisure . < heading > Short term goals To use her computer keyboard and mouse within . To be independent and pain free in answering the telephone at work within . To decide upon possible alternative vocations within . To maintain motor skills over . < heading > Steps / tasks to achieve goals To choose and install a computer package such as "" Dragon "" to eliminate the need to use hands . ( The resource centre ) . To practise using this computer package for a week , on days when she is not too tired , to write a list of possible alternative vocations and to write letters to request information on these vocations . To purchase a telephone headset and to practise using it at home over and to take it to work to use within . For to use her computer mouse for a period of 3 times a week to look for alternative vocations on the internet , whilst wearing a cock up wrist splint . For to practise taking splint on and off with therapist . < heading > Evaluation Monitoring One week : Discuss using splint . : Review use of the hands free headset . : using computer software . : Review and discuss vocations . : To discuss and review motor skills. Re - assessment : After weeks COPM assessment ; this would indicate whether feels her performance and level of satisfaction are improved within the areas she has defined . The test to determine whether 's motor skills have been affected . < heading > Final Interviews : After weeks A discussion with to determine whether or not she feels further OT interventions would benefit her . < heading > Further Interventions From these interviews and re - assessments further or alternative interventions could be planned .","When modern medicine was established in it was based upon the premise that illness was caused by diseases attacking the body . Health was believed to be the absence of disease . Health care was therefore based almost entirely upon the conceptualisation of health as a biological state of being . Society as a whole and the individual in particular were believed to have little or no influence over health , illness or disability . This placed the responsibility and control over health and illness within the medical profession . This view of health has since been described as the medical model . In sociologists and psychologists began to challenge the medical model of health . They suggested that health is influenced by society and the individual as well as biology . Sociology and psychology explained not only the effects of society and the individual on health but through scientific studies developed theories which explained the experience of health and the effects of illness , disability and service delivery on the individual . By examining how particular theories apply to practise I will demonstrate how sociology and psychology can help the health care professional to understand the effects of illness and service delivery on the individual . There are various different definitions of health , illness , disability and service delivery . For the purpose of this essay I will define health in terms of the Social model and use the definition provided by ) which is that "" Health is a state of complete physical , mental , and social well being and not merely an absence of disease or infirmity "" ( WHO , ) . Therefore illness is the absence of either physical , mental or social well being . Throughout this essay I have used the example family I have illustrated in the appendix to support my arguments and to relate theory to practise . Whilst there are some clear distinctions between psychology and sociology : Sociologists aim is to "" ... understand the individuals place in the world , where they are , what they do and what their views are "" ( p1 and , ) ; Whereas Psychologists study behaviour and the "" thoughts feelings and motivations underlying such behaviour "" ( , ) . There are also many similarities Sociology also looks at the individual 's interpretation of their bodily experience ( , ) and psychology studies the individual within a social context ( Walker et al 2004 ) . Theories of both Sociology and psychology can be used to explore the effects of illness and service delivery on the individual . The theories I will use are those which explore roles , self concept , control , socialisation , attitudes to being ill , locus of control , doctor patient relationships and culture . Sociologists and psychologists both study social roles . A social role defines the "" part we are playing "" in society ( p39 and ) . Roles can become part of who we are , for example the role of a mother or father can be what the individual believes defines who they are . Roles are developed through socialisation . Socialisation usually occurs in the home , school and leisure environments but can continue to be developed in adult life during work ( and ) . According to ( ) part of a person 's self concept is determined by their social roles . is a sociologist however his work has been used to within the field of health psychology . Illness can interfere with the ability of the individual to continue previous social roles . This can affect ones sense of self and result in a loss of identity ( Walker et al 2004 ) . For example in the family has lost her husband . To family are very important , she considered her role of house wife to be part of who she was . Now she has lost that role her self concept is affected she is finding it difficult to know who she is . ( ) proposes that a person who has experienced a loss needs to reconstruct their identity . Shultz et al have found that how the whole family support the care giver has the most affect on the experience of bereavement upon the individual care giver than other factors ( Shultz et al , ) . They also found that negative effects were greater among spouses than other family members . did not have anyone within her family to rely on which means she was not able to prepare for bereavement . Shultz et al ( ) suggest that when the individual is supported to care for someone who is chronically ill they do not experience such a strong sense of loss or bereavement . 's roles have also been affected by illness but in this situation it is her own illness that has affected her roles . For Freda the effects of illness upon her has meant that she can not continue her roles of work , being a wife or participating in society . The health care professional working with Freda would need to understand the importance of these roles to her and work with her to try to maintain or reengage with some of these roles . and ( ) believe that our relationship between ourselves and the environment is mediated by our roles . 's roles have effectively been removed from her so her relationship to her environment is poor as is her concept of who she is which was largely based upon her role . 's life on the other hand is dominated by his relationship between himself and his environment is controlled by his role as a drinker . is used to being seen as a drinker if he stops drinking then he would need to redefine who he is . When people are unable to continue their roles due to illness they may take on the sick role . Parsons ( ) , of the founding fathers of sociology , believes that by taking on the sick role the individual is exercising an approved way of experiencing illness . If people are playing the sick role then they are not expected to act as normal . They must seek professional help to get better . ( ) believes that an ill person will function and think differently than when they are healthy . For example each person will have a unique set of circumstances that will alter their own conceptions of self and their own ability to make autonomous decisions . The sick role is their to provide a guideline of how to behave . has taken on the sick role in part by going to seek professional advice . This is called an illness behaviour and is performed to help the individual to get well . However , has not changed his diet or exercise as advised . Psychology can help to explain why has done this by looking at his ' locus of control ' and schema . Walker ( ) has found that the individual 's locus of control is dependent upon their situation for example you may believe that a headache is your own fault but that abdominal pain is a matter for the doctor ( p81 Walker et ) . Rotter ( ) described the concept of locus of control . Individuals with an external locus of control do not feel that they are in control of their health and that is affected by others or chance ; whereas those with an internal locus of control feel that they are in control of their health ( , ) . In this sense an individual who believes their own health is the responsibility of others would perceive a health care professional as having total power and control over their ill health . Whereas if they thought that it was down to chance then they would probably feel that nothing anybody could do would influence their ill health . This may mean they do not bother to try and influence their own ill health or to visit the doctor or follow his advice . does not feel that his high blood pressure is his own fault and or that it is within his control to change . He feels it is the medical professions responsibility . A healthy diet or exercise are not part of 's lifestyle at the moment . ( ) has found that people do not encode or remember information that may disrupt their lifestyle . In fact at the moment changing his diet and exercising are so challenging to 's existing lifestyle that he can not follow the doctor 's advice without understanding why it is so important to do so . Walker ( ) in ' psychology for the caring professions ' explains how this is to do with an individuals schema . If the individual has a complex schema they are able to manages changes to their lifestyle , but if they do not they can not ( , ) . The search for factors that influence personal health choices is considered by and to be primarily driven by the health care professionals desire to influence the decisions ( ) . This knowledge allows doctors to control the relationship yet still appear to be client centred . also does not feel she has the ability or desire to make herself better she feels that her experience of depression is the result of chance and the changing roles of others around her ; she has therefore not taken on the sick role and is not currently seeing her doctor for medication or therapy . This is referred to by ( ) as learned helplessness and can result in perceived uncontrollability . This explains situations where the individual feels that they have no power or control over their situation . The health care professional who is treating would need to take this into account and help her to understand that it is within her control to feel better . Another way of understanding these concepts is through the Common Sense Model . This model hypothesises that individuals create mental representations of their illness based upon how they interpret information available to them . The way individuals experience illness depends on how it affects their life . and ( ) explain how individuals view their illness e.g. that it make their life worse or stops them from doing what they want to do . Beliefs about the ability to control or cure an illness can also be explained by the common sense model . For example whether people believe that following medical advice will relieve them of symptoms . does not understand that he has dementia so he does not believe that following medical advice will be of any benefit to him at all . ( 45 ) is also unsure that following medical advice will relieve her of her symptoms of depression this in part explains why she has not taken the doctors advice of medication and therapy . Studies suggest that individuals who believed their illness to be uncontrollable and chronic let it affect them more than those who saw it to be less chronic and controllable ( Hagger and Orbell 2003 ) . Those who saw their condition to be uncontrollable avoided being treated . has not been taking any medication for now because she believes it the negative effects outweighed the positive ones . Another explanation for the effects of illness on the individual can be explained by looking at the theories of stigma . Stigma can arise in many ways ; a depressed person may appear sad or dull . Other factors , such as being seen visiting a psychiatric hospital or clinic may also mark someone as ' mental ' or ' psychiatric ' ( psychology association , ) . Once someone is identified as different , it 's hard for them to be accepted ( psychology association , ) . They ca n't shake off the stigma and as a result they lose confidence in themselves . In time they come to believe that they are odd and do n't fit in . Knowledge of these stigmas has influence 's ( ) decision not to have therapy . All the effects of illness on ( 45 ) already described have made feel more depressed and less motivated to overcome the experience of depression . Maslow ( ) developed a theory to explain why individuals are motivated to do things . He rationalised that individuals are motivated to achieve things that meet psychological and physiological needs and that once they have achieved these things they can meet needs concerned with developing their potential . has no physiological needs such as food , warmth or shelter ; neither does she have safety needs . She is loved by members of her family so does not have those needs . However , she is lacking in self esteem and has a poor self concept . At present the sense of hopelessness feels at achieving at having a better self concept and increased self esteem has meant she is not willing to try . Creek ( ) believes that the needs to take these things into account when working with a client who experiences a condition such as depression . and ( ) have found that whilst theorists misuse theories of motivation to explain why individuals do or do not seek health , there is evidence to suggest that the individual 's locus of control and self concept can affect motivation to seek health . It is evident that the concept of the sick role does not apply to all situations . For example when a person is chronically ill they can not simply get better . In this situation how illness affects the individuals is better explained by the level of control or power they have over their condition . ( ) considers that "" The terminally ill person 's experience ... will be influenced largely by their ability to participate in decisions ( p245 McNamara in Purdy and Banks , ) . In this case study is participating in decisions about her condition . However despite 's involvement in her treatment and care she is still not in control of the debilitating effects of the condition . The experience of living with a chronic condition can further be explained in relation to inability to perform the practical matters of everyday life ( ) . Despite treatment has lost her ability to participate in activities of living and needs to be cared for . 's self concept is also affected by her illness . Pain , nausea and fatigue can all alter self - concepts ( , ) . 's body has been significantly changed by her illness , not only through surgery but by the effects of chemotherapy this has had a major impact upon her self concept . Sociology helps us to understand these effects on the individual by the development of social construction theories . Social construction theories offer explanations of what it means to be a person ( McNamara , ) . Julie and her doctor have a relatively equal and client centred relationship . This has had a positive effect on her experience of illness . May et al ( 2004 ) have found that how doctors conceptualise chronic illness can affect how they respond to patients . Both sociologists and psychologists have explored doctor patient relationships in more detail and through these studies it has become apparent that there is not always an equal distribution of power in service delivery . The individual can not demand attention , time or understanding from the doctor . In fact medical knowledge can be seen as a source of power in itself . and Long ( ) have found that some doctors practise seems to be based upon the idea that the doctor is the expert . At the other end of the continuum doctors base their consultations on a more patient centred approach which is focused more on listening and responding to individual needs . Stimson and Webb ( ) have found that both patients plan what to say to the doctor so that he takes notice . Morgan ( ) believes that the individual is unlikely to disclose how they feel about the medical advice they have been given if they do not feel the doctor will listen or act upon it . The effect of this may be that individuals do not follow medical advice and without informing their doctor that they are not . If the GP is to find out what believes about his high blood pressure and whether or not he is going to take on advice then he will need to allow the consultation to be client centred . By doing this he will allow to disclose information to him rather than the relationship being only one way . If an individual 's experience of service delivery is not positive they may develop a belief that the health care professional can not help them . The effect this may have on the individual is that they do not overcome being ill . Classical conditioning theory can describe individual 's responses to of service delivery . Classical conditioning theory was introduced by to describe associative learning ( Walker et Al , 2004 ) . For example if you have had a bad experience in hospital you will learn to associate negative feelings with hospitals . This can lead to avoiding being diagnosed , ignoring the problem or acting inappropriately . ( Walker et Al , 2004 ) . Freda does not want to go into a nursing home because she feels that it is like a hospital . Freda has developed a fear of hospitals because she has had a bad experience when she went into hospital after she experienced her stroke . This fear has been learnt by associating hospitals with bad feelings ; it is therefore an example of classical conditioning . If the health care professional did not understand 's fear then they would not be unable to understand why was afraid of going into hospital . The effects of service delivery on the individual here can be explained by understanding that has had negative experience of service delivery and therefore does not which to repeat it . Finally it is important to consider how culture influences the effects of illness on the individual 's within the case study . Sociology in particular looks at culture . Scrambler ( ) believes that how individuals interpret and experience the effects of illness can depend upon their culture . In the case study is of descent and is a Roman catholic family life are very important to her and she would like her family to look after Freda following her stroke . If a care manager were to intervene and organise care without taking this cultural belief into account then the care set up may not be appreciated and may in fact be seen as an insult to the family by implying that they can not cope . The effect of this service delivery could mean that the family will no longer trust a care manager to do what is right by them . In fact in this example family is arranging for Freda to go into residential care , does not mind this as it has been discussed and is being arranged by the family . However the care home itself needs consideration e.g. access to church on . All the theory 's and examples included in this essay explain how sociology and psychology can help the healthcare professional to understand the effects of illness and service delivery on the individual within the context of their family , society or culture . The scientific studies of both sociologists and psychologists provide the health care professional with evidence to support their understanding of how the individual is affected by illness and service delivery . They do this by looking at what aspects of the individuals life is affected for example their role and explain why this occurs by theories such as classical conditioning , social construction and common sense models of health and illness . Without consideration of these theories , interventions would be based purely upon the biological effects of illness on the individual . The influence of sociology and psychology have allowed the health care professional to work in a more client centred and holistic way by explaining the possible effects of illness on the individual . This is crucial if health care is to meet all the needs of the individual and not just the biological ones .",1 "Within philosophy of religion there is a type of argument , known as pragmatic arguments , which utilise the possible benefits of belief in order to persuade the listener that it is rational to accept God 's existence . The most prominent version of a pragmatic argument comes from philosopher Blaise Pascal . This argument is known as ' Pascal 's Wager ' . It is the purpose of this essay to explore the rationality behind this wager and consider the objections which it must confront . Initially this essay will briefly explain the nature of the wager and consider a simple objection . I will use this objection to reveal some of the subtleties involved in the wager and go on to fully explicate 's argument . Finally I will consider objections to the wager and responses , concluding that has indeed shown that informed agnosticism / atheism is irrational . In his Pensees , argues that we have the choice of either believing in God , or not believing in God . Given that there is an equal chance of either being the case then it is rational that we choose the path of belief ; < quote > "" Let us estimate the chances ; if you win , you win everything ; if you lose , you lose nothing . Do not hesitate , then ; gamble on His existence . "" Given the potential reward involved in believing in God , argues it is rational that we gamble on God 's existence . This is 's wager . Initially this may seem superficial . Critics have pointed out that to choose the path of belief in God because it presents an opportunity to receive great gains is highly against the ethic ; < quote > "" ... applying betting rules , relevant to moneymaking ventures , to a supposedly infinitely more exalted subject to lure sceptics by appealing to their grasping instincts offends religious proprieties . "" Although Pascal does explicitly state that this initial choice is only the step in acquiring a genuine belief , his critics still believe that religion is incompatible with such a greedy way of thinking ; to start the path of belief in such a way is to debase the end which the path leads to . However , on a closer inspection of 's argument , we find that Pascal draws heavily on the investment necessary for a genuine religious belief . It is not the case that , upon reading the wager , a rational atheist will decide to turn theist and automatically believe in God . Religious belief involves a lot more than the simple assertion that ' God exists ' , it involves a change in your way of life . Pascal recognised this fact , and used the wager not as bait for self indulgent non - believers , but as a rational reason for these non - believers to start on a quest for belief ; < quote > "" The wager is an argument for undertaking an action which will lead to belief . Pascal shows that the formation of a belief in the articles of faith is practically rational . "" Belief can not be forced , it must happen naturally through choice . Pascal 's wager provides a reason for investigating the path of religion further . It does not pretend to claim that it is possible to simply decide to believe in God just so we can benefit from the rewards which such a belief results in . The fact that suggests the wager is only the start of the path towards genuine belief brings out another important aspect of 's argument . Pascal believed that epistemic proofs such as the teleological argument for the existence of God , if successful , can only result in the conclusion that ' God exists ' . These proofs do nothing to establish the articles of faith as essential to belief ; < quote > "" The metaphysical proofs of God 's existence are so remote from man 's reasoning and so complicated that they make no great impression . Even if some men are affected by them , the effect does not last beyond the moment in which they see the proof ; they are afraid they have been taken in ... This is what comes of a knowledge of God obtained without Jesus Christ ... "" Pascal holds that any argument which aims to establish God 's existence via epistemic methods will not only fail to capture the practical consequences of dedicated religious belief , but also ultimately fail in it 's primary aim . Pascal argues that , if there is an existing God , His nature is such that He is infinite and without limits , we are thus "" incapable of knowing either what He is , or whether He exists "" . This is why Pascal places so much emphasis on belief ; it is only through faith and belief that we can come to know of His existence . Since we can only come to know of God through a genuine and dedicated belief in him , and any epistemic proof of his existence is impossible , it follows that any non - theist is presented with a choice , with options of equal probability ; either accept that God exists and make a small sacrifice in order to embark on a path of religious belief , with the possibility of being infinitely rewarded in the afterlife , or remain a non - believer without making the small sacrifice but risking the possibility of an afterlife of infinite misery and pain . Given the equal probability of the options , it is rational to choose the path of belief . If we are to bet that God does exist , the maximum we will loose is , say units of utility ( this is the cost of dedicating our life to religious belief ) , with a potential gain of infinite utility . If we bet that God does not exist , we keep our units of utility , but run the risk of paying an infinite amount of disutility in the event that God does exist . Pascal thus argues that it is not only rational to aim at acquiring a genuine belief in God , it is completely irrational to not do so ; < quote > "" since you are compelled to play , you would be mad to cling to your life instead of risking it for an infinite gain , which is as liable to turn up as a loss - of nothing . "" It is even debatable whether the path of religion involves any sacrifice at all . It may seem that there a lot of pleasures which a non - believer would have to give up , but argues that , once engaged in belief , these ' pleasures ' no longer seem pleasurable . Thus , to choose to believe in God allows for the possibility of infinite utility , without any cost . It is therefore completely irrational not to choose to believe in God . < quote > Despite the strength of it 's rationale , 's wager has not gone unchallenged . The strongest objection stems from 's commitment to a God . Critics have pointed out that we can postulate an infinite number of different Gods ; not only the Gods of other religions , but also made up God 's with arbitrary worshipping requirements ; "" Pascal has been charged with making the unwarranted assumption that the problem facing the agnostic is confined to the question of which options to choose . In reality , however , in addition to the God of the theist , there are any number of other possible ones as well . "" As long as the Gods postulated as alternatives to the God of Pascal 's wager offer the reward of infinite utility in the afterlife , then it seems that these Gods are equally as worthy of worship . It may be objected by proponents of the wager argument that the existence of a made up God is far less probable than the God of theology , but as long as the rewards of worshipping this made up God are infinite , then the value of its outcome is infinite , the same value which worshipping the God carries ; < quote > "" given a possible infinite utility and a positive probability , no matter how small , an infinite expected utility is generated . Hence , the wager , instead of uniquely picking out religious hypothesis to believe , is left with any number of incompatible religious hypotheses , each with an infinite expected utility , and no obvious way to choose among them . "" If we were to invent a God who 's only worshipping requirement was that we refrain from eating sandwiches for a year , then although the probability of this God existing is tiny , it is still logically possible and therefore has a probability which is . Thus the potential gain of worshipping this God is still infinite . Since this God demands a lot less from the worshipper than the traditional deity , then the rational non - believer may rationally choose to worship the sandwich God instead . There are a variety of responses to this objection . argues although the expected gain in utility from worshipping any possible God is infinite , it still makes sense to worship the God which has the greatest probability ; < quote > "" I submit a crucial point , one that is contrary to what numerous philosophers hold , namely , that when each possible outcome carries an infinite expected value , it is rational to bet on the outcome most probable to occur . "" Schlesinger draws on the general principles surrounding gambling in order to argue that 's wager requires a different set of principles . In general the cost of betting is proportionally lower than the potential reward , depending on the probability . Fairness requires that a combination of low probability and low reward means a low initial bet . If we apply this same principle to wagers where the potential prize is infinite then we see that it is an unavoidable consequence that the cost should also be infinite , since if x is infinite , then any proportion y , of x will also be infinite . sees this as absurd and it is thus the case that different principles of gambling apply in the case of 's wager ; < quote > "" Because neither expected utilities nor the magnitude of the prize can serve as one 's criterion , by elimination it should be reasonable to be guided by the value of the probability : wager on the outcome that is most likely to materialize . "" If we apply this to the many - gods objection , we see that the rational wagerer should choose to believe in the God which is most probable . Since a God who is infinitely supeme is more probable than an arbitrary God who prohibits sandwich eating on a year , a rational wagerer should choose to believe in the former . From this we can draw a general principle ; the more sense a God makes then the higher the probability we can ascribe to that God . Thus the God which makes the most sense is also the most probable . Drawing upon the numerous religious texts which have appeared throughout the ages , we find that the majority of representations of God are as an infinite supreme being , of which nothing greater can conceivably exist . This is the God which makes the most sense , and is thus the God which is most probable . The rational wagerer should thus choose to believe in this God . If the notion that the more sense a God makes then the higher the probability of His existence fails to impress , then another option is to appeal to simplicity . An appeal to simplicity requires that we accept the simplest hypothesis as the most probable . Out of all the God 's we can postulate the simplest one will have properties of infinite goodness , power , capabilities etc . , for we do not have to question why they are in possession of only a certain amount of each property . Such an appeal to simplicity will lead us to option ; < quote > "" It is simplest because it is the only hypothesis that may be expressed with the use of a single predicate : to describe the God of the theist all that is needed is that he is an absolutely perfect being . "" Having established that the absolutely perfect God is the God deserving of worship , it is up to the wagerer to take the step down the path of faith and decide what form this worship takes . The majority of religious arguments attempt to prove only the existence of a God . Any which go on to try and attribute properties that this God may have , generally fail . Where these others have failed , has taken an alternative route . Not only has Pascal shown that it is rational to believe in God , he has also shown that it is rational to believe in a God with infinite perfections . The objection that it promotes irreligious attitudes lack weight due to its failure to grasp the essential motivation behind the wager ; to persuade an informed agnostic of the irrationality of atheism , not to lure the agnostic in with the promise of eternal life . The ' many - gods ' objection inflicts more of a blow to 's argument . By solely appealing to the expected utility of religious practice in order to justify belief , is confronted with a potentially infinite amount of Gods whom the wagerer could rationally have faith in . However this objection is easily sidestepped by appeal to probability and the principle of simplicity . A God with infinite and absolute powers makes more sense and is thus more probable . He is also simpler . Both of these facts combined should lead a rational wagerer to accept this God as the God worthy of worship . Overall Pascal 's argument shows not only that theism is rational , but that agnosticism / atheism is completely irrational . All that remains for the wagerer is to decide how his life as a theist is to proceed .","This essay will focus on the design version of the teleological argument . Arguments from design purport to show that the way in which the natural world elicits purpose entails that it must have had a designer . I will highlight the problems associated with 's version of the design argument , and go on to focus on 's distinction between temporal and spatial order . I will discuss how this distinction avoids some of the criticisms of earlier versions , but still has problems affecting it . of the most famous arguments from design came from th century theologian and philosopher . In his ' Natural Theology ' , compares the universe to a watch . From the intricate design and complex interaction of different parts within the watch , infers that the watch must have had a designer ; < quote > "" This mechanism being observed ... , the inference , we think , is inevitable , that the watch must have had goes on to suggest that the natural world contains similar examples of such complex interplay between parts , and infers from this that the natural world too , must have had a maker . Arguments of the kind expounded , which utilize analogy , are subject to various rules . In comparing distinct kinds of phenomena B and B * ( in the case of 's example ; the watch and the natural world ) , we must look to the similarities between the phenomena 's causes ; A and A * ( man and x , where x is the object of the discovery ) . The similarities and differences between the effects of the phenomena leads us to postulate proportionate similarities and differences between their causes ; the design of the natural world could be said to be infinitely greater than the design of the watch , and from this we infer that the natural world 's designer must in some respect be infinitely greater than that of the watch . These are the basic rules of analogy . In his ' , launches a devastating attack against arguments from design . Using the character of as the primary proponent of the teleological arguments , Hume illustrates the kind of argument he wishes to show false ; < quote > "" The curious adapting of means to ends , throughout all nature , resembles exactly , though it much exceeds , the productions of human contrivance ... Since therefore the effects resemble each other , we are led to infer , by all the rules of analogy , that the causes also resemble ... "" The similarities between argument and that which had forwarded are very much apparent . However , believes that arguments which are based on this type of loose analogy fail , and gives various reasons which show this is the case . His criticism focuses on the strength of the analogy between human contrivances and the natural world . Using Philo as his mouthpiece , he argues that the considerable differences between the cases proportionately weakens the strength of the analogy and "" is confessedly liable to error and uncertainty "" . Further to this , he argues that even if the rules of analogy have been strictly upheld , it is not necessarily correct to posit a single Deity over a variety of other plausible hypothesis ; it is perfectly conceivable that there are a multitude of agents who have created the universe , all of finite power sharing equal responsibility for their creation . Not only is this plausible , but it is also more inline with an analogy from a product of human creation ( e.g. a house , which usually has several people working to build it ) , and thus more realistic . He goes on to argue that even if we can reasonably infer the existence of a single designer from the order shown in the world , there would still be the need for a great deal of further explanation as to the nature of the mind of the designer ; since many of the products of human designed are explained in terms of their function in respect to their creator , we would ideally want to find similar motivations for this being to have created the natural world . Many commentators believe Hume 's criticisms have decisively refuted design arguments of the form presented by . Even if it is the case that these arguments can escape 's criticism , the advances made in the field of biology in certainly seem to of dealt a devastating blow . 's theory of evolution and in particular his theory of natural selection gave a far more satisfactory explanation as to the apparent design and complexity of natural objects . From this it seems correct to reject any argument for God 's existence based on the apparent order found in nature . However , the debate surrounding the argument from design does not end with Hume and . More recent versions have focussed on the possibility of eluding the explanation , whilst also evading the criticisms posed by Hume . such account comes from . In his , distinguishes between types of order found in the natural world ; spatial order and temporal order . Spatial order is illustrated in the way in which various parts of an organism work along side each other to perform some function . Temporal order is displayed by the simple patterns of behaviour found in objects , and the way in which event is naturally followed by another . He goes on to suggest that many of the early criticisms presented against the design argument were based on the fact that these arguments were formulated from observations of spatial order ; < quote > "" Paley 's ' Natural Theology ' dwells mainly on details of comparative anatomy , on eyes and ears and muscles and bones arranged with minute precision so as to operate with high efficiency , and in the ' Dialogues ' Hume 's Cleanthes produces the same kind of examples"" Arguments based on this kind of spatial order suffer immensely in light of the account of evolution . has shown how complex animals and plants can develop from the generation of less complex species , which in turn can develop from the generation of even less complex animals and plants , thus eliminating the mystery behind the apparent order and interplay of parts found in these animals and plants . However , feels that despite 's theory of evolution , if we are to adopt the temporal version of the design argument , we are able to evade the problems which have arisen with the evolution of biology . He also thinks that although Hume 's objections are still applicable , it is also possible to evade these objections . He starts by identifying the temporal order which he is referring to ; < quote > "" The orderliness of the universe ... is its conformity to formula , to simple formulable , scientific laws ... The universe might so naturally have been chaotic , but it is not - it is very orderly . "" < /quote > This order , he argues , is not solely a result of man imposing it . We as humans observe correlations in cause and effect and from this are able to induce future events , the success of which depend on these events actually taking place , for it is the case that "" men can not make nature conform subsequently to an order which he has invented "" . However , various critics have highlighted the hidden tautology in the notion that we live in an orderly universe ; < quote > "" Our presence in this special sort of universe ... follows from the tautology that we can only exist in a universe consistent with our own existence"" It is a requirement for our existence that the universe should be orderly . In spite of this objection , believes this orderliness still suggests a designer ; the presence of order is undoubtedly a requirement for our existence , but this order only need be immediate to humans . It is plausible that earth contain structure and order which allow for the flourishing of the human race , whilst outside of earth the universe contained utter chaos . believes that the amount of order found in the world greatly exceeds what is necessary for humans to exist . Further to this , the fact that we could only exist if the world was ordered takes nothing away from the fact that the level of orderliness is astonishing . Having established the nature of temporal order , goes on to explain how this order leads us to postulate God . We utilize scientific principles in order to explain occurrences within the natural world . These ' low - level ' scientific principles are themselves explainable in terms of ' higher - level ' principles , which are again explainable with reference to even higher - level principles . This chain can be traced back to the highest - level scientific principles , which themselves are unexplainable in terms of scientific principles , seeing as they are the principles which all others are explained with reference to ; < quote > "" ... from the very nature of science it can not explain the highest - level laws of all ; for they are that by which it explains all other phenomena . "" It follows from this that the order found in the world is unexplainable in terms of scientific laws , since the order is essentially the reason that these laws exist . The fact that we can not use a scientific explanation to explain the order found throughout the world leaves us , according to , with options ; we either abandon any further attempts to explain , or we appeal to some form of personal explanation which posits an agent with intentions beliefs and capacities . believes that the latter alternative is the only reasonable option , and that this option entails an agent who has the power to maintain this order . Although it seems to avoid the heavy refutation that presented , this temporal version of the design argument seems to be as equally subject to 's arguments as was the spatial version . It is not necessarily the case that it is a single infinite deity which is the cause of all this order , it is equally as plausible that it is a multiplicity of agents , all of which are finite in power and knowledge and are responsible for different parts of the order . This suggestion , according to Hume , may be even more plausible given that it is more analogous to what we are witness to in the actual world . Even if we can establish a single infinite deity we are still left with the complaint concerning the nature and cause of this being . It will have properties which further need explanation , which this argument fails to address . However , has solutions to this argument . A key feature of 's argument is his appeal to the principle of simplicity . This principle as , as recognise by Hume states that ; < quote > "" To multiply causes without necessity , is ... contrary to true philosophy"" He believes that the acceptance of a hypothesis like that proposed by Hume only serves to complicate matters further . Any finite being has properties which could be more so or less so , and thus we are able to question why they have this quantity of each property . A single infinite being on the other hand is much less complex . We no longer have to concern ourselves with why it possesses such and such amount of each property , or why it is only responsible for whatever part of the order . For this reason , we should accept the existence of a single infinite agent as the cause of order over the existence of a multitude of finite agents . In order to deal with the argument that God needs further explanation , appeals to the notion of ' complete explanation ' ; < quote > "" the arguments to the existence of God with which we are concerned are arguments to a complete explanation of phenomena"" Although it is possible to view God 's actions as requiring further explanation , these explanations will themselves be explicable in terms of God . However his use of the notion of simplicity in his design argument has not gone unquestioned ; < quote > "" Swinburne simplifies his task by excluding of the possibilities which mentioned as an alternative to theism , the activity of a plurality of agents with finite powers ... I do not see how he can do as much as this . "" believes that 's quick dismissal of a multiplicity of finite agents is unwarranted . Given the multiplicity of natural laws to be found , it would make more sense to posit an agent for each law . However , believes that the explanatory power of this hypothesis would leave a lot to be desired , where as with a single infinite being , no further explanation is required and is thus the preferred option . It seems that 's arguments have decisively evaded the arguments associated with the development of the biological sciences . His appeal to the temporal order as an example of the design of the world rather than spatial order cleverly side - steps problems associated with . However the criticisms posed by Hume do not seem to of been as successfully avoided . Although he has not relied so much on analogy in order to prove the design of nature , his insistence that the simpler hypothesis is the option we must accept lacks weight in terms of proving the existence of a deity , for it seems equally plausible and possibly more so , that the cause of nature lies in a multiplicity of agents . So whilst the distinction between spatial order and temporal order has saved analogical arguments from complete nullification , there is a lot more work to do if design arguments are to succeed in their aim .",1 "Traditional accounts on the causes of the necessarily included castigation of clerical abuses , such as concubinage , pluralism and absenteeism ; the ignorance and poor training of priests and monks ; and perhaps even the supposed failure of papal leadership as manifestations of the decay and decline of the Church on the eve of the Reformation . This view , and the more recent revisionist view of the topic in question has informed the main body of debate in scholarly circles , but before embarking on the essay , there are a few points that deserve attention . , the question suggests that what was ' wrong ' with the could have led , in some sort of linear equation , to the birth of the Reformation . Following in the footsteps of , "" the intention is not to sift the evidence for signs of impending "" , and teleological history should be avoided due to the inaccurate interpretations and conclusions which may emerge from that approach . , it is ambiguous as to what constitutes ' the ' . According to , there are main definitions : "" the restricted , institutional definition , which segregated the ' ecclesiastical ' from the ' secular ' ... "" and "" the body of the faithful which made up the mystical body of the church which was also the body of Christ . "" To limit the scope of this essay , the of 's definitions will be taken up , noting however , that this requires a generalization of the circumstances in the various national churches . This essay will avoid a direct , simplistic answer to the question but will instead attempt to put the criticisms of the into perspective and suggest that there was a certain measure of continuity , rather than exclusivity to the eve of the Reformation ; and to locate the essay within the confines of the changing climate of opinion that may have contributed to the perceived problems of the . The recurrent themes of and will be examined in the following context : the Clergy , , and will revolve around the issue of the function of the . < fnote > , , ( , ) , p. < /fnote> , Religion and Devotion in Europe , ( , ) , p. < /fnote > The failure of the Clergy to live up to lay expectations of moral superiority ( derived from being the agent through whom man communicated with God ) and to fulfill the functions they were ordained for opened up the to criticisms , from without and within . ' On the eve of the , laity protested against pervasive clerical fiscalism , absenteeism , mal - administration , and concubinage ... "" and were joined in their castigations , by some members of the , and more notably , the humanists . , the humanist dean of even went as far as to blame "" all the ills of the Church on the secular lifestyles and ' covetousness ' of the Clergy "" and urged "" reformation of the 's estate "" . According to , even "" and historians alike largely concur on the ( sexual ) ' immorality ' of many Clergy on the eve of the Reformation . "" However , a reconsideration of the reaction to the abuses of the is necessary . Despite the widespread practice of concubinage , the population of was not overly concerned unless this moral failing on the part of the Clergy impinged on their primary role of administering the sacraments . As articulates succinctly : "" whether the clergy were ' immoral ' or not , the more germane question is whether they ministered adequately to the needs of their flock . "" < fnote > Steve Ozment , Age of Reform : An intellectual and , ( , ) p , . < /fnote> , The Unresponsiveness of , Sixteen Century Journal , Vol . , No . ( ) , p. < /fnote > Perhaps , it would be plausible to suggest that the more pressing considerations on what was ' wrong ' with the Clergy would be "" pluralism and absenteeism , which are frequently construed as abuses and signs of decay and pastoral neglect "" The centrality of the in providing "" contact between human beings and the supernatural order of their universe , to explain , direct , and console "" is crucial to the understanding of late medieval religion ; and the perceived failure of the in providing the above services would shake the foundations on which it was built . The was faced with main dilemmas : , it had inadequate jurisdiction over the appointments to benefices , which increasingly became the prerogative of the rulers . Also , clergymen seeking to further their knowledge and competence often enrolled in the universities , with the obvious consequences of being away from their benefices . Despite pluralism being widespread , it did not necessarily indicate neglect , as absentee beneficiaries were required by canon law to provide a vicar to cater to the needs of the local populace . < fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote> Euan Cameron , , ( , ) , p. < /fnote > What proved more destructive than the above - mentioned abuses "" were the words and ideas of clerics ... born of an impatience with the imperfect established church and a moral vision of purified . "" The more prominent members of this group include , Erasmus and . It is noteworthy that criticisms of the went as far back as to the late 14 th Century ( the Lollards ) and were not exclusive to the eve of the Reformation . The irony lies in the fact that the had effectively ' dug its own grave ' by educating these men - empowering them with knowledge which allowed for the formulation of reformist ideas and expectations of change , which clashed , at every level , with the vested interests of the clerical class . < fnote , The Unresponsiveness of , p. < /fnote > The fact that the was becoming more accessible to the may have opened up the former to criticisms from their congregation . The increased interaction between the Clergy and the may have led to the exposure of church flaws which may seem less apparent previously ; and the printing of the provincial decrees and sermons denouncing clerical abuses , by the church , in the vernacular "" might have convinced laymen not only of the widespread efforts of reform but also of the widespread problems of the church ... raising in some circles expectations that could not be realized . "" < fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote > The Papacy was also not immune to criticisms of ' worldliness ' , and the popes provided the best illustration of this by participating in the struggle for temporal power , concubinage , and as patron of the Arts . Since , reformers have ' found themselves at cross - purpose with a papacy whose pastoral role had become increasingly confused with its political and economic ambitions . "" However , far from being a power - hungry and oppressive apparatus , it can be said that the had undermined its own power through the setting up of , encouragement of printing , and even patronage of the humanists . The has often been accused of being lofty and unresponsive , but in reality , was the main impetus behind the improvement of society , largely through the channeling of resources into building and maintaining educational institutions that served both the state and the society at large . Most significantly , they ' took under their aegis the devotio moderna the principles of which strikingly foreshadowed the worth and dignity fully accorded laymen by the reformers of . ' < fnote > Ozment , Age of Reform , p.208 < /fnote> It is imperative to examine the doctrines and practices ( in particular , the deep belief in Purgatory , the sacrament of , and its derivatives such as relics , pilgrimages and most notoriously , indulgences ) of the , which generated oppositions from the laity and clergy . Interestingly , criticisms of practices and doctrines existed in , in the form of ( led by the theologian ) called for a clear divide between spiritual and temporal power ; obedience to the church authorities as far as their behaviour merited ; the as the only source of religious authority ; condemned the doctrine of transubstantiation ; and attacked the veneration of saints ( and relics ) . The humanists also shared the view that the had diverged away from the true religion , embraced misconstrued beliefs and had become too intertwined with the secular world . Convinced that grace and forgiveness could only come from God alone , also harshly condemned the sale of Indulgences in his these s. However , the cynicism surrounding the practice of Indulgences were not unique to the eve of the Reformation , and was a pervasive element in literary traditions , as seen in 's which was written in . It is interesting to note however , that the supply of indulgences was in response to the demands of the laity , and was perhaps a manifestation of the paranoia of securing one 's own salvation . What is perhaps significant is that the demanding penitential system and mechanical ritualized religion offered by the only provided temporary relief for the laity , and had led instead to the exacerbation of fear and anxiety as reflected in the obsession with the constant absolving of sins . < fnote > Marshall , , p. < /fnote > According to , of the chief failings of the lay in ' the absence of a distinctive concept of lay religious life and the consequent imposition upon the laity of traditional clerical ideals ' ; and the proliferation of confraternities , in addition to the earlier movement of the devotio moderna are perhaps indicative of the failures of the church to cater for lay piety . The advocacy of clerical piety as the zenith of religious piety had placed unrealistic expectations on the laity and precluded their search for consolation through the . The incongruity of this enterprise was not lost on the increasingly literate laity , who rejected the "" prominent clerical ideals of obedience and sexual impurity "" in favour of "" simplicity , directness and respectful treatment in all spheres of their lives . "" Moreover , as mentioned above , the behaviour of the clergy did not correspond to the standards that church traditions had imposed on them , and policies such as enforced celibacy increased the incidence of breaches in moral standards that served to reinforce , amongst the laity , the futility of this endeavour . < fnote > Ozment , Age of Reform , p. < /fnote> Ibid , p. < /fnote > Some historians have also suggest that the increasing desire amongst the laity for a personal and direct relationship with God , and the subsequent failure of the to cater to this aspect led many into the realm of mysticism . Though some have argued that mysticism could be regarded as a form of subversion , it is perhaps more appropriate to think of it as a supplementary to , rather than as a substitute for the institution of the . Mysticism of both coexisted with the and may be seen as testament to the religiosity of the Age . There is a possibility that the multiple responsibilities of the in society may have led to its resources becoming over - stretched , hence , compromising on the primary role of the to minister the sacraments . Swanson puts forth the idea that most of the anti - clericals "" wanted churchmen to behave just as churchmen , rather than officious , interfering , lordly bureaucrats . "" However , the had for combined both its temporal and spiritual responsibilities without much difficulty , and it appears rather peculiar that the church would find it hard to cope with its dual roles on . Moreover , the increased accessibility of university education provided the necessary training for aspiring civil servants , and this would have taken the burden off the as a source of administrative officials , implying perhaps that the could concentrate more on its primary , spiritual function . Although there were many problems ( both discipline and doctrinal ) that the faced , it is apparent that these problems had been in existence for the past one or , and that despite the criticisms , the aim of the reformers was not to subvert the church , but had in mind the desire to change the church into a more responsive , relevant and effective apparatus . Throughout the essay , the writer has tried to suggest that it was the rising expectations of a growing educated class ( laity and clergy ) and the inability of the church to keep up the pace of reform and to satisfy the needs of the laity - the disparity between expectations and reality- that led to disillusionment . Similarly , the high expectations that the set with regards to piety eventually led to the alienation of the people from the . Despite the deep - rooted flaws of the church , the attempts at reforming it suggest "" men were seeking salvation and wished to find it with the help of the church . "" Hence , in trying to account for the , it is inadequate to merely examine what was ' wrong ' with the church , but requires instead , a broader understanding of the climate and considerations ( political , economic and social ) of the Age . < fnote > B.Moeller ' Religious life in on the Reformation ' , in ( ed . ) , ( , ) p. < /fnote >","The debate on the memory of the is perhaps the latest issue in the vast ocean of literature concerning other aspects of the holocaust , and this trend can be traced to the and when there was a sudden proliferation of Holocaust memorials , in the form of books , films , paintings and in particular , monuments and museums . The academic value of this enterprise must be judged , and the historian astutely points out that ' currently all the rage in the ivory tower , memory is surely the most impoverished concept to come down the academic pike in a long time . "" Yet despite this , ' the intensity of the debates about memory and the has never abated . "" The task at hand is perhaps even more disdainful because it is expressed in a normative statement , and seemingly , it beckons to the writer to take part in a doomed enterprise . The role of the impartial judge is one that is hard to play , and though it is acknowledged that the historian 's task is not to judge , it is not entirely possible for the historian to distance herself from this issue , because she is necessarily the product of her time . As such , the writer does not profess impartiality , but attempts to bring in the professionalism of her discipline to tackle this issue by calling into question the assumption that the should be memorialised ; the social and political functions of these memorials ; and finally , by examining the various memorials , aim to show that the forms that memorials take often reflect their position in time and location , and more importantly , is a reflection of the society that has created them , hence the futility of this question , because the form that a memorial takes is not dictated by a single universal principle , but obeys a number of intertwined forces . < fnote > , suffering , ( , ) , p.5 . < /fnote> Caroline Wiedmer , The Claims of Memory : Representations of the in and , ( , ) , p. . < /fnote > It is imperative to inquire into the assumption of the above question by examining the basis by which the should be memorialised . Should the be memorialised on the basis of its uniqueness , as some historians have been fast to claim ? If the was truly so unique , does it not preclude the same event from ever happening again ? So why is there this supposed need to commemorate for remembrance ? What does one aim to achieve by commemorating it ? The above questions become even more pressing with the emergence of . Is it not ironic that the proliferation of monuments comes only in of when the generation of survivors had largely perished ? Perhaps it is because of the passing of private , living memory of the that a vicarious and surrogate public , fixed interpretation of the past is promoted . ' Collective memory , it would seem , begins where the individual memories of a group cease , along with its members , to exist . "" Or maybe it is precisely because so many decades have passed from the event that people now dare to look back at their past , and that ' the further events of recede into time , the more prominent its memorials become . "" The flourishing of memorial politics in , , and do perhaps lend this question a certain direction . In places such as and where the Jews were persecuted , the upsurge of a need to know the past was perhaps a reaction against the code of silence and the ' absolute negation of ( les années noires ) . "" Building memorials was therefore seen as safeguarding the memory of the against the cover - up of the . Memorialisation however , is a double - edged sword , and the late historian cautioned that monuments may not remember events as to bury them beneath layers of national myths and explanations . Hence , as cultural reifications , monuments coarsen historical understanding as much as they generate it . < fnote > Caroline Wiedmer , The Claims of Memory , p.57 . < /fnote> , , ( , ) , p.1 . < /fnote> Caroline Wiedmer , The Claims of Memory , p. < /fnote > As the title of the question suggests , what is being commemorated is not the historical event ( holocaust ) , but rather , ideological interpretations of it . Films ( such as Holocaust the television series , 's is Beautiful etc . ) in particular fuel such interpretations of the holocaust , and by trying to recreate its likeness , is in a sense trivializing it . There is not one nazi holocaust , but many versions of the real thing . Despite the attempted homage to the holocaust , the necessary dramatization of the real event in order to make it more palatable for Mass Culture is perhaps a sacrilege to the memory of the holocaust , because it distorts how perceives it . However , this is not to deny the fact that ' such cinematic dramatizations of the holocaust have helped to shape memory of the in the popular consciousness ' allowing such films to become defenders of memory . The films raised awareness amongst the generations that had no connection to the , and as without knowledge there is no memory , memorialisation of the is a necessary evil . < fnote > , Holocaust Revisited : A , The Annals of , Vol . , , ( , ) , p.70 . < /fnote > Determining the functions of the memorials is integral to the answering of the question . How the is memorialised , and the form it takes is largely dependant on the perceived functions of the memorials . Memorials can be built as a result of a government 's need to explain a nation 's past to itself ( in the case of and ) ; to educate the next generation and to inculcate a sense of shared experience and destiny ; as expiations of guilt and self - aggrandizement ; and even to attract tourists . An extreme case in which a memorial was built for political ends was when President proposed the building of a national memorial in in order to placate supporters angered by his sale of fighter planes to . Much of the 's enthusiasm for memorial building was in part due to the declaration of solidarity with the influential , as well as in support of her ally . Similarly , the initial code of silence surrounding the immediately after the war was due to the more urgent need for reconciliation with , in the face of the threat . Hence , as concluded ' All such memorial decisions are made in political time , contingent on political realities . ' < fnote > , , p. . < /fnote > Memorials are also essential to the foundations of political legitimacy in that ' by themselves , monuments are of little value , mere stones in the landscape . But as a part of a nation 's rites or the objects of a people 's national pilgrimage , they are invested with national soul and memory . ' This is particularly true in the case of , whose political foundations rest firmly on the back of the , to the extent that according to the historian , ' the singularity of the suffering adds to the moral and emotional claims that can make ... on other nations . "" Having defined themselves as a people through commemorative recitations of their past , ' the Jews now depend on Memory for their very existence as a nation . ' < fnote > , , p. . < /fnote> , , p. . < /fnote > The social functions that are fulfilled by memorial building can be quite diverse . On the one hand , it is useful for consensus building : ' in the absence of shared belief or common interests , Art in public spaces may force an otherwise fragmented populace to frame diverse values and ideals in common spaces . By creating common spaces for memory , monuments propagate the illusion of common memory . "" On the other hand , memorials relieve the population of the burden to remember , ' under the illusion that our memorial edifices will always be there to remind us , we take leave of them and return only at our own convenience . "" Despite the various facets of remembrance , there is a general consensus that monuments are meant for public consumption , and hence , a part of the answer to the question of how the should be memorialised would rest on public opinion and expectations . < fnote > , , p.6 . < /fnote> Ibid , p.5 . < /fnote > The main debates on the form a memorial should take will be discussed here , under the main themes of vs. Realist , Jews vs. , vs. Religious and the anti - monument . It would be worth noting that the backing of the , as well as public opinion , is necessary for the memorial to serve its purpose . In every case , Holocaust memorials reflect not only national and communal remembrance , but also the memorial designer 's own time and place . For contemporary artists ( working in an era of abstract expressionism , conceptual art , post - modern and de - constructionist design ) , though there is a recognition that they are accountable to both art and memory , reminds us that for them ' the needs of art , not the public memory come . "" However , this is in direct opposition to many survivors , who ' believe that the searing reality of their experiences demand as literal a memorial expression as possible . ' Hence the dilemma of the artist , an example of whom is , whose Ghetto Monument 1948,is probably the most widely known , celebrated and controversial . Conversely , 's unconventional , in had to bow to popular opinion to have it removed from the der , in . < fnote > Ibid , p.8 < /fnote > It must be remembered that Jews , as well as non - Jews perished during the holocaust , and it should be the latter 's entitlement to share in the remembrance and mourning of the former . In a particularly volatile situation in , , a journalist demanded that a memorial be set up for Jews alone . This provoked an outcry from Romani Rose of of the and that this ' represented a hierarchization of victims , which is insulting for the victims of the genocide and for the survivors of the and majority . "" It would make sense in to dedicate the memorial exclusively to Jews , but given the racial composition in , it would be impertinent to do so . < fnote > Caroline Wiedmer , The Claims of Memory , p. . < /fnote > Due to the intertwined relationship of suffering ( the ) and religion , commemoration of the former inevitably involves the latter . As suggests , ' 's over - arching national ideology and religion may be memory . "" Victims of the are portrayed as martyrs who died for their faith , fighters who are remembered for their part in the state 's founding . Contrast this to the secular state of , who , during of the national competitions for the d'Hiv Monument , picked the literal figurative design of over that of because the ministry felt that the latter 's proposal was ' Too Jewish . ' As such , it is highly apparent that how the should be memorialised depends largely on cultural and national factors . < fnote > , , p. . < /fnote > An interesting development would be that of the counter - monument . This is particularly so with regard to the new generation of artists , who ' have a deep distrust of monumental forms in light of their systematic exploitation by the , and a profound desire to distinguish their generation from that of the killers through memory . "" These artists explore both the necessity of memory , and their incapacity to recall events they never experienced directly , hence in capturing the memory of events , remember therefore only their own relationship to it . The ' counter - monument is perhaps the best example of this . is a self - abnegating monument , a ' vanishing monument ' which , instead of graciously accepting the burden of memory , throws it back at the town 's feet , forcing them to remember for themselves . This audaciously simple idea challenges the idea of monumentality and the permanence of collective memory , and provokes the population to examine themselves as part of the piece 's performance . < fnote > Ibid , . < /fnote > The writer 's main emphasis on public monuments reflects her bias in thinking that such forms of public art are more effective in inculcating a common sense of destiny , and fulfilling the social and political functions attached to them , more so than films , books and painting can . With the boom of the industry however , films have become an essential medium by which large populations can learn more about the . The writer has avoided a direct answer to the question up to this point , but has attempted to illustrate the many debates and considerations that have arise from the question . In conclusion , the should be memorialised according to its time and location , asserting its relevance in the lives of the denizens there . Also , it is worth noting that ' new generations visit memorials under new circumstances and invest them with new meanings ' , and since there is no one universally accepted way of memorialising the , the normative connotation posed by the question above is self - defeating , and ought not to be answered by a historian .",1 "Recently , the importance of culture in was discussed and it had definitely broadened my view on the concept of culture . Learning that culture has a significant influence on business strategy , brands , and marketing activities is to me , stimulating . For instance it is interesting to observe its applications to various marketing issues such as differences in consumption behaviour , differences in levels of consumer responses to advertising , management practices in various cultural settings and so forth . This piece shall look at the most apparent arguments relating to 's framework which was used as a model in grasping the essentials of the topic . To begin analysing 's framework , one must be aware that his framework aimed at systematically understanding cultural similarities and differences around the world by measuring particular cultural values . This means the ratings were based on the whole population , thus the framework should not be used to measure individual cultural preferences . < fnote , Terry , Culture 's Consequences : Comparing Values , Behaviours , Instititutions and Organizations Across Nations < /fnote > One of the main advantages of this framework is that it is comprehensive . The research , careful and quantitative , covered a great number of questionnaires from countries , ensuring the reliability of the final scores . Users of the framework can be confident that it is representative of a particular country 's culture . and ( ) believe that for comparative purposes involving many countries 's survey - based approach is highly efficient . The fact that the research was conducted within a multinational firm shows that the findings can be applied to businesses in general . < fnote > Bing , , ' 's consequences : The impact of his work on consulting and business practices ' < /fnote > This framework can be used to assist firms in understanding the culture of a particular emerging country when weighing the possibilities of investing in that country . For example a high Power Distance score could mean that there is preference towards an autocratic type of management . It also means that there is greater centralisation and tall organisational pyramids within the society 's culture and the firm needs to take that into account . However , the scores of the countries could be argued to be of less relevance as they were derived . For example , recent studies show that and are often more individualistic and less collectivistic than , which contradicts the culture scores developed by . Significant events that have happened in such as the industrialisation of under - developed countries and globalisation of leading corporations are said to have played a major role in modifying national cultures . Another recent study by and ( ) based on a sample of students at leading business schools , shows that there could even be a decline in the importance of national culture as their findings suggested a number of significant differences between male and female students . < fnote , ; Donthu , Naveen , Culture 's Consequences : Comparing Values , Behaviours , Instititutions and Organizations Across Nations . < /fnote > 's dimensions are believed to be insufficient to represent the dynamism and complexity of culture . For instance , the existence of subcultures in societies and cultural borrowings were not considered . Other important aspects of culture such as language , values and beliefs were also ignored . Many social scientists contend that there is no such thing as national culture because subcultures in a country can vary greatly in their values and beliefs . Hence 's framework may only be appropriate for business analysis . < fnote , Terry , Culture 's Consequences : Comparing Values , Behaviours , Instititutions and Organizations Across Nations . < /fnote > Nevertheless it can not be denied that 's framework has been immensely influential in the social sciences . His framework has been widely used and has played a massive role in providing a good starting point for further research in many fields . At the same time , I support the view that culture is something which needs to be understood from a personal point - of - view that is through active involvement . Nevertheless regarding international business , firms seeking to invest abroad must firstly be introduced to the notion of cultural differences before going any further and I feel that 's framework works well to achieve this .","< heading>1 . Introduction < /heading > Further restructuring of company operations supported by the adoption of Internet links to high - street agents was proposed by the Director and was approved recently . This report analyses the changes to be made and thus recommends the approach for implementation . As IT facilities have progressively been developed improving communications with the high - street agents is believed to be the way forward for the company . With regards to the staff , the feels that their concerns should be better addressed in order to avoid any dissatisfaction as seen during the structural change in . Since the proposed changes are breaking new ground as far as the company is concerned , care must be given in ensuring that expenditure are well - monitored and controlled besides keeping risks to a minimum . < heading>2 . of Objectives2.1 < /heading > To improve competitiveness and profitability by enhancing the quality of service and reducing costs through restructuring the company 's operations into cohesive , multi - purpose teams and establishing internet communications with high - street agents . < heading>2.2 Objectives < /heading > Within from the start of the project , to have special software developed and installed . Within from the start of the project , to have multi - purpose teams , each having its own open - plan office . to have all staff fully trained to deal with all types of insurance policy ( except Life ) . to have all staff fully trained and capable of using the software . Within from the start of the project , to have all staff feel more motivated by working in teams . to have increased staff competency in being able to deal with all types of insurance policy ( except Life ) . to have increased the number of policies taken up by each customer by X% . to have enhanced working relationship with high - street agents . < heading>2.3 Evaluation of Objectives < /heading>(Each proposed evaluation refers to each objective as stated above , respectively ) . To do simple inspection on all computers ; whether software is operational . To do simple observation ; whether each team has its own separate open - plan office . To obtain records of staff attendance for each of the training sessions held ; to carry out an evaluation either computer - based or written in order to test staff competency . To obtain records of staff attendance for each of the training sessions held ; to observe staff and obtain responses from all staff regarding capability to use software . To obtain responses from all staff by carrying out focus group discussions . To analyse the breakdown of sales made by a sample of staff ; to analyse recordings of their telephone conversations . To obtain and analyse the record of the number of policies taken up by a sample of customers . To obtain feedback from all high - street agents and views from a sample of staff through questionnaires . < heading>3 . Stakeholders Identification of Stakeholders The table below shows the classification of stakeholders according to influence and interest with regards to the project . < table/>3.2 < /heading> CFS Shareholders Will not be directly involved in the project implementation hence low stake . Low influence as main concern is the company 's financial performance . Therefore should be informed about project type and project duration so as to keep them updated about current developments in the company . < heading > Trade union Their identification as having low interest is based on past experience where they have been somewhat passive . However in this case it is vital that they are well - informed of the changes that will be taking place as the changes will have a large impact on their members . Also , they should be regularly consulted in order to gain their views and to provide them with the opportunity to express their concerns . < heading > High - street agents Relatively high degree of interest as changes to be made will impact on communication as well as working relationship with them . Should be consulted with regards to the software development , but generally should be informed of the progress of the project . < heading Department The main drivers of the project hence high interest but relatively low influence . Must be kept up - to - date with the project progress regarding each of their functions ; Consultation would be highly recommended in order to gain their commitment . < heading staff Have high interest as the bulk of the project concerns them thus must be informed and consulted at the same time so as to gain their commitment and reduce the probability of resistance . < heading > Managing Director Has a high level of interest in the project ; considering the considerable amount of risk involved . Also , has great influence with regards to position in the company . Thus should be invited to participate in overseeing the project i.e. to be in . < heading > Operations Director Has high stake since brainchild of the project thus concerned with the success of the project as this will greatly impact position in the company . Should be invited to participate in . < heading>4 . < /heading>4.1 Staff Training Failure ( Excluding Team Leaders) Significance Identified as having : Low probability of occurrence ; High level of impact . The level of impact is high on the project as well as the company if the capabilities of the staff do not increase to cope with the change in their work and the extra workload . However since the company has a well - structured employee development programme as well as competent and experienced Training staff , there is high confidence and trust that they will be able to provide adequate training for the staff , hence the identification of having low probability to occur . < heading > Strategy: Mitigate - As staff training is critical to the success of the project , extra time , cost and especially effort should be put to ensure sufficient training is given . Particular emphasis should be placed on aspects of team - building as will be working in teams later . A well - designed training programme should be developed and thus be well - managed by the staff . < heading>4.2 I.T System Failure Significance Identified as having : Medium probability of occurrence ; Medium level of impact . does have the experience to develop and install software but since this is a new venture for them there exists the risk that the software may not be fully operational . This will affect the efficiency of communications between the company and the high - street agents . However it should not be too problematic as it will not affect the whole business operation of the company with its customers . < heading > Strategy: Mitigate - As the risk is considered critical to the project , more time and effort is suggested to be allocated in the development stage to ensure that the software is developed to the right specifications and requirements . However the budgeted cost should be monitored closely so as not to exceed it . Careful installation needs to be carried out by those in charged to guarantee that the software is operational . Contracting out the work is deemed unnecessary as the risk involved is relatively low and is capable to carry out the work . < heading>4.3 Resistance from Operations Department staff Significance Identified as having : Low to Medium probability of occurrence ; High level of impact on project . Due to a history of minor resistance in the past , there is a probability that it could happen again as the employees might view the project skeptically and thus tend to have a negative perception of the changes to be carried out when the project initially commences . The fact that the company has been a valued employer to its employees by providing secure jobs and a caring environment also plays a role in predicting the probability of resistance that is likely to take place . A high level of impact is predicted as the employees are actually the assets of the company . Their support for the company 's decisions and actions is vital in ensuring that the company achieves its mission and strategic objectives both in the short and long - run . < heading > Strategy: Mitigate - Initially a survey could be carried out to identify the level of possible resistance as well as the expectations of the employees . Alternatively , more attention could be given in providing extra effort , time and cost to facilitate the management of change throughout the project implementation . It must be made certain that the employees understand the nature and consequences of the changes about to take place and still feel motivated to work towards them . < heading>4.4 Actual Costs Exceeding Budget Costs Significance Identified as having : Low probability of occurrence ; Medium level of impact . Even with a comprehensive planning system , actual costs may still exceed the budgeted figure due to inefficient efforts of the persons in charged of the tasks . This may then delay the project if more funds are not made available in time . an amount of contingency funds should be set aside to deal with any acceleration in costs . However appropriate control should be carried out to ensure that expenditure is kept according to the budget as efficiently as possible . < heading>4.5 Summary While the impact of the risks mentioned above focuses primarily on the project , some do have an impact on the company 's performance . Failure in staff training , for example , could lead to failure in achieving the company 's strategic objective of providing excellent service to customers . As the nature of the project presents an innovative change to the current structure of the company 's operations thus proposing major risks to the company , critical consideration should be given in dealing with the project implementation . Identification of other risks that are involved is crucial to ensure that the risks that remain after the project implementation are kept to a minimum and under control . < heading>5 . < /heading > The chart below presents the suggested activities and their planned durations . < table/> a ) Pace of Change It is recommended that the project implementation should take . Hence , it is recommended that the project pace should be of a medium one . This shall allow ample time for training purposes as well as proper and accurate development of the software system . However allowance should be made for an increase or decrease in flexibility or speed , if deemed necessary . < heading > b ) ' Pilot ' Phase A ' pilot ' phase is recommended for this project , with duration , consisting of teams with their leaders , serving separate geographical areas , and they have received training with regards to the insurance policies as well as < heading > c ) Overall Pattern of Activities As presented above , there should be a combination of ' serial ' and ' parallel ' approaches in which the project is to be divided into stages with some control points at the end of key stages . < heading > d ) Implementation Pattern < /heading > It is suggested that the project should adopt a progressive implementation pattern , with a ' vertical slice ' approach . By setting up the teams in stages , better control can thus be exercised on the overall project and time could be utilised more efficiently by concentrating on a particular area at one time . < heading > e ) Degree of Empowerment Generally each person in - charged of the work breakdown structure is suggested to take a ' consulting ' approach . Staff should be encouraged to offer their opinions and ideas in order to motivate them as well as to gain their commitment . Decision - making should be given to the leader to allow some control in planning and implementing a particular activity . < heading > f ) Level of Employee Support < /heading > The initial notice regarding the project should be made known to all employees prior to informing their trade union representatives so as to form positive perceptions of the project . As training is crucial , comprehensive and interactive training should be given covering each of the insurance policies ( except Life ) as well as the use of the internet communications software . It is further recommended that a feedback box is made available to provide the employees with a means to offer their views or suggestions regarding the project . < heading > g ) Trade Union Involvement In general trade unions should be informed of the progress of the project and consulted with regards to issues that concern their members , particularly training . The issue of whether there is to be redundancy should be addressed in the early stages and whether it is to be voluntary or enforced . Consultation is suggested . Negotiation is deemed highly necessary to work out if there is to be an increase in pay in relation to the extra workload as well as the broader skills that the staff will be gaining . This should also include discussions on team leaders ' salary . Consultation is suggested with regards to the amount of overtime that is to be taken and whether it should be voluntary or compulsory . < heading > h ) Contractor Strategy It is suggested that only the training for team leaders should be contracted out . It is deemed necessary to do so as the training department will then be able to focus on managing staff training . A fixed - priced contract is recommended to prevent from incurring accelerating costs . < heading > i ) Work Breakdown Structure
j ) Composition of Project Team Project Manager I.T Manager ( handles I.T training as well as Software Development and Installation ) Team Leader Training Contractor Training Manager ( handles and manages Team Leader Training Contractor ) Operations Manager ( handles ' Pilot ' Phase and Reorganisation ) < heading > k ) Strategic Control It is recommended that a is set up and composed of the Managing Director , Finance Director , Director , Human Resource Director , Director , Project Manager , and High - street Agent Representative . control points are identified of which are shown in the chart above . They are : after the ' team leader training ' , after the ' pilot ' phase , after all the remaining groups have been trained , and into operation . < heading>6 . System for Planning and Control of Project Progression6.1 Planning Tool It is suggested that charts are used as a tool for planning , monitoring and reporting progress . < heading>6.2 < /heading > Review meetings should include the Project Manager and . Other relevant representatives should be invited to the review meetings at different stages of the project , for e.g. trade union representatives . < heading>6.3 > It is suggested that the review meetings are held once every . This is considered most appropriate as it is frequent enough in relation to the project duration ; allowing the project to be sufficiently monitored and controlled . However discretion should be given to the Manager in deciding when to call for meetings whenever deemed necessary . < heading>6.4 Parameters to be Planned and Controlled The following should be identified : Actual activity performance compared with the original plan Percentage of activities completed within planned duration Estimated project / activity completion date and remaining duration of tasks Estimated project / activity overrun Review of the subsequent work package(s ) should be done at the meeting prior to the planned start date of the particular work package(s ) . Specific performance indicators could be identified by the manager of each work package subject to agreement of Manager . For example , the actual number of computers installed with the new software to date would be appropriate in monitoring the progress of the software installation activity . < heading>6.5 < /heading > The Project Manager will be responsible to communicate the outcome of the review meetings to . Each manager on should relay information to their staff who are directly involved in the project . Information of progress must be updated regularly to those involved in the project through the use of : Mailing lists ; by sending updates ; as reminders for everyone involved in the project < heading>7 . System for Planning and Control of Project Expenditure < /heading>7.1 Parameters < /heading > Costs that are directly related to the project ; i.e. the cost of overtime working and the cost of developing and installing the special software . Commitment i.e. the training experts to be contracted for the project . Earned value i.e. the value of work completed < heading>7.2 Conventions Recognition of overtime cost should be made . Recognition of costs regarding software development and installation is to be made at the end of each stage respectively . Commitment regarding the specialist training contract is generated as soon as the phase of training begins . Earned value is recognised equivalent to the budget cost when the cost is incurred . < heading>7.3 Cost Origin < /heading > Generally only costs that are directly related to the project will be of concern . Specifically , expenses to be incurred in carrying out training e.g. materials etc . should be identified as training costs and hence booked to the project . Any expenses that are incurred to execute the particular tasks that are involved in software development and installation should be identified as ' software ' costs . Overhead costs are to be absorbed within the company 's overhead cost . < heading>7.4 Type of System A work - based system is recommended for the budget system . It should not be required to be broken down into time periods as it is deemed that the cost of implementing so is greater than the extensiveness of the project . It is proposed that further complexity should not be added since the project time scale is relatively short . < heading>7.5 Budget Type < /heading > A fixed type of budget is suggested to promote stronger commitment to the project . This is assuming that no variation will occur in the specialist training contract . < heading>7.6 and Financial Reports < /heading > Financial meetings should be part of the review meetings held . It is suggested that reports should be produced every other review meeting . This seems appropriate as it allows sufficient data to be collected and prepared . < heading>7.7 Variances to be Monitored and Controlled variances are identified in order to complement the parameters suggested to monitor and control progress in . They are : , Cost Performance Index , Future Variance , and . < heading>8 . Conclusion This project will need the commitment and support from not only those responsible to make the change work but also top - level management as well as the operations staff themselves . Without the cooperation among these groups the project will not succeed in achieving its aim and objectives . The project manager and his team thus play an important role to ensure that tasks are carried out appropriately and according to plan . < heading > Annex From my reading , I have understood that in managing a project not only is control of expenditure important , control of revenue , where applicable , is also vital . Apart from ensuring that amounts spent and received are in accordance with the budget , cost management is also concerned about the appropriateness of the timing of each transaction . However I understand that for internal projects such as the case study there is simply the need to keep expenditure within the budget authorised by , rather than focusing on safeguarding profits . < fnote > Dennis Lock , , Gower Publishing Limited , edition , p.543 < /fnote > One of the things I find most interesting about this topic in relation to the case study is the part about earned value . At first I thought that it would be quite tricky to have earned value as of the parameters since I feel that it is quite difficult to estimate the value of work done with regards to the nature of the project . Thus I considered not taking it on . After doing some reading , I realised that earned value is actually a useful tool that is increasingly being used to evaluate the true performance of a project either in terms of deviations in cost or schedule . It is also one of the best methods to be used in estimating time and cost to complete . In a very interesting article , the author provides an analogy portraying the importance of earned value to a project manager with the importance of a carpenter 's square to a carpenter . The article was an eye - opener . < fnote > Jeffrey K. Pinto & , , , . , p.112 < /fnote > However I still feel that with regards to the case study some work packages such as software activities are far less straightforward and much more difficult to assess quantitatively in terms of progress achieved . Surely a manufacturing activity would not face this type of problem . From what I have read it seems that when applying earned value to cases such as the one in the case study , the best way to assess progress is to just ask for an estimate . Thus the main problem is that these are only judgements and people tend to provide an optimistic prediction which may turn out to be erroneous . A simpler method suggested in another book is the Milestone analysis which is said to need a relatively modest amount of management effort to set up and maintain . sets of data are required to set up a milestone plan ; the planned date on which the milestone is to be achieved and the estimated cumulative cost for each milestone . By plotting an actual cost curve on the same axis as the ' planned curve ' , some degree of analysis can be made by comparing the project performance in terms of progress and cost . < fnote > Dennis Lock , , Gower Publishing Limited , edition , p.557 < /fnote > One of the weaknesses of this method is that it does not consider work - in - progress . Activities that have been started but not yet completed are not taken into account because the milestone has yet to be achieved . This I believe distorts the analysis somewhat and may lead the Project Manager to a wrong understanding of the project performance and hence the wrong decision on future actions to be taken . Another shortcoming of this method is that the information that can be used to control the project ( e.g. overspending ) is usually obtained after the damage has actually been done , something which I think the earned value approach tries to overcome by providing a more detailed analysis thus keeping the user more informed . All in all , I believe that depending on the sort of financial control needed for a particular project , the financial system adopted must support those responsible for the work packages to monitor and take appropriate action where necessary . With regards to the module , I feel that it has shed a new and different light to my learning process . By allowing the students to work on a complete case study , many ideas were able to be brought forward and discussed in order to come up with a set of possible solutions or recommendations for the case study . This is where the knowledge learnt from other modules can be applied . For example I have found myself trying to relate what I have learned in to the module . Lastly , working on the case study and preparing a report for the board of directors have definitely given me the opportunity to gain some insights of the working environment .",1 "This essay will discuss how lexicon is currently organised . of all I will start by briefly talking about what the lexicon is . The essay will continue to the summary on how the lexicon is structured in recent perspectives . It will be explained with approaches , lexicalization , sense relations and lexical composition . As dimensions of lexical composition , qualia and semantic primes otherwise known as primitives are described . It will also evaluate these approaches while explaining the contribution to the lexical field by theoretical and descriptive linguists . Finally there will be a conclusion about the new trends in the lexical field . To begin with according to ( ) lexicon for linguistics means all the meaningful elements in a language . It includes morphemes such as prefixes and suffixes as well as the words and idioms . ( ) gives more detailed explanation on the meaningful units . He argues that these meaning units for example show colligation , collocation and lexical semantics . Colligation simply refers to grammatical necessity . The basic example of this is a restricted range of relations such as between a verb and the following complements ( , ) . For instance prevent from , interfere with means combinations of lexical elements such as compounding words . For example it is an important element that a word , green collocates with house in the lexicon ( , ) . In addition lexical meaning is traditionally defined as a concept carried with a lexical form . Alternatively sense relations which will be talked about more later on are mentioned to define lexical meaning in a recent perspective ( , ) . It is said that a great number of approaches towards lexicon have been seen moreover new approaches have also been generated . Some of the recent approaches explained here are lexicalization , sense relations and lexical composition . As a current perspective , the number of vocabulary has been expanding because of the needs towards new issues in current affair or development of innovative words between young generations . Advertising campaigns have also stimulated the situation . Therefore a number of new words are coined or existing words expand in use ( Jackson , ) . Lexicalization is an approach to generate new lexicons in order to deal with the recent trend . It is originally a coinage term from et al in A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language . There are notions has been expressed differently depending on speakers or writers since there is not yet a word for the particular notion . ( ) defines lexicalization as uncertain processes to name for such notions . Dieselization and feasible are lexicalized words by et ( Jackson , ) . Although it is assumable that the former infers a process by diesel oil the latter is not clear what it is meant by . In other words it is sometimes hard to recover the precise form therefore it is impossible to guess the original meaning . In addition conversion from nouns to verbs is considered a process of lexicalization . For example the following nouns , a cup of coffee and a mug of coffee are both commonly used . However mug can not be a verb whereas the verb version of cup is acceptable such as He cupped his hands and drank from the stream . Back - formation is another process of coining new words . According to ( ) back - formation is a process forming a word by removing affixes from a base . For example television was firstly created as a noun and the verb version , televise was coined from the noun . It has been also aimed to lexicalize a notion with clipping . Clipping is another process taking out a lexicon of words and shortening the form while keeping the same meaning . For example plane is fore - clipping of aeroplane and mike is back - clipping of microphone ( , ) . Sense relations are another current approach analysing how lexicon is structured in particular how a lexicon relates to the other . ( , pp ) defines sense relation as ' a semantic relation between units of meaning ' . Furthermore the relations are between discrete units of sense ( , ) . The main sense relations , syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations show the structure in different ways . According to ( ) syntagmatic relations occur between lexical items in the same sentence . The relations are therefore found by looking at how a complex unit defined as a syntagm can be combined with other units ( , ) . Moreover it is necessary to consider whether a particular combination does make sense or whether the combination is normal or abnormal ( , ) . There are kinds of abnormality between senses , semantic clash and pleonasm . Semantic clash means that meanings do not match together in a sentence . For example the sentence , my geraniums have kicked the bucket has a semantic clash . Since kicked the bucket is considered as a human action geraniums and kicked the bucket do not go together in the meaning . On the other hands pleonasm occurs when nothing new leads to the other unit although meaning adds . Therefore the combination results in an unnecessary process . For instance a female aunt , I heard it by listening include pleonasm ( , ) . It is clear that a lexical unit , female or by listening are unnecessary as the semantic meaning is already stated in the other units . In addition differences between syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations are stated as follows . The former is an expression of coherence constraint while the latter works in sets of choices ( , ) . Furthermore the choices in paradigmatic relations are classified as inclusion and opposition . For example hyponymy , meronymy and synonymy are some representatives of inclusion . Hyponymy refers to relations such as between apple and fruit ( , ) . In other words apple is a type of fruit as are bananas or strawberries . is another pattern of inclusion although they look similar . For instance in the relations between finger and hand , finger is considered as meronym while hand is said to be holonym . While the meaning of holonym includes the sense of meronym as a part hyponymy does not work like this ( , ) . In other words the meanings of hand somehow match the sense of finger . Synonymy happens in words having more salient semantic similarities between them than the differences . For instance big and large refers to almost same meaning . On the other hand antonymy is used as a synonym for opposite . This is a basic relation showing opposite meanings between words as long and short does ( , ) . The last approach is called lexical decomposition . The term is defined as ' an analysis into meaning component ' by ( , pp125 ) . He argues that a meaning of lexical items is determined by identifying what components are in a lexicon and how they are combined each other . On the other hand the analysis is the converse process of how we fix on a meaning of complex words or phrases towards the components or the form ( , ) . That is where the name originally comes from . ( ) states the objects of lexical decomposition as follows . It aims to provide the meaning , to reduce it to the basic meanings and to give precise interpretation of the lexicon . It is also meant to explain semantic relations , to describe the components of lexical items and lastly to enable to compare the meaning across languages ( , ) . Qualia structure is one approach of the lexical decomposition . The approach initially proposed by linguist , helps to achieve the semantic composition of verb and its object ( , ) . This approach starts with dividing features of lexicons into a number of distinct kinds called qualia . The lexical properties should include rich internal structure . Furthermore the information within qualia works functionally in co - composition which is a process of constructing relations among lexical semantics in a sentence ( , ) . In the Pustejovsky theory qualia are divided into patterns . As ( ) points out , formal quale enables to find a kind in contrast with other kinds . It means the hierarchical relationship such as among living things , animals , dogs and poodles tells the differences between poodles and other variety of dogs . It also distinguishes dogs from the other pieces such as deer or zebras ( , ) . constitutive quale informs structural information as a whole consisting of parts such as sensory and part features . Sensory attributes means for example , size , shape , colour and smell of the object . On the other hand part attributes shows information such as horse includes body , legs and mane as a part ( , ) . The other quaila are agentive and telic . The former shows mainly its origin and where an entity will develop into . The latter includes information about a certain purpose such as characteristic action , current action or proper function . For example the proper function of a pencil is for writing with whereas action moving across the sky is a characteristic of moon ( , ) . Another type of lexical decomposition is semantic primes introduced by . The approach aims to describe all the meanings in every language while using a limited concept of semantic primitives . It is a system called ( ) in her theory ( , ) . is composed of a combination of semantic primes and syntax . The semantic primes qualify conditions . it is not possible to define the meaning of semantic primes while using the other expressions . It is also lexicalized universally in all natural languages . is often concerned with other approaches to decomposition which are 's decompositional semantics and 's conceptional semantics . Although it is similar that the approaches are also a combination of syntax and primitives there are a few differences to . For instance the approaches only deal with verbs whereas enables to describe various word classes . For example emotional words such as envy and interjections such as yuk are also able to decompose ( Lobner , ) . In addition is capable to define and compare word meanings in different languages more than the other approaches ( , ) . Before making a conclusion it is worth looking at how theoretical and descriptive views have been contributed to lexical field including the recent approaches . Lexical decomposition known as formula approaches has rich structures to represent meanings . Furthermore enables to achieve language comparison ( , ) . These points are contributions of theoretical linguists who deal with developing models of linguistic knowledge . The linguists also have much concern on explaining linguistic universals in other words linguistic properties common in all languages ( , ) . However the approaches are weak in analysing meaning relations between lexical items . It also lacks the preciseness since the primitives are very general ( , ) . In addition it is not certain whether qualia structure is able to cover every single lexical meaning . Furthermore it is uncertain if these approaches can deal with the incredibly huge number of lexicon which is still expanding ( , ) . On the other hand lexicalization is relatively successful process of coining words by derivation or transformation from existing words which is what descriptive linguists approach in a lexical field ( , ) . However ( ) suggests the shortcoming as follows . it is not clear which meaning is converted into the coinage when a lexicon has multi - meanings . In the lexical field there is a new approach recently introduced by ( ) . The approach called dynamic construal approach seems a relatively neutral approach . It mainly enables semantic meanings to be highly context - dependent . In other words since lexicons carry no basic meaning every meaning is temporary in a sentence . The lexical semantic therefore vary in the use of sentences . This is dissimilar to theoretical approach which lexical composition composed of syntax and primitives is highly context - independent . This approach also results in showing the semantic meaning much closer to the actual use which is what descriptive linguists aim for ( , ) . To sum up although a number of approaches towards lexicon have been investigated it is seen that every approach including the recent ones has had shortcomings in different ways . Therefore it is best to analyse how lexicon is organised from various views . It results in the advent of new multiplicity approaches like dynamic construal approach . Overall the lexical field will continue to extend further . In order to achieve this , further researching is still required in the fields . Word count : words","< heading>1 . Briefly outline what you understand by the following terms: Locution usually refers to what utterance exactly means and it involves new information or expression and its following predicting expressions . is a functional meaning created by saying utterances and they are usually performing certain actions such as directives , commissives , representatives , declaratives and expressives . Perlocution means various effects or reactions on the hearers according to utterances happened in a particular situation . < heading > Illustrate your understanding of these terms with a suitable example of your own. When a man says ' Those apples look delicious ' to his housemate who has just got a box of apples from her parents and is carrying them to the kitchen . Locutionary force could be the fact those apples look delicious from the point of speaker . However in the illocutionary act , the utterance may be interpreted as informing to have some apples for him . In addition the perlocutionary act shows the effect of the hearer , his housemate for example she may say ' That 's mine . I do n't want give any of those to anyone ' and walks off with anger . On the other hand she might boast ' My parents grow these apples so it has to be tasty ' with full of pride on her face . < heading>2 . Analyse the attached text ( transcript of interview ) in terms of the following concepts : -Dimension of context ( background knowledge and exophoric reference ) -Speech acts and felicity conditions -Maxims of cooperation and conversational implicature -Politeness strategies We can firstly regard the prime minister in line as starting from line throughout the text , which is an abbreviation of in our general knowledge although the date of the text is . The general knowledge is especially called cultural background knowledge . In addition the prime minister in line can be itself exophoric reference because it refers to assumed shared knowledge while it is prefaced by the define article . The other example of exophoric reference can be they in line as it shows the world we know outside the text and it can be considered as doctors . The pronoun I in line nine and thirty - two are also the reference as it is a mention and refers outside the text to the person who is speaking . It has also used several background knowledge throughout the text . is mentioned in line which can be categorised as interpersonal knowledge , as it is specific and private knowledge between politicians in other words the fact that aims to be the leader for , is general knowledge between speakers . However it can be also considered as cultural knowledge between the societies because we absorb some general knowledge about politics or politicians by the media . Next we could find one of the speech act theories starting from line , ' I have a huge respect for ... he is very very capable of doing it ... ' . It seems to show expressives in particular statements of likes and it also seems to include acts of praising , In addition it can be seen commissive in 's utterance and he repetitively promises to serve a full term but not a term , as the people 's wishes throughout of the text states for instance from line to twenty- , line and line thirty - one . Another one of his utterances , ' ... see the job through . I 've begun it . I want to see it through . ' in the line can be also considered as commissive as it is clearly committing his future action with the words and it seems to be a strong vowing . In addition it can be seen that felicity conditions are successfully performed on a speech act . it can be easily understood that is having an interview by AM and the context and interviewer , interviewee roles are certainly recognised by all parties including audiences . All actions by both the interviewer and the interviewee are taken place correctly without any interruption and completed . In addition all persons , the interviewer , the interviewee and audiences intend to perform their actions which are questioning , answering and listening properly . Maxims of cooperation will be introduced next and can be seen in line . The 's utterance seems to flout the maxim of quantity , as it seems less informative than what AM requires for his question . In addition the utterances of starting from line possibly relies on flouting the maxim of relation because he is not making a contribution to answer the preceding question by AM . In addition he also seems to flout the maxims of quality as his utterances seem not to be true while emphasising his respect strongly with the adjective , huge in line and repeating the word , very twice in line . On the other hand these utterances may be considered as sarcasm , a type of conversational implicature although he says ' ... do n't understand me at all ... ' in line because he is emphasising his utterances too much and it is well known that and are not going well in politics as a general cultural knowledge . Therefore TM might intend to imply completely the opposite meaning to the utterances . In addition AM 's utterance in line , ' Can I just try and nail this down ? ' can be seen as metaphor , the other type of conversational implicature as he aims to get the exact point from 's utterances but he compares the behaviour with a nail . Finally it will analyse politeness strategy about the text . Directive utterances and bald expressions are mostly seen throughout the text . These utterances threaten negative face of the hearer while imposing on the hearer 's need for freedom of action . For example an utterance , ' Do n't misunderstand me at all . ' in line threatens negative face of hearer very baldly because it challenges to stop hearer 's action . In addition an utterance , ' Can I just try and nail it down ? ' in line threatens the hearer 's negative face as the speaker , AM imposes on requesting action he wants . His following utterance can be positive politeness as he is claiming it from same point of view with , the hearer and tries to presume hearer 's opinion . The other utterances , ' I have a huge respect for ... he is very very capable of doing it ... ' from line twenty - two to the next line have been used a positive politeness as it is making him feel good while exaggerating the interests to him . On the other hand the other 's utterance , ? ' in line can be considered that it threatens positive face of the hearer as the speaker is stopping hearer 's freedom of action with contradiction to him . < heading>3 . What are the limitations of undertaking an analysis based on speech act theory ? Give an example of your own . < /heading > Speech act theory seems fairly ambiguous as it can not categorise every case while syntactic form and semantic function is not always correspondent . In addition some utterances are not able to classify in group of speech acts and can be recognised in several groups because they sometimes have deeper level of meanings above the sentence such as illocutionary act in other words meaning what the utterance syntactically formed and implication of what the speaker actually tries to indicate seems to not always agree . Therefore it makes a classification complexity in speech act theory and it will be a limitation to undertake an analysis of the theory . As an example we could see the following sentence on an advertisement from a travel company : ' Our package tour to sea cruise can offer best places to see and amazingly gorgeous cuisine . We promise you to have extremely fantastic time . ' It can be recognised as representatives in speech act theory as it insists what the holiday company believes to be for the holiday and hypotheses holiday success . However it can be also considered directives as the sentence is inviting readers to travel with the package tour . < heading>4 . Comment on politeness and the management of face in the following statements or utterances: M. Derrida 's work does not meet accepted standards of clarity and rigour . ( From a letter to The about the work of the philosopher Jacques Derrida) The threatens positive face of hearer as it can be threatened by expressions of criticism . The utterance can be seen off record on the other hand it can bring freedom to deny the speaker 's intent easily because it seems to be very indirect and speaker 's intension is not clear . The threatens negative face of hearer by imposing certain actions for example the speaker might ask to inspect validity of the work on The or it might challenge to stop dealing with work of on the newspaper . < heading > Do you think you could give me a couple of sheets of paper ? I left my notebook at home . ( Student to another student in class) The threatens the hearer 's negative face by imposing a request on the hearer . Negative politeness is used to mitigate the threat by giving hearer the option not to do the act in other words , ' Do you think ... ? ' < heading > You are so much better at these things than I am . Can you show me how to load this programme onto my PC ? I ca n't work it out . ( To a colleague at work) The threatens the hearer 's negative face by imposing a request on the hearer however positive politeness strategy enables to reduce its threat by noticing hearer 's good point with the utterance and approving the hearer . < heading > Hi Joan , hi Peter . Look , I 've got an essay to finish for morning . Is there somewhere else you could do that ? ( Student to other students who are tuning an electronic guitar outside her room) Positive politeness is used to call student 's names and it shows in - group membership with hearer . The threatens negative face of hearer as student is imposing on stopping the action . < heading > A : You are trying to get me sacked ! ( Worker to more senior worker ) B : [ silence] It is very bald and using the on record without redressive action . It threatens hearer 's positive face as the speaker disapproves the hearer and it can be considered as being offensive on purpose .",1 "Let us of all define religion as ' practices seen to be governed by God , or some divine spirit ' . Although not uncontroversial , this definition gives us a starting point with which to discuss the question . In order to answer the question ' does morality need religion ? ' we must , perhaps , consider a split in views of morality . Moral Relativism would hold that there are many differing moral codes ; all of them equally correct or valid . Moral Objectivism , on the other hand , would hold that there is just moral code , or moral truth , morality that is correct . It is perhaps important to consider whether a relativist view of morality requires religion in order to justify it and then to , similarly , consider whether or not an objectivist view requires religious justification . < heading > The Religious Requirement of Moral Relativism Does the moral relativist need her practices to be seen to be governed by God or some divine spirit ? Moral relativism often claims that the disagreement between different cultures is testimony to the fact that morality is not one all - encompassing code of conduct true in all places at all times . For the moral relativist , morality is valid in terms of where and when it takes place . If murder is wrong in culture X then it is wrong in culture X , if it is right in culture Y then it is right in culture Y. This can , at , appear contradictory in that we have both Fa and - Fa ; we have murder ( a ) being both right ( F ) and not right , or wrong ( -F ) . The relativist does not necessarily have to be dialetheistic ; she is not committed to holding contradictory views of morality as both being true . If we say that cultures stand in a relationship to moral acts then we can formulate the positions of X and Y thus : < quote > Fax & -Fay Where ' X stands in a relationship , F , with a ' and ' Y does not stand in a relationship , F , with a ' . In terms of the murder example : culture X stands in a relationship of ' being morally right ' with murder and culture Y stands in a relationship of ' not being morally right ' with murder . It should be apparent that a contradiction does not exist . For the moral relativist to hold that murder is both right and wrong is to commit a fallacy that would undermine any logical consistency that philosophy would wish to maintain . Although some practices , Buddhism , Jainism and others , often hold dialetheistic views of truth it is hardly constructive in producing a consistent philosophical system of thought . Here we can be seen as being charitable to the moral relativist by providing them with a logical analysis of their position that does not reduce their position to absurdity . By evaluating the relativist 's views of truth as a relationship between culture and act we can avoid the necessary embarrassing contradictions , should the relativist wish to maintain that murder is both actually right and wrong simultaneously then let the onus be upon them to illustrate the validity of their position . If we now take morality as a relationship between the culture and the act then we can see if religion is necessary to justify moral actions . The trouble with moral relativism is that it quickly slips into subjectivism ; that actions are , ultimately , true or false to the individual as opposed to the society or culture . Once embarked upon this slippery slope the moral relativist can find herself slipping into the realms of nihilism and the denial of truth altogether . It is difficult for the relativist to maintain a position in which groups of people are correct in their judgements whilst simultaneously holding that individuals can be wrong . The relativist systematically fails to adequately account for why the relationship between the moral act and the culture must exist yet a similar relationship can not hold between the act and the individual . An appeal to the greater good of the culture over the individual is to bark up the wrong tree . To suggest that the similarities between individuals that bond them to a culture should hold stronger than the bond between the individual and individual interests is to undermine the relativist 's own position . Remember that relativist doctrines occur when the differences between cultures are highlighted , the relativist can not then emphasise the similarities between individuals and sub - cultures in order to promote a sense of community that can instantiate moral guidelines to be adhered to within a wider culture . If similarities between individuals and sub - cultures are highlighted then we can emphasise similarities between cultures and appeal to human nature as grounding for a universal , albeit anthropocentric , morality . We can then arguably appeal to an underlying ' sentient - being ' nature in order to incorporate animals into a wider morality still and then to an ' existent - being ' nature in order to incorporate rocks , trees and all manner of beings . If we then have a morality that includes everything , is the once relativist position any different to an objectivist view of morality ? In order for the moral relativist keep hold of her position she must hold that differences exist at the level of cultures but that more microscopic differences in moral outlook within an individual culture must be regarded as deviant . We shall excuse the relativist of the problem of trying to define rigid cultures , let us just suppose that these rigid cultures exist . It is now perhaps ideal for the moral relativist to appeal to religion to enforce her outlook of morality . If a culture can be shown to be following the practices as seen to be governed by a God , or divine spirit , then it can be said to be justified in its actions . This means that deviant groups within a culture can be easily dismissed as deviant as they are not following these aforementioned practices . The moral relativist can , thus , define cultures in terms of the religion it follows . Culture X may follow a way of life and culture Y a doctrine . Culture X can be right in itself and culture Y within itself , but neither objectively so . Note here that an element of objectivity can be introduced ; a culture can be judged as being better than another if more of its elements obey its religious practices than the other . Culture X can be deemed as a better culture if of its members follow the way of life successfully and of culture Y 's members follow the way of life . culture is not thus being judged in terms of Buddhism , nor are values being judged in light of ones , rather cultures are deemed as better or worse purely mathematically . Surely the relativist will admit that is a better culture , if morality is judged in terms of a culture and more of X 's constituents are performing moral actions within their culture than the constituents of Y 's . Observe the implications for relativism here , from the existence of different cultures we can clearly compare them independently from our own cultural values ; we can compare them mathematically . We can thus introduce moral terms ; better , worse etc , without using them in relation to our own professed moral code . The relativist moral system can thus be shown to be evaluated independently , objectively and in a moral way . This , quite explicitly , suggests an objectivity to morality . Let us now consider another implication of moral relativism requiring religion as justification . If we take a culture as defined by its religion and we agree that a religion can not be judged by the standards of another religion we can see that the relativist is in a strong position to advocate a tolerance of other cultures and other religions . It also allows for the existence of other religions without begging the question as to which one is supremely correct , if any . If we view each culture as a self - contained system we can almost picture an image whereby there are all of the different Gods and deities , there is the God , Allah and all manner of other religious possibilities actualised . Does this picture compromise the omnipotence of the God ? Arguably , yes . An omnipotent God is no longer all - powerful if He has no influence or bearing over cultures that do not believe in Him . He is similarly lacking in power if there are other existent gods and deities over whom he has no influence . The moral relativist must now also explain how we can keep the traditional qualities of God whilst simultaneously maintaining the qualities of other figures of worship . Moral relativism is a ( possibly ) logically defensible doctrine , but it is as methodologically defensible as a chocolate teapot at the gates of hell ( and about as useful too ) . Every time we grant the relativist the benefit of doubt and allow her to move on she runs into more obstacles . Moral relativism , when applied to morality and religion , renders everything false . It does not suspend judgement on the truth / falsity of matters as it claims ; it must conclude that everything is false if it is to say anything substantial at all . Religion looked like a solid option for explaining and , indeed , justifying moral disagreements between cultures without reducing the disagreement to the individual level and hence subjectivist and nihilist ideals . When examined in more detail , however , it becomes clear that there are serious implications for religion if we hold that all are equally valid . To say that all religions are equally valid is to imply that they are all equal in truth - value . It can not be consistently demonstrated that every religion is true , and that is before we even begin to contemplate ' alternative ' religions , such as Satanism , which are clearly at odds with benevolence based religions . We can therefore only conclude that all religions are false if we are to maintain logical consistency . The moral relativist is single - handedly capable of slaying God . < heading > The Religious Requirement of Moral Objectivism Having turned our attention away from the chocolate teapot of moral relativism we can attend to a more worthy enterprise . Moral objectivism assumes there to be one moral code that applies to everyone in all places at all times . It does not assume that any one culture knows of this code . It is not claiming that the is justified in asserting itself over the rest of the world , although those asserting westerners will often appeal to objective notions of morality in order to justify themselves . Let us not confuse the sword and the swordsman ; the sword may be a worthy tool but is the fault of the swordsman if he beheads innocent children , not the sword . Objectivist doctrines must not be blamed for the zealous misuse of its principles . Assuming there is one moral code then , we can see religion as attempting to find that code , or we can see religion as claiming that it has been found . Liberal religious people can perhaps be seen as the former and fundamentalists as the latter . Liberalists that encourage change within their religion can be seen as trying to adapt their beliefs to bring them in line with what they perceive as the correct moral code that their religion is aiming for . Admittedly there is a fine line between adapting in pursuit of an objective good and changing in line with fads and trends of a wider social context . Fundamentalists , on the other hand , will maintain that holy scripture is correct and is the objective moral code . This can often lead to tension between the fundamentalist sect and wider society , as wider society may not necessarily believe in what the fundamentalist is advocating . This distinction can be seen within at the moment . Issues concerning gay marriage and unprotected sex have brought rise to a hard - line , fundamentalist and liberal split within the . The difficulty being that we simply do not know who is right . Similarly Islamic fundamentalist extremists are illustrating how hard - line views do not exist in harmony with the wider views of society . When upheld , moral objectivism can lead to intense conflict between different groups who both think that they have got it right . A pragmatic approach to objectivism must be taken . Even if one thinks they are right one must demonstrate reasonably to another that this is the case . Blowing people up for their own good is not the right way to go about things . If we can not reasonably show that our view is correct then chances are we are probably wrong . This is not to advocate liberalism . fast falls into a wishy - washy anything goes sort of affair . The key to moral issues is to debate them ; not fight about them or ' let people get on with it ' . People should not smoke just because they want to , people should or should not smoke dependent upon its demonstrable good or bad effects . This discussion is so far concerned with objective morality being determined by reason and dialect . This is a fairly intellectualist , notion of objective morality and there is of course , the sceptic may point out , the possibility that we all get it wrong , all agree that smoking is a good thing for us and smoke ourselves into cancerous oblivion . There needs to be some sort of justification for our moral belief and this is where many may turn to religion for the answer . By using God as justification for our actions we can be assured that we are correct in our actions if we follow the practices governed by Him . As to how we can know what His practices are is another matter entirely , revelation is perhaps the answer here and this is possibly also an inlet for the aforementioned reason and dialectic to enter into the debate . We now seem to be in a worse position than the moral relativist who was left with a whole bundle of religions , none of which were true . The objectivist is left with a picture in which we have a plethora of religions , each claiming themselves to be the true one . This is clearly a more potentially violent environment than one in which we have a plethora of religions relatively disinterested in one another . This potentiality does not have to be actualised however . It is possible for discussion to take place amongst the different religions in order for the truth to be found , again notice here the importance placed upon dialectic and reasoning as a means to truth . There is a lot more at stake here than with the philosophical mess of moral relativism ; for it is truth that is being discussed , not the mere utility that relativism ( at best ) can aim for . Religion is not necessary for objective morality , at least there is no semantic necessity ; it makes sense to talk of moral matters without discussing God or some other religious justification . It perhaps makes things a little easier to discuss if we can see that good actions are those actions approved of by God but ease of discussion has never warranted philosophical merit so far and so there is little reason to include it as merit - worthy here . < heading > In Conclusion In answer to the question ' Does morality need religion ? ' we can answer fairly resolutely ' no ' . In terms of moral relativism , introducing religion only complicates matters . Although relativism is quite clearly flawed it is nonetheless currently popular amongst contemporaries ( and etc ) and so merits attention , insofar as a baby whinging and crying to attract your notice warrants attention . In terms of moral objectivism needing religious justification it does not . There is no logical or semantic necessity involved as we can sensibly talk of morality without reference to religion . Perhaps there is a psychological necessity ; that humans need some sort of otherworldly justification to their moral enterprise and will not accept that morality can be discovered through pure reason and intellect alone .","The problem for is that it seems incomprehensible to most people . If is true then there is no movement or change and everything is just : being . Parmenides writes as a way of explaining the sensible world to us . , whether plausible or not , does not offer an explanation of the world as it appears to us and so , it may be argued , is fairly redundant ; what is the point in a theory of the world that does not allow us to engage with the world as we see it ? The Way of Seeming provides us with an explanation of the sensible data available to us , even if it is not the truth and fallible . If Parmenides just wrote he would be left with little else to explain as leads us to rejecting our senses in favour of a reasoning that is far detached from the world . Many of the thoughts that arise as a result of lead to the divisibility of the universe as a whole , which is incompatible with in itself and so the Way of Seeming helps explain this . The main trouble with is that it appears to reject the use of ' is not ' in the predicative sense unknowingly . For example , in conceiving hot we conceive of cold , which is surely synonymous with ' x is not hot ' or ' x is not cold ' . If the basic idea of is that we can not conceive of ' ouk esti ' or ' is not ' , then it appears , as does not further clarify the distinction between the predicative and the existential sense of ' is ' , that the concept of opposites must be rejected . The acceptance , or at least recognition , of certain qualities needing their opposites in order to exist means a requirement for the Way of Seeming . Although the Way of Truth maybe taken to be true it does not allow for the opposite qualities , which clearly exist in our perception of the world through the senses . Parmenides ' reputation as a mystic , or at least as more knowing than the rest of civilisation at the time , through his experiences with the , gives him license to create a credible view of the world as it is seen by the majority . In this case the Way of Seeming may give Parmenides the opportunity to force his views upon the world . , and its acquaintance through the proem may just be an excuse to enhance ' reputation ; to give his views on the Way of Seeming some credibility . To the audience , has shown that he knows the real truth ( the Way of Truth ) but as it is too complicated and uncomprehending for the average person to understand he has also been shown by how to comprehend the universe as it appears to this average person . In this way , the Way of Seeming can be seen to give credibility to as well as giving credibility to the Way of Seeming ; in a mutually supporting manner the theories give rank to each other . The Way of Truth credits the Way of Seeming because it shows the audience that although knows the truth he has also seen the appearance of truth that the average person knows ( the Way of Seeming ) . The Way of Seeming gives credit to because it shows to the dismissive person that is not just making these theories up ; that they do have some foundations in knowledge . The dismissive person , in this sense , may see as fabricating in order to pull the wool over the eyes of the average person . However , in showing the Way of Seeming to the dismissive person , is showing that he understands the world as most people see it ; and can explain it coherently ( in the Way of Seeming ) . This then perhaps leads the dismissive person on to considering as plausible , as they can see that is not simply leading them down the path of the sceptic , or the path of a philosopher full of self - inflated worth , who has no real sense of the world as it sensibly appears . The ways can thus be seen as mutually supportive and each necessarily leads to the other . leads to the Way of Seeming as the former begs questions about the sensible world that it can not answer . The Way of Seeming supports as it perhaps provides an entrance to the way of for the average person who may not be open to radical ideas ; such as the world is as one and there is no distinguishing between different figures as we perceive them . The Way of Truth gives a view of the bigger picture of the universe , whereas the Way of Seeming gives a view of the details of the universe . Each view necessarily leads to the other as each view begs questions that only the other can answer . Perhaps Parmenides as an author intended the views to complement each other , rather than the view that as the character in the proem intends the views as opposites , perhaps even contradictory . In another way of interpreting the question ; perhaps is showing the possibility of multiple knowledges or truths . Although Parmenides gives priority to ; as it is the that has provided this knowledge , perhaps is suggesting that the Way of Seeming is equally valuable as an option for knowledge . In this way is showing his audience that the truth , or knowledge , is an elastic concept , and that there can be version of knowledge . Indeed , upon closer inspection , the Way of Seeming appears to provide a more complete view of the sensible world as compared to . Although may provide a knowledge for the philosopher , it is of little use in everyday life . In providing his audience with a possibility of knowledges , is illustrating that although a knowledge based upon pure reasoning ( the Way of Truth ) is perhaps a more desirable knowledge , one based upon empirical evidence and the utility of the senses is a more practical knowledge ( Way of Seeming ) . In this sense , Parmenides maybe pre - empting the debate in as to whether empiricism is to be favoured over reason or vice versa . This could be seen in ways ; Parmenides maybe advocating multiple knowledges in the sense that both are equal , or he maybe suggesting that there are different levels of knowledge . Perhaps , for , the Way of Seeming is a lower level of knowledge ; one that those of a lower intellect can understand , compared to a Way of Truth ; that the intellectually elite of society only can fully comprehend . Following this point of view , the Way of Seeming may well be an accessible option for these lower intellects ; by at understanding the Way of Seeming they can then move up , or progress , to understanding . The Way of Seeming may thus be seen to provide with an audience . If only the elite few people subscribed to his view of then his reputation may well be short lived , by appealing to a greater number he is securing an interest in his ways of thinking . If the Way of Seeming is seen then as a mere popularity device then there may well not be any philosophical merit to its position as is using it merely to gain the attention of a wider audience in order to filter down to the elite few who will understand his Way of Truth . However , it seems that the Way of Seeming is necessary to the understanding of . The construction of by the goddess contains negations , or the concept of ' ouk esti ' itself . This would seem to suggest that if the Way of Truth is true , then it is false because it is based on premises that can not exist within . In this way , the Way of Seeming is needed to show how can be true . Parmenides may well see as the ' real knowledge ' but as he only has experience of the sensible world he may not be able to express the Way of Truth without using terms such as ' not ' . If his divine experience is taken to be true , rather than a mere device to attract attention , then perhaps the goddess needed to use the language of the Way of Seeming ( ie : negation , divisibility and opposites etc ) in order to make understand . If is being shown a knowledge that is radically different from anything anyone has ever known or thought then an already existing language is needed ; the language of the Way of Seeming , as language necessarily corresponds to knowledge of the world Parmenides can not be expected to understand a whole new language in order to not only know , but also to express it to others . The Way of Seeming is thus fundamental to saving from self - refutation , if it is to be taken that needs in order to express . It would be very hard for Parmenides to tell people not to use the concept of ' not ' without using ' not ' himself . It could be argued that the limitations of lie in the use of the Way of Seeming in explaining it . Perhaps then , is using this conflict with and the Way of Seeming to show the world that the existing view of the world is flawed and is by no means complete , and that there are concepts that we simply can not understand because of the limitations of the language provided by this view . Parmenides looks as if he may be offering his audience a linguistic side to his philosophy , perhaps he is illustrating that the limits of language are the limits of understanding rather than being the communicative device needed to bring knowledge to civilisations as would be thought . This conflict between the Way of Seeming and Way of Truth may be a representation of the conflict between the senses and reasoning . Parmenides clearly shows , however , that the compliment each other as well as oppose each other . In equating the Way of Seeming to the senses is showing that they are necessary in understanding reason , even if they are fallible and limiting they are the only tools we have to interact with the world . Also , although reason and rationality may provide some higher level of knowledge , or at least a more desirable knowledge , there comes a point when these ideas become too detached from the real world and the senses are needed to anchor the individual back in reality . Although it can be seen that the Way of Seeming perhaps restricts ' communication of , is also showing that it may well be a good thing . What 's the practical use of ideas so far removed from the world as we interact with it ? An idea is nothing if not practical and so is showing that practical knowledge is much better than the abstract knowledge offered by . Although the Way of Seeming appears to be irrelevant if is true , it is of great importance to as without it his philosophical career is rather short - lived if everything is otherwise explained . The Way of Seeming is perhaps used to show different types , or levels of knowledge , and as it is necessary in order to understand then it would suggest that they are equal to each other in status , even if claims to be superior . The Way of Seeming is therefore indicative of type of knowledge and illustrates the split between sense experience and reason . Although the appear to be in conflict with each other , they are also dependent upon each other and complement each other ; giving a more complete view of the world . Parmenides writes in order to show not only the incompatibility of a theory of knowledge based entirely on reason and interaction with the real world but also the incompleteness of it . Parmenides shows the audience the importance of the senses and of language , and that even in theories of reason , sense data and language are needed in order to make sense of reason . Rather than promoting a view based entirely upon reason as Parmenides explicitly does , he is also implying the need for a worldview based upon the senses , which is where he started , and where he returned .",1 "< heading > The different components contained in the program : < /heading > This system is a program which supervises an auction environment . It contains servers and several ( indeterminate number ) sellers and bidders . This distributed system uses the cluster . < heading > The servers: Each server runs on its own machine ( one node in the cluster ) . of the servers is called "" "" because it will launch the others and create child processes which are used to synchronise the clock between the servers ( child process ) , to accept connection from outside ( from bidder or seller ) ( child process ) and the last one is the lock manager ( a section below give more details about this lock manager ) . So , the root server is composed by processes . However tasks identifier are needed : for the root server and the for the lock manager . The others processes do n't need a task i d ( however , they have one , the same than the root server , the parent , because the fork ( ) function copies all the parent environment to the child ) . In order to create different tasks identifier , the lock manager process has to be created before the function call . Then , the child and the parent will have different task i d. However , the parent process has to know the lock manager task i d for several reasons . So this communication is done via a pipe between the parent and the child process . The root server runs on the node and has to launch the others servers via on others machines ( the chosen nodes are and ) . Below is a schema which explain the architecture of the servers , < figure/>The root server file and the server file is the same . When the root server spawn the others , it will add an argument called "" noroot "" in order to inform the new process ( and ) that they are not root , only simple server . Of course , each server has to know the TID of each others in order to communicate together . So , after spawning the server , each server calls a synchronisation function which the aim is to send some information from the root server to the others servers . Then the servers TIDs are sent as well as the LockManager TID . Hence , each server knows the TID of each others and the LockManager TID , so they are able to communicate together . Server source file is Server.c . < heading > The bidders: The bidders can do different things . of all , they can register with the server ( any server ) . Then can also see every auction contained in the server , they can bind for an auction , show the auction which they have won and can see the current time ( on the server ) . Before communicate with the server , the bidder has to connect with of the server ( a server which is available ) . This is done in steps . of all the bidder send a connection request through a socket to the root server ( which address is determined : 10.0.1.4 ) . This socket request is treated by the child process which is called ( in the schema above ) . The function name is AcceptConnectionFromOutside in the root server ( function called by the child process ) . Then every server TID are sent to the bidder and then the socket connection closes . Knowing the TIDs , the bidder is able to communicate with the server using . Afterward the bidder has to find an available server . When this server in found , the bidder is able to communicate with only this server . More details about the connection and message passing are written in another part below ( section . ) . < heading > The sellers: Bidder and seller architecture are very similar . The communication with the server is the same ( connection , then find an available server , then communicate with this server ) . However , a seller can do things : register with the server , add an auction and see the result of its auctions . < heading > The data structures: A file which is called "" structure.h "" defines the data structure . These structures are used to store a seller , a bidder and an auction . Here is the structure which defines an auction , FORMULA Here is the structure which defines a seller , FORMULA Here is the structure which defines a bidder , A list of each of these structures is defined in the server file . These lists have to be always the same on the servers ! Indeed , for example , if a server treated a new seller , it has to inform the other servers that a new seller is created . Furthermore , a mutual exclusion on each of these lists has to be managed . So , a is created and manages it . This is explain below , in another part . < heading between the servers: The main function in the server: When the server is ready , it calls a function which has to receive an instruction ( from another server or bidder or seller ) which is sent via with the tag number . Indeed , as we will see in all this report , when a message is sent , a tag is used in order to make clear the reception buffer . So when a process waits for a message , it waits for a message which is tagged by a special number . This number is very useful to know what we have to do with this message . So , the server waits for a message which is tagged by the number . This message is an instruction . When a message tagged by is received , the server treats it . Here is the list of all the instruction which can be treated by the server : < list>""testtime "" : instruction which is received when the clock has to be synchronised""newSeller "" : instruction which is sent by a seller in order to register a new seller""newBidder "" : instruction which is sent by a bidder in order to register a new bidder "" newAuction "" : instruction which is sent by a seller in order to add a new auction""showmyauction "" : instruction which is sent by a seller in order to show its auction""showallauction "" : instruction which is sent by a bidder in order to show every auction""showAuctionWon "" : instruction which is sent by a bidder in order to show which auction he has won""whattimeisit "" : instruction which is sent by a bidder in order to show the current time""newBid "" : instruction which is sent by a bidder in order to send a new bid""areyouavble "" : means "" are you available "" . This instruction is used to ask to a server if it is available""syncsellerlist "" : instruction which is sent by a server to the others servers in order to synchronise the seller list resource""syncauctionlist "" : instruction which is sent by a server to the others servers in order to synchronise the auction list resource""syncbidderlist "" : instruction which is sent by a server to the others servers in order to synchronise the bidder list resource Some of these instructions are detailed in this report . So , each time the server receives of these instructions , it will treat it by following is protocol . < heading > The clock synchronisation: As we said above , the clock synchronisation is managed by a child process which knows the TIDs of every server ( except its parent ) . This process synchronises the server clock by sending a message to every server except its parents . Indeed , synchronise its parent is not necessary because they runs on the same machine , so the current time is the same . The delay between every clock synchronisation is defined by # define CLOCK_SYNC_TIME_SET 10 . This is in . Here , it is . As we know , an auction has to be terminated after a time which is determined by the seller ( which starts the auction ) . Hence , each auction 's duration has to be checked . So , one of the server has to do that when it receives the clock synchronisation . If an auction is finished , it has to close it . Below is the clock synchronisation sequence diagram which explains how it works , < figure/>So , the others servers receive the current time then save it in a global variable and of the servers receives an instruction in order to update each auction 's duration . This update decreases the auction 's duration ( -1 ) . So , when a seller define the duration of a new auction , he will enter a number which is the number of ( in the real life , CLOCK_SYNC_TIME_SET would be equal to ) and so , , the duration is decreased . However , in order to test the program , CLOCK_SYNC_TIME_SET is equal to . < heading > The data synchronisation: As we said above , each data list ( seller , bidder and auction ) has to be the same on each server . So , after a server has modified one of these lists , it has to inform the others servers . Furthermore , in order to stay coherent , a list can be accessed by ONLY ONE server in the same time . Indeed , if a server modifies a list and another server modifies the same list in the same time , they will inform each other but of the information will be lost . So , a mutual exclusion has to be defined . Hence , a manages it . Every time a server wants to access to a resource ( of the lists : seller , bidder and auction ) , it has to ask to the if it is allowed to access to this resource . Then if that is the case , when the server has finished with this resource , it has to inform the in order to free this resource and then , the server inform the others servers in order to synchronise the list data . For example , a resource access looks like below , FORMULA < heading > The Lock Manager: When mutex_enter is called , the lock manager is informed that a server wants to access to a resource . If this resource is free then the server can use it . Otherwise , the server is blocked and waits for the release of this resource . Actually , the server waits for a synchronisation . Indeed , if the resource is not free , that means a server is using it . So , this server will free it and then a synchronisation will be done . Afterward , the server will ask again to the if the resource is free and the answer would be positive . If servers want to access in the same resource which is not free then they will be blocked and they will wait for the data synchronisation . Afterward , they will ask to the if the resource is free , but server ( the one , this is determined by chance ) would be able to use it . The other one will be blocked again until the next data synchronisation . The sequence diagram below explain the case where the resource is available . On this diagram , the resource needed is called "" this resource "" , < figure/>We do n't draw the sequence diagram for the case where the resource is not available , but it 's a bit similar and we can guess it easily . So , the mutual is done by functions : LockManager ( a child process manages it ) , and . < heading > The mutex_enter / exit functions: In order to understand how and work , below is the code ( not all the code , only the pseudo code ) , FORMULA Hence , each resource is accessed by server in the same time and when a resource is modified by a server , the others are informed about it before to use it themselves . < heading > Communication between the server and outside ( seller / bidder): Connection to a server: As we have explained above , the seller or bidder send a connection request ( via a socket ) and then receives the TIDs of every server . Afterward , it has to find an available server . In order to manage it , the bidder / seller sends an instruction which is called "" areyouavble "" to the server . This instruction means "" Are you available "" ? If the server is available , that means it can receive this instruction and so , can answer . Hence , if the seller / bidder receives an answer from this server , then this server is available and then the seller / bidder will communicate with this one . If the server is not available , then it wo n't answer and after , the seller / bidder will send the same request to another server , because that means the one is not available . If the server is not available , the seller / bidder will ask to the last one . If the are not available , then the seller / bidder informs the user . So , if a response is not received from a server after that means the server is not available and we have to try with another server . The instruction "" areyouavble "" is send with the tag 1 ( we explained above the reason ) . The schema below explains this process to find an available server , < figure/> General communication with a server: The bidder / seller need to communicate with the server in order to have or send some information ( for example , new bidder , new seller etc ... ) . Here are explained some of possible communication . < heading > Bidder / Server: New Bidder : Here is the sequence diagram useful for the creation of a new bidder . This sequence diagram is the same for the creation of a new seller . However , the tag message used for the bidder is the number ( use for every transaction used to create a bidder ) and the number used for the seller is ( for all the transaction used to create a seller ) . In this diagram sequence , we can see the . We show it only in this sequence diagram because it is not very important for the explanation , < figure/>Bid for an auction : Here is the diagram used when a bidder wants to bid for an auction , < and start an auction ( a seller do that ): Here is the diagram sequence used when a seller wants to add and start a new auction , ( please see next page ) < figure/>In these diagrams , we can see some intern action like "" Add auction "" . Of course , these intern actions are complexes . They use the mutual exclusion to access to the different data , synchronise the data list with the others servers etc ... The others sequence diagrams ( show auctions , show time etc ... ) are not shown here . < heading > Critique of the code: This program does n't manage the case where a server dies . Indeed , if a server dies , the system still works ( with servers ) but the dead server does n't become alive again . If the root server dies , the child process ( clock synchronisation and accept connection from outside ) would still work , so the root server dead is not a problem . However , if one of the other server ( the one , on ) dies , the system ca n't work again because this server has to manage the auction 's duration ( see above ) . So , I think the system depends to much on the reliability of the server . If dies , some problem can occur and if the one on dies , the system dies as well . So , that 's a problem in this program . < heading > Comparison with a real world system: A real world system like ebay.com can stay alive if one of the servers dies . Furthermore , in general , servers are available in a real system .","One 's question might well be to ask what really is ' eating badly ' ? This is not as easy as one might assume because nutritional advice is constantly changing . For example , at time all fats were considered ' bad ' and should therefore be reduced in the diet , whereas now we are told that many are in fact necessary for good health ( , , p.76 ) . In addition many people have more individualised concepts of what constitutes ' good ' and ' bad ' food . People see food in terms of how it makes them feel , thus person might consider salad ' good ' because it makes them feel cleansed , whereas another 's definition might be a ' hearty ' fried breakfast . A study by ( ) provides evidence , showing that while middle - class women broke down their foods into components in order to decide whether they were good or bad , working - class women were more concerned with simply having solid meals a day ( cited in , , - 83 ) . However , in order to tackle this essay , a definition is essential . In line with most modern nutritional thinking then , I would define ' eating badly ' as a diet high in energy - dense foods , such as saturated fats and sugars ( that are linked to problems like obesity and heart disease ) and low in protective foods like fruits and vegetables , which contain key vitamins , minerals , fibre and antioxidants . high in salt would also come under the ' bad ' heading and complex carbohydrates are considered ' good ' because they contain necessary dietary fibre . The type of eating habits that would constitute ' eating badly ' then tend to include high levels of consumption of things like meat products , confectionary and processed , convenience foods that are high in fats , sugars and salt , whilst avoiding fruit and vegetables . If we accept such a definition then the consequences of ' eating badly ' are vast and wide - ranging . It is frequently noted that ' The linkage between diet and health is an inescapable fact of life ' ( Beardsworth and , , p.125 ) and there are of diseases that have diet as a contributory factor . These include ' deficiency diseases ' , which come about when an individual 's diet is lacking in a nutrient due to cutting out particular foods . Examples like scurvy , common among sailors , whose diet lacked vitamin C due to the absence of fresh fruit and vegetables , have virtually disappeared in the developed world during . However , while deficiency diseases are no longer seen as the primary area of concern in the developed world , they are still in existence . Iodine deficiency is present in around 16 per cent of the population ( Robertson et al , , p.5 ) and is said to be a cause of preventable mental retardation . ' Eating badly ' both before and during pregnancy can have huge consequences for both the mother and her child . It seems that women who have eaten ' badly ' throughout their lives have poor nutrient stores , and if this diet continues during pregnancy , then the baby is deprived of substances key to its growth ( Robertson et al , , p.186 ) . This in turn has the potential to affect health in later life , as inadequately nourished babies in utero are ' pre - programmed ' with a increased risk of diseases like coronary heart disease because of the impaired development of their organs ( Wadsworth , , p.45 ) . The cheap energy - dense foods that characterise the ' bad ' diet make a massive contribution to the ' burden of disease ' in ( Robertson et al , , p.4 ) . This type of diet is a primary factor in the incidence of cardio - vascular disease , which causes the greatest number of deaths here . High saturated fat intake has long been recognised as a contributory factor in coronary heart disease , the most common cardio - vascular condition , that WHO report is the cause of deaths annually across . The links between ' eating badly ' and other non - communicable diseases are also becoming clearer . For example , a diet high in salt can lead to high blood pressure thus increasing the risk of stroke ( James et al , , p.1549 ) . Similarly substances found in fruit and vegetables are also believed to help prevent many forms of cancer , in particular of the colon and lung ( Kromhout and , , p.3 ) . Overall , diet is implicated as a possible determinant in of other debilitating or problematic conditions , such as osteoporosis , dental decay and bowel conditions ( , , p.74 ) to mention just a few . Obesity is a further complication , affecting the middle - aged adults across ( Robertson et al , , p.183 ) . This condition not only limits the life opportunities of the individual but is also linked to a massive number of health problems like diabetes ( Brunner , , p.80 ) , increasing the risk of contracting diseases associated with ' eating badly ' . That diet impacts on health is abundantly in evidence , but some predictions made by et al ( ) make this even clearer . They suggest that the premature deaths in are diet - related , and thus preventable ( p.181 ) . In addition one must consider not only the number of deaths , but also the number of lost to poor health as a result of such conditions . It appears that partly as a consequence of ' eating badly of people across are cutting short both their actual lives and their opportunity for a happier , healthier and more productive lifetime . There tends to be an abundant supply of information concerning the consequences of ' eating badly ' in terms of health , but it can also carry effects into other areas of life . of the major factors promoting government intervention into nutritional issues has been the fact that inadequate nourishment can lead to reduced productivity ( Robertson et al , , p.3 ) . For example , the government 's intrusions into personal nutrition in occurred as a result of the finding that of volunteers to fight in were unfit on health grounds ( Beardsworth and , , p.134 ) . Similar problems of productivity exist if people choose , or are forced , to ' eat badly ' . The choice , if it exists , to limit dietary intake is made because food is one of the more elastic items in the household budget ( , , ) . However , without access to adequate foods to meet their nutritional needs , people tend to operate at less than optimum rates . This might mean not being able to earn enough , or in subsistence terms grow enough , to support a family and thus lead to further ill - health . TV chef has only recently been publicising the importance of a nutritious diet in order that school children are able to concentrate in their lessons . Junk food intake has even been highlighted as a possible cause of ' behavioural ' disorders ( , , p.77 ) , such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ( ADHD ) , that cause great disruption to learning . If what children consume really is this crucial to their learning , then the wider social implications are clear . Those who ' eat badly ' will have lower educational attainment throughout their schooling , thus limiting their opportunities in future life . Having a less that optimal diet not only has consequences for one 's own circumstances but also for trends in wider society . ' Eating badly ' has been linked to anti - social behaviour and even juvenile delinquency ( , , p.77 ) . If this is true then the implication is that by limiting intake among adolescents we might see a reduction in the prevalence of such behaviours , perhaps even a fall in the crime rate . Equally as intriguing , some lay the blame for the ' disintegration ' of the modern family at the feet of bad eating habits . It is argued that the ready - cooked , convenience meals that characterise one 's image of the ' bad ' diet have negated the need for family mealtimes , which play an important role in bonding and securing family units . It is clear therefore that ' eating badly ' , if such links are to be believed , has enormous social consequences . Bad diets also have massive economic consequences . The health problems linked to poor diet cost national health services huge sums . WHO estimate that per cent of national healthcare budgets in are spent on diet - related diseases and obesity ( Robertson et al , , p.6 ) . In addition , are lost to the economy every year due to poor work rates and/or sick days that result from diet - related problems . Obesity alone costs to the economy ( , , ) . It seems therefore that as nations we are not only losing lives and health by ' eating badly ' , but also large amounts of money . Diet - related conditions are a huge blight on national economies and the massive potential to increase national wealth suggests it would pay governments to invest in programmes to improve diet across their populations . The consequences of ' eating badly ' are therefore enormous both in terms of pre - disposition to disease and the effect these conditions have on our society and economy . As a result , the question of whose responsibility is it that people eat these ' bad ' diets is a crucial one if we are ever to attempt to resolve such problems . Throughout , the focus tended to fall upon the individual taking responsibility for his or her own nutrition . The expectation existed that the population would take heed of nutritional advice and proceed to make the most appropriate food choices and adaptations to their diet . Even as recently as , evidence suggests that those writing about diet and health believed ' responsibility for ... malnutrition in ... must rest to a major degree on the individual consumer who chooses to eat what he or she does ' ( Pyke , , p.43 ) . , despite experts acknowledging that it is affected by many factors , a moral discourse still exists around food choice , suggesting the individual is responsible if they ' eat badly ' . It is argued that those who ignore warnings about the consequences of a bad diet ' are portrayed as lacking rationality and proper self - control ' ( , , p.74 ) . Those who make the ' wrong ' choices are held responsible if their health deteriorates , for example interviewed woman whose friend had contracted colon cancer , she claimed , because of her "" really , really bad "" eating habits ( , p.83 ) . This ignores the complex web of factors involved in making choices about what eats , and is also dangerous in removing all responsibility from people like advertisers and the government , those who have the power to do something about the population 's diet . Manufacturers also need to take some responsibility as the way they make and process food often affects its nutrient content . As and Worsley point out , for example , ' intake is generally beyond the control of individual consumers ' because salt is added to common foods like bread ( , p.54 ) . Unless the individual completely avoids food that has been adulterated in some manner then it is extremely difficult for them to control , and therefore take responsibility for , exactly which potentially harmful substances enter their diet . Evidence is also mounting concerning the links between low socio - economic status and ' eating badly ' . Access to healthy foods is restricted both by the increased cost of such items in comparison with more unhealthy , processed goods and also by the placement out - of - town of the larger retail outlets , where food can be bought more cheaply ( James et al , , p.1548 ) . Such evidence backs up the idea that many people , both in the developed and developing worlds , have their food options limited as a result of cost , access or time commitments . This makes it clear that ' eating badly ' , far from being a simple matter of individual responsibility , is in fact a largely structural problem , resulting out of the conditions under which people live . The question of responsibility thus broadens out to encompass who is accountable for bringing about the changes that will enable all individuals within the population to have equal access to the right foods . Dietary change does not necessarily come about as a result of individual decision but is linked to policies on food supply , pricing , public health messages and the like . All of this evidence suggests that we can not heap the responsibility for ' eating badly ' simply upon the individual because their choices are massively affected by things beyond their control . Labelling products in order that the consumer understands what they contain is seen as a crucial responsibility taken on by manufacturers . All foodstuffs have to list quantities of certain ingredients , which the industry believes is enough to inform the individual when they are ' eating badly ' . This ignores that translating quantified nutritional information into everyday choices at home or in the supermarket is difficult and time - consuming . suggests that ' The average person is more frightened than helped by language he does not understand ' ( , p.170 ) . As a result , the levels recommended tend not to have huge relevance in the day - to - day decisions of the individual consumer ( Beardsworth and , , p.138 ) . argue that labelling needs to be much more visible and clear with respect to ' negative ' ingredients like fats and sugars , that are harmful to health ( and Worsley , , p.155 ) . This is therefore a responsibility that lays with manufacturers , or rather those who produce their packaging , in order to assist the public in making good food choices . The provision of dietary guidelines is similarly crucial to those making decisions about what to eat . If the individual is not told how much of a substance is ' good ' or ' bad ' for them , it may be harder to make decisions about what to eat . However , both of these areas hint at government responsibility in ensuring that those who draw up such data do so in a way that is accessible to the wider population . Most people would deny that their food choices are affected by information they receive from marketing and advertising , but if this were the case then it seems unlikely that food companies would continue to spend on it . Marketing experts have many methods to convince us not to move away from a particular food even if eating it contravenes health advice . For example , those promoting butter often use its ' naturalness ' to suggest that it is healthy , when in fact it has been highlighted as a major source of harmful saturated fats ( , , p.90 ) . Advertisers are aware that food meets more than simple nutritional needs and thus appeal to our psychological ones ( and Worsley , , p.157 ) . Junk food like chocolate is often promoted as helping us to relax and relieve depression when in fact , being high in sugar and fats , it is linked to causing illness . Advertisers and marketing agencies also have at their disposal . In in , over was spent on advertising chocolate , compared with a meagre on fruit and vegetables ( Robertson et al , , p.197 ) . This is just example of a clear and dangerous trend not only because it makes unhealthy products more visible , but also because many people believe that advertised items are superior to those not ( Robertson et al , , p.199 ) . Similar principles apply with reference to retailers , who can exercise power over what we buy through prominent placement , suggesting superior quality ( Tansey and Worsley , , p.156 ) . Advertising and marketing then must be seen as a massive source of information for the general public . Advertisements bombard our senses , in newspapers , on television , that is , far more frequently than health messages , and thus they are influential in suggesting what we should or should not consume . The fact that a huge majority promotes products that are detrimental to health means that advertisers must take some responsibility for encouraging people to make unhealthy food choices . However , it is up to the government to place restrictions on what can be advertised and in what manner . Food companies work for profit and thus if unhealthy foods continue to be the biggest money - spinner , they will continue to promote these until otherwise controlled . The high profile of the media in 's developed world means this must also take some responsibility for altering the way people think about food . The media is a major source of information for those whom academic articles are not readily accessible , but this presents a problem when the information given out is not accurate . The media tends to focus on ' scare - stories ' that will sell the highest number of newspapers or magazines . As a result , there are many examples where inaccurate statements or advice on eating has been given as a result of an improper understanding of medical debate . For example , newspaper reported the headline "" A healthy lifestyle might be the death of you "" out of the academic debate about the link between cholesterol and cardio - vascular diseases . Thus the media is responsible for people ' eating badly ' to the extent that it has the power to create increased confusion among the population as to what this , and its consequences , actually constitute . A more formalised education than just food labels and dietary guidelines is required if the individual is expected to take responsibility for eating healthily . This can operate through a number of methods including incorporating lessons within the school curriculum and the distribution of health advice through leaflets or advertising , to give a few examples . Responsibility for this type of formalised education tends to fall to government and thus it is up to them to make the necessary budgetary alterations to be able to promote the healthy eating message more widely . They need to learn to cooperate with other sources of information such as voluntary organisations and academics in order that the information received by the public does not confuse or conflict , as this has been shown to be a major cause of distrust in health advice ( , , p.181 ) . However , education alone is unlikely to bring about changes in the population 's eating habits , unless coupled with policy change . Robertson et al point out that social and personal experience tend to have a much greater influence on food choice than education ( , p.191 ) . It is therefore unfair to expect individuals to alter their eating habits just by being provided with information about what is healthy or unhealthy . This is the point at which , once again , government intervention is crucial in imposing policy changes that operate in line with health education . Although it is important that national governments cooperate with global agencies in trying to tackle these problems of nutrition , implementing policy does in general have to be ultimately the responsibility of government . Organisations like WHO can not compel governments to develop nutritional plans of action but they do have an important role in developing and assessing strategy , for example by encouraging multi - sectoral involvement , something proven very successful in . Policy agreement across all sectors is far more likely to be successful in dealing with ' eating badly ' habits because it avoids the consumer confusion that comes with contradictory claims . Included need to be health ministries , education authorities , those responsible for policy on food supply and pricing , marketing and advertisers and voluntary organisations ; in short , all of the consumer 's sources of information . Structural change might be required within government so that this type of multi - sectoral involvement is viable , allowing responsibility to be less fragmented and confusing to the public . While it is ultimately the individual who must choose what to eat on a basis , this decision is not uninhibited , instead being one that takes into consideration a number of different factors . The foodstuffs chosen must be within the individual 's available budget , and thus those responsible for food pricing must take some responsibility for ensuring those foods linked to ' eating badly ' are not the cheapest option . Similarly if the public are expected to ' eat well ' , they must be informed as to what the best choices are , and thus it is up to all of our sources of information ( education authorities , academics , advertising and the media ) that we have what is necessary to make these decisions . However , I would argue that the biggest area of responsibility lies with government . Although other parties have a role to play in affecting the choices that individuals make about food , it is up to the government ( both national and local ) to put in practice and enforce policies that make the healthiest choices the easiest . Without government intervention , it is unlikely that manufacturers will stop making unhealthy foods , or advertisers stop promoting them , for example . It is therefore up to national governments to impose rules and restrictions on those who encourage ' eating badly ' and to set out education and information programmes in order that the public receive accurate , accessible messages about food and health , which do not conflict and confuse . Only when we make choosing to ' eat badly ' the most difficult and costly option can we move the responsibility onto the individual who chooses to do so . In conclusion then , the consequences of ' eating badly ' are vast and they include not just health concerns but also effects on the social and economic well being of society . A bad diet is linked to of different debilitating medical conditions and significantly impacts on the number of premature deaths . It affects quality of life not only for the individual but also for wider society through losses to the economy . It seems abundantly clear that ' nutrition underlies many of the current public health problems and societal challenges in the world today ' ( James , , p.281 ) . The issue of responsibility then is an important one , and something that I feel falls mostly at the feet of government . Although many different sectors are partly responsible for the way we eat , implementing the policy changes that can really make a difference has to be seen as a governmental task .",0 "This essay will outline the main assumptions and tenets of the liberalist , neo - liberalist , realist , neo - realist , and the different approaches to the study of international relations . Having done this groundwork it is hoped that a personal conclusion will be reached about whether there is a theory that competently deals with international relations and its many constituent parts . The exclusion from the analysis of international society theory amongst other constructivist and reflectivist approaches does not reflect disregard for the considerable achievements this approach has made , merely an acceptance that there is only so much one can cover in words . 's central concern is the liberty of the individual . It posits that the main determinants of world peace are : open state governments which are responsive to the needs of its individual citizens ; inter - state governments which could help safeguard the rights of these individuals ; international cooperation which would foster a sentiment of trust across all national boundaries ; and finally free trade which would further entrench the notion of a shared purpose between countries . < fnote > Baylis , , , S. ( 2001 ) . : p.163 < /fnote > Liberal internationalism is based upon the beliefs that : undemocratic leaders disrupt the present international community ; policies centred upon the balance of power are antiquated ; and that contact between the peoples of the world through commerce and travel will lead to greater prosperity for all . Liberal idealists stress the need to construct an international order where freedom for the individual is enhanced and the freedom of the state actors scrutinised . < fnote > Baylis , , , S. ( 2001 ) . : p.167 < /fnote > Liberal institutionalists offer a far less normative approach than the outlined above , positing that regional institutions ( e.g. pressure groups ) and international institutions ( e.g. non - governmental organisations , and transnational corporations ) act as an effective and welcomed counterweight to the power of sovereign states . Neo - liberal internationalists focus much upon the relationship between democratic state actors with other democratic state actors and democratic state actors and authoritarian regimes . They tend to argue that prosperity can be achieved once state actors deliberately set out to spread democracy , pointing to the democratic peace thesis which asserts that there have never been wars between democracies . Neo - idealism emphasises the importance of democratising not only on a macro level in terms of international institutions , but also on a micro - level in terms of grass roots state structures . It also shares with the other members of the liberalism family the view that interdependence fosters peace and justice . < fnote > Baylis , , , S. ( 2001 ) . : p.168 < /fnote > Neo - liberal institutionalists accept that the state is the most significant actor within an essentially anarchic environment . However they refute that this renders cooperation either impossible or worthless , arguing that states are concerned with absolute gains ( the goodness of consequences of a political act for that state per se ) rather than relative gains ( the goodness of the consequences for the state in relation to other states ) . < fnote > Baylis , , , S. ( 2001 ) . : p.167 < /fnote > For the realist the raison d'être of foreign policy is to ensure the security of the state . The state is the principle actor within a perilous , anarchic environment and thus can use force as a legitimate means of protecting itself . To expand on this , one could argue that Realism has main characteristics : statism , survival , and self - help , as outlined in the paragraph below . < fnote > Goldstein , J. ( 1996 ) International relations . : HarperCollins p.57 < /fnote > It is statist in that there is a definite dual moral standard in which the very virtues of the individual for instance piety , caution and honesty would , if employed by a state , be completely inimical to its flourishing . It places importance on survival in that the one and only duty of the state is to ensure the sustenance of the moral community that resides within it . Whilst ' sustenance ' for defensive realists means the attainment of security as a means of securing its survival , for offensive realists it translates as territorial and concomitant expansion . Finally the theory is based around self - help because world politics is to them a - sum game , each of the major states vie for pre - eminence resulting in their interests being mutually exclusive and co - operation pointless . A gain in power for them is judged in relative rather than absolute terms . < fnote > Brown , C. , ( ) Understanding International Relations . : Palgrave p.45 < /fnote> Baylis , , , S. ( 2001 ) . : p.169 < /fnote > Neo - realism shares the basic assumptions of its forbear , but it has nonetheless made the approach more theoretically rigorous . Thanks to the work of structural realism has rose to the fore in international relations theory , and remains to be perhaps the dominant theoretical approach within neo - realism . Structural realism has distinct characteristics . whilst classical realism explains state 's action within the anarchical international system in terms of unit or bottom - up analysis ( i.e. by looking at the salient issues and individual positions of the states concerned ) , structural realism contends that it is the system of anarchy and the ' distribution of capabilities across units ' above anything else which determines a states ' political actions . whilst the former generally sees power in terms of military prowess , the latter sees it more on a general level- as a means of effecting change on the international scene . Lastly while the former sees the anarchical nature of world politics as a factor that effects states simply ' in accordance with their size , location , domestic politics , and leadership qualities ' , the latter argues that anarchy defines the system , that as all states are ' functionally similar units ' as they are all presented with the same constraints , so the differences in action must be due to the differences in power and capabilities . < fnote > Baylis , , , S. ( 2001 ) . : p.169 < /fnote > Another product of the continuing discourse within neo - realism is an increasingly clear and coherent division of offensive and defensive neo - realists . The former stresses the importance of absolute power , the incompatibility of states ' goals and the inevitability of conflict ; the latter highlights the economic burden of military mobilisation and the possibility of cooperation . < fnote > Baylis , , , S. ( 2001 ) . : p.171 < /fnote > The central tenet of world - system theory championed by the Wallerstein is that the dominant systems in international history- world empires and world - economies , transfer resources from the peripheral , underdeveloped countries to the core , developed countries , the former by means of the market , and the latter by means of centralised control over resource distribution . The market 's inherent instability , in terms of its cyclical booms and busts combined with its many internal contradictions coupled with its ability for resources to drift from the hands of the poor to the rich ( as outlined above ) renders the system that presently prevails , doomed for downfall . < fnote > Hollis , M. , , S. , ( ) Explaining and Understanding International Relations Oxford : p.42 < /fnote > Critical Theory 's most outstanding contribution to International relations discourse is perhaps its championing of radical democracy . It can be explained as being a : < quote > ' system in which the widest possible participation is encouraged not only in word ( as in the case in many Western democracies ) but also in deed , by actively identifying barriers to participation- be they social , economic , or cultural- and overcoming them . ' [ , this argues for the expansion of the moral boundaries so the ' borders of the sovereign state lose their ethical and moral significance ' so social justice is globalised and human dignity is recognised everywhere . < fnote > Baylis , , , S. ( 2001 ) . : < /fnote > 's assumption that humans and by extension states have a natural propensity to cooperate does not stand up to either historical precedent or empirical fact . an institution constructed upon liberal assumptions was an unmitigated disaster . It started badly when in its nascence the congress blocked from joining partly because many feared the country 's interests would be subordinate to an international institution ( an example of state egoism if ever there was one ) . It then got worse because of 's , 's and 's patent pursuit of self interest , in , the and respectively . < fnote , , , ( 1999 ) Introduction to International Relations . : p. < /fnote > To point to a more recent example successor , , had a that had achieved near to nothing in its because of the stand off between the and the . Even when relations did thaw , still failed to operate effectively . This can be seen in the run - up to the second Gulf war in which there was an impasse amongst its permanent members . Thus it seems evident that liberalism 's most fundamental assumption seems to hold little weight , rendering the approach somewhat naïve and utopian . < fnote , , , ( 1999 ) Introduction to International Relations . : p. < /fnote > Neo - Liberalism 's much celebrated democratic peace thesis also seems to be vulnerable to attack as well . The link between countries being democratic and them having a peaceful coexistence may not be causal but instead merely associative . Indeed liberal states tend to be wealthier , and wealthier countries tend to have less to gain and more to lose in entering large - scale conflicts . That and have also never had any significant war with one another , and they have histories of revolutions and upheavals seems to negate the thesis . < fnote > Baylis , , , S. ( 2001 ) . : p.218 < /fnote > Neo - Liberalism 's assumption that free - markets free people also seems unfounded . , a man who most assiduously adopted monetarist economics had an absolutely appalling human rights record when he was leader of . On a general level it also seems justifiable in saying the lower a country drops its trade barriers , the greater the role that transnational corporations play in its public domain , and concomitantly the less accountable and relevant the government are to its people- thus undermining rather than enhancing democracy . Realism is satisfactory in that offers an analysis which fits in with the experiences of . Its thesis on the balance of power explains why both and only got involved in proxy wars and why the era was a time of prosperity for Western developed countries . Thus it gives the scholar a great understanding of the nature of power , wars and the politics of survival . Despite these considerable strengths , the theory is lacking in many areas . It is too state - centric in this globalising world in which worldwide organisations such as transnational corporations and NGOs play an increasingly large part of each and every individual 's life . Whilst offensive realists put an inordinate amount of emphasis on military solutions ( when there are areas in the world such as which are in dire need of diplomacy to produce a lasting peace ) , defensive realists lack clarity about the preconditions for conflict . The emergence of ' terror ' ( perpetrated by networks and cells rather than nation states ) and the concomitant asymmetric conflict as the dominant issue for most western liberal democracies has also raised further questions about the relevance of rationalism and neo - rationalism in 's world . < fnote > Gray , , ( ) and What it Means to be . : Faber and Faber p.46 < /fnote > Marxist theory has a strong ideological flavour to it , and as such often underplays the fact that markets are effective generators of wealth and overplays the idea that capitalism will come to ruin . Once one has recognised this reading theory can be very rewarding . It no doubt offers the most coherent critique of neo - liberalism , highlighting the importance of social justice and indigenous social development . It can explain the emergence of non - state actors such as the movement in far better than any realist or neo - realist ; and critical theory 's calling for an expansion of moral boundaries to encompass the whole world makes it the most progressive and solidaristic if not the least realistic of the approaches . < fnote > Goldstein , J. ( 1996 ) International relations . : HarperCollins p.57 < /fnote > In conclusion realism and neo - realsm are too narrowly state - centric to be embraced in the ever - globalising world we live in . Its bleak conception of human nature creates a disagreeable political paralysis in which heinous act can be legitimated by the use of such terms as ' power - politics ' . Although it has offered most effective explanations to past - events its salience has waned and it serves no constructive purpose for humanity . Its myopia lies in the fact that it fails to see that through the establishment of justice long - lasting peace may be possible . and neo - liberalism have an overly sanguine view of human nature placing too much faith in the states ' willingness to cooperate . Its championing of attempts to implant market - driven liberal democracies all over the world is hubristic and may lead to growing estrangement in world politics rather than increased cohesion . critiques are made by looking through heavily ideologically tinted lenses , causing critical theorists amongst others not to grasp the magnitude of the changes in the international political landscape and come to terms with the redundancy of Marxism in its purest form . Thus despite its much needed critique of the immiseration that is often caused by the imposition of monetarist economics on countries ill for prepared for such seismic shifts , it can only serve any utility if used in conjunction with other political theories . In completing this modest investigation it can be safely said that I am very dissatisfied with the theories covered . Nonetheless this disappointment has to be tempered with the appreciation of the fact that in the very act of seeking to rationalise political phenomena , theorists produce models of explanation which offer an inevitably simplistic picture of an infinitely complex world : < quote > "" every theory leave something out . No theories can claim to offer a picture of the world that is complete . No thing has exclusive claim to the truth . "" [ , , p.197]","It is no doubt true that successfully challenging prevailing modes of thinking about the political world can lead to positive changes for people at ' ground - level . ' For instance , 's analysis of the relationship between capital and labour opened many people 's eyes to the injustice inherent within capitalism and provided the working class inspiration to free themselves from the shackles of exploitation , and likewise the myriad feminist interpretations of society have provided people with not only the knowledge that gross inequities between men and women exists , but also the belief that they should be eradicated . Thus assessing the contribution of all the disparate strands of feminism is important as it can allow feminists to see what their predecessors had and had not succeeded in challenging and in turn decide what would be the most efficacious direction for the movement(s ) to take in the Twenty - First century . In this essay the analysis will be confined to the effects of the discourses that are part of the feminist ' - wave . ' The analysis will focus on areas where feminist thinking seems to have contributed to most : the debate on patriarchal order , on the delineations between the public and private , and on the relationship between sex and gender . Stemming from this examination it shall hopefully be shown that both liberal and socialist feminists have challenged conventional thinking only to a small extent because they have too often approached gender issues in their respective ideological straitjackets ; that essentialist feminists have offered little new in simplistically equating sex with gender ; that conversely radical feminists have made considerable contributions to the debate by placing so much emphasis on the social construction of gender ; and that post- modern accounts are also invaluable in that they open political scientist 's eyes to the plurality of women 's experiences , and to the inherent patriarchy in language . The concept of a patriarchy existingremains to date probably the most potent feminist challenge to the general ' liberal ' assumption that freedom and equality of opportunity can be ensured by equal access to education , freedom of speech and the right to vote as so heroically fought for by the "" wave "" feminists . They argue that instead of the liberal state being a neutral arbiter between conflicting interests , it is a buttress for male dominance ensuring that the privileged positions that they occupy as men are unattainable for women . Accordingly , radical feminists contest that the liberal mission to push for state - sponsored legislation conducive for the enhancement of women 's position in society is inadequate as the state itself is patriarchal . < fnote > Lent , A. ( ) , New Political Thought , : , p.123 < /fnote> Axtmann , ( ) , , : SAGE p.234 < /fnote > Moreover most ' wave ' feminists point out that patriarchal values are systemic not only within sate machinery but by extension pervade the culture , philosophy and religion of society on a whole , perceptible in myriad guises wherein women are treated and portrayed as subordinate and inferior to men- debilitating for the aspiring woman . These manifestations and indeed antecedents of female oppression can be seen in the practices of physical mutilation ( e.g. foot - binding and circumcision ) which affects women around the world , and pornography- a scourge that occupies of the world - wide - web . On an economic level socialist feminists have shown that systems of inheritance that prevalent in whereby property , land and money were generally bequeathed to the son , and the dowry system that exists in some cultures reinforce women 's economic dependence . However , the most fundamental and simultaneously the most subtle manifestation of patriarchy seems to be in language itself , as shown by the works of post - modern feminists in . Most notably found that western language conceptualises a polarisation of binary oppositions , whereby the term logocentrically most associated with logos or phallus is always privileged over the other ( father / mother , head / heart , man / woman , speaking / listening ) . If accepts conclusion that everything our minds have access is seen to be text , this theory has absolutely profound implications : gender hierarchies are subliminally reinforced at the most basic level of the human psyche . < fnote > Farrelly , C. ( 2004 ) , An introduction to political theory , : SAGE p.86 < /fnote> Goodwin , ( ) , Using Political Ideas , : Wiley , p.234 < /fnote> Dines , G. ( ) , Pornography : private right or public menace ? , : Prometheus books , p.79 < /fnote> Bryson , V. ( ) , Feminist Political theory , : p.65 < /fnote > The major area of classical liberal individualism that radical feminists have criticised is the demarcation between what is public and what is private , and what is thus the business of the state and what is not . While liberal theorists and indeed liberal feminists are weary of jettisoning this distinction for reasons of ensuring individual freedom and staving off tyranny , radical feminists have powerfully put forward the point that this traditional designation of a "" no - go area for government "" puts women at an acute disadvantage . This granting of privacy allows men to oppress and exploit their wives or girlfriends in the private sphere without fear of public redress and thus ' depoliticises ' many injustices suffered by women , and more generally marginalizes their experiences and concerns as occupants of the domestic sphere . Books such as "" "" ( ) by the radical feminist focussing upon personal , psychological and sexual aspects of female oppression and "" ) by the socialist feminists and championing the cause of "" wages for housework "" enabled people to recognise this- successfully pushing back the borders of what had been previously been considered to be political . Concurrently , domestic rape , domestic violence , the unpaid labour of housework , child - rearing , and the right to have an abortion were successfully pushed to the fore of the political debate in many western countries . < fnote > Axtmann , ( ) , , : SAGE p.87 < /fnote > The idea that gender is socially constructed and is a concept divorced from sex ; that rather than femininity being something innate to women it is instead imposed and projected upon the female sex through years of socialisation and conditioning , neatly summarised in de Beauvoir 's assertion that "" women are made , they are not born , "" was another key challenge posed by the radicals to established political opinion . Their compartmentalisation of sex and gender was based on the reasoning that while sex is the unalterable biological difference between males and females , gender refers to different roles society subscribes to men and women . The direct corollary of this was that conservative views that gender division in society was natural , that "" biology is destiny "" and that therefore women 's subordinate position is somehow legitimate is under increasing attack . The oppressively romantic , fascist myth of the existence of the "" eternal feminine "" and women 's generally assumed passive sexual role has thus been challenged in the western world ; and the conception that human nature is essentially androgynous and that the attainment of the good - life through the achievement of genderless personhood not so risible . < fnote > Farrelly , C. ( 2004 ) , An introduction to political theory , : SAGE p.73 < /fnote> Pateman , C. ( ) , , ( ) , Using Political Ideas , : Wiley p.248 < /fnote > Conversely socialist and liberal feminists do not attach much importance to the concept of socially constructed gender analysing women 's issues merely as a subset of their respective ideologies , with the former focussing inordinately on individual merit and the latter on class divisions . Worse still , essentialist feminists deny the sex / gender division altogether , championing "" womanly qualities "" : their innate ability to nurture , to cooperate and to intuit , positing that gender differences reflect a psycho - biological gulf between female and male attributes and sensibilities . < fnote > Lent , A. ( ) New Political Thought , : , p.221 < /fnote > Post - modern feminists have perhaps expounded the most nuanced and sophisticated account on the relationship between sex and gender . , they argue , is relative to the society expectations one is part of , for instance while it is common place to see women road - builders in it is unheard of in , rendering the whole idea of their existing a universal womanhood daft . Moreover ' sex ' rather than being straight - forwardly determined by biology has been shown to be a problematic concept as some women dislike children , are not attracted to men and so on . Thus the biological / cultural dichotomy seems fictional rendering the terms ' man ' and ' woman ' as being arbitrary and the conception that there are genders no longer too outlandish . < fnote > Axtmann , ( ) , , : SAGE , p.242 < /fnote> Axtmann , ( ) , , : SAGE , p.239 < /fnote > In conclusion , it is evident from the analysis that "" feminism has been characterised more by internal variety in its theories and practises than by any semblance of unity . "" ( , , p.212 ) While the non - existence of a collective feminist voice perhaps has made it hard for many people to grasp what feminism is about and what it aims to achieve , its vey plurality has been conducive for the cross - fertilization and cultivation of new and dynamic ideas with the more illuminating contributions coming from radical and post - modern feminists . Most importantly wave feminists have compelled many political thinkers to reassess the actual fairness of liberal and democratic theory . Through applying prevailing societal beliefs about liberty to the "" private "" sphere and in reminding academics that equality and rights at the level of formal , legal relations are not themselves enough to ensure a kind of democracy which is inclusive of all citizens , many wave feminists poignantly opened the question of whether traditional notions of a just society need to be reconceptualised . The radical and post - modern feminists ' challenging of the reactionary and misogynistic assumptions that women are distinct from men ; and their exposure of societies ' deeply gendered and exclusive nature , has proved to be immensely intellectually empowering enabling us to think more critically about the status quo and more imaginatively about how politics can be transformed . < fnote > Pateman , C. ( ) , : Polity p.136 < /fnote >",1 "< heading>2.1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to provide a review of the literature on the agriculture and in particular the fruit production . Moreover , the effects of foreign direct investment ( ) in the agri - food chain on farms are investigated < heading>2.2 Agriculture in : An overview agriculture is characterised by unfavourable structures and low incomes ( et al , ) . Labour is the most intensively used input and the labour - intensity of small - scale farming may not decrease until alternative employment opportunities arise ( , ) . Hence , with of the population being employed in agriculture , mostly on small farms ( and , ) , agriculture is a very important sector in the economy ( , ) . As regards in agriculture , in the inflow in the agricultural sector amounted to approx . USD 14.5 mio . accounting for of the total investment flow . The aggregated value of in agriculture amounted to approx . USD 76.3 mio . accounting for of the total value . The top major foreign investors include wholesale and retail traders , namely ( no . ) , ( no . 8) and Carrefour ( no . ) ( PAIiIZ , 2004 ) . < heading>2.3 The fruit sector A leading producer of fruit , has the capability to grow all types of temperate fruit which require intensive management and the climate and soils to produce good quality and meet bulk orders of a range of products ( Faesel and Hill , ) . It is estimated that the amount of fruit produced in totalled ( including apples ) ( , et al . , ) . Out of the ha in fruit production are private gardens , constitute semi - intensive and constitute intensive farming . There are producers out of which cultivate ha , cultivate ha and cultivate over 10 ha ( ) . fruit growers lack capital which constrains their ability to invest in quality and restructuring . Moreover , their input use is low causing yields to fluctuate and productivity to be low ( Maack , 2005 ) . Accordingly , the yield of apples per hectare in was in while it was in ( , ) . While merely enterprises own modern plants , the number of medium sized enterprises with own cold - storage is increasing ( Maack , ) . The number of members in the horticulture has dropped from in with a market share of , to with a market share of in . New forms of cooperatives were established which usually are engaged in very basic activities such as collecting and marketing ( Faesel and Hill , ) . < table/>2.4 Relations to upstream agents Small growers deliver during the harvest once a day to collecting points which are organised either by traders or freezing companies . The fruit are then exported or sold to the processing industry . There are a number of large , specialist growers who have contracts with the major exporting companies or sell directly into export markets ( Faesel and Hill , ) . These and members of producer groups tend to sell directly to large purchasers like super- and hypermarket chains or processing and exporting companies which required them to adapt to long payment periods and high quality requirements . However , the majority of fruit producers prefers to sell to intermediaries since transport costs are lower and since they receive payment in cash whereas with fruit processing companies they would have to wait ( Maack , ) . Still , the production of fruit is still highly fragmented , few co - operatives exist at the producer level , and growers tend to be in a weak position owing to their small scale of operation which is further exacerbated by the lack of a comprehensive wholesale marketing system ( Faesel and Hill,1995 ) . As a consequence , both growers and export traders are vertically integrating to take over the wholesaling functions ( ) . The fruit and vegetable processing industry is dominated by foreign capital and the share of foreign traders in the food market has risen sharply ( et al . , ) . This may have negative effects on small farmers who make up the largest part of fruit growers . They may lose out with increasing in the agri - food chain because , firstly , the fixed transaction cost component in the costs of exchanges between farms and retailers makes it more costly for retailers to deal with a large number of small farmers than with a few bigger suppliers . , small farmers tend to be more constrained in their means for making necessary investments , because they lack sufficient own resources or they can not access external funds in imperfect rural financial markets . Hence , small farmers may find it hard to increase their productivity and come up to the standards and sell to supermarkets . Studies from emerging markets in , suggest that these pressures may be real and important ( Dries et al . , ) . < figure/>Because of the low level of organisation of growers , the weak marketing infrastructure and increased the significance of hypermarket chains imports of fresh fruit and vegetables increase , while the limitations to increase exports of fruit to persist in the short term due to insufficient competitiveness , product range , etc . ( ) . Against the background of being a leading fruit producer in the with a potential competitive advantage in exports of frozen products , canned products and fruit juices ( ) , and the high levels of in the food and agri - processing industry ( et al . , ) , it seems interesting to find out how and to what extent in the agri - food chain could help increasing the competitiveness of fruit growers and bring about structural change . It is assumed that understanding variations in technical efficiency provides a basis for predicting structural change ( and , ) . < heading>2.5 , vertical integration and grower restructuring In general , the term vertical integration refers to bringing together or more successive stages of the vertical production and distribution chain under common ownership and management ( and , ) . - induced vertical integration refers to private institutional innovations that help overcome problems of exchange systems and contract enforcement mechanisms which have broken down in many CEECs ( and , ) . Generally , private investment by foreign processing and retail companies having the know - how and finance to upgrade capital technology and management ( , ) , has proved to be an important driver of change and growth in the agri - food chain of some CEECs Supply or input contracts or assistance packages provided by foreign processors or retailers have brought about productivity and quality improvements and fostered restructuring at the farm level ( Wilkin et al . , ) . Foreign investors played an important role , for instance , in the dairy sector in initiating institutional innovation in contracting and farm assistance programs ( and , ) . The payments to the foreign investors who provide support to their suppliers are enforced by interlinking output and input markets : Assistance packages are restricted to suppliers to the company and part of an ( implicit ) contract between the farm and the company . The - induced vertical integration between supplier and company enhances the farms ' access to basic inputs , credit , and output markets , while it ensures timely delivery and high - quality supplies for the company ( and , ) In the fruit sector vertical integration of growers and export traders leads to better institutionalisation and stabilisation of the food market ( Wilkin et al . , ) , and helps take over wholesaling functions ( ) since the wholesale system in this sector , as mentioned above , is very weak . Small farmers continue to be unable to make basic investments and are restricted in their access to basic inputs due to a variety of market imperfections , which makes them less likely to invest than larger farms ( and , ) . Retailers and processors may assist fruit growers with trade credits , inputs , extension services , and even bank loan guarantees to upgrade their capacities so as to produce and deliver products of high quality and , increasingly , food safety standards ( Dries et al . , ) . In this context , . ( ) found that multinational retailers do invest in important local sourcing especially of fresh products such as fresh fruit and vegetables . The assistance packages were more likely to be provided in markets where small / medium sized farms dominate and where there was a shortage of high quality suppliers . The latter applies to the fruit sector which suggests that fruit growers may indeed become beneficiaries of in the agri - food chain ; and this is what this study intents to find out . However , small and undercapitalised growers may have to face major challenges resulting from ( Dries et al . , ) . Studies in developing countries found the impact of on small suppliers to be negative as they often can not comply with the higher standards and grading requirements for the supplied products . Moreover , foreign investors prefer to deal with a few large suppliers to minimize transaction costs , forcing consolidation of the supplier base and hence separating many small suppliers from their traditional outlets show ( and , ) . < heading>2.6 Spill - over effects Spill - over effects occur when local firms benefit from the multinational companies ' superior knowledge of product or process technologies or markets , without incurring a cost that exhausts the whole gain from the improvement ( and , ) . Dries and Swinnen ( ) find evidence for strong spill - over effects , both vertically and horizontally in the dairy sector . Horizontal spill - over effects occur when domestic companies start copying foreign management innovations ( , ) and technologies ( and , ) . Jointly these investments can improve quality , efficiency and competitiveness of the agri - food chain ( , ) . may force domestic firms to provide similar contracts and services to farmers as the foreign companies do in order to maintain a sufficiently large supply base which is especially important in transition countries where there is typically a shortage of quality supplies ( and , ) . As a result the international competitiveness of the farms that are able to upgrade to meet the demands of modern retailers increases ( Dries et al . , ) . This study is concerned with direct and indirect vertical spill - over effects and their impact on the technical efficiency of fruit growers . Direct spill - over effects arise when foreign companies help raising the productivity and efficiency of local suppliers by providing extension services and technical assistance ( and , ) i.e. information to raise the quality of suppliers ' products or to facilitate innovations . Moreover , they may provide or assist suppliers in purchasing inputs ( and , ) through financial assistance e.g. by co - signing bank loans ( and , ) . Effects may also occur as suppliers are forced to meet the higher standards of the foreign companies e.g. regarding quality and reliability of delivery . induced vertical integration can lead to a wide and rapid spread of spill - over effects in the primary production sector as the demonstration of new technologies increases the know - how of domestic companies which , in combination with increased competition , forces them to operate more efficiently in turn impacting on the primary sector ( and , ) . Gow and ( ) found that in CEECs ' agri - processing reduces hold - up and under - investment problems and increases the efficiency of agricultural production through the introduction of managerial improvements and innovative contracting with producers , and the simultaneous inflow of capital in the agri - food chain . Indirect vertical spill - over effects arise e.g. when assistance to input supply indirectly impacts on farm activities and investments by affecting the overall profitability of the farms , and their loan guarantee programs , affecting the access to bank loans of the farms ( and , ) . Moreover , imposes an efficient corporate governance on farms because it hardens the budget constraints which , in conjunction reduced financial links between the government and the domestic farms , may lead to better performance ( , ) and thus better technical efficiency . < heading>2.7 Conclusion is a leading fruit producer and has the capability to grow all types of temperate fruit . The lack of a comprehensive wholesale marketing system has led to both growers and foreign investors in the agri - food chain vertically integrating and thus taking over the wholesaling functions . This kind of cooperation may encompass extension services , technical assistance , financial support and input supply potentially affecting growers ' technical efficiency and hence their overall profitability . The objective of this study will be to find out whether and to what extent fruit growers actually benefit from this cooperation .","< heading > Introduction It has been argued that an open trade regime is very important for the economic development of small developing countries as these countries face constraints in the size of their domestic market and in the abundance of their resources . In the following the propositions regarding the effects of opening a small developing country to free trade are analysed and discussed . < heading > Challenges faced by small developing countries Characteristically , small countries face a perfectly elastic supply of imports and a perfectly elastic demand for exports which means they are unable to influence the price of imports and exports ( Ayhan Kose , ) . Further , they trade on world capital markets at an exogenously given rate of interest and their R&D activities do not influence the rate of accumulation of knowledge capital in the world at large ( and , ) . Small developing countries in particular tend to rely heavily on a narrow range of primary commodities for their export earnings . These earnings tend to be highly unstable because of recurrent and sharp fluctuations in the relative prices of primary commodities , hence these countries are highly vulnerable to external shocks . Further , small developing countries tend to depend heavily on imported capital goods and intermediate inputs for domestic production . Often , a significant part of their export revenues is used to pay back their large foreign debt ( Ayhan Kose , ) . Finally , small developing countries dispose of very few resources and often the size of their markets is not sufficient for companies to produce at an efficient rate . Bigstenal . ( ) concluded in case of manufactures that as domestic markets are very small , if countries are to industrialise , it will have to be through exports . < heading > Effects of trade liberalisation The view that an open trade regime is beneficial to the economic development of small developing countries has been based partly on neoclassical trade theory , which generally finds that countries with persistent high levels of protection appear to suffer significantly . Partly it is based on several empirical paper such as and ( ) which find that trade liberalisation is beneficial to growth ( and , ) . According to theory , by opening up its economy a small developing country should be able to raise aggregate welfare as depicted in Graph 1 . < and free trade equilibria for a small developing country are compared : under autarky production the country realizes a level of aggregate utility which corresponds to the indifference curve Iaut and the production and consumption point is A. In free trade the production and consumption points are B and C , respectively . The country realizes a level of aggregate utility which corresponds to the indifference curve . Since the free trade indifference curve lies to the north east of the autarky indifference curve Iaut , national welfare rises as the small developing country moves to free trade ( , ) . < heading > Efficiency gains Domestic markets of small developing countries are too small for optimal scale in production to be achieved ( Srinivasan and Chenery,1989 , and Bigsten et al . , ) . Additionally , markets in developing countries apart from being small tend to be protected . This may lead either to a small number of firms in the market and a lack of competition . Consequently , resources are drawn into the domestic low - quality high - cost production with costs that are even higher as they would be as a result of the comparative disadvantage because producers take advantage of their monopolistic position . Or , it may be the case , that the number of firms is relatively large resulting in small - scale and inefficient production levels ( , ) . However , by opening up it economy the low - cost producers can expand their level of production through exporting and they achieve economies of scale and economies of specialisation . Resources from the relatively inefficient non - trade sector may reallocate to the higher productive export sector ( and , ) . Further , free trade may generate new activities in line with the business opportunities existing in the world market ( et al . , ) . Dynamic gains from trade are to arise from domestic industries producing more efficiently as they face foreign import competition ( Bigsten et al . , ) . The firms have to improve their production processes as well as the quality of their products in order to remain competitive ( Cuadros et al . , ) . < heading > Discussion The beneficial effects of opening a small developing country to free trade are contentious as also the inconclusive evidence on the positive impact of openness on growth shows ( et al . , and and Chenery,1989 and and Tarr , ) . There are several concerns regarding the opening up of a small developing country . , the opening of the economy to world trade would make a small developing country more vulnerable because of the major mechanisms underlying business cycle transmissions is trade . Output and price shocks are transmitted , generally from an importing country to an exporting country ( Mansor , ) . , the opening up of the economy would inevitably have to take place at a relatively early stage in the economic development of a small developing country . It may well be that after opening the economy a trade deficit arises . In order to avoid inflation the consequent net flow of money into the economy would have to be absorbed and invested by economic structures , which at that stage might not have been developed yet ( , ) . , domestic industries may actually suffer from opening the economy to foreign competition , because of the specific higher costs they face at home . These put them at a dynamic disadvantage when competing against larger countries ' firms . The costs are partly directly related to higher production costs by unit of output because of the small scale of the firms , although this disadvantage can be partially corrected when accessing export markets . But there are other costs that are related to the inadequacy of supply and the higher cost of non - tradable domestic inputs including finance services and skilled labour . Finally , there are higher transaction costs , especially in small islands or land- locked countries , as well as higher "" unit "" cost of public goods because of the non - divisibility of most public infrastructure ( Cuadros et al . , ) . As a result , domestic producers and infant industries may be destroyed by import competition , and production may remain limited to its traditional sector of production which is the primary goods sector . The dependence on exports of primary products and the resultant instability in export earnings leads to instability in GNP ( Srinivasan and Chenery,1989 ) . The latter increases risk and instability of investments in production of the local economy , and it is investments that are seen to be a major source of growth . Ayhan Kose ( 2002 ) found that of aggregate output fluctuations that can be explained by world prices shocks and these shocks are able to account for of investment variation . Another consequence of unstable GNP is the level of tax revenues becoming unpredictable which makes it difficult for governments to commit themselves to long - run investments e.g. in education and health , which are important to long - term growth . Therefore , it has been argued that a small developing may be better advised to protect its infant industries and not to open entirely to free trade at least not at an early stage and this way it may be able to diversify from the production of primary products towards more skill and labour intensive products ( and , ) . However , these resources may not be available in a small developing country , or they may be drawn off the primary sector which may be at that stage the most important source of foreign exchange . It has been suggested that if small developing countries would allow their factor markets to operate efficiently and if they would reduce trade barriers than they might be able to move into more capital intensive and higher skilled production processes ( and , ) . < heading > Learning < /heading > Barring effects of increased competition , positive externalities and permanent effects of trade liberalisation on productivity are also to arise through learning effects in both the export and the non - export producing sector of the economy ( Srinivasan and Chenery,1989 ) . When examining the manufacturing sector in , . ( ) found learning - by exporting to be possible , and they suggest that large gains may arise for from orientating its manufacturing sector towards exporting . By opening up its economy a small developing country has better access to advanced technologies ( and , ) and to investments of multinational enterprises which seem to be the principal vehicle for the international transfer of technology ( et al . , ) . The subsequent higher rates of technological innovation as well as the gains accruing from learning by doing and the resulting improvement in production techniques is thought to increase long - run growth ( et al . , ) . Domestic enterprises also have the opportunity to learn from foreign enterprises about good management practices which may result in efficiency gains ( and , ) . However , there is little evidence that companies improve their efficiency as a result of learning - by - exporting , it may rather be the case that efficient companies self - select into the export market ( Bigsten et al . , ) . < heading > Discussion Generally if learning is to take place , domestic firms have to be established to be able to compete . And is only likely to contribute to economic growth if sufficient absorptive capacities for the advanced technologies exist in the domestic economy and it may even destroy industries in their early stages and prevent them from their learning . Further , learning does not take place at any rate , the benefits associated with inward investment seem to be contingent on a stable macroeconomic environment ( et al . , ) . and ( ) find in their model that whether trade promotes innovation in a small economy depends in particular on whether the economy 's resources are channelled towards activities that generate long run growth via externalities in R&D , expanding product variety , upgrading product quality etc . A distinction has to be made between investment in natural resources and in manufacturing , the latter offering more opportunities for learning to take place . Another problem in developing countries is the existence of market failures such as technological externalities which are considered to be endemic to early stages of industrial developments ( , ) . Domestic firms who , unlike multinational enterprises , have only a limited amount of resources at their disposal may be prevented from entering into activities with relatively difficult technologies . Recapitulating , it takes a minimum levels of education and infrastructure for small developing countries to be able to benefit from opening up and if a country opens up its economy before these capacities have been build up , than it is likely to suffer from trade liberalisation . < heading > Access to foreign capital < /heading > In the process of opening the economy to trade , trade flows as well as capital flows are expected to increase . The revenues from exporting are likely to alleviate foreign exchange constraints and can thereby provide greater access to international markets ( et al . , and and Chenery,1989 ) by facilitating the import of inputs in order to meet domestic demand , which in turn enables output expansion . The raise in import of more capital intensive goods including investment and intermediate goods may be conducive to economic growth . Resources that were deployed in the domestic relatively high - cost - production of capital intensive goods , are released and can be reallocated in the labour - intensive sector where the comparative advantage of the developing country lies . Hence , national income saved increases as capital intensive goods are less expensive and level of real investment rises as the prices of capital goods are lower ( ) . Furthermore , revenues can be used for development as well as assistance with debt servicing ( and , ) . < heading > Discussion < /heading > However , despite the theoretical arguments concerning the gains from capital account openness that eventually comes along with trade liberalisation , the empirical evidence on whether it has in fact been conducive to growth is inconclusive ( Cuadros et al . , , and Montiel and Servén , ) . Opening the capital account may entail an increase in exposure and therefore in the potential vulnerability of the economies ( et al . , ) . When looking at the and , ( ) found that capital flows across borders provide the foundation for the transmission of monetary and asset price disturbances from a large country to a small country . Furthermore , Montiel and Servén ( 2004 ) found that in particular if the domestic institutional structure is defective , the costs in form of macro - economic risks are likely to outweigh the benefits . < heading > Creation of a stable macroeconomic from giving better access to foreign capital , the integration with world financial markets may have benefits in that they force government to follow policies that create and maintain macroeconomic stability . Reason being that with the increased financial openness it is easier for investors to punish countries in response to perceptions that their macroeconomic policies are creating instabilities ( Montiel and Servén , ) . A stable macroeconomic policy features a fiscal stance consistent with fiscal solvency ; a robust exchange - rate regime that avoids both systematic currency misalignment as well as excessive real exchange - rate volatility ; and a monetary policy stance consistent with a low and stable rate of inflation ( , ) . All of the above measures help to create and maintain a predictable domestic macroeconomic environment which is important in the promotion of resource - allocation decisions , investment and growth ( Montiel and Servén , ) . And it seems to be that case that the effects of openness on economic performance are contingent on macroeconomic stability and on the existence of efficient institutions ( et al . , ) . < heading > Discussion However , macroeconomic policies have to take account of the constraints in resources that are inherent to small sized developing countries . For instance , it is difficult for these countries to increase production subsequent to a devaluation and deflation simply because it does not dispose of many resources in the fist place ( , ) . Similarly , governments may have difficulties to deliver good governance because of a lack of resources such as human capital but also of funds . As to the latter , small developing countries generally rely heavily on international trade taxes for revenue generation and their trade regimes still include many exemptions , preferences and trade restrictive measures ( Cuadros et al . , ) . Since trade liberalisation involves reductions in tariff rates , these countries experience a decrease in the share of international trade taxes in government revenues . However , the volume increase in imports thus the wider import tax base and the consequent revenues may in fact more than compensate the direct effect of the lower tariff rates and lower real exchange rate on trade revenues . And trade liberalisation may even enhance revenues in that the simplification of tariff structures , together with the lowering of tariffs , may reduce the incidence of evasion . Furthermore , lower rates and simpler tariff structures are easier to administer and tend to be more efficient and more transparent ( Cuadros et al . , ) . < heading > Conclusion Whether opening up the economy to trade actually leads to growth in a small developing country depends on a variety of factors . Most importantly the process has to be accompanied by macroeconomic policies aiming at long - term stability . This would impart trust to foreign investors who then may convey technology and capital into the country so that learning and efficiency gains take place . Furthermore , the country has to dispose of reasonably well - functioning factor markets and basic capacities in the place , in order to be able to take advantage of the positive effects that accrue from free trade and capital flows . Hence , the conclusion is that opening up the economy creates opportunities for a small developing to improve its economic situation and to generate growth , however , its success is conditional on certain circumstances that have to be created before or in the course of the opening process .",1 "< heading > I. Introduction: The game Rachet and is based on inter - planetary exploration . The object of the game is to collect as many gadget and weapons ( which I will , from now onwards , collectively refer to as object ) for their inventory . There are objects in total to collect with their identifier ( see appendix 1 ) . During play items can be picked up or dropped . If an item is picked up it is checked against the current inventory and if it already had been collected a message is flagged to the user saying so . If the user wishes to drop an object they can check their inventory for a list of their objects and select one to drop . If the object they wish to drop is not in their inventory a message is flagged asking the user to verify their selection . If not the object is dropped . < heading > The . a sequence of steps : < /heading > The user begins play , they have no objects in their inventory . The user navigates the environment for object . When the user navigates over an object they can pick up the object . If the user decides to pick up the object , it is added to their inventory . Therefore I = I=1 When playing a user can decide to drop an item in their inventory . They select an object from a list of the current objects in their inventory ( if their inventory is empty a message is displayed "" Inventory Empty "" , and play continues ) . Once the object they wish to drop is selected , it is checked against the current inventory . If the object is unique ( i.e. the object about to be dropped is the only one ) a message is flagged "" This is your only ' object name ' , do you wish to drop ? "" where the user clicks yes or no , if yes is clicked the item is dropped otherwise the user is returned to the inventory list . After every pick up the inventory is checked for If there are items in the inventory ( this would indicate a full set if the set is unique ) If it is unique ( no 2 items are the same ) If the inventory satisfies both of these the game is ended , if there are not items play continues , if there are items a unique check is performed , if this proved false , the user is told their inventory is full and asked if they would like to drop an item , message flagged "" Your inventory is full , you will not be able to pick up another object until you drop an object . now ? "" where the user will enter y or n. y for yes and n for no , if they type y they are taken to the inventory list to drop an item , if they type n they return to play . < heading>2 . b PseudoCode Notes : SI is the set of items in the inventory is a set whish contains an item that has been picked up is a subset of which contains an object which the user has decided to drop . is a set which contains the complete list of objects FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA < heading>3 . Algorithm Properties Input : The objects ' picked up ' are supplied by the play environment . Output : The sets change according to the objects which are picked up . Definiteness : Each of the sets starts with a value . The value changes as items are picked up/ dropped from the inventory . The set is effectively a control set ( holding all the values which are required to finish the game ) which can be checked against the inventory . Finiteness : The game finishes when the inventory equals the ( control set ) , which means that the inventory is complete . The inventory is checked after every pick up as this is when items are added to the inventory as this is the when the inventory is changed . The inventory is also changed when items are dropped although seeing as the max for the inventory is a check would have been performed when the last item was added . Effectiveness : Every if statement has a complimentary else statement . Instructions will take a finite amount of time as we are using comparisons between sets , or value of sets . Correctness : The algorithm checks the inventory amount after every pick up so the termination requirements are checked every time something is added to the inventory . < heading>4 . Efficiency The algorithm checks the inventory after every pick up rather than at every point something changes during play . When the inventory is being checked it is checked for the amount of items in the inventory . If this number is less than 11 then play continues ( as a user can not have a full set of objects without items ) if are found then the next stage is undertaken where the inventory is checked against the control set . < heading>5 . < /heading > Any application that store information on objects could use sets . For example books and multimedia in a library , the sets would contain books that are on the shelf , book on loan etc . An occasion where we use sets everyday is shopping , for an automated shopping list the objects are split into items on the self , items picked up and to be picked up . Another example would be a computer game of pool . The ball in the game would be split into sets of balls on the table ; balls potted and on the table and could be split further into dots / stripes .","< heading > NP - Complete problems: When looking at the mentioned travelling sales person 's problem , we see there are obviously an infinite amount of possibilities for the journey . As we do not discriminate on the starting point and know that they must always end at their start position ( make a circuit ) we can figure out the number of possible permutations on the journey . Using general logic we can see that there must be n ! ( n*(n-1)*(n-2)* ... *(2)*(1 ) ) number of permutations available . This is because if you have n cities you have n choices for the city ( and subsequent end city ) , then ( n-1 ) choices for the city and so on until you only have 1 choice for the to last city ( as we already know the last city must be the same as the ) . Using this as a guide there must be ( 5 ! ) possible journeys available to the . This is obviously too many to do simply by pen and paper and would probably be a waste of time actually working them all out by hand , as we could probably see the most efficient way of traversing the circuit by drawing a rough diagram ( see appendix 1 ) . By just simply using this diagram and by finding the shortest path from one node to another or maybe a slightly longer path but which includes visiting another node on the way , e.g. it is shorter to go straight from to than that via Stansted , however by going via Stansted it means we can then continue straight on from , I have found what I believe to be the shortest path without the lengthy use of finding the length of every circuit possible to be : < figure/>This circuit works out to be . We can obviously not guarantee that this is definitely the shortest path as I have not worked out every possible circuit however within the limits I have this would be my most accurate idea of what the shortest circuit could be . When we talk about a where the number of permutations would be * ( ) , as using the example given that it takes nanosecond ( * ) to find each circuit on a Dell Pentium PC it would take * or * . To verify this very loge number I found out how many processes would happen every year , by doing the following : finding out how many nanoseconds there are in : FORMULA Then we know there are in in a day . Therefore there are * 12 nanoseconds per day . Using a year there is * nanoseconds in , and this would be the same amount of processes . ! ( number of processes needed)/ * ( processes per year ) would give the number of needed to complete these processes . This gives an amazing * to compute just the array of permutations of the above problem . This is obviously at present an unreachable goal . Something that seems so simple increases so rapidly as the n is increased . From my understanding an problem is loosely speaking , a class of problems that are believed unsolvable within a reasonable amount of time in the worst case . Thus , approximation algorithms are very important for solving real - world problems such as the payphone coin collector problem ? ? There are other methods of finding the shortest possible circuits that would cut the amount of time , such as algorithms which rearrange the nodes and distances to find a path which is the shortest without computing every possible circuit . These algorithm works in a similar way to how a human works out their best guess of the shortest circuit . They are designed to notice which distances are very large and work out a way to go around them or avoid them . They also work out how to get from place to another whether it is sometime more beneficial to go a little further but to go via another node . From the following are given as shortest path algorithms : The most important algorithms for solving this problem are : < list > 's algorithm - solves single source problem if all edge weights are greater than or equal to . Without worsening the run time , this algorithm can in fact compute the shortest paths from a given start point s to all other nodes . algorithm - solves single source problem if edge weights may be negative . A * search algorithm solves for single source shortest paths using heuristics to try to speed up the search algorithm - solves all pairs shortest paths . 's algorithm - solves all pairs shortest paths , may be faster than on sparse graphs . Perturbation theory ; finds ( at worst ) the locally shortest path Halting Problem: Pseudo Code given as a general overview of what our program had to do: FORMULA My code of the above translated into a ' C ' program : FORMULA FORMULA < heading > Input : Output
From the above inputs we can see that the program always halts and never runs infintely . However from the above inputs it is not possible to say that the program will always stop , there will always be a number bigger that the number you have tried that we can not sya for sure will work . As we can see the number has a lot of printed output before it stops , if we looked at the pattern of number of terms in the output , for the number there are outputs for there are and for there are over 110 outputs . This means it looks like the number of outputs is at least tripling when the input is increased by or 4 , so it is fair to predict that an input of or would produce over outputs . With this extreme increase of outputs per small increase in input it is fair to say that the number of outputs would eventually become extremely large . The importance of is that it was one of the prolblems to be proved undecideable , with our instance of the above halting problems , it is fair to say that we can never guarantee that a random number that is inputted will always halt .",1 "The assumption that antebellum were inherently distinct has often been taken for granted in the past . With historic insight we are aware that this period culminated with a brutal inter - sectional , and thus it is easy to assume that the historian ought to concentrate on what is different between them . For study has indeed focussed upon such distinctions , with a particular concentration upon the most obvious and fundamental , the differential use of slave or waged labour . However , in historians have become increasingly sceptical of such clear sectional divisions and there has been an upsurge in work examining the many similarities that remained even throughout the warring period . My aim here is to use such work to examine whether a stress upon the similarities , or instead the differences between the sections is more useful and/or potentially accurate to the historian interested in this period of history . In doing so I will examine several important aspects of society including the economy , ideology and social life of the sections and how these compare . An important element of many previous studies on sectional differences has been the paths taken to economic development within the and South . tends to be viewed as the seat of commercial , industrial and urban development in this period . The rapid growth of cities at this time was heavily concentrated in the , in particular in were the greatest levels of industrial progress were occurring . By this section owned double the wealth of the , an astounding move when at it had only accounted for around 40 per cent of national income . With the remaining predominantly agricultural one might assume that here an emphasis on sectional differences is the only logical way forward for the historian . Yet despite the widening contrast in economic bases , the sections continued to share some similarities in development and , perhaps more importantly , appear to have been largely co - dependent at this time . < fnote , and Hewitt , , Who Built America ? Working People and the Nation 's Economy , Politics , Culture and Society : Volume One - From Conquest and ( : , ) , p.351 < /fnote > Southern economic development had been very much focussed upon a move to cotton as the staple export crop of a plantation economy . Although of course distinct from the manufacturing progress of the , the equally as much became entwined into the market economy and commercial world . Total isolation of the sections at this time was simply not present ; business connections ran across the nation and most had little desire to risk their enterprise for the sake of sectional loyalty . It might well be arguable therefore that , at least in terms of economic development , the historian wishing to best understand the changes in this period might be as wise to look at sectional similarities as differences . The fact that both were affected , although in different ways , by an international industrial revolution occurring at this moment in time suggests that the forces acting upon both remained the same , even if the outcome of these differed . < fnote > Ib i d. , p.331 < /fnote> Wiebe , , : From the Adoption of the to the Eve of Disunion ( New York : , , ) , p.362 < /fnote> important result of economic development in both sections is the labour system undertaken in each to deal with the increased demand of an industrialising world . This is often cited as the single biggest and most crucial difference between the North and South in this period , producing ' profound cultural differences ' between the sections . The enslavement of blacks of origin had almost always been a mark of society , but with the move to cotton production en masse , it became what many view as its defining feature . and Hewitt point out that in before the embargo on slave importation , were purchased by plantation owners . This huge figure almost doubles the number imported in ! This trend created a society with a black majority , in stark contrast to the . This of course in turn would have had a massive effect on many other aspects of life here , for example in the way that slave ownership became a mark of status . A contemporary comment illustrates the extent to which slave ownership became the basis of existence : "" To sell cotton in order to buy negroes , to make more cotton to buy more negroes ... is the aim and direct tendency of all the operations of the thoroughgoing cotton planter . "" The accumulation of slaves appears to have been to the what the accumulation of machinery was to the . < fnote > Sellers , Charles , The Market Revolution : , ( ; : , ) , p.5 < /fnote> Clark and Hewitt , Who Built America ? , p.322 < /fnote> Quote taken from ib i d. , p.322 < /fnote> Ib i d. , p.332 < /fnote > In the states by comparison , commercial and industrial development had been dealt with through the use of waged labour . migrants were encouraged to enter the where they manned the increasing number of factories and manufacturing outlets . Here one can see then that the fuel of economic development in the sections , the workforce , was as distinct as could be . With the growth of abolitionist movements in the during the later part of the antebellum period , it is easy to see how historians have marked this difference as the crucial point of departure between sections . Indeed if we can truly divide support for the continuance of slavery and for the abolitionist movement by section , one might well see this difference as crucial to an understanding of this period , in particular how came about . However the question remains as to the extent to which we really can make such distinctions . Although slavery was generally confined to the states , I do not believe we can argue that support for its continuance was similarly isolated . Only a small minority in the ever signed the anti - slavery petitions of the abolitionist movements and in general an uneasy acceptance of the need for its continuance appears to have existed amongst the population of this section . A contemporary comment made by backs up this idea : "" I do not believe that the People of the Free States are heartily Anti - Slavery ... hostile to as wrong and crime , they are not , nor ( I fear ) likely soon to be . "" In a sense many manufacturers and merchants worked implicitly to keep slavery alive in the by maintaining a business relationship with those plantation owners who could provide the staples the required . As suggests it seems that ' Just as long as sin stayed there and did not come here , most northerners could tolerate slavery . "" It would seem that slavery was not as alien to the as many historians in the past have led us to believe and similarly that those in the saw themselves as ' at war with a crazy , viscious band of abolitionists , not as section battling section . "" Although a distinctly institution , its effects reached out to every corner of the country and thus in attempting to make sense of this period in history it would perhaps be unwise for the historian to consider labour in a strictly sectional sense . < fnote > Horace Greeley , quoted in , and ; : , ) , p.7 < /fnote> Wiebe , , p.362 < /fnote> Ib i d. , p.355 < /fnote > This leads onto another key feature of potential difference between the sections , the existence of inequalities . Racism as we have seen appears to have been an inherent feature of both and society . Although blacks were not enslaved in the section they still lacked most basic human rights and were unable to fulfil the role of true citizen in the majority of states , either through legal prevention or by intimidation in some form . Racial inequality was not the only form present in both sections where previously thought absent . acknowledges that through the use of methodology borrowed from the social scientists , historians have overturned many of the previously held notions concerning antebellum social stratification . He shows that the both those in the and the lived ' in a stratified society marked by great inequalities in status , material condition , and opportunity . ' The slave market certainly helped to narrow the gulf in sectional inequalities of wealth as slaves were not classed as citizens , thus total sectional wealth was divided between far fewer than the true population . However despite this , many patterns remained shockingly similar between the sections , for example that in both sections , by the outbreak of war , of free adult males owned 1 per cent of property . On both sides of the divide wealth was more equally distributed in rural areas and at inequalities were at their height in the cities . In addition many of the white waged labourers in the complained bitterly about their working conditions . They struggled to gain a and frequently evoked comparisons between their own condition and that of slaves in the . Although one can never argue that these sections were ' carbon copies ' in terms of the existence of inequalities , it does seem that for the free white male at least , the living social experience at this time would have been remarkably similar . < fnote , ' How Different from Each Other Were the Antebellum North and South ? ' , p.1127 < /fnote> Ib i d. , p.1133 < /fnote> The topic of social inequality brings me onto the importance of differences in ideology between the sections . The prided itself on its distinct sectional ideology that celebrated the freedom and liberty they believed was the basis of society . The notion that opportunities for vertical social mobility were present and available for the taking if so desired permeated this ideology and thus for was accepted as given by many historians . That the did not possess such opportunities was a major factor in notions of superiority over a they believed to be strictly divided between the rich , poor and black . There is certainly little evidence to dispute that the chance to move up the social ladder was a rare one in at this time ; what recent historians have uncovered however is that , despite the ideology suggesting otherwise , this was also rare in the . There are very few examples of individuals from genuinely lower class backgrounds making large social leaps in their lifetimes in either section . The idea of political independence based upon property ownership in the had been the basis of their ideology , and this can not fail to be seen as undermined by the massive increase in landless labourers during the antebellum period . Once again then , this evidence hints that the historian of the antebellum period should be careful in examining only the sectional differences present . While the social exclusion of blacks in the was of course of a high degree , the emphasis on social justice in the political climate towards is perhaps misguiding to the historian when massive inequalities still existed within their own section . < fnote , ' How Different from Each Other Were the Antebellum North and South ? ' , p.1134 < /fnote > In bringing these ideas together then , I would argue that the historian would be misguided to stress simply the differences between the North and South in this period . Although it might seem that to explain the explosion of there must be fundamental distinctions between the sections , to concentrate only upon these would reveal an inadequate picture of this period . Indeed there were many important differences in the society , economy and other areas of and life , the presence of an enslaved labour force in one being the most glaringly obvious . However , while these may have taken on a greater importance after the commencement of the war , at this point in time I would argue that the similarities between the sections are of equal importance to the historian who desires to examine this period as a unique time in its own right . Like , I believe that the success of this period hinges on the fact that most did not see a contradiction between having autonomy of sections whilst maintaining harmony as a whole . < fnote > Wiebe , , p.362 < /fnote > Within , as I hope to have shown , there were perhaps as many important similarities , or at least links between the sections as to make them interdependent , as there were differences tearing them apart . Both sections underwent periods of definite economic progression while issues of inequality remained an undercurrent . Of course the end results and even the process of transformation that the international industrial revolution brought about within the sections was entirely different , but they were equally affected by it and thus to deny the importance of studying similarities would be inadequate . Equally of course , one can not simply emphasise what was the same nationwide , a trap that perhaps falls a little too far into in his work . The fact that war was the end result of the antebellum period , although perhaps tainting the extent to which we view the sections as different , does indicate that we can not fail to acknowledge that these societies were distinctly separate . Perhaps my conclusion is not as definite as one would prefer , but I can not fail to argue that looking at both the similarities and the differences between the sections is important to this era . For future historians , and this is perhaps why I have emphasised this aspect more , looking at similarities is possibly of a greater importance because there is already so much historical work which stresses the differences . If we desire to understand this period in history in its own right then comparisons between the and South become as important to our work as contrasts because ' for all of their distinctiveness , and were complementary elements in an society ' . < fnote , ' How Different from Each Other Were the Antebellum North and South ? ' , p.1147 < /fnote >","It was around that , much to their surprise , physicians discovered an illness that appeared to be ' new ' . This was a massive turning point for modern medicine : the battle against infectious disease , which most believed had been won , was not yet over ( , , ) . AIDS came to prominence through the appearance of a number of patients marked by the experience of a cocktail of illnesses , including pneumonia , ( cytomegalovirus , belonging to the herpes virus family ) and 's sarcoma ( a skin disease ) . These cases , initially concentrated in , and , were highlighted as decidedly unusual without "" a clinically apparent underlying immunodeficiency "" ( report , cited in , , p.5 ) . From here , ( AIDS ) was born , the latter stage of an infection ' characterised by advancing destruction of key elements of the immune system ' ( and , , p.306 ) , and later found to have the HIV virus as its root cause . The HIV virus is found in the blood , semen or vaginal fluid of the infected person . As a result , the main route of transmission is through unprotected vaginal or anal sex , although it can be passed on from mother - to - child during birth and breast - feeding , as well as in the blood via transfusions or the sharing of needles . The importance of these methods of transmission is paramount when considering social responses to AIDS . It means that this condition could not be addressed in the same manner as earlier infectious diseases , and has also thrown up a whole new set of problems linked to the stigmatisation and social comment on sufferers , which policy must also address . When considering the responses to AIDS made in the , the significance of AIDS as a ' new ' disease is paramount because it meant that no existing explanatory model seemed to bring understanding . As indiciates , "" Nothing like this had happened within the living memory of anyone "" ( civil servant , , interview cited in , , p.1 ) , and the rapid spread of AIDS meant that it began to be highlighted as a potential ' new plague ' on the modern world . These factors are often seen as having been crucial in the social responses to this condition , which had to simultaneously address issues of fear and novelty , while attempting to devise an effective means of overcoming the threat posed . The identification of AIDS as a predominantly ' gay disease ' led to a resurgence in the media , and society at large , of historical notions of ' innocent ' and ' guilty ' victims , with those who had caught the disease through "" morally unacceptable practices "" being negatively portrayed ( , , p.1 ) . In the same manner , attention surrounding the spread of AIDS focused on aspects of the ' gay lifestyle ' including the frequency of sexual relations with multiple partners , and the use of sexually stimulating drugs known as ' poppers ' ( , , p.28 ) . This attribution of ' susceptibility ' is often cited as a revealing insight into underlying tensions of society at this time , part of a covert attempt to criticise a way of life branded immoral by the dominant New Right politics of this period . As , ) points out , AIDS ' became for many a potent symbol for all that had changed , or threatened to change ' in terms of sexuality , with its linkage to sexual promiscuity and homosexuality . Social responses like these can not be seen to have been effective in addressing the AIDS issue , instead creating additional problems . The media emphasis upon particular ' risky behaviours ' has created a sense of ' invulnerability ' to the disease among low - risk groups , such as heterosexuals , ( Memon , , p.157 ) and led to what and label a ' denial of possibility ' . This in turn can lead to an avoidance of testing , thus delaying diagnosis and treatment , while potentially increasing the risk of infection to others . In addition , the media response means that AIDS victims have been stigmatised in a way that those suffering from other chronic or infectious diseases have not . In what ( , ) calls a ' media distortion ' , AIDS has become surrounded by notions of individual moral responsibility , deviancy and contamination . These have , in turn , clouded the public perception and led to an ' othering ' of AIDS which has made the public response less sympathetic and inclusive , and made dealing with the condition itself about much more than biological symptoms . However , we can not assume that the social responses to AIDS in the have been entirely detrimental and ineffective . As ( , p.6 ) points out , official policy - making on AIDS has , in the most part , excluded the impact of stereotyping so widely disseminated by the media . While ' Thatcherism ' as a political model espoused moral conservatism , the policy response has tended to formulate the condition as a biomedical rather than a social ill . Crucial here was the sense , emergent from the ' newness ' of the condition , of AIDS policy formation as an open field . Following an initially slow government response to the crisis , lobbying by the active gay community allowed prominent voluntary agencies associated with AIDS , such as , to become involved in policy creation ( , , p.55 ) . This meant that by the period in which AIDS came to be viewed as a threat to the population more generally ( heterosexuals as well as homosexuals / drug users ) , policy formation in this area was already established as a ' liberal consensus ' arena ( , , p.7 ) . As a result , one finds in , an AIDS policy that acknowledges that ' Fear and repression in previous epidemics had often been misplaced , causing greater suffering than the disease ' ( , , p.4 ) . Safe sex and ' harm minimisation ' were emphasised more than stigmatising policies like quarantining ( , , p.23 ) , and money was invested into drug - research programmes as well as media - led health education campaigns . While this policy does seem to have been relatively effecting in keeping the number of AIDS sufferers at a low level , and to help reduce the influence of media - created stereotypes among most individuals , it is still open to criticism . Measures taken to help the prevention of HIV spread , such as needle exchange programmes and free condom distribution , have met with fierce opposition . This comes largely from those who believe such responses promote the ' immoral behaviour ' that they see as having been the initial cause of the epidemic . AIDS policy has also had a tendency to confuse and conflict with other government initiatives . For example , while official policy clearly demarcated the necessity of a mass public education on transmission of the HIV virus , the continued existence of measures like ' Clause 28 ' of the Local Government Act ( banning the promotion of homosexuality in education ) served as a contradiction ( , , p.6 ) . Examples like this reveal the deep - seated complexity of AIDS policy , and its impact on social responses to the condition . It clearly depends who is judging a measure or response , and from what moral or political position , as to whether it can be considered effective . An additional critique comes from those who view the biomedical approach taken to dealing with AIDS as having failed to reach the route of the problem . Post-1987 , the most active phase of proactive social responses to AIDS slowed . The condition , at least in the , has become increasingly ' normalised ' as simply another element of a modern disease network : a medical rather than social issue , thus brought under the control of doctors and the research laboratory . This has , in turn , created types of response to AIDS in . An emphasis on the role of drug treatments , and finding vaccines and ' cures ' predominates in terms of government expenditure . Critics suggest that this approach , while having improved the quality of life for many sufferers , does little to really tackle the root of the problem . Instead they suggest that we ought to focus our attentions upon education and prevention , measures that could fundamentally alter public perceptions of AIDS , but tend to be avoided due to their potential impact on many other areas of social life . The ' normalisation ' of this condition has also had the effect of reducing public interest . As ( , p.17 ) points out , AIDS has become a ' boring story ' and a ' buried subject ' , which , while perhaps indicating that much of the stigma associated with the novelty of AIDS has appeased , must also be viewed as dangerous to the effectiveness of health promotion and AIDS awareness . What has so far only been inferred is that , in the period since its initial identification , AIDS has grown to become a worldwide epidemic , affecting people . While the cases of the disease were uncovered in the developed world , it is now , and in particular , that has been hardest hit , with around 70 per cent of cases concentrated here ( Finkel and Garrett , , p.133 ) . Where the condition has become ' normalised ' within the itself , it has been increasingly highlighted as a crisis - point for the health of the developing world . The social responses to AIDS in places like bring with them an entirely different set of problems , when compared to the . These are largely centred on the sheer scale of the problem here and the constraint of poor financial ability to deal with it . The issue of the effectiveness of taking a medicalised approach to addressing the AIDS is particularly prominent with reference to the developing world . Budgetary constraints and the huge percentage of the population affected , make this type of response questionably effective . Poor countries , like many of those worst affected in , can not afford expensive drug treatments , or mass screening programmes , a factor that has perhaps allowed the problem to grow to such an extent when compared to the . In a similar vain to the issues raised by critics of the biomedical approach in the , its use in the developing world fails to address many elements of the suffering associated with AIDS . Focussing on trying to distribute drug treatment to sufferers does little to overcome the massive social crises that have resulted out of its spread . children have been orphaned ( ) and the effect on the economy of these nations of losing members of the labouring and reproductive population can not be under - estimated . Part of what is needed for an effective response to AIDS in , is help from outside but it is only relatively recently that this attitude began to take shape . There has been a tendency among the developed world to ignore the impact of AIDS in global terms because , as ? ? ? ? ( ) indicates , ' Now that drugs can ward off the effects of AIDS in people who can afford them , the issue has slid out of sight ' . However , recently we can begin to see a change of attitude , stimulated largely by the work of voluntary groups in , which has encouraged measures such as the upgrading of AIDS to a matter that affects the security of nations . Drug companies too are cooperating in offering help to the charities operating in the worst - affected nations . The effectiveness of this type of response will , however , only go so far . In order to deal with the AIDS crisis , countries in the Third World must deal with a number of more structurally embedded issues that have thus - far prevented an effective response . More so than in the , taboos around the discussion of sexual matters have tended to create a denial of the problem , both among individuals and those in leadership roles , President Mbeki being a prime example . This is problematic when considers that the most effective responses ( in terms of reducing cases ) have been campaigns to reduce unsafe sex through condom use ( ) . Equally , the empowerment of women is highlighted as a potentially effective way of initiating safer sex practices yet , again , this meets head - on the social constraints of traditionally patriarchal nations and communities . It would seem that dealing with AIDS in is an entirely different matter to addressing it in countries like the . In the , the limited number of cases and money available for drug therapy has enabled a relatively effective response , in the sense of reducing the number of new infections . The biggest problem here has most probably been related to the media - induced ' moral panic ' around AIDS during , which led to the stigmatisation and blaming of sufferers . However , even this response has appeased with the ' normalisation ' of the condition , so that contemporary attitudes are relatively neutral , if perhaps a little un - interested ! Meanwhile , must deal with an epidemic of epic proportions with a tiny percentage of the money available to richer nations . The social constraints that must be overcome in order to initiate the only perceivable effective response , preventative education programmes , are also much deeper embedded than there were in the . In conclusion then , I would argue that the social responses to AIDS have been more effective in than other parts of the world . We seem to have overcome the social stigma and fear associated with the condition , a response most likely initiated by the policy creation process that took place against a liberal consensual backdrop . Although we still face the danger of increasing complacency , AIDS no longer threatens the health of the entire nation and thus must be deemed effectively dealt with . Other parts of world , by contrast , must address a growing social and economic crisis , not just the medical treatment of an infection , a situation made worse by taboo and ineffective leadership . It would seem that in order to effectively tackle AIDS here , the developing world must be offered help from outside , and help in avoiding the stigma attached to AIDS that could intensify the situation further still .",1 "Quality in horticultural products has started to increase in importance especially . People want to become more and more aware of what they eat , how it is produced and simultaneously what are the effects on the environment . The overuse of fertilizers , pesticides and water has increased people awareness and as a result led to the development of quality assurance schemes so as to protect both consumers and environment . According to definition quality is ' the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs ' ( 22 Quality Assurance , ) . In other words one can say that a product is characterised by good quality when it fulfils consumers ' requirements . There is no doubt that those who affect the quality to great extent are growers . Many of them strongly believe that it is difficult to control the quality of a product as climate or nature decides it for them . This may be true to some extent taking into account that something unpredictable may occur , but there are many factors , which are undoubtedly important affecting and simultaneously improving the quality of fruits or vegetables that can be controlled . The key factor is to specify the requirements for quality and as a result to plan the whole production system in such a way so as to maximise the amount of products that meets these requirements . ( URL : sectID=306&tempID=99 ) Nowadays , the competition between supermarkets for the sake of quality in horticultural products has been increased . This competition to satisfy consumers ' needs has resulted in improving the quality of products in order to be more competitive in the market . On the other hand , the escalated expectations of consumers to have better fruits and vegetables has led to the development of quality assurance schemes . According to definition , quality assurance refers to ' all those planned and systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that a product process or service will satisfy given quality requirements ' ( 22 Quality Assurance , ) . All the assurance schemes that have been implemented across come to assure that growers and farmers produce horticultural products bearing in mind the consumers ' safety , maintaining and simultaneously maximizing product quality with the minimum impact on the environment . The final ultimate benefit is that a confidence between growers and consumers has been established to assure that the products are safe . Many quality assurance schemes have been developed across especially to provide the appropriate certification of safety in horticultural products . Some of the most well known are , which stands for , BOPP , which stands for , and , which is about Fresh Produce and Ornamentals . of the most innovative quality assurance schemes across is and has been evolved from the standards . EUREPGAP means ' Euro Retailer and represents leading retailers in such as as well as . comes from and is used by in order to certify the way that all agricultural products are being produced . At this time EUREPGAP standards focus on fresh fruits , vegetables , flowers and ornamental plants . Every horticultural product can be certified by . EUREPGAP incorporates principles such as risk prevention , risk analysis based on ( Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points ) . Also , it encourages practices such as ( ) , ( ICM ) and uses technology in such a way that improves continuously the production system . ( URL ) At this point it is useful to be referred what led to the establishment of . It has been developed due to the increasing consumer awareness of quality and the way that horticultural products are being produced . Consumers speculate about the overuse of water for irrigation , fertilizers , pesticides as well as the impact that may have upon their health and nature in general . As a result , they want to be sure that the entire horticultural product is being produced with regard to consumers ' safety and the minimum environmental impact . Moreover , has increased consumers ' confidence in the way that horticultural industry uses natural resources and the final impact on animals . There is no doubt , that with EUREPGAP consumers are sure that every step of the primary production is in compliance with international and national standards , taking into account the safe production of horticultural products . ( URL services/ certificationprograms/ eurepgap/ why / why.html ) The benefits deriving from are undoubtedly of great importance as far as the growers are concerned . of all , those having certification have a better market access as most of the leading retailers across demand horticultural products to be in compliance with it . Furthermore , having this certification the market position of the growers is being enhanced . Finally , in the long run the cost of producing agricultural products in accordance to standards can be decreased due to the continuous improvement of the production system . The development of quality assurance schemes across has undoubtedly great influence on horticulture industry . The growers in order to be more competitive in the market , and simultaneously to meet the demands of consumers have changed the way of the production . The benefits for both growers and consumers are of great importance . of all growers that are in accordance with standards keep records of the pesticides , fertilizers and generally any other application to plants that affect the quality . Consequently consumers are safe about these products and sure that have the minimum or the least acceptable harmful chemical compounds . Comparing this situation with or with other products lacking of the appropriate standards it is easily noticeable that the production system in horticultural industry has changed . The factor that has been affected by the development of quality assurance schemes is the varieties . Now there are some varieties resistant to enemies reducing the level of pesticide application . In addition , growers have to use those being in accordance with consumers ' requirements so as to be more competitive . Furthermore , as ( ) are not allowed in until now , consumers are safe ( those who worry about that ) that do not consume those plants . EUREPGAP and other schemes that have been established across have totally changed the way of pesticide application to horticulture . The overuse of pesticides especially and the environmental impact have increased public awareness . Consequently , those who are in compliance with quality assurance schemes are obliged to follow certain rules about pesticide application . They have to use the appropriate amounts when and where is needed , only on target pests , taking serious into consideration the impact on natural enemies . This can be achieved by monitoring the pests ' population and applying chemicals at the appropriate time , eliminating the environmental impact . Furthermore , all the applications have to be recorded . Finally , pesticides have to be kept under proper storage conditions and also growers have to take care of the empty containers to avoid pollution . Not only pesticides but also the use of fertilizers has been affected in horticulture for the sake of quality and environment . Those who have EUREPGAP certification are obliged to record all the applications and to use appropriate cultural techniques that are in accordance with quality assurance standards . This means that they have to know beforehand what quantities of fertilizers to use , based on tissue analysis or analysis of nutrient solution , preventing nutrient loss especially nitrates which is one of the most important cause of water contamination . All these indicate that the production system has changed comparing to where fertilizers had been used intensively and uncontrollably . Horticulture and generally agriculture use water extensively . This means that overuse and waste of the water becomes a serious threat for the environment . Consequently , standards assure that growers employ cultural techniques to manage properly water . It is applied only when is needed by plants and at the appropriate amount to avoid water loss . Moreover , quality assurance schemes certify that irrigation systems use water efficiently so as not to waste natural resources . Finally , the improvement of technology has led to more sophisticated systems that recycle water and therefore minimize water loss . Finally , growers who have adopted standards or similar schemes have to employ experienced workers . The workers not only have to be experienced in using pesticides and other chemical compounds but also they have to be well protected in terms of their health . Comparing the situation with where amateur did most of the work it is easy to infer that the impact of quality assurance schemes on horticulture production is discernible . To sum up , the increasing people 's awareness of what they consume , the impact on the environment and simultaneously the competition of supermarket chains to provide quality in their products , has led to the development of quality assurance schemes . Now , consumers are willing to pay more for quality than ever and these schemes assure that horticultural products are produced in a way that takes into consideration consumers ' safety as well as nature .","< heading > INTRODUCTION The trip involved a visit to an organic farm , where different crops are cultivated . The farm promoted sustainability in terms of social , economic and environmental issues by minimizing the inputs to the system and at the same time by enhancing biodiversity . . < heading > SUSTAINABLE A system is sustainable when it takes seriously into account the nature , avoiding any depletion of natural resources . In addition , a sustainable system is highly productive and stable avoiding any undesirable long - term effects such as soil erosion or negative impact on the balance of pest predator - populations . < heading > DESCRIPTION OF In the organic farm different crops are cultivated all year round and the whole system is divided into separate rotations ; field , garden and polytunnels . The whole system is based on green manures and in general on under sowing techniques , without any animal input . < heading > The field rotation The field rotation is based on rotation ; cultivated with red clover and with other crops . Potatoes are cultivated during after of red clover cultivation . During , manure is incorporated to improve soil fertility and then another one when potatoes are cleared . In vegetables are cultivated so as to cover the field during , while in onion and leeks . The onions are cultivated in polyethylene strips mulch intercropped with clover between them . In and , carrots or parsnip and sweet corn or squash are cultivated respectively . < heading > Hedges In the field rotation , there are hedges planted across field margins by double row of trees . In addition , between each block margins there is a mixture of herbs , clover and grasses to act as a connection between hedges . < heading > The garden rotation The garden is based on a rotation , of which are by clover . The garden has its own microclimate and according to the owner it is a challenging part of the organic farm because it produces early crops and also is characterized by having good fertility . It consists of plots each one cultivated by family group . As in the field rotation , it is also based on under sowing techniques . Although it accounts for of the whole organic farm it is the most labour intensive ( of the labour ) . < heading > Polytunnels rotation The use of polytunnel rotation is extremely important for the organic farm , because apart from extending the growing season they also bring early crops supplementing the income . In polytunnels overwintering crops are cultivated with of them being brassicas and non - brassicas . Moreover , carrots and spinach are also cultivated in this part of the farm . What is really intriguing is the existence of special nesting places , with straw and leaves , for hedgehogs . < heading > SUSTAINABILITY OF THE ORGANIC FARM The soil fertility of the organic farm is based predominantly on green manures and not any other input such as animal materials or fertilizers . The main strategy of the farm is the combination of crop rotation and green manures , incorporating them within the growing crop . The main fertility building period of the rotation is in with red clover or lucerne to be cultivated . is of the best crops used to raise nitrogen levels and also to improve soil drainage as the roots go down m. Taking into account that nitrogen levels are increased , the cultivation of potatoes is successful as they require nitrogen so as good productivity to be achieved . The use of vetches as and spring crops is beneficial as the soil is covered during . In consequence , not only the organic content is increased but also soil damage is prevented as soil erosion and leaching of the nutrients are being eliminated . Apart from covering well the soil , vetches also encourage range of insects to come , increasing biodiversity . The cultivation of onions on polyethylene mulch is successful as the soil is too stony and also allowed drying to take place in the field and not indoors reducing the cost of production . The cultivation of red clover between the polyethylene strips is of great importance as fertility and soil structure is being increased , enhancing also organic content . The use of carrots or leeks as part of the end of the rotation is also successful as fertility levels started to decline and these crops are able to grow under low fertility levels . Finally , the cultivation of sweet corn or squash in is beneficial in terms of rebuilding soil structure before the following crop . In a similar way with field rotation , in garden rotation ( ) red cover is cultivated to provide the appropriate fertility in the soil . Green manures are also used , being incorporated during the growing crop to optimize soil fertility . This strategy is successful as well as in the field rotation . The cultivation of winter salads is of vital importance for the farm , as they offer an income during . According to the owner they produce bags of salads per month . The existence of nesting places for hedgehogs contributes to increasing the biodiversity and as a result to sustainability of the whole system . < heading > Dealing with weeds They way they manage the weeds is of great importance as both chemical inputs and increasing costs of hand - weeding are being eliminated . The strategy of dealing with weeds is characterized as successful as they are destroyed by burning them off as they emerge ( pre - thermal - weeding ) before the crop emerges . < heading > Hedges management The use of hedges on field margins contributes to general sustainability of the farm . They consist of double row of trees , trimmed once ( - side ) so as not to destroy nests . Hedges increase biodiversity in the farm in terms of flora and fauna and also encourage birds ' life . They also act as windbreaks , reducing the impact of heavy winds on crops . Biodiversity also increases as insects move from crop to hedges and then the following season back to the crop . < heading > CONCLUSIONS ABOUT ORGANIC FARM The organic farm is characterized as sustainable since crop rotation and green manures contribute to great extent to it , eliminating fertilizer inputs . In addition , the use of hedges across field margins increases biodiversity allowing predators to move to them during and to return to the crops the following season . They also attract insect - eating birds , whereas at the same time act as windbreaks . Economic sustainability is achieved in the organic farm as wide range of crops is cultivated . Apart from offering a successful income to the farm , the different crops make the whole system flexible as if one crop fails it accounts for a small part . In terms of social sustainability , the farm gives great opportunities for many people to work . Moreover , the use of open brings people together and also allows consumers to visit the farm having a better view of how the crops are cultivated and how environmental friendly is the way of production . < heading > SUGGESTIONS Although green manures are beneficial , contributing to sustainability of the whole system , it could have been better also animal manures to be included so as to optimize soil fertility . In addition , taking into account that there are horses in the farm , their manure can be used in successful production of organic mushrooms , offering another essential income to the farm and contributing to economic sustainability .",1 "In the majority of life 's situations , we seem to have no problem identifying what we call people . And yet when we are pushed to examine what exactly it is we are pointing to , often there is no clear answer . On the most basic level , we may point to a human being 's body and call that a person , and yet many people , and most religions , believe a person will continue to exist after the death of this body . Even if one does not believe in any kind of soul it is still possible to maintain that what makes a person a person is not characterised by their body but by their mind or consciousness . Whether it is coherent to believe that a person can be identified solely with reference to a mind is questionable . is committed to a distinction between mind and body . In his meditations he makes it clear that what defines an individual can be separated from the body . He writes : < quote>""What then am I ? A thing that thinks . A thing that doubts , understands , affirms , denies , is willing , is unwilling , and also imagines and has sensory perceptions . "" < /quote> Meditations on , < /fnote > All the things that compose who he is are limited to mental states ; there is no reference to the body at all . Even having sensory perceptions he distinguishes from any actual objects his body might perceive . It can be argued that 's explanation is simply a list of things that the mind can do , without any firm idea of what makes it the same mind and hence a person . He simply writes : < quote>""The fact that it is I who am doubting and understanding and willing is so evident that I see no way of making it any clearer "" . < /quote> Ibid . < /fnote > Strawson accepts that a single mind has a sustained existence , but he believes we can only identify this mind with reference to a certain person ; the idea of ' person ' incorporating more than simply the mind . He writes : < quote>""Since the regards the concept of mind or consciousness as secondary to , or derivative from , he can advance the following simple rule : ' person , consciousness ; same person , same consciousness . '"" Stawson : Self , Mind and Body in Reading Philosophy , < /fnote > When we talk about the ' same consciousness ' , what can we mean other than the ' same person 's consciousness ' ? does not provide a satisfactory definition of personhood , but he points out that an can accept that the question of the criteria of personal identity is a difficult one , while at the same time using adequate criteria for most ordinary cases , and may intelligently adapt these criteria when extraordinary cases arise . Without a higher concept of personhood , points out that it is just as coherent to suggest that there are a whole series of minds transmitting their state and consciousness from one to the other as to think that there is only a single mind . If a reduction is feasible then it must be possible to independently define a single identity and consciousness , but suggests that "" there is not the slightest reason for thinking that this can be done "" . < fnote > Ibid . p.33 < /fnote > It is this claim that Foster confronts in his book . In order to define a person independently of anything other than mind he writes that the essential nature of a non - physical ' basic subject ' ( which can be taken to mean person ) must be a purely mental attribute that it necessarily possesses at every point in its history . It must be sufficiently broad so as to be a constant feature throughout the subject 's widely varying mental conditions . Descartes thought this property was the cogitatio , but the varying ways in which this word can be interpreted will alter the argument significantly . If it is taken to mean simply ' thought ' then Foster points out that it is not sufficiently generic as to cover all of our mental activity : it is just one of a group of mental states and not its common factor . If it is interpreted as meaning ' consciousness ' then it can not be an attribute that is necessarily possessed at every point in a person 's existence because a subject is not conscious when asleep or under . If the insists that consciousness is the essential attribute of personhood he must make a choice between alternatives . Either there is a constant stream of consciousness during sleep of which we have no memory , or we cease to exist as people when we are asleep or otherwise unconscious . In light of this it seems the meaning of cogitatio must be expanded further to mean simply ' mentality ' , i.e. all mental activity . But is this the ' unitary intrinsic attribute ' that Foster was looking for , or simply a disjunction of all the states it covers ? There must be a common factor that binds them , something in virtue of which they all qualify as mental . Descartes identified this common factor as the ability to all be accessible to introspective awareness when the subject is conscious . In this case a mind is more like a rope . There are many mental processes taking place through time , like the many threads that make up a rope . They overlap with each other and vary in size , without any single process , or thread , lasting for the entire length . They are united by our introspective awareness of them . < fnote > Principles of Philosophy , Part I , IX < /fnote > It is interesting to note that does not suggest memory as the answer to the problem of continued identity . The majority of his illustrations are snapshots of the mind at a single point , without any real consideration for its continuity . Surely , if anything , it is our memory that assures us that we remain the same person , and allows for any conception of continuity at all . Perhaps the answer lies in 's attributing the same level of doubt to memory as to perception of the external world . Nothing so doubtful can be relied on to guarantee our identity . However 's cogitatio is defined , the whole notion of defining personhood solely with reference to mental activity raises problems . A baby has very little brain activity , and is certainly not capable of ' introspective awareness ' , whilst a very early foetus has no brain activity at all . And yet many people will argue that both of these , certainly the former , are persons . We seem to have no problem identifying what we think are people . But it soon becomes clear that many of our seemingly natural judgements do not stand up to analysis . Generally we will combine an individual mind and body in order to come up with our idea of a person . Whether either of these on its own still constitutes a person remains a matter of debate . If forced to make a choice , we would most likely say it is the mental processes and personality that define a person rather than their body , hence the belief among many that a person continues to exist after the death of their body . But as has been shown , it is very difficult to pinpoint which of the multitude of mental states , if any , constitutes who we really are .","In this essay I will briefly outline the distinction between a belief in objective moral truths and a belief in moral relativity . I will then suggest that even if we accept or other of these views we are not consequently tied to a certain answer to the question of whether morality should be private . If we reject objective moral truths we may still be reluctant to adopt a relativist viewpoint due to other , mainly political , considerations . Similarly , if we accept that morality is objective we may nevertheless believe , perhaps because of certain religious views , that morality should be a matter for the individual . Finally , I will argue that the introduction of categorical and hypothetical moral imperatives allows for the conception of an argument based on hypothetical imperatives that perhaps both the moral objectivist and the moral relativist will be willing to accept . A distinction is traditionally drawn between moral relativists and moral objectivists . Objectivists believe that there are moral facts , and that the question of whether an act or a person is good or bad has a specific answer that is the same for every person . Relativists believe morality can vary between individuals or groups of individuals . There may still be answers to moral questions , but these questions can have multiple answers , all of which can be correct . At glance this distinction seems to provide obvious answers to the question of morality 's role in society . The objectivist will presumably advocate morality being located firmly in a public sphere ; a situation in which everyone can follow almost exactly the same moral code . In a world where some things are always right and others always wrong it makes little sense to allow an individual the opportunity to make a wrong decision . The relativist , on the other hand , will attempt to show that no individual or group has any claim to objective moral knowledge , and as such no individual or group has a right to impose their particular views onto others . An individual should remain free to develop his own style of morality , which has just as much claim to truth as any other moral theory . Of course the distinction is not as simple as this . There is no necessary element in a belief in objective moral facts that states that all people must follow whatever the moral law dictates . Similarly there is no requirement for a relativist to reject the existence of all moral laws ; he may still advocate a codified morality that is nothing more than an artificial construct . We will now address both these issues . Although we can observe in almost all existing objective moral theories , particularly religious , an emphasis on encouraging other people to follow the same moral code , this is not a vital requirement . In fact we may easily imagine a set of objective moral laws that state it is wrong to interfere with another person 's own investigation into their moral beliefs . In this case , the objectivist will adopt the view that morality should remain an individual matter . Relativism faces an even more obvious problem . In order to advocate a belief that morality should be a purely individual affair , it appears the relativist must propose that it is an objectively good thing to do so . A relativist is perfectly legitimate in claiming that there are no objective moral facts , but as soon as he moves from this statement to advocating that morality should be an issue for the individual he contradicts himself . An easy solution to this problem lies in transferring our use of the word ' should ' from being categorical to merely hypothetical . We can either say that something should be done simply because it is right , or we can say that whether or not something should be done depends on the goal we are trying to achieve . If we take the , hypothetical nature of a moral claim and apply it to the issue of morality within society , then rather than being forced to say that individual moral freedom is objectively good we may say that it is simply the best way to achieve a specific aim . This aim may be anything from ensuring stability within a society to attempting to maximise individual happiness . The statements of the relativist are limited to the form of : ' if we want X , then we should do Y ' . But are hypothetical statements moral statements at all ? This may depend on the nature of the ' X ' that we are attempting to achieve . Whether or not aims such as stability in society or maximised happiness can actually be distinguished from moral incentives is debatable and will be addressed later . Our introduction of categorical and hypothetical imperatives allows for a new dimension to be added to the previously - sided issue of public or private morality . We can now imagine a categorical and a hypothetical argument for public morality , as well as a categorical and hypothetical argument for private morality . At glance it seems intuitive to say that the moral objectivist will rely on a categorical argument for public morality , while a relativist will point to a hypothetical argument for private morality . However , as we look at these arguments I will argue that in fact the most convincing argument comes to the conclusion that morality should be public insofar as it ensures the stability of the state , whose function is to protect the lives of its citizens and hence of humanity as a whole . Let us look at the possible arguments for why morality should be public . The relies on an appeal to objective moral facts which are true for everyone ( categorical ) , and the relies on using public morality as a means to a specific practical end , as in maintaining security within a society ( hypothetical ) . I will discuss these in order . The moral objectivist will claim that when people disagree about a course of action of them is simply mistaken . An action is either good or bad , regardless of what people think about it . It makes no sense in this case for morality to be left to the individual ; they must simply be taught a set of moral laws by those who know them . A state 's role is to educate the entire population so that everyone acts according to a particular , correct set of beliefs . Assuming the absolute efficiency of this state , moral disagreement would not arise . The problem with this view , of course , is where these moral facts come from and how we are to recognise them . An appeal to religion provides answer to this question . The moral laws come from God and are passed to us through scripture or by some other means . We should obey them either because we want to go to Heaven ( although this would be dangerously close to a hypothetical imperative ) or simply because God says we should . But , as was discussed earlier , even here it is not immediately clear that moral decisions should be taken away from the individual . Unless of the religious moral laws is something along the lines of "" you must not allow any other person to be immoral "" then of what concern is it to the pious man whether or not others are pious ? This objection is also the basis for a possible categorical argument for the privacy of morality . An objectivist may argue that the objective moral truth requires that each individual discovers the moral truth by themselves . They may argue that an individual who has simply had beliefs and rules fed to him from birth is not truly moral . If we remove religion as the source of our moral objectivity , then perhaps we can turn to our common humanity . There may be natural inclinations that all humans share to act in certain ways . The most obvious of these is probably our concern with self - preservation . Here we reach a central question : can the objective fact that all humans are guided by self - preservation provide the basis for a moral system , and would such a system rely on categorical or hypothetical imperatives ? In an appeal to our common humanity the objectivist may point out how cultures on different sides of the globe share at least some elements of a common morality , particularly relating to issues such as murder , and suggest this as evidence of the existence of moral facts . Why else would these apparently very different cultures have such a thing in common ? But perhaps these cultures have more in common than the objectivist will at admit . Aside from their common humanity , on a most basic level they are both communities of humans that have survived for some time , and it seems likely that this survival depended on some sort of organised state stability . of the most basic elements of this stability would be the prevention of arbitrary killing . If humans are guided by self - preservation , then a society will not last long if its members feel they are in more danger than they would be if left in isolation . Every world culture we can point to condemns killing precisely because if they did not then we would not be able to point to them . Any society that does n't condemn killing will not survive for any significant amount of time . If this is the case then the condemnation of murder almost becomes a natural fact rather than a moral guideline . Just as an animal must eat if it wants to live , so a society , if it wants to continue to exist , must condemn murder in order to maintain stability . In such a situation moral issues such as these , if they can still be called moral , must be enforced throughout the whole society . If an individual is able to come to his own conclusion that murder is not wrong then he undermines the stability of the nation and it will not survive . As a consequence there must be public rules or laws that guide our behaviour with each other , and consequences for our failure to follow these rules . However , in such a situation the murderer is not punished because the act of murder in itself is seen as ' wrong ' in an objective moral sense ; only because his actions endanger the continued existence of the society . So it seems that many apparently moral laws are not so much moral as pragmatic measures to ensure stability within a state . If we want our society to survive , we must structure it in such a way that arbitrary killing is not possible . In this case the objectivist must rethink his approach . He can no longer claim that it is an objective fact that murder is wrong . Instead he can claim that murder is wrong because it jeopardises the stability of society , and society presents the most efficient way to ensure our own survival . He has displaced the objectiveness of morality to the claim that it is a categorically good thing that we continue to survive as individuals and as a species . Is it possible to justify this underlying moral assumption that ensuring human society continues to exist is a good thing ? it is important to draw a distinction between the survival of humanity and the consequent leap to the survival of a state , particularly the modern conception of the nation state that we have . Any argument about the importance of maintaining stability in a state for the benefit of its citizens relies on the assumption that the state is the best way to ensure these benefits . But of course this is an area of much debate , and there are plenty of people who are happy to advocate the destabilisation and destruction of nation states but that would not at the same time admit they want to jeopardise the future of humanity . Our notion of ' the state ' must be as abstract as possible and encompass all communities of humans no matter how they are structured . Thankfully a belief that at least some areas of morality should be independent of purely individual opinions does not commit us to any particular political views . For the question of whether the continued existence of the state is moral is almost a contradiction because our entire notion of morality only exists within the context of human society . Hobbes suggests that morality is the result of the creation of human society , and human society is the result of a rational realisation that cooperation is the most efficient way of ensuring our own survival . The motivation for all of human action and civilisation is thus reduced to the same simple desire for survival that drives every other living thing . This fits perfectly with 's mechanistic view of humanity , but no doubt many will be unsatisfied with this as a justification for morality . We have already seen that our common humanity is probably the only convincing thing the objectivist can point to as a basis for an objective morality . And probably the most prominent feature of this common humanity is our desire for self - preservation . As such , although still controversial , the statement ' it is categorically good that humanity survives ' is certainly less controversial than the statement ' murder is categorically wrong ' . From this basis the objectivist can attempt to develop a moral system consisting of hypothetical imperatives that begin ' if you want humanity to survive then you should ... ' . Such a moral system would be limited to rules that ensure the survival of the state , with the state being , as believed , the most efficient way to ensure survival . We must now return to the views of the moral relativist . In this case the only kind of universal moral statements we can make are hypothetical imperatives , and we have already seen that it is debatable whether these are moral at all . The relativist is able to make exactly the same kind of statements as the objectivist , statements such as ' if you want humanity to survive then you should not commit murder ' ( but in a much more sophisticated manner ) , but lacks the justification of the objectivist for the moral worth of the conditional ' if you want humanity to survive ' . The relativist is unable to respond to anyone who simply does not want humanity to survive . And yet as far as hypothetical statements that have an affect on morality go , I can think of none that will gain as much assent among individuals as this one . In fact , if we imagine a statement such as ' if you want humanity to survive then you must agree that murder should be illegal ' then the relativist who accepts the premise must agree to this statement . Although he can not agree that the murderer has done something objectively wrong , he can not but accept that the murderer must be punished to prevent him doing it again . It seems we are left in a situation where hypothetical imperatives based on self - preservation provide the basis for a moral system where those areas of moral action that relate to the security of the state must be publicly enforced and not left up to the individual . It also seems that this is a situation that both the objectivist and the relativist can agree to . Although the relativist would disagree that the rules enforced are ' right ' in any objective sense , given that he wants to live in a stable society he is obligated to accept them . The issue now becomes one of which rules and actions are relevant to social stability , and which are n't . Those that are should remain in the public sphere and subject to official rulings , those that are n't can safely be left up to the individual . All the comments so far have dealt with the typical example of a moral action : murder . The arguments for a publicly enforced morality have relied on the fact that an individual 's decision to murder would be harmful to society . But what about the multitude of other actions that are regarded as moral but which do not affect society in such an obvious way ? A distinction may be drawn between actions that directly relate to conduct within the state and actions that are generally regarded as private ; marriage or religious practices for example . traditional argument against any moral issues being private is that a shared culture , which includes shared private practices , creates a livelier sense of community within a society and makes it stronger as a result . The logical conclusion seems to be that all areas of life should be regarded as subject to public rules if it makes the state stronger . Contrasted to this is the liberal view that the private life of an individual is of no concern to the state or anyone else , regardless of their aims . In fact they may argue , as did , that a sphere of individual freedom allows individuals the chance to develop in unique ways ; and in ways which may benefit society as a whole far more than a constant uniformity of opinion . Here we can consider the obvious example of an eccentric scientist who , although isolated completely from the traditional views of society , is able to allow his genius to develop precisely because of the freedom allowed by this isolation . It can also be argued that states where every area of life is controlled , far from being stable , often end up collapsing under their own weight . So here we have conflicting views about what makes a state stable . argue that a shared culture makes a state stronger , while liberals argue that diversity within a state leads to progress and less risk of collapse . If we cast a glance at the real world for a moment we can judge that most states strike a balance between these extremes . This balance shifts constantly depending on circumstances both within and external to these states . We see how in there is at least some tradition of respect for individual liberty , and yet in times of war freedom has been radically restricted in order to maintain security and stability . Of course this balancing act is an incredibly delicate affair . It seems all too easy for state structures to be for evermore tightening the sphere of personal freedom in the name of national security , and yet great effort is required from the population to claw back liberties that were previously taken for granted . We must also ask ourselves , as mentioned earlier , whether acting in the name of national security is legitimate at all . If national security is synonymous with the security of a state 's individual members , then is there a point at which the extreme limits placed on freedom by state structures present more of a risk to the security of the population than any external threat ? < fnote > Can national security be a threat to national security ? < /fnote > To summarise , whether or not we leave morality to the individual can not be easily split into an argument between objectivity and relativity . In my view the most plausible explanation for our moral behaviour is a combination of the . There is common agreement and enforcement of certain moral laws , but these do not stem from objective moral facts but rather from an efficient method of ensuring our own survival . Whether we can provide a moral basis for our continued survival is another question entirely . As to whether this logical method of survival should extend into an individual 's private sphere , I believe it should not . Enforced morality may be the most efficient way to survive , but if it is pursued to the exclusion of all other facets of human existence then the cost seems too high . We may accept 's mechanistic explanations for the creation of society but also recognise the side - effects of this creation ; thought and action that are worth more than simply survival for the sake of survival .",1 "Insect conservation is not a widely reported issue , mainly due to the public 's perception of these so - called ' creepy - crawlies ' , but that does not mean that it is not an important issue . As a student of conservation biology I can recognise the importance of insect conservation , insects are not only beneficial themselves but they are extremely useful conservation tools , so from a personal perspective insect conservation would be an excellent area of wildlife management to get into ; and having worked with insects before I have a genuine interest in entomology . Conservation itself is a fairly personal issue , we want to save certain species simply because we have an interest in them or because they are aesthetically pleasing or because we feel guilty at destroying their habitat or population , so why should n't insects be considered as important as other organisms ? The general lack of knowledge of even how many insect species there are makes it a difficult topic to study , % of insects are scientifically described ( ) , and there are insect species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened species ( website , ) . This shows how much more work is needed to be done on insect biology and ecology before we can think about conservation . ( ) talks about the importance of insects in conservation as they have survived for over 400 million years in every type of habitat on earth and are major components in so many ecosystems . Generally , insects are thought of as pests , with being spent researching and developing insecticides that will wipe out whole populations of disease - carrying or crop - destroying pests , the global insecticide market was around in ( website , ) . There are many insect species that can be detrimental to humans in way or another , from malaria - carrying Anopheles mosquitoes to agricultural pests like locusts ( family ) and aphids ( family ) , though the fact remains that the vast majority of insects are directly or indirectly beneficial to us ( , ) and this is reason why insect conservation is so important . Insects regularly play a part in everyday life , from basic insect products such as honey , wax ( honey bee , Apis mellifera ) and silk ( silkworm , mori ) to their integrating role in many ecosystems . Beneficial insects tend to fall into categories : pollinators , predators and decomposers , so it is easy to see how insects are vital to so many ecosystems . Common pollinators include the bumblebee ( genus ) and honey bee ( A. mellifera ) ; a study of flowers on chalk grasslands noted pollinators included lapidaries , mellifera and some and Syrphidae ( Lack , ) . Predatory insects can be used in agriculture to provide natural biological control of other insect or plant species . However , from a conservation point of view it is important to investigate the full effects of introducing an alien species before it is carried out ; for example and ( ) found that the exotic weevil ( planus ) , being used to control the thistle ( arvense ) in , was having a detrimental effect on the native thistle species ( Cirsium undulatum var . tracyi ) , and that introducing exotic insects for conservation weed management required more research . Many insects and insect larvae are responsible for the decomposition of waste matter in all sorts of environments . Common decomposers include termites ( order Isoptera ) and fly larvae ( order ) ; Paradise and ( ) found that helodid beetle larvae were keystone decomposers in treehole communities . Insects are also important as a food source for animals and even humans , Defoliart ( ) notes that in tropical and subtropical countries the traditional use of insects as a human food source is continuing due to their nutritional and economic benefits . It is thought that the food consumed by bird species in is insects ( Swan , ) . The role of insects as food has also lead to some important conservation issues - it has been documented that pesticides used in farming are partly responsible for the decline of bird species such as the grey partridge ( Perdix perdix ) ( e.g. Rands , ) ; insecticides wipe out most of the insects and herbicides kill off the remaining insects food source , leaving no food for the insect - dependent chicks . Insects play a part in various cultures around the world , for example dragonflies ( order ) are very important in culture and this has been used to help raise conservation awareness ( , and Mori , 2000 ) . Hogue ( ) talks about the roles of insect gods and goddesses in the religions of the Greeks , , Aztecs and Babylonians in a review of cultural entomology . There are also those people who appreciate insects for their beauty or just there unusual behaviour , such as the praying mantis ( family Mantidae ) or dung beetle ( family ) ; it is thought that these amateur entomologists may be responsible for the declining numbers of certain species but there is no evidence documented of insect extinctions due to indiscriminate collecting ( Pyle , Bentzien and , ) . For insects have played a crucial role in medical research ; in a review , by and ( ) , it was summarised that over researchers have developed important genetic techniques allowing for the identification and characterisation of genes involved in tumour formation and development . Insects are not only used in research but also as a medical treatment , maggot therapy was common in the and and was reintroduced in as a rapid , effective treatment for large necrotic wounds ( Mumcuoglu et al , ) . Insect larvae can also be a useful tool in forensics , ( ) summarises the main features of forensic entomology , the most common use being in estimating the post - mortem interval through the knowledge of insect life cycles and growth rates . As insects are not seen as particularly popular when it comes to getting funding for conservation research it can be useful to look at their application as conservation tools , the status of insect species living in a habitat can be a good indicator of the general health of the habitat itself , by simply monitoring the insect populations and diversity whole ecosystems can be helped . New ( ) summarises the main roles of insects as conservation tools , they can be thought of in categories : keystone species , umbrella species , flagship species or groups , and indicator species . Keystone species are those on which the local community functionally depends , for example the long - proboscid fly ( order ) is a keystone species in certain southern ecosystems where it is the sole or main pollinator of plant species ( , ) . Less well - known taxa can be helped by more notable umbrella species , these do not necessarily have an integrating role like keystone species ; ( ) warns against the use of vertebrates as umbrellas for invertebrates - a study in southern , where the gnatcatcher ( californica ) was being used as an umbrella species for the conservation of coastal sage scrub , showed that the gnatcatcher was a poor indicator of certain species in these habitats . Flagship species or groups increase the awareness of conservation needs by helping to gain public and political sympathy , based on their appeal ; for example lots of money was raised for other species after the successful reintroduction of the Large Blue butterfly ( arion ) ( Whalley , ) , and and ( ) suggest the use of the cricket ( family Gryllidae ) as a flagship taxa for invertebrate conservation in , due to the trading and collecting of certain species . Indicator species are those that ' indicate ' a particular set of environmental conditions best suited to it ; certain invertebrates are particularly sensitive to changes and can be used to help monitor the health of a habitat . Parsons ( ) suggested that species have a role as indicators of habitat change due to their close association with the rain forest habitat in which they live . Insect conservation is far more linked with habitat conservation than any other type of conservation is ; usually the most important thing is seen as preserving the species itself rather than the environment in which it inhabits . If a species can be bred in captivity , particularly in zoos , it is considered a conservation success , whether or not it 's natural habitat is still available ; this is not good news for insects as it is unlikely that many rare species will be bred in captivity for public viewing , so to conserve them their habitat must be conserved too . There are examples of some insects being reared in captivity , usually with the aim of reintroducing populations into the wild , both the field cricket ( campestris ) and wart - biter bush cricket ( Decticus verrucivorus ) were bred at and later successfully re - established populations in the wild ( ) . , Daily and Ehrlich ( ) suggest using a habitat approach to conserve insect diversity , they found that community - wide studies were a good way of gathering diversity and distribution information about little - known taxa . It seems clear to me that to gain more support for insect conservation the idea of habitat conservation and the use of insects as tools should be promoted . of the main aspects of insect conservation is the fact that it is usually human factors that are leading to the endangerment of certain species and it is therefore our responsibility , as with all conservation , to put things right . The main threats to insects are : habitat destruction , pollution and pesticides , the introduction of alien species , and overexploitation or overcollecting . New et al ( ) suggest that habitat destruction is the biggest threat to insect populations . There are currently insects on the IUCN Red List whose threats include habitat loss or degradation ( website , ) . of the worries about future habitat destruction is global - warming , though there is debate over the positive or negative impacts this will have on pest and non - pest species ( , Fleming and Wolwod , ) . Insecticides are clearly designed to kill insects but other pesticides can also have detrimental effects - herbicides , although they may not harm the insects directly , can wipe out an insects food - source in an area very quickly , as was shown when studying the grey partridge ( P. perdix ) ( e.g. Rands , ) . Pollution can take many forms and effect insects in various ways , for example heavy metals have been shown to effect many organisms , Moe , Stenseth and Smith ( ) noted the detrimental effects of cadmium on blowfly adults ( Lucilia sericata ) . The introduction of exotic species , whether intentionally , through attempted biological control , or unintentionally can seriously effect an insect population , either by competition for resources or predation . Samways , and Tarboton ( ) actually showed that threatened populations could recover after the removal of alien species - Odonta species that were nearly extinct were found at sites where invasive alien trees had been removed . Due to the large number of insect species extinctions are happening all the time , they just go unnoticed ; ( ) reported that there are types of extinction that are common for insects but rare for other taxa - loss of narrow habitat specialists from restricted habitats and the coextinctions of affiliates with their hosts . He suggests that more research should be done into documenting insect extinctions ; it is worth remembering that not all extinctions are due to humans . Some species become extinct simply by adapting to changes in their environment and evolving into new species ( ) , in these cases which species should we be trying to conserve ? There have been many success stories of insect conservation but , again , we are unlikely to hear about them unless they are a particularly popular or important species . As already mentioned , the reintroduction of butterfly ( M. arion ) was seen as a huge success , not only was an extinct population re - established but it raised awareness for invertebrate conservation in general and helped several other species living in the same habitat ; in their summary of insect conservation , Pyle , Bentzien and ( ) , talk about the decline of and the subsequent efforts , such as habitat preservation , to save it . In both and culturally important species have been successfully conserved and helped to promote conservation awareness at the same time ( and , ; , and Mori , 2000 ) . In the insect conservation is gradually gaining more support , with organisations such as organisation devoted to invertebrate conservation ( website , ) , and , which regularly holds meetings and symposiums covering all aspects of insect conservation ( website , ) . The UK Biodiversity Action Plan , set up in after the , is committed to protecting both habitats and species , including many insects ( website , ) . It is obvious by the wealth of information available that , for some , insect conservation is a priority but general awareness still needs to be raised . It is evident there are many beneficial aspects to insects and their life styles , which are all excellent reasons for conserving them , but there are also species that are n't so useful which raises some questions - should we be actively conserving them too or just leave them to cope alone ? Or should we be encouraging eradication of certain pest species ? As noted , are already spent on insecticides to deal with crop pests and there are various programmes aimed at dealing with insects hazardous to health ; sterile insect techniques are now being used to deplete certain populations , for example the tsetse fly ( Glossina austeni ) has been eradicated on the island of , Zanzibar , through the release of gamma - sterilised males ( et al , 2000 ) , but how justified is this from a conservation point of view ? We feel inclined to save certain species as we have no moral right to let them become extinct so why should we allow other species to be actively destroyed ? It is impossible to know the full impact on an ecosystem of removing a species from it , so in my view the focus would ideally be on treating the symptoms of these pest species , such as the diseases they carry , rather than the insects themselves . For all of the reasons mentioned above it is clear that insect conservation is an extremely important issue that deserves far more attention , the lack of knowledge does not mean there is a lack of interest , a simple search on the internet brings up of insect and insect conservation related articles . According to ( website , ) there are threatened species in the , of which are reintroduced species like ( M. arion ) ; of the species is only found in the ( Myrmica hirsuta ) . This is clearly an underestimation as so many species are yet to be discovered , and currently the number of taxonimists , amateur and professional , is still in decline ( Hopkins and , ) . It also shows how insect conservation is still not really seen as a major issue in the which I think should change ; insect conservation is intrinsically linked with habitat conservation , and focusing on conserving habitats could help save numerous invertebrate , vertebrate and plant species . Specific species studies are important but habitat conservation seems to be the key to insect conservation and vice versa . From a personal perspective , as a conservation student with an interest in entomology , the fact there is still so much to discover and so few people to do it can only be a good thing .","< heading > Question > Lastminute.com business orientation has changed from product to marketing orientation . Product orientation focuses on goods . Marketing orientation focuses on buyer 's need and satisfaction . was product orientation as it sought to source and sell whatever products it could . Its brand name was not familiar to people . Its reputation and customer 's loyalty were not established . It did not have large budget on marketing . It was still in the introduction part of the product life cycle and so it had low sales and profit . It took time to draw people attention and really tried it . The company was generating widespread awareness of the product and adjust price . The company wanted to sell more to increase reputation and gain profit so as to obtain more resources . It worked to increase and improve its quality levels . Later , lastminute.com has been possible to develop more of a marketing orientation as its brand name and reputation have developed . Also , partnerships have evolved with suppliers who have come to regonise the potential of the company . changes its direction and focuses more on customers . It assumes that customers are not necessarily price driving but are looking for the total offering that best fits their needs . Thus the company has to define those needs and provide suitable offerings . This assumption meets lastminute.com operation which focuses on value and service rather than price . And "" inspiration and solutions "" become a good description of lastminute.com 's core service . create a database to group customers into common needs and wants , so the company can produce a specifically targeted marketing package that best suits the needs of group . The company will make sure the customers are ready before it launches a new product . The advertisements in the we d site changes from time to time to meet customer needs . It also provides feedback form to collect opinions and allow communication , so they know what their customers need . Company reputation and customer loyalty have developed . The company tries to gain profit through customer satisfaction and loyalty . It is in the growth or maturity section of the product life cycle and so it has to consolidate loyal consumers and modify products . < heading > Question 2 After understanding the nature of customers and their needs and wants , the company needs to act on that information so as to develop and implement marketing activities . These activities will actually deliver something to the customer . The means by which such ideas are turned into reality is the marketing mix . The include product , price , place and promotion . Product--- covers everything to do with the creation , development and management of products . It includes new product development , product management , product features or benefits , branding , packaging and after - sales service . Price------ a flexible and dangerous element of the marketing mix . It includes costs , profitability , value for money , competitiveness and incentives . Place------ covers a wide variety of topics concerned with the movement of goods from place to another . It includes access to target market , channel structure and management , retailer image and logistics . Promotion--- something about communication . It includes developing promotional mixes , advertising management , sales management , public relations management and direct marketing . Division of lastminute.com marketing activities : Product A product portfolio has evolved over time as the company strives to be able to offer everything for the perfect experience . Being quick and fast with new offering and consistently true to the brand . Make sure customers are ready before the company adds a new product or service . Provide online feedback form on products and services and the company is very responsive to the view expressed in this way . Price A mission statement saying that the company will offer people the chance to live their dreams at unbeatable prices . Send customers newsletter via e - mail which is a cost effective way . It does not need other advertising media and so save money . The production cost is low . Time means money to some people , lastminute.com induce a positive image of a shortcut to good times with their friends and able to save customer 's time . Timing is a key issue lastminute.com 's day - to - day marketing . Place Negotiate with supplier to make sure that transaction and service delivery to take place delivery . Develops a technical department to maintain and manage the internet infrastructure , which allows transactions to take place . Deliver goods to customers on time . It provides many transaction ways to customers . a technical department to maintain and manage the internet infrastructure , which allows communication to take place between the company and its customers . Entered into a partnership with so as to generate awareness and traffic from complementary media . Advertising in the website changes throughout to meet customer needs . newsletter via e - mail . There are different departments ( production , purchasing , marketing , human resources , finance , technical and research and development ) in the company . Various departments interact with other to create a consistent marketing mix . They are interdependence . Each department has its own responsibility There are supply managers whose departments source the products and services that the company sells . Business development department that manages strategic issues , e.g. partnership with other companies . Marketing department responsible for the complete range of well - integrated marketing activities . Technical department maintain and the internet infrastructure . Research and development department carries out market research and analyse feedback by customers . The combination of the used needs to give the company a competitive edge . The edge may be created mainly through element of the mix or a combination of them . always provides new services and products with unbeatable price ( product & price ) . It provides internet ordering and delivery service ( place ) . It provides many convenient and fast transaction ways to customers ( price & place ) . Send newsletter via e - mail to customers to tell them more about the company ( price & promotion ) Consistently true to the brand The other of the services marketing mix are people , processes and physical evidence . People---- helps in creating and delivering the products . Services often depend on how people perform them . Processes--- about manufacturing process , how service is delivered and what quality controls can be built so that customers can be confident that they know what to expect each time they consume . Physical evidence--- relevance to those who maintain premises form which a service is sold or delivered . The 3Ps are going to impose on and will be reflected in discussing applications of the original . Make sure the products are delivered to the customers on time and without any damages . The delivery man should deliver the products to customer on time and talk to them in a polite way . Politely response to the feedback and make improvements . Create an attractive web site with clear instructions and detailed information . Never cheat or try to take advantages from customers by providing low quality products or services . < heading > Question 3 Advantages Has opportunity to showcase products on a global basis in an open competitive market . May potentially sell goods and services to a global market . As internet use is international , the products can widely spread easily . Customers may click on the link in the intermediary web page and so more people will know about our company . Lower cost to advertise in the internet than in tv , magazine or newspaper . Freezing us from the constraint of geographic catchment areas as the agent will help in delivery . Partner with existing digital or internet brand can help promoting our company and products . Also to increase reputation . Internet penetrates among the population rise and there is a trend for increasing use of e - shopping . An internet - based intermediary has an existing customer database and it helps to deliver products to target segment . The agent is more professional and has more information on selling certain products or services . Provide another transaction way , a faster reception and processing of orders . Disadvantages Need to pay commission to the agent and so the production cost will increase . The agent may add a margin to the price of good and so the actual value of good can not be reflected . Relationship with agent may break . There are still many people do not trust transaction through internet . The internet - based intermediary has many suppliers and there is great competition . < heading > Question 4 meant : There are no specific laws or regulations to become an internet - based intermediary . Everyone who has resources can set up a company like this . But it is hard to succeed because there are so many competitors and it is really hard to establish reputation and gain customer loyalty . I believe that it is true , The market has already been shakeout . Thus it is hard for the company to develop even you can enter the market . It takes a long time for the company to establish reputation and customer loyalty . A company should be well - structured . Various departments should be interdependence . There should be interaction and provide mutual support among departments . A well - structured customer database is essential for competitive advantage . Only an established brand name can recruit new customers easily to its database . Newer competitors find it hard to because consumers do not want to volunteer personal details to companies they do not know well . A successful company needs to maintain a good reputation and positive image and provide good service all the time . Every product has its own product life cycle , many decisions and strategies have to be made to maintain the product life . Sometimes doing business depends on luck and timing . If you enter the market at a good time , you may earn a lot within a short period of time .",0 "The Canso d'Antioca was written by in the . He was a soldier but had a good education , including knowledge of , yet he chose to write his account in the vernacular , in his mother tongue of . This was the piece of vernacular history in , predating the earliest texts by , and continental texts by . It celebrates the crusaders ' victory at Antioch in , which was of great significance as it gave the crusaders a foothold into and they then went on to conquer . History writing in was often a combination of literature and history , so the reliability of such sources is questionable . The Canso d'Antioca is described as an epic chronicle ; although there is undoubtedly some accuracy in his account , there is a propagandist element to it also . < fnote > Module lecture < /fnote > The Canso d'Antioca was written at the request of the bishop , and was partly a commemoration for 's lord , Gouffier of Lastours , who also participated in the conquest of Antioch . Bechada was also advised to write this account by . This may have influenced the writing as had to take their views into consideration , but it also gives the work added authority . His account could not solely have been his opinions or perceptions . was anxious about the use of the vernacular . Despite knowledge of , which was considered the authoritative language , chose to write in ' so that the populace might fully comprehend it ' , which was the same reason for writing in popular metre . Thus Bechada is concerned with stressing the truth and reliability of his writing . As an epic chronicle , many literary descriptions and devices have been employed which may appear to limit the credibility of the writing . The chansons de jest that were common in drew on historical events to highlight social and political aspects of . It is clear also that Bechada produced propaganda for the crusades , to encourage participation and support for it . Yet despite all these things , the fragments of the Canso d'Antioca can still be considered as history as there is truth in his words and they do give a description of a famous incident during the First Crusade . < fnote > Geoffrey de Vigeois , lecture notes 2005 < /fnote > The most obvious propaganda in the fragments of the Canso d'Antioca is that for the work itself . ' If anyone wishes to learn a song , I think he is very foolish/ if he fails to sing this one ' . Although this quote can only be found near the end of the extract , it shows 's concern to appeal to the audience . Although it is subtle , as it is not the main focus of the passage , it would influence the audience into trusting in the song . The fragments actually begin with a conversation between , King and his ' courtly interpreter ' , . This dialogue helps to convey the response to the crusaders and the battle at Antioch , or at least the crusaders ' view of what the thought . It then moves on to very detailed descriptions of the battle and the individual combats . There is a clear propagandist message in the lists of names of the soldiers that partook in the battle . It is only the highest soldiers that are mentioned , possibly those that 's patron had relations with , and they are described as , ' a courageous and bold group ' . The King is portrayed as worried and anxious about the threat of the army , so he seeks for consolation in . , however , far from relieving his fears , exacerbates them , by encouraging to flee , ' Noble king , why not turn and take flight ? "" The strength of the army is emphasised to celebrate their victory and increase their prestige . It would also encourage others to join the crusaders as they would be impressed by the easy defeat of the and by the fear the crusaders inspired . As the knights were depicted as heroes , others would want some of that glory too , and in this account they would have role models to follow . There are detailed descriptions of individual battles , commemorating certain soldiers , such as and . Although epic chronicles did contain stock motifs , such as a set description of single combats , this could be seen as propaganda as Bechada chose to highlight certain men above others . Thus there is clear propaganda in the listing of names and the bold and valiant descriptions of the soldiers . < fnote and , The ' Canso d'Antioca ' : an Epic Chronicle of the First Crusade , ( Aldershot , ) line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote > The choice of words used by is often anything but objective and shows a certain propagandist bias . To , the white army ' seem more like angels ' . Whilst many chronicles did contain incredible events , this could also be seen as propaganda as the crusaders were portrayed as having supernatural forces on their side , ' God sends them to help their friends . "" The role of religion is also highlighted , perhaps to give justification to the battle . The crusades were authorised by the pope and encouraged by many ecclesiastical sources . may have wished to support the idea that the victory was the will of God . When he describes the death of Heraclius of Polignac he is keen to emphasise the moments immediately preceding his death , ' He spoke and made his last testament and took and then he dies and met his end . "" This would ensure that people knew Heraclius had died absolved of all his sins . There is a great deal of hyperbole and emotive language used , again to accentuate the valour and might of the crusaders . is filled with pride upon sight of the army , ' he feels such joy as has never been equalled ' . After the crusaders have fought the , the land is described as , ' crimson with the blood flowing from the dead and wounded . "" This all serves to increase the terror of the army and show how much they should be feared . Thus there is clearly a propagandist element to the Canso d'Antioca . < fnote and , The ' Canso d'Antioca ' : an Epic Chronicle of the First Crusade , ( Aldershot , ) line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote> As above , line 675/6 < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote > The style of history writing in included many literary devices , and as most were written as songs to entertain , they had to appeal to an , often , uneducated audience . Thus whilst the fragments of the Canso d'Antioca clearly contain much hyperbole and exaggerated description , a lot can be learnt from them about the history of the crusades . is keen to stress the truth and authenticity of his work , and to distinguish it from mere romance , seen as a ' degenerate ' form of art . Although the names of the soldiers are clearly a commemoration of a chosen few , it does inform historians of at least some of the people who took part in the battle at Antioch . Their origins are also mentioned , which gives historians an idea of the nationalities involved , and shows just how far - reaching the crusades were , ' paid soldiers have come from all corners of . ' . Their armour and appearance are part of the stock motifs used in the period , but do help us to understand what knights wore at the time and what accessories they carried , ' they all carry scrips in the fashion of pilgrims ' . Similarly the origins and appearances of those fighting against the crusaders are mentioned , ' Kerbogha of Persia , the king of Safargat,/ and . Bechada does concede that the were ' well equipped and provisioned for battle,/ since their horses are superb and the men are well armed ' , but this may have been more to prove just how mighty the army was to defeat such strong fighters . Thus much can be learnt about the appearance of the warriors and their nations of origin . < fnote > Module lecture notes2005 < /fnote> C. Sweetenham and , The ' Canso d'Antioca ' : an Epic Chronicle of the First Crusade , ( Aldershot , ) line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote > The Canso d'Antioca also provides insight into the legalities of warfare , and its customs . ' sent a messenger to propose to the that they should not let their best men be cut to pieces and slaughtered ' , but instead just thirty men from each side ' should do battle with each other ' . He used technical legal language and precise negotiating details . Although the reason given for this was 's fear at defeat , which may have been an exaggeration , the mention of ' his mother the queen who had deeply frightened him ' does contain some truth . The King 's mother was against the battle and tried to dissuade her son from getting involved . The rejected this compromise , as it was not ' the custom here in our kingdom that a should come to a sworn agreement over a battle once the battle lines are drawn ' . This gives insight into the legal procedures of battle during the crusades . The fragments also illustrate the rituals of battle , such as the calls to battle . The , ' sounded a horn of carved ivory,/ times on a full note and twice more faintly ' . This again may have been a stock motif , but the idea came from somewhere so it is likely there was an element of truth in it . There is also evidence of medieval fighting tactics , as is described as ordering his men to ' all spur together in a single charge ' . Bechada was therefore not interested in solely glorifying war , as he includes evidence of military discipline and tactics . He also mentions the ' holy companies being selected and subdivided ' . Thus much can be about tactics and military matters from these fragments . < fnote and , The ' Canso d'Antioca ' : an Epic Chronicle of the First Crusade , ( Aldershot , ) line and < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote > The Canso d'Antioca also gives historical insight into the religious persuasions of the groups . Although the ' religion is distorted and seen from a purely view , it does provide insight into the ' opinions of and shows just how wrong they were . declares to Kerbogha that , ' your outlandish idols will certainly not be able to protect you ' and , ' certainly no heathen god will be able to save you ' . This is an incredibly mistaken view of , which believes in one God , and was formed during a time of serious disillusionment with the pagan idols of . Yet does not correct this view of his religion and in fact uses similar terminology , ' our idols are so courageous and valiant ' . There is also a reference to , the prophet , yet seems to think that equate with God , ' If wishes it so ' . This is also incorrect . Thus the fragments help to show the misunderstanding between the groups . also belittles the faith , calling the crusaders ' madmen ... so little sense do they have ! "" Although Bechada is seemingly depicting his own religion as nonsensical , he is in fact showing just how ignorant the were in not believing . He describes the religious actions of the crusaders , ' they humbly worship the ' and explains the meaning of it : ' the Lord received death [ for our ] salvation ' . Therefore these fragments not only explain the religious differences between the groups but also the mistaken views they held of each other . < fnote > As above , line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote> As above , line < /fnote > The fragments of the Canso d'Antioca clearly contain elements of propaganda , and the fact it was commissioned by a patron means that this is inevitable . There was a purpose for writing it and had to be aware of the needs of his audience . Yet the style of history writing at the time must be taken into account . As the piece was aimed at an uneducated audience , and took the form of a song , it was designed to entertain as well as instruct . Therefore , it is an epic chronicle . It contains elements of literature , evident in the hyperbole and descriptive techniques , yet at the same time does give an historical account of the battle at Antioch . Many of the included events have evidence elsewhere , and much can be learnt from these fragments . If nothing else , they are an example of history writing on the crusades written in the .","The Ecclesiastical sources for the crusades were written to motivate people to fight in the crusades by clergymen and those associated with the or expressing the opinions of the . The used a variety of justifications for the crusades as people were questioning how war could be incorporated into the Biblical teachings of peace , love and forgiveness . The sources mention a number of times the awful treatment of as justification for the crusades , and the barbarism of the or is constantly highlighted . Pope Urban II in his letter preceding the crusade wrote that , ' barbarians in their frenzy have invaded and ravaged the churches of God . ' This idea of barbarity is repeated many times . The atrocities against the and other was also emphasised as justification - something needed to be done to put a stop to such treatment . Fulcher of Chartres described the ' warlike invasion ' by the , where they were , ' slaughtering and capturing many , destroying churches and laying waste the kingdom of God . ' What makes such behaviour worse was that the noble , people of God , had been destroyed by , ' a foreign race , a race absolutely alien to God ' . repeated the subject of race , calling them ' unclean ' and ' dreadful ' . It was an insult to the Holy Land that such inferior people should have defiled the land and ' enslaved ( it ) to pagan rites by a people which does not acknowledge God . ' took this point further and declared that , ' the sanctuary of God ... had been profaned . ' Not only have they razed churches and violated , but they ' worship their idols ' in the land where the Lord Jesus was born . Gregory VIII prior to the crusade used the justification that they should use the enemies ' actions against them , ' And let us in no was hesitate to do for God what the infidels do not fear to attempt against the Lord . ' In contrast to the idea of vengeance as justification , explained that the crusades were justified as a duty , as the enemies ' need to be bent with a benign harshness . ' He described the crusades as ' justice against wrongdoers ' , not out of revenge but for their own good . Thus the idea of the barbarity and terrible treatment by the invaders in was used by the as justification for the crusades . The history and geography of was another very important means of justification , and linked with the idea of profanity . It was due to the idea that had been treated appallingly that the felt it was their duty to go on crusade . The had not just conquered land belonging to , they had conquered the very place where Jesus lived , ' the source of all ' . This land was ' given by God as a possession of the children of Israel ' and thus it was their duty to protect it . described it as ' repay(ing ) Jerusalem the debt you owe her ' as it was ' from her that you have received the implications of the knowledge of God . ' Biblical history was also used to support this argument . The Maccabees were referred to as an example of those who also ' fought for the sacred rituals and the Temple ' . This implied that the crusaders could also ' justly defend the freedom of the fatherland by the exercise of arms . ' In fact , added to this with the words , ' keeps for herself an army to come to the aid of her people . ' The Church was justified in using military force to protect itself . The Ecclesiastical sources also make other Biblical references to force being used to defeat God 's enemies , ' the was consumed with an angelic hand ' and ' among these ( who serves in warlike arms ) was Holy David ' . In fact , specifically warned against those who said that the crusades were not in line with teaching as being from the devil . The therefore emphasised the history of to justify why the crusades were not a contradiction to teachings . < fnote > Guibert de Nogent < /fnote> Robert the Monk < /fnote> Gregory VIII < /fnote> Jacques de Vitry < /fnote > The crusades were further justified by a need to liberate . Awful atrocities were being carried out there ; the land was historically very significant for , so the land needed to be liberated . Pope Urban II urged the people to ' liberate the eastern churches ' , and that their motivation for going should not have been a ' desire ( for ) earthly profit ' but the ' liberation of the church ' . The crusades were justified because the were going to the ' aid of ( their ) brothers ' and to save ' the faithful of God ' . As prays to be liberated ' , it was their duty to be an answer to prayer . Biblical references were again made to support this argument , as Jesus commended people to ' lay down one 's life for one 's brothers ' and He Himself was the ultimate example of such actions . The justified the crusades by explaining them as liberating conquered by a barbaric race in a land that belonged to God . < fnote > Fulcher of Chartres < /fnote> Robert the Monk < /fnote> Baudry de Bourgeuil < /fnote > The main justification used in the sources and repeated many times was that it was God 's will and plan for such events to happen . It was God who called people to go on crusade and it was He who would guide and protect them . It was not the , they argued , who were asking for help , but ' a battle - cry summoning you to war ... brought from God . "" People had every right to go and fight because it was what God wanted , and in fact it was their duty to go . ' Consider that perhaps the almighty has provided you for this task , so that through you he may restore Jerusalem ' . No - one could argue with the crusades if they were planned by God , and so this was the ultimate justification . Christ is described as ' standard - bearer and your inseparable guide ' , which would have given people increased courage as they had God fighting on their side . Biblical quotations again were used in this argument , as Christ had commanded people to ' carry his cross and come after me ' , as it ' is better for you to die in battle that to tolerate the abuse of your race and your Holy Places . ' This argument is supported by who said that , ' your physical strength itself , is the gift of God . "" Such justification by the won a lot of support as if it was God 's will , then the crusaders believed that they were assured victory . < fnote > Robert the Monk < /fnote> Guibert de Nogent < /fnote> Baudry de Bergueil < /fnote> Jacques de Vitry < /fnote > The Church also used the idea of salvation as a means of justifying the crusades . Although it was also used as motivation , the crusades were justified because they were some people 's only way of assuring their salvation . The sources contrasted a few times the crusades to the petty wars and skirmishes carried out between at home . The crusades were a way to absolve themselves for these sins , ' God has instituted in our time holy wars , so that the order of knights ... might find a new way of gaining salvation . "" In contrast to fighting against their own brothers for selfish reasons , they could ' pursue their own careers ' for a noble cause . There was nothing nobler than dying whilst fighting for God , and the idea that it would be better to die was another recurring theme . exclaims , ' How blessed are the martyrs who die in battle ! ' and explains that , ' now we are proposing that you should fight wars which contain the glorious reward of martyrdom . ' Therefore , the crusades were justified as they attained salvation of souls . < fnote > Guibert de Nogent < /fnote > The Church justified the crusades therefore by showing the necessity of it to save God 's Holy Land from barbarism and savage invasion , and to save other . It was seen as God 's purpose and plan , and by joining the crusades , salvation and forgiveness of sins was possible . The Ecclesiastical sources for the crusades provide good examples of the 's opinion as most as written by popes or religious figures keen to promote the 's point of view .",1 "< heading>1 . Introduction Moore 's law suggests that by we will have computers as powerful as human brains . back a discovery was made that could lead to a quantum computer capable of carrying out a staggering simultaneous calculations . The project team plans to be doing cellular level whole brain simulations within . This essay is about in Computing 5 - a long term goal for set for research within computing in . It aims to give us a better idea of the relationship between brain and mind by developing a machine with many of the same capabilities as a human . Its primary target for is to : < quote > Demonstrate a robot with some of the general intelligence of a young child , able to navigate a typical home and perform a subset of domestic tasks , including some collaborative and communicative tasks . It should know what it is doing and why , be able to cooperate with others and discuss alternate ways of doing things . It should have the linguistic skills to discuss things happening in the world and their implications , including some capabilities to understand the motives and feelings of humans . It could be tested in various practical tasks , including helping a disabled or blind person to cope without human help.2 A research team at already claim to have developed a robot with some of the intelligence of an baby . They are just of many research teams working on problems relating to GC5 . They work from many different angles but they can broadly be split into groups , - being those teams looking at simulating and finding out more about existing brains , and , being those which are working on intelligence from principles upwards . While the actual challenge documentation considers a group bringing them together I will be looking solely at the edge ones in this essay . < heading>2 . As relatively little is actually know about the precise structure and functioning of the brain , lots of work is going into simulating them , to save the difficultly of working with real brains . When looking at real brains there are many issues at stake : moral issues , time issues , and practicality issues . There are situations in which an fMRi scanner can not monitor experiments which can not morally or legally be performed etc . Thus computational modeling has come in to help out with this . < heading>2.1 Case Study : The Series The 's are a series of robots developed at in by and . They are known as BBDs ( ) and are designed as heuristic bases for the testing of theories of brain functioning . Their use lies in that they are modeled on real brain structures , while the activity of every neuron can be monitored while they perform an activity - something impossible in living animals . The data on real brain structures was gathered through functional MRI scans of brains showing points of activity in response to different sights or smells , and neural connections mapped by injecting single nerve cells with dye and then , by microscope , tracing the cell 's of branches that lit up . The important thing about these 's is that where traditional ANN 's have focused on a small network to perform a single task , these take whole groups of functional clusters and put them together . The interesting thing for researchers is both the behaviour that emerges , and for - forefront researcher and theorist in consciousness - it 's how they emerge . has a cortical area of simulated neuronal units with synaptic connections and was designed specifically for the problem of how functionally segregated brain regions coordinate to link various features of individual objects while still differentiating between objects . They examined this problem over the course of several experiments which involved such things as playing football , and classical conditioning tests in the style of Pavlov 's Dogs . < figure/>The team has shown that different robots learning to recognize the same object may recruit entirely different sets of neurons to do so . In this respect , the robot 's mind is a faithful approximation to a living brain . Another example of this was discovered while using the latest model - Darwin X , which they had been studying to discover how brains use landmarks to navigate . They found out they developed "" place neurons "" in its "" hippocampus "" which helped it home in on the landmark . This feature had not been planned , or coded in , but simply emerged . It is an occurrence also known to happen in the hippocampal region of rats . < heading>2.4 Case Study : Blue Brain The Blue Brain project is an international effort to develop a large scale computational model of how the brain - in its entirety works . The main core of its work is being done at the EPFL on a large number of super computers . The aim of the work is to be able to do neuroscience experiments on a computer instead of performing slow and costly wetware experiments . They hope to soon be able to invite researchers to build their own models of different brain regions in different species and at different levels of detail using for simulation . These models will be deposited in an Internet Database from which software can extract and connect models together to build brain regions and begin the whole brain simulations . The project has been split into several smaller projects which need completing before the next can continue . These are : < list : A molecular level model of a single synapseBlue Neuron : A molecular level model of a single neuronBlue Column : A cellular level model of the neocortical columns ( a structure with approx . neurons which build up most of simplified blue columns , whole neocortical regions and then eventually the entire neocortex will be modeledBlue Brain : With complete , other models of cortical , sub - cortical , sensory and motor organ areas will be built3 . Research Bottom - Up research is done on a different set of principles to . This time the researchers start with an idea of something that they wish to do and produce a robot to do it based on the principles of systems and mathematics etc . These tend to be small , single purpose devices such as , a small , single purpose robot fitted with wall sensors , depth sensors and visual systems - all there with the soul purpose of cleaning people 's floor . It has a sister robot , called , which is very similar but this mops floors instead of vacuuming . < heading>3.1 Swarm Intelligence Swarm intelligence is an important idea that has begun to take off over , and is an area believed to have great potential . The concept is essentially that from a swarm of individually stupid units you can get a whole capable of "" intelligent "" behaviour . It originated from watching social insects in nature such as ants and bees , some of which are capable of very advance behaviour , such as herding insects , growing fungus , capturing slaves and building air conditioning into their nests . for instance chews up leaves and lay the remains down in beds , which they sow with the spores of a fungus which is capable of digesting the leaves - they then eat the fungus . This lead to a new field of research , amongst which were contained "" "" , "" Particle Swarm Optimization "" and "" Robotics""9 . The latest of 's centennial competitions may provide an interesting testing ground for swarm robotics . offers an initial $ reward form the development of semi - autonomous robots that can build complicated structures with minimal remote guidance from human controllers . With the well known ability of ant colonies to build complex nests , it would be interesting to see how swarm bots could be applied to the challenge . < picture/>3.3 Case Study : Swarm Bots The swarm bots project is a recently completed effort to develop an artefact composed of a number of simpler , insect - like , robots(s - bots ) , built out of relatively cheap components , capable of self - assembling and self - organising to adapt to its s - bot is a fully autonomous mobile robot capable of performing basic tasks such as autonomous navigation , perception of its surrounding environment , and grasping of objects . An s - bot is also able to communicate with other peer units and physically join either rigidly or flexibly to them , thus forming a swarm - bot . A swarm - bot is capable of performing exploration , navigation and transportation of heavy objects on very rough terrains , when a single s - bot has major problems at achieving the task alone . Swarms were trained to work together through the use of genetic algorithms . This has given them ability to move over holes , in formation and over rough terrain along with hunting down "" prey "" and collective transportation of large objects . They are currently the most advanced swarm robots in the world . < picture/>4 . Conclusion From these few projects I have mentioned here you can get a view on the state of the art in the field . It is a very limited view as I deliberately left out information on whole swathes of research , such as visual systems which tend to blur the boundaries between top down and bottom - up . The point I was trying to get over was that much of the research is steaming on ahead - in completely different directions . And this I believe highlights a fundamental flaw in the nature of this Grand Challenge . While on one hand it calls for research into brain / mind and how intelligence arises , it on the other hand calls for the development of household robotics as its target . While it is a reasonable assumption to say that research into robotics and artificial intelligence is sure to bolster our knowledge on cognitive neuroscience and visa versa , it is not a good plan to link them together into combined project . The primary reason for this dubiousness with which I treat this merging of these areas of research is the loss of scientific freedom caused by it - even if this loss is completely unintentional . way this could come about would be , for instance , if grants for research in the field were only being granted to ambitious projects if they could relate themselves to a Grand Challenge , what would happen then ? As far as I can see , projects looking into areas such as Swarm Robotics would be crushed , as while they have already proved themselves in nature , they are not based on the same model of intelligence as humans , and thus of little actual use to in its current form . For an example of this close minded human - centrism already infiltrating the project let us look again at its target . It wishes to develop a robot capable of doing many different tasks , conversing with the owner , understanding why it is doing things etc . Consider an intelligent house based on a central server , an extensive sensor network around the area comprising of audio , visual , infrared etc . It would have many ways of outputting information - speakers , alarms , visual display units , direct control of appliances etc . It would have direct control over swarms of small robots , capable of doing all the cleaning , gardening , washing etc . The owner would be able to ask the house to do anything , from any area of the house ; the house would be able to predict that the owner wanted something done and act on it instantly . It would be able to permanently monitor the state of the house , and make adjustments based on this information . It would not however fit within the wording of target for this grand challenge . Now let us compare this idea to that more directly specified by the target - that of a single robot capable of performing all these things . It would only be able to monitor the state of the room it was in , it would be very expensive as it would have to be capable of doing many different tasks using the same body . It would get in the way , as it would have to be on the large side to just perform most tasks required in a human home - and that 's not even considering the size it would have to be to contain a powerful enough computer , enough sensors to get relevant data and all the control mechanisms . Importantly it would take time to maneuver around the house and you would have to be in the same vicinity of it to give it commands . Now I do not mean to knock this idea to heavily . A robot of this type would certainly have advantages but the important point here is that the challenge had imposed an unnecessary restriction on the development of robotics . While this is understandable in the context of the challenge it makes no sense in any other context . To develop a robot in a less than efficient way is a ridiculous use of resources - and realistically would never get the funding in the place . Then we come too actually considering the realism of being able to develop a robot from top down principles capable of doing all this , within . Let us consider the 's of and his team - he has claimed that they nowadays have the intellectual powers of an th month old baby . A human baby of this age should be beginning to develop language and a theory of mind and possession . Their robots on the other hand are merely capable of such primal things as navigation and classical conditioning . Compare this to a Bee - which when captured , can be taken by car to a location away and find its way back , this is about the ability of the 's . So from this stage they are expected to be able to learn to use tools , and act out of pure altruism for some human "" master "" - all within . I can not help but feel that this is completely unrealistic even if just for the last reason . To be of any real use to , this altruism would need to be a purely emergent behaviour from an ANN similar in science and architecture to a mammalian brain . While this is almost certainly possible , it is something completely unlike anything developed in any higher life form . In fact , the only examples in biology known to act so altruistically are social insects - leading us back to Swarm Intelligence and away from the top - down approach to robotics . So the chances of us being able to do anything useful with top - down research in robotics in the foreseeable future are very low . This is the reason why I propose that is flawed , and it leads directly from the flaws set down in the first . It is simply unrealistic to expect research to progress in such a way that they are mutually beneficial to both sides of the project in the foreseeable future . As criticism alone is worthless lest it is constructive , I shall not end this argument here . I shall instead propose new to take the place of this existing doing computational modeling of brains and the models of related systems for purely neuroscience reasons , the other working towards robotics which would be useful in the home for instance . Using this method there could be set reasonable and attainable goals and a realistic roadmap for the challenges progression could be laid down , and there would be no pretense of them assisting each other . Some people may say that the challenge I propose , being purely for the purpose of is not really a challenge in computing . But I deny this forthright . When we look at , what is to be seen but the greatest reverse engineering project ever to be undertaken ? The brain was natures answer to computers , and thus those who are trying to work out how it works are but Computer Scientists of a different persuasion . The subject of Biology covers everything from the smallest bacterium through to Gaia in her entirety . Maybe it is time that the sides of computing united towards a common purpose , without crossed - purposes muddling the relationship .","< heading > In Brief The game that we have decided upon is a waterfall model based game . The board will be split into levels , each of which will get progressively higher , and riskier than the one below . Unlike in the waterfall model , the later stages - i.e. testing and maintenance will be located ' physically ' above the earlier levels . The aim is to progress through the earlier levels , completing tasks , improving your development team and making important choices about the development process , until eventually , you reach the release - the maintenance level . He who has amassed the greatest number of points then wins the game . The points came from a range of things which are calculated when you finish - the amount of cash you have , the quality of your development team and the speed with which you completed the game . Competition comes in from other development houses , seeking to gather the best programmers for their own projects , rushing to get out competing software and fighting tooth and nail for stakeholder 's money . < figure/> Features In total there will be different types of tile upon the board , types of card - programmer , chance and backup , up to player pieces , sets of coloured pins , die and many wads of cash . Following this is a brief description of each of these that need explaining , their purpose in the game , alongside any necessary details and available images . < heading As stated above , the board will be split into different levels ; each tiered above the earlier one . The board will be constructed of the hard board as stated as available by Rachael . People will navigate the board in a clockwise manner , moving up and down between levels using the up and down tiles . Each level shall be split into a number of tiles . Here is shown the manner in which they shall be laid out : < figure/> Tiles: Start Square: At the beginning of the game , all players should lay their pieces inside the start square . The highest roller will then initiate a clockwise rotation around the board based on their roll . Following this it has no further significance and can be considered a ' safe ' square . < heading > Move Up Square: When you land on this square you have the choice of moving up a level . Each one of these tiles will have holes drilled into the top of it . The time you move up each level having completed all compulsory tasks for that level , you must collect an amount of cash ( to be decided after prototyping ) from the bank and place one of your coloured pegs inside one of the holes . < heading > Move Down Square: When you move on this square you can move down to the same square on the level below . < heading When you land on a bug square , you must wait in that square for turns , or roll a double to escape . < heading When you land on a crash square you must go down to the Move Down tile on the level below , or forsake a backup card . < heading > Chance Square: When you land on a chance square you can either choose not to do anything , or pick up a chance card . See Chance Cards . < heading > Trade Square: Unless you wish to obtain a new programmer or backup card , you can just ignore this tile . If you wish to get a new backup card then you must swap one of your programmer cards for one with the management . If you wish to get a programmer card then you must specify whether you wish to buy it from the management or from a particular player . You then have the choice of buying a random card from either , or buying a particular card . If the purchase is from the management , then the employment cost of each programmer is specified for direct purchases . The cost for purchasing a random programmer from the management though is £ X ( As yet unspecified ) - and thus quite a gamble . The same kind of rules exist for trade with other players , just the player you are going to purchase of specifies the amount for both individual purchases and random ones . For random purchases , all available programmer cards should be well shuffled before being sold . < heading > Compulsory Task Square: Task squares will vary , all of them will have holes drilled into them though .. They will specify on their tiles what you will have to do to complete the tasks - some will require that you have already completed a prior task . Some will simply require rolls of the dice , some will require payments to complete , some will have requirements on the number , skill and type of programmers that you have . The completion of all compulsory task squares is obligatory though - not necessarily the time you land on them , but to finish the game . You should use your pegs to mark of the completion of a task square . Here are some examples of tasks : FORMULA < heading These are essentially the same as compulsory task squares but without being compulsory . Higher level optional tasks may require that you have completed other optional tasks , but it wo n't be required to complete the game . The benefit of completing them is that they will confer some advantage - but not without some counterbalancing disadvantage or risk . Some of these may only be completable by player , but most will be completable by anyone that wishes to and thus can have up to holes drilled into it . Here are some examples of optional tasks : FORMULA < heading When you land on a choice you there and then have to make a decision that will affect the rest of the game . There will be holes drilled down each side of this tile . You will be presented with options , and you must place your peg into the choice side you wish to go with . This choice will not be changeable , and will have consequences such as the availability of certain optional tasks . Here are some examples of choices : FORMULA < heading > Tax square: When you land on one of these squares you must pay the amount specified by on the tile . This amount will vary between tiles . < heading > Finish Square: The finish square is located in the centre of the board . It is a form of task square , which requires that all prior compulsory tasks have been completed . A suitably cunning task has not yet been devised . < heading > Cards: Programmer Cards: You obtain programmer cards at the start of the game . All of your cards must be displayed clearly in front of you throughout the game . See the Trade Square for information on how cards are swapped and purchased throughout the game . Each programmer will have his speciality type of application ( game , web , OS or application ) , they will have details on where they have worked in the past ( programmer will be taken from real life ) and a programmer ranking score . It will generally be better for you to have high scoring programmers whose specialities match that of your company . < heading > Backup Cards: These will be brought while on trade squares by trading a programmer . They are used to avoid the effects of crash squares - something very important in the tenser parts of the game . < figure/> Chance Cards: Chance cards will have a range of effects , both positive and negative . Many will have both good and bad sides , depending on the choices you made in the game so far , and the tasks you have thus far completed . Here are some examples of chance cards : If you have completed all optional tasks so far , Manager is pleased with current progress and grants extra funds to project If developing an Operating System : New version of competing system released - management steps up funding . Take a new programmer card . Programmers receive extra training - get points for each programmer you have Backup server crashes - Unless you choose to have programmer pairs , loose all backup cards If you have a programmer with ranking over : ' Talent ' scout offers your programmers higher salary , either loose your programmer or pay to keep them on < heading > Player Pieces: These will be small circular pieces , capable of being placed into small plastic holders . They will have the name of a company on side , and the logo of the company on the other . The player piece will be pulled out of a bag at the start of the game , this will have the effect of forcing the player to have a certain speciality , potentially pitting them against another player for programmer cards . < heading > Rules of the Game One player should be elected as "" manager "" , who will henceforth be in charge of dealing out cash and programmer cards . When you start the game you must select a company piece from the bag and slid the company 's marker into your holder - this is now your playing piece . Each company comes with its own speciality which will have relevance throughout the game ( read more under specialities ) . The manager should then deal each player a selection of random programmer cards , X amount of cash and coloured pegs . All playing pieces should then be placed on the start square , located on the level . The dice should then be rolled by each player , and then who ever has the highest role starts the game . Each player takes their turn to roll the dice , progressing around the board in a clockwise direction . Their next action depends on which square they land on - unless the consequences of that square is that they should not move during the next turn , then they should pass the die on and wait till their next turn . To win the game you must complete the final task . Your score should then be calculated based on ; amount of cash , number of programmers , programmer specialities and speed of development ( in relation to other players ) . alternate ways of winning / playing the game are the "" last man standing "" and "" poker "" rules . The last man standing rules work by making it so you can not go down a level and eliminating the last player to reach each level . This way only one player is actually able to reach the top and automatically wins . The poker rules are a modification on the last man standing rules , whereby , someone that got kicked out earlier in the game could still beat the person who got to the top - if they had more points than them . This would only work on the basis that the risk occurred by going up each level increased greatly . < heading > Justification I feel that we are well justified in developing this game on the grounds that we have covered many different facets of software engineering . In the most obvious sense we have gone for a waterfall model based design , but within that there is much more . It will be possible to have the iteration between levels of the waterfall , which was added to the model later on , due to the ability to choose to move up and down between levels . On each level there will be things to do with software engineering practises relevant to that stage , coming through in the form of tasks and choice squares . For instance , an example of a choice square for the design level would be whether to use a structured design methodology , which may require you to complete all the optional tasks , or use a methodology which might require greater programmer skill but less tasks needing doing . Because there will be things such as chance cards which might pop up and make life a lot easier if you had made a certain choice or performed a certain task , players will get a better concept of whether they like taking that kind of risk in real projects . We will be trying to set the game up so this facet of play really does come through . On top of all that we have also tried to take a side - swipe at the business and management side of software engineering in the form of having the programming teams , trading of workers , resource management etc . By having competing teams , some maybe racing to get there , others maybe taking it slow and steady , building up cash supplies and taking on every optional task , we hope to highlight that there is not right or wrong way to go about software engineering but only possible ways . < heading > Design History The game started off as a monopoly based game , where tasks would be bought and everything done in very much a monopoly style way . We discovered that many people were going about a similar style project and decided to be more ambitious and original Considered changing it into a form of drinking game where you drink when you land on someone else 's "" property "" Were told not to make a drinking game We decided tasks should require actually doing something , instead of just being brought . The original idea that arose was using questions . We decided against questions , as there were n't that many you could really ask . The idea of having pseudo - random tasks being performed came up , along with the idea of having choices . We decided that we would n't have money in the game as it would unnecessarily complicate things and there was n't much point for it . Programmer cards were brought up as a way to add some element of having to prepare for harder tasks . The idea of a board came up Backup cards were originally suggested but with little purpose but got accepted in Reaching the centre was decided as the method of winning the game Having programmer specialities was decided on as a way to enhance competitiveness between players Decision to create lots of new tiles as the game was quite dull only having tasks and choices Trade squares were added as a way to formalize buying / selling cards Backup cards were phased out as pointless Cash came back , as we needed to buy / sell programmer cards , pay for tasks and choices etc - it now had a purpose cards were brought in as a way to add random fun alternative methods of winning , being the last man standing and poker rules were suggested It was decided that last man standing and poker rules would be best of kept as alternate rules and that winning should instead be based on calculating points A combo of squares was thought up as a way to add penalties to the game and squares were separated to make each square less complicated Backup cards were brought back in as a solution to crash cards Tax squares were thought up as a way to dispose of cash Up / Down squares were formalized as the way to move between levels rules filled out when rule book was written The number of tiles on each level and the layout of the board was decided Decision to make models to test out board textures made The idea of a triangular board was brought up , and voted against due to the large amount of work already gone into square board , and the waste of material that would result from use of the triangle [ see Square v Triangle ]",1 "< heading > Methodology The objective of this study was to analyse chocolate purchases with respect to individual supermarkets , types of chocolate and customer characteristics . The independent sample t - test was chosen to test the null hypothesis that ' customers with kids spend the same amount on chocolate as those without ' because it compares means within the same variable . It tests whether the means are equal or alternatively if they show a significant difference . The T - test is based on the assumption that the sample mean is normally distributed across the sample . The ANOVA F test was chosen to find out whether the amount spent on chocolate is significantly different across categories of TV watchers ( light , medium and heavy ) . This test is appropriate because it can compare several means simultaneously while avoiding the error that may occur in performing multiple t - tests . The null hypothesis is that all the means are equal and it is rejected if of them differs . The F ( Fisher ) ratio compares the variance within sample groups with the variance between groups and is the basis for . If the calculated F value is more than the critical F value then H0 ( the means are equal ) is rejected and H1(there is a significant difference between the means ) is accepted . This test assumes that the sample is normally distributed and has equal variances . The P value is used to test the statistical significance of the T and F values . If the P value is greater than alpha ( which depends on the significance level ) then the results are statistically significant and can therefore be used to draw conclusions . < heading : Chocolate purchases across the supermarkets by age group . < /heading > The table below shows the average expenditure for different chocolate types across supermarkets by age group . The following information is represented in a series of graphs and discussed below . < table/>
The graph to the left shows that for every type of chocolate , expenditure is highest for the age group and lowest for those aged . This however varies within in each supermarket , demonstrated in the rest of the graphs on the page . Focusing on Sainsbury , organic chocolate expenditure follows the same pattern as above , whereas fair trade and standard chocolate vary . Fair trade chocolate has the highest expenditure within the 41 - 55 age bracket at £ and the lowest in the range at . Standard chocolate expenditure is highest within the 41 - 55 age range at £ and lowest in the - 70 range where no chocolate at all was purchased . The age range does not appear on the graph at all because they do not shop at . < table/>The standard deviation for fair - trade and standard chocolate across all age groups is considerably higher than the standard deviation for organic chocolate indicating a larger variation from the sample mean for these types of chocolate . A large variation suggests that the precision of the sample ; in terms of being able to replicate the values if the research was conducted again , is low . The width of the confidence intervals and the standard error values also reflect the reliability of the mean . The wider confidence intervals and higher standard error of mean values indicate a less reliable mean . The widest confidence interval is for fair trade chocolate within the age group , this is due to the smaller sample size , which makes the results more difficult to replicate . < heading : Do customers with kids spend as much in chocolate as those without ? < /heading > The table and graph below clearly show that , in general , average chocolate expenditure for all types of chocolate is greater for those customers with kids than it is for those without . The difference is particularly noticeable for fair trade and organic chocolate types . The difference in average chocolate expenditure between those with kids and those without for fair trade chocolate is £ and for organic chocolate is £ whereas for standard chocolate the difference is . < table/>
Independent Samples Test Ho : Customers with kids spend the same amount in chocolate as those without H1 : Customers with kids do not spend the same amount in chocolate as those without . < heading > Test 1 : Fair - trade chocolate across all supermarkets ( : test 1) From the independent sample means test ( see appendix : test ) the T statistic is which is above the critical T values in the table even at the significance level which means that if the T statistic is significant we can be certain in rejecting . The P value given is 0 which is clearly less than the threshold given by any significance level which means the results are statistically significant . is rejected and accepted . There is a significant difference between the amount spent on chocolate by those customers with kids and the amount spent by those without . The graphs above tell us that the relationship is positive so it can be said that customers with kids spend significantly more on fair - trade chocolate than those without . In this case there is only a chance that a type error has occurred . < heading > Test 2 : Organic chocolate across all supermarkets ( : test ) < /heading > The T statistic for this test is which again is above the critical T values in the table even at the significance level meaning that if the T statistic is significant we can be certain in rejecting . The P value of indicates that the T statistic is significant so H0 is rejected and accepted . There is a significant difference between the amount spent on organic chocolate by customers with kids and the amount spent by those without . Again the graphs above show a positive relationship between the so customers with kids spend significantly more on organic chocolate than those without . Again there is only a chance that a type error has occurred . < heading > Test 3 : Standard chocolate across all supermarkets ( : test 3) The T statistic in this test is which does not exceed the critical T values for any acceptable level of significance , therefore if the result is significant H0 must be accepted and rejected . The P value of shows a significant result therefore is accepted and rejected . There is no significant difference between the amount spent on standard chocolate by those with kids compared to those without . < heading > Focusing on Sainsbury: Average chocolate expenditure and the difference in £ 's for 's customers with and without kids : < table/>
The case of follows the same general pattern . Customers with kids tend to spend more on fair trade and organic chocolate than those without . For fair trade chocolate , customers with kids spend on average £ more than those without , and for organic the difference is £ . Again , there does not seem to be a considerable difference for standard chocolate . Customers with kids appear to spend on average less than those without . < heading > Test4 : Fair - trade chocolate for only ( : test 4) The critical T value at of freedom is smaller than the calculated T statistic for this test right up to the significance level , which means if the result is statistically significant ; we can be certain in rejecting and accepting H1 . The T statistic in this test gives a P value of which means the test statistic is significant , so for , a customer having kids does influence the amount spent on fair - trade chocolate . The graphs show that this influence is positive , that customers with kids spend more on chocolate than those without . In this case there is only a chance that a type error could have occurred . < heading > Test 5 : Organic chocolate for only ( : test 5) The tabulated T value for this test is smaller than the calculated T value only up to the significance level ; therefore if the result is statistically significant we can only be certain in rejecting and accepting H1 . The P value given in this test is which is clearly above any acceptable level of significance which means we can not accept these results as conclusive . < heading > Test 6 : Standard chocolate for only ( : test 6) The critical T value for this test is not less than the calculated T value ( -0.019 ) at any acceptable level of significance therefore if the result is statistically significant , would be accepted and rejected . As reflected in the graph there is very little difference between the purchases . However , the P value of shows that the result is insignificant . < heading : Categorise the amount of TV watching into categories ( heavy watchers , medium watchers , low watchers ) . Is the amount spent for chocolate significantly different across these categories ? < /heading>
Average expenditure on each chocolate type for different levels of TV viewing across all supermarkets:
From the graph and table above it is clear that medium TV watchers have the highest average expenditure on all types of chocolate . Light watchers on average do not purchase fair trade or organic chocolate while heavy watchers have the lowest average expenditure for standard chocolate . < heading > Sainsbury onlySainsbury 's customers average expenditure on each chocolate type for different levels of TV viewing:
The table and graph above show that 's medium television watchers , on average , spend the most on all types of chocolate and that light TV watchers do not purchase chocolate at all . Heavy watchers are shown to purchase considerably more of fair - trade and organic chocolate than standard , whereas medium watchers purchase more of standard chocolate than the other types . < heading > One way ANOVA F - tests Ho : The amount of watched is irrelevant in explaining chocolate expenditure . ( The means are all equal ) H1 : The amount of watched is a relevant factor in explaining chocolate expenditure . ( The means are significantly different ) < heading > ANOVA output for Organic chocolate < /heading>
From the results of the test summarised in the table above , the F statistic exceeds the critical F value of where P = which means that if the result is significant , we can be confident in rejecting . The P value of indicates a significant result therefore is rejected and accepted . The amount of watched is relevant in explaining organic chocolate expenditure . < heading > ANOVA output for Standard chocolate < /heading>
The F statistic in this test does not exceed the tabulated F values at any acceptable level of significance ( = ) so if the result is significant statistically then H0 must be accepted and rejected . The P value of is below the significance level ( ) but only just which indicates that the result is not extensively insignificant and can be accepted at a slightly lower level of reliability . < heading > ANOVA output for chocolate < /heading>
The F statistic in this test exceeds the critical F value of where P = which means that if the result is significant , we can be confident in rejecting . The P value of indicates a significant result therefore is rejected and accepted . The amount of watched is relevant in explaining fair trade chocolate expenditure . < heading > Sainsbury only: ANOVA output for - trade chocolate < /heading>
The F value in this test is below the critical F value of where P=0.10 so if the statistic is significant H0 must be accepted and rejected . The P value indicates a significance level of which tells us we can only be ( ) confident that this result is significant . The results of this test are not significant enough to draw conclusions from . < heading > ANOVA output for Standard chocolate < /heading>
Again the F value in this test is below the critical F value of where P=0.10 so if the statistic is significant H0 must be accepted and rejected . The P value indicates a significance level of means we can only be ( ) confident that this result is significant . This particular result is definitely not reliable enough to draw conclusions from . < heading > ANOVA output for Organic chocolate < /heading>
In this test the calculated F value exceeds the critical F value ( ) where P=0.10 which means that if the result is statistically significant then we can be certain in rejecting . The P value of means we can be ( ) confident that this result is significant so H0 is rejected and accepted . The amount of watched is relevant in explaining organic chocolate expenditure for 's customers . < heading > Limitations: This method is limited , particularly in analysing whether there is a significant difference between light medium and heavy TV watchers because it only identifies significant differences between the categories as a whole . It does not tell you which categories differ from one another . The or could be used to locate where the differences arise . < heading > Discussion Task 1 : < /heading > From the results of task 1 it can be concluded that , in general terms the age group spend the most on chocolate therefore marketing strategies in general should concentrate on this age bracket . However , general advice may not be particularly helpful as this pattern varies for each individual supermarket . The case of follows the general pattern with the age group spending the most on chocolate and therefore marketing strategies focusing on this age range are likely to benefit . It is also important for to know their market segment age - groups for each chocolate type in order to decide how to focus their marketing strategies . The age group showed the highest expenditure for organic chocolate and the age range for organic and fair trade chocolate . < heading : < /heading > The results of the independent sample T - test showed that kids were an influential factor in determining the amount spent on fair trade and organic chocolate but there was no significant difference in expenditure for standard chocolate . Again this pattern varies for each supermarket . For , the results from the independent samples t tests were only significant for fair - trade chocolate where customers having kids ' was seen to make a significant positive difference to the amount spent on this chocolate type . It would therefore be profitable for to encourage more customers with kids to shop at the store and at the same time retain existing customers with kids as there is evidence that they spend more on type of chocolate than those without kids . incentive to get customers with children shopping in might be to introduce a kids section of the supermarket . Existing customers with kids can be retained through promotions linked to loyalty schemes , for example sending them samples to promote new fair - trade products . In the knowledge that customers with kids spend more on fair - trade chocolate could develop marketing strategies focusing on this target segment , for example an advertising campaign directed at children promoting fair trade chocolate in a way that fits their desires . A simpler method could be to put fair - trade chocolate at a lower position on the shelves , at a child 's eye level as oppose to an adults . < heading : < /heading > The results of the ANOVA F - tests showed that over all of the supermarkets in general , the amount of of TV watched is a relevant factor is explaining fair - trade and organic chocolate expenditure but not standard chocolate expenditure . For the way tests were shown to be insignificant for fair trade and standard chocolate types therefore no conclusions can be drawn specifically for these . However , the number of hours of TV watched was found to be a relevant factor in explaining the organic chocolate expenditure of 's customers . The graphs show how the means differ . Customers who watch of TV a week spend the most on organic chocolate . Those who do not watch television do not buy the chocolate at all therefore it might be advisable for to develop a television advertisement ( to capture its target audience ) promoting organic chocolate . Watching TV and eating chocolate is often done together . People often buy chocolate to eat whilst watching a film so other marketing strategies could include displaying some chocolate with the videos sold in the stores or linking them in promotions such as ; rent this DVD and get a free bar of fair - trade or organic chocolate . < heading > Executive summary The objective of the study was to investigate what factors influence chocolate expenditure . Independent sample T - tests and - way ANOVA F - tests were the methodologies used . Other methodologies such as linear regression could have given further indication of the relationship ( how much the of the variation in expenditure was explained by the different factors ) . Having kids is a relevant factor in explaining fair trade and organic chocolate expenditure in general ( for all supermarkets ) . Having kids is a relevant factor in explaining fair trade chocolate expenditure only for The number of watched is a relevant factor in general ( for all supermarkets ) . The number of watched is a relevant factor in explaining organic chocolate expenditure only for . An advertising campaign directed at children promoting fair trade chocolate could be profitable for . A television advertisement promoting organic chocolate could be profitable for . < heading > Further Research It would be interesting to carry out further research for in order to build a larger profile for its chocolate consumers which will enable the supermarket to segment its market and target consumers more effectively . Segmentation involves splitting consumers up into groups of individuals with similar needs and attitudes towards the product / service in order to target them with prices and promotions consistent with their individual needs . Segmentation can be conducted in many different ways . This study has looked at psychographic ( splitting consumers into groups based on the number of watched ) and demographic aspects ( age group and whether they have children ) . A questionnaire could be designed to look at other demographic factors that could be explored in terms of how they affect chocolate expenditure , for example ; income levels , gender , status and social class . Behavioural factors would be valuable in terms of finding out what the consumer wants from chocolate as a product as they focus on the relationship between the product and the consumer . For example , do people purchase chocolate as a gift , a single bar for their own consumption , a multi - pack for the family , or perhaps to be used in cooking ? How do they view chocolate ? - As a treat , a luxury , or an everyday necessity ? Do they buy more from the more reputable brands ? - and which brand is the most popular ? It might also be useful to look at how often it is consumed : , or . Other ways of collecting this data besides a questionnaire include ; focus groups , analysing the nectar card database , and buying data from classification systems such as .","< heading > Introduction: The aim of the following project is to discover what is currently required for a food retailer to be successful . It will include an exploration of the strategies and techniques employed by that have led to their recent prosperity . assumed the position of leading food retailer from in ( Anon , retail property website ) and have since continued to dominate the oligopoly , on course to make pound in profits ( ) with sales up on . The company currently operates stores in the with a further opening ( ) . has branched out to provide a range of services from financial to telecom , now also the 's leading online retailer . Within the food retailing oligopoly , competition is strong and strategic . Stores look to each other for guidance and often try to predict their competitors ' plans . It is therefore important to bare in mind that the recent success of is relative to its competitors , meaning that it may not only have come about due to its own improvements but also due to opponents downfalls , for example Sainsbury who have suffered greatly in . In order to address this aim the following objectives will be answered : Who are the leading retail chains ? How marketing strategies differ between stores and the extent to which the most successful have aided in 's recent prosperity . How e - retailing schemes differ between stores and whether this has had a profound affect in 's dominance . < heading > Marketing strategies Perhaps the most fundamental aspect of any company is understanding the nature and needs of their customers . The ' Marketing mix ' ( Borden , cited in and Pettitt , 2000 , ) is used to illustrate how this can be put into practise effectively . The marketing mix consists of major marketing tools ; product , price , promotion and place . < heading > Product: A successful product in the food retailing industry requires initial innovation , effective management , continual differentiation from competitors , attractive packaging and clear benefits . It would be very difficult to compare and contrast all products from different retailers ; however , stores own brand ranges are designed to reflect the company 's core values so would provide a representative comparison . The companies that produce own - brand products for the supermarkets have very low overheads so the retailers can afford to keep prices low and still make a profit . Therefore own branding is a good investment both for retailers and customers . own brand range cleverly targets a wide range of differing needs with its contrasting slogans , ' value ' and ' 's finest ' . Both are cheap , have distinctive packaging and target appropriate consumers . own brand range follows the store 's famous ' Asda price ' slogan with very low prices reflected in the packaging which is kept minimal but sufficient enough to prevent damage to the product . The packaging is very plain , usually white or transparent to save costs . This can have affects on the consumer . From perspective the customer could see the product as diminished in quality due to the low price and unattractive packaging , or on the other hand , the minimal cost packaging may serve the purpose of the low price therefore not affecting the quality of the product itself . Waitrose own brand range is typically much more expensive than its competitors but is thought to be of exclusive quality which gives differentiation to the brand . Packaging tends to be much more elaborate and eye catching , and to those who can afford the premium prices , very appealing . Perhaps one of the reasons why Waitrose is not as successful as is because only a small market is targeted . who own Waitrose have their own farms where all their food is grown . This exclusive practise provides assured quality and traceability increasing customer loyalty but only to those who can afford it . Sainsbury own brand features somewhere in the middle of these extremes . Like , also attempts to target a wider market with its ' Be good to yourself range ' alongside 's own products . This range creates differentiation for the company and is very much in tune with consumers ' lifestyles . The packaging is attractive , promoting quality and healthy living , both very appealing to a section of the population . 's own products on the other hand take the same characteristics as value and ' smart price ' range but at a slightly higher price . From the above analysis it seems that and have the most effective product ranges in recognising that there are different types of consumers to be targeted using separate techniques . This fundamental aspect of marketing is known as segmentation . Consumers differ in their needs and wants for a product or service and as it would be impractical , impossible and too expensive to custom make products for each individual in the market , consumers are split into groups with similar needs and attitudes . A profile of this particular group is created and they are then targeted with specific messages relevant to their requirements . In Sainsbury analysed their customer segments based on reward card data . They sectioned their customers into the following groups and subgroups : < list > Family orientatedLess affluent familyNew familyTypical familyLow contributionTraditionalLads and lassesEconomyQuality orientatedOrganicsFoodiesTime poor / cash richHealth conscious ( , marketing lecturer) The information gained from the reward cards allows to identify the growing segments in the market ( which ones have brought them the most profit ) and adjust their stocks , products and promotions to more specifically target these people . < heading > Price: In the food retailing oligopoly the retailers have a slight monopoly over the manufacturers in that they have the power to set the market price of goods . Consumer perception has to be thought about in the pricing of goods . A low price can be perceived as poor quality while a high price could be undercut by competitors wanting to steal market share . Most low cost retailers such as and set low prices but avoid the association of diminished quality by offering discounts on bulk buys only , so the consumer will then think that the lower price is due to bulk purchasing and no longer associate it with the quality of the product . < heading > Comparing the prices of leading food above table shows 's prices to be the lowest in the market . They are very similar to 's with items at the same price but considerably cheaper than Sainsbury which has items at a higher price . has the most items at a cheaper rate than relative to the other stores but the majority of its products ( ) are more expensive than 's . The actual differences in these prices , however , are not given by this table so it is difficult to gauge how much cheaper the products are . In most cases as with the example below the differences are minimal but if consistent throughout a store can contribute to a considerable saving on a shop . < table/>Tesco is proud of its low prices and claims to ' ... create value for customers to earn their lifetime loyalty ' ( Sir , Chief Executive ) < heading > Promotion: Customers tend to be regular in what they purchase but can be influenced by special offer programmes such as ( buy get one free ) and seasonal events . is a key marketing tool used to increase spend by encouraging repeat purchasing as people rarely store away item from this sort of promotion . High value promotions can therefore result in increases in sales . ( , manager of 's branch ) < heading > Place: Manufacturers and consumers alike rely on the retailer to promote products , maintain stocks and provide a fulfilling shopping experience . Much of this depends on store location , layout , image and ambience . ' Cutting costs does n't have to mean cutting corners when it comes to store design ' according to the team at ( Anon retail property website ) . believes that the needs of its customers are far more important than awards for store design . However , it recognises the essential factors of a successful store as simple , easy to navigate , clean and uncluttered . This no - frills approach cleverly reinforces the ' value ' philosophy . However , as with price , of the dangers associated with economical endeavours is that consumers use it as an indicator of quality . have recognised this factor , managing to reduce the costs of building new stores by , while constructing some of the most innovative and attractive shops in the sector . A new ' store on retail property website ) set to open in , Greater , demonstrates 's commitment to keeping low costs without compromising on quality . The store is designed to stand on stilts above the ground in order to accommodate a car park underneath . The novel idea provides differentiation for against other competitors , while incorporating many of the company 's key values : < list > ' Understand customers better than anyone Be energetic , innovative and be for customers Use our strengths to deliver unbeatable value to our customers ' < /list>(Sir , , ) The design is economical both in terms of the saving in costs for and the saving on land environmentally . The practical principles behind the design are clearly in tune with changing customers ' needs . In a money - rich , time - scare community customers seek convenience and efficiency . This new store will reduce the distance that customers have to walk to their cars and save them getting wet if it is raining therefore providing a unique and pleasant shopping experience . is thought to have led the new face of modern supermarkets with the introduction of its glass fronted , steel buildings creating a more modern , open feel . , the company 's operations director of property services believes initial innovation and differentiation in the market to be the key to 's success , ' ... we have a history of doing things and that is what has set us apart from the competition and made us number one . ' ( , retail property website ) Having looked at all areas of the marketing mix it is important to remember that although some stores may have the comparative advantage over others in certain areas , the key to a successful retailer is an effective combination of these elements . ( Brassingtonal . ) , 's operations director of property services demonstrates how he thinks the company has an effective combination of these elements , ' ... by having no queues at the checkout , having products for sale at whatever time somebody shops , making it easy to navigate around the store and making it easy to park . These are the important things . ' ( , retail property website ) < heading > Providing the service Aside from the marketing mix which provides the basis for the stores ' operations , other , more quantifiable aspects can be compared to help explain 's dominance . < heading < /heading > operates on a basis . Despite little or no profit being made during these extra opening 's theory is that it does not cost much more to have a couple of people on the checkouts and therefore be able to provide a service which is valued by customers . This sort of endeavour , also practised by , builds considerable customer loyalty and is where Sainsbury in particular , with trading from pm , loses out . < heading > Range intensity Sainsbury believe in stocking a wide range of brand types to give their customers plenty of choice . and , on the other hand , have a smaller range which allows them to have more of those particular products and therefore rarely go out of stock.1 < heading > Supply chain Sainsbury ensure that the majority of their stock is received in store within of ordering while and efficiently run to schedules . < fnote>1 , manager of 's branch < /fnote> Store cards When Sainsbury owned they introduced a loyalty card that could be used in both stores . recognised that this idea boosted customer return and brought out their own ' clubcard ' . When this was launched lost customers . Sainsbury also made a mistake when they decided to stop using airmiles in conjunction with their reward cards . Many customers reverted to other supermarkets in search of recognition for their purchasing . Sainsbury have now introduced the ' card ' which can be used to collect points at a number of outlets and redeemed in the form of money off purchases , day trips and holidays depending on the number of points collected . The idea came from and is said to be very expensive to operate . < fnote>1 , manager of 's branch < /fnote > Tesco , however , is winning in terms of customer loyalty . With over members and generating incremental sales , ' the club card is the world 's most successful loyalty scheme ' ( Humby C and T , ) < heading > Approach to E - retailing Tesco has recently become the 's leading online retailer due to the innovative use of web services and XML technology . , head of e - commerce development at believes that "" Using existing strengths , such as IT infrastructure , was one of the most important factors behind our success , "" ( , , computer weekely.com ) . shoppers buy their groceries online more than any other country with accounting for of the purchases . ( Datamonitor cited in computerbuyer news ) . The figures below in £ ' show the value of food sold online in for the top retailers . The extent of 's lead in the e - commerce sector is very apparent : < table/>Tesco 's approach to online shopping differs to 's for example . deliver the products from their stores to online customers whereas have separate warehouses where the items are collected . 's approach is more cost effective in terms of savings on land space , while it is also probably easier to administer due to in store labelling and promotions . < heading > Convenience stores According to an article in the , is , , to become the largest convenience store operator . Accounting for of neighbourhood retailing behind the coop at , at and at ( verdict report cited in The , and PA , ) is more than likely to exceed its rivals having experienced a market share rise of in . also has a strong partnership with petrol stations while is in partnership with . These convenience stores fit in with modern consumers ' lifestyles in our cash rich , time scarce society serving to increase customer loyalty . < heading > Comparing the group turnover and number of stores owned by and . < /heading>
(Tesco 's and 's reports URL and URL ) From the above table , 's success is very clear , with a particularly large difference between figures occurring in with 's investment in of new stores and 's supply - chain breakdown . < heading > Sainsbury 's downfall The chairman of claims that the ' ... sheer amount of change in the business clearly distracted us from delivering as good a service as we should ' . The drop in profits is claimed to be due to the introduction of the business transformation programme in , the scale of the changes involved , the associated disruption and the weakening of the dollar . , however , managed far more extensive investments while generating record profits . < heading > Alternative merchandise < /heading > An enormous contributing factor to recent profits , particularly for and has been the expansion of the non - food sector . The revenue gained from this is typically reinvested allowing food prices to stay low . Recent developments include : < list > wareAudio and visualInsurancePensionsBanking servicesCafes Conclusions Referring back to my initial aims and objectives , it can not be concluded that any aspect has led to 's success but that each of the following factors have played an essential role in creating the winning combination needed : has expanded its range of non - food merchandise to keep the lowest food prices in the market . strike the right balance between prices and quality - demonstrated in their products and store designs Inefficient supply chain management from left to pick up extra market share is in tune with its changing customers needs - demonstrated in all of its endeavours which reflect the company 's core values , examples include ; becoming the largest convenience store operator , no . online retailer and providing a service . < figure/>This last point is perhaps the most important , particularly for the future of the company as the current retail oligopoly is driven by the consumer . < heading > Evaluation Further quantifiable research is needed to ascertain the suggestions made in this project . A more in depth study of 's and other competitor 's downfalls would help to provide an idea of 's success relative to its environment . Perhaps a section on the oligopoly hierarchy , how it has changed over time and the outlook for the future . It would also be interesting to extend this project to an international level as from the research conducted it is apparent that globalisation is also an area that has aided in 's dominance .",1 "< heading > Introduction One of the major tasks of theorists is to explain the processes involved in the child 's early stages of word learning . In response to this question , it appears , superficially , that the crux of the debate between the proponents of the so - called ' semantic bootstrapping ' and ' syntactic bootstrapping ' approaches to language acquisition lies in the apparently contradictory claims "" that children use meaning to learn syntax ... but also that they can use syntax to learn meaning ... "" ( ) . This conundrum has been called 's puzzle , and it is the process of comparing the approaches that permits the identification of a potential solution to this chicken - and - egg problem . This essay firstly outlines some important findings from language acquisition studies that have informed the development of these approaches . The theories are then defined and their similarities and differences compared . The nature of the innate knowledge of language they presuppose is evaluated and finally , the conclusions are summarised . < heading > Noun and Verb Acquisition Studies Bloom ( ) reviews the empirical evidence that children acquire the syntactic - semantic mappings between ' noun ' and ' object ' very early , even though the distinction between count and mass nouns occurs later on , and that subcategory errors are not uncommon until this distinction is acquired for the child 's specific language . The early acquisition of these mappings for nouns is also considerably enhanced by the tendency for the child to experience simultaneity between the visual presentation of the object , and its phonological counterpart . Verbs , on the other hand , are rarely used in what and Gillette ( ) call deictic - ostensive contexts : their occurrence is not reliably synchronised with an utterance that refers to them ( interleaving ) . This phenomenon , coupled with the observation that once children have acquired initial verbs the rate of subsequent verb - acquisition is exponential , suggests that a different process is at work . Finally , the problem with verbs is : how does the child identify from the linguistic input what constitutes a ' object ' or ' action ' , how are these then related to the lexical categories ( ' noun ' , ' verb ' ) so that the former can adopt a thematic role ( ' agent ' , ' patient ' , ' theme ' or ' goal ' ) relationship with the latter , and also so that the appropriate grammatical constraints ( ' subject ' , ' direct / indirect object ' ) for that verb are fulfilled ? Verbs differ in the number of arguments they licence , and locative verbs may take either a figure - object ( e.g. , pour ) , a ground - object ( e.g. , fill ) , or both ( e.g. , load ) depending on which element is affected ( Gropen et al , and ) . These are the main linguistic considerations that have been addressed by the hypotheses evaluated in this essay . < heading Bootstrapping The motivation for ( , ) was to identify the processes involved in the child 's acquisition of the relationship between semantic and syntactic elements of linguistic input that allow him / her to generate grammatical rules , and to postulate which components are innate . Pinker ( ) proposed "" that the child initially uses semantic notions as evidence for the presence of grammatical entities in the input ... "" and "" ... that object , action and attribute are the ' inductive bases ' for noun , verb and adjective . "" Pinker proposed a set of syntax - semantics correspondences that map the semantic characteristics of language ( e.g. , object , action ; agent , patient ; argument type , etc . ) to their successfully inferred grammatical elements ( e.g. , noun , verb ; subject , object ; relationship within phrase structure , etc . ) Pinker ( ) demonstrates that a single model can account for the stages of word learning : a ) the initial ' bootstrapping ' process for the generation of grammatical rules , and b ) the subsequent process of acquiring language by utilising those rules . The model assumes that the following elements are innate : < list ( i ) that initially activates ' linking rule prototypes ' relating to the input before grammatical rules have been learned . ( ii ) that assigns words to their lexical categories , grammatical roles or phrase structure relationships once an appropriate ' prototype network ' has been developed based on learned linking rules . ( ) constraints that control the analysis of the input . Pattern matching and parameter setting capabilities that ensure coherence between the input , rules and the specific grammar of the target language , by mediating between the input representation and the various prototype networks. The essence of the semantic bootstrapping hypothesis is that the procedures for the acquisition of grammar are innate : the analysis of the semantic characteristics of initial word input ' bootstraps ' rule prototypes ( syntax - semantics correspondences ) which , aided by innate pattern matching and parameter setting capabilities , generate the grammar rules of the target language . < heading > Syntactic Bootstrapping The term Syntactic Bootstrapping Hypothesis was coined by ( ) , and in its initial formulation , it was postulated in ' opposition ' to . Indeed , Naigles ( ) states that contrary to the latter approach , "" children can conjecture novel meanings for verbs based on the presentation of novel syntactic frames . "" At glance , it appears that this approach predicts that word meanings are derived from the application of innate linguistic knowledge relating to the syntactic structure of sentences . Certainly , the motivation for the Syntactic Bootstrapping Hypothesis was to emphasise the role of syntactic - semantic mapping in the acquisition of verbs as opposed to a sound - concept pairing mechanism that can be posited for noun acquisition . However , the empirical work conducted by Naigles ( ) and Fisher at al ( 1994 ) , concludes that the verb frame ( e.g. , transitive / intransitive , manipulation of subject - object / agent - patient relationship ) , provides a mechanism , similar to a zoom lens , for narrowing the search - space confronting the child , and not that novel verb meaning per se is only acquired through the child 's syntactic analysis of the input . Indeed , Fisher et al ( ) stress that "" the initial narrowing of the search - space for that meaning , by attention to the argument structure as revealed by the syntax , is the precondition for using the scene information efficiently to derive the meaning . "" In clarifying the distinction between the approaches , Pinker ( ) points out that the Syntactic Bootstrapping Hypothesis "" ... is not a different theory of how the child begins to learn syntax ... "" , in fact it has nothing to do with ' bootstrapping ' because it postulates "" ... how the child learns the meanings of specific words ..... at the point at which the child has already acquired the syntax of verb phrases ... "" . and ( ) agree that the term ' syntactic bootstrapping ' is "" something of a misnomer "" and cease to employ it further . It appears then that the label Syntactic has created kinds of misunderstanding : the term ' bootstrapping ' has inappropriately given focus to the very initial stages of language acquisition , and the term ' syntactic ' has put too great an emphasis on the child 's analysis of syntactic structure , at the cost of other sources of information such as the context , prosodic cues and knowledge of other linguistic items in the sentence . < heading > Comparison of Approaches The above arguments have established that the important distinction between the approaches is that they are not both ' bootstrapping ' hypotheses . Again , Pinker ( ) provides the following helpful definition to clarify the scope of these overlapping positions : ) ' Semantic cueing of syntax ' refers to the hypothesis . ) ' Semantic cueing of word meaning ' refers to the assumption that meanings are learned via their semantic contexts ( both approaches sign up to this proposal ) . ) ' Syntactic cueing of word meaning ' refers to the hypothesis supported by et al . In essence , the approaches are in no sense ' in opposition ' , and when considering purely the restricted area where they coincide , it can be said that they very largely overlap since they are based on similar assumptions and make similar predictions about the nature of language acquisition . In order to draw the boundaries between the scope of the approaches and also to identify more subtle distinctions between them , the following will address the main tenets of and make comparisons with the syntactic approach as required . , as outlined in , addresses the processes involved in the initial acquisition of grammatical rules . The syntactic approach does not posit a procedure for this stage of language development , but ( ) suggests that ( ) has proposed that "" Children use some sort of nonsemantic procedure to determine the syntactic structure of sentences and then use this syntactic information to initially acquire the meanings of some words . "" The nature of this ' nonsemantic procedure ' is not discussed , however , in accordance with the semantic bootstrapping hypothesis , it is posited that once initial nouns have been assigned on a semantic basis , the argument - predicate relationships of the sentence are identified by means of a parser ( Naigles , ) . As mentioned earlier , Pinker ( ) criticises the empirical evidence claiming to support the syntactic approach to verb learning presented by Naigles ( ) for focussing too heavily on the importance of the ' verb frame ' as the means for drawing semantic implications from the sentence , and claims that they in fact confound the notions of ' content meaning ' and ' frame meaning ' in their study . In fact Pinker ( 1994 ) states that the Semantic Bootstrapping remains ' agnostic ' as to whether verb content meanings are actually attained , and what form that representation might take . emphasises that individual verb subcategorisation properties are not necessary to extract the semantic relationships between the verb and its arguments , it is sufficient to understand the verb 's role in the context of the other lexical items , such as collocated nouns or propositional phrases . Yet , Fisher et al ( ) also emphasise that the surface phrase structure only represents the meaning of a verb as an argument - taking predicate . As mentioned earlier , both approaches agree that verb frames provide a zoom lens , or perspective on the sentence , that maximises the efficiency of interpretation of the scene . The main difference between these approaches lies in the reversibility of linking rules . ( 1990:30 ) claims that the child can make deductions about meaning on the basis of observed syntactic structures . Pinker ( ) rejects this view by interpreting this claim to mean a correlational , or bidirectional relationship between the elements of syntax - semantics linking rules . Pinker defines this relationship as implicational , unidirectional and asymmetrical : "" A grammar is a mechanism that maps a huge set of semantic distinctions onto a small set of syntactic distinctions "" . < heading > Innate Knowledge Comparison of the approaches with respect to the nature of innate knowledge , again presents the evaluator with a series of fine discriminations . Essentially , both hypotheses adhere to the principles of the wider framework of Generative which postulates the innate ability of the human to utilise unlearned , universal , semantic - formal constraints to generate grammatical rules . The only discernible difference is between the emphasis placed on this approach : has had a greater opportunity to develop a theory of those aspects of language acquisition that postulate the mechanisms and procedures by which innate rule prototypes are developed into fully - fledged grammatical rules . There is no evidence in the Syntactic Bootstrapping Hypothesis literature that the proponents of this approach challenge the theoretical validity these proposals . < heading > Conclusion This essay has demonstrated that the so - called ' semantic ' and ' syntactic ' bootstrapping hypotheses are not equivalent in their status as theories : the former , as a true ' bootstrapping ' hypothesis , provides a mechanism for accounting for how the child initially acquires syntactic rules as part of the wider theoretical approach described by the Generative Grammar framework , and the latter provides additional evidence to support the importance of the child 's syntactic analysis of sentences once those syntactic rules have been derived , also within that framework . Despite this more obvious difference , and the fact that the Syntactic Bootstrapping Hypothesis was initially developed to challenge the Semantic Bootstrapping Hypothesis ( but later voluntarily abandons the focus on bootstrapping ) , their approaches barely conflict . Finally , given that both approaches have essentially been developed within the wider Generative Grammar framework , it is likely that the minor differences of perspective and emphasis noted in this essay will , in time , be reconciled along the lines suggested by ( ) .","Throughout the span of human history many societies and civilisations have risen and fallen , many of these societies have approached the disposal of the dead with a great reverence and ritual . Generally the funeral rites and practices would take , , and in to plan and put into action . They were and still are seen as an important part of separating world of the living from the world of the dead . The material remains of these practices provide archaeologists with invaluable data and evidence to interpret and analyse . This provides the archaeological community with a unique and exciting challenge , every site , tomb and burial must be approached differently depending on the environmental and physical conditions . Artefacts and skeletal remains must be treated with due care and consideration and catalogued in a precise and meticulous manner in order to aid scientific method . If handled properly archaeologists find skeletal remains and their associated artefacts extremely useful for academic study . The way in which a particular society or ethnic group handle the subject of death and the disposal of the dead can be very telling about their belief systems , religious practices and social structures . ( Stirland : ) The bodily remains themselves can provide a treasure trove of information about the individual or individuals found . Detailed study of the bones themselves can provide information about lifestyle , migration patterns ( stable isotope analysis ) and the physical attributes of that particular person . ( Stirland : ) data can easily be obtained from skeletal remains , for example the measurement of long bones can help to calculate stature and body mass , and the skull can be used to recreate facial features . Evidence of trauma is retained and can be studied and compared with statistical data to extrapolate information about the kind of activities undertaken by certain individuals . Malformation , congenital disorders and joint wear due to hard labour can all be recognised , catalogued and studies with a high degree of accuracy . ( Stirland : ) Certain diseases leave their mark , such as tuberculosis , leprosy , arthritis and osteoporosis . Once identified the data is extremely useful in ascertaining a possible cause of death as well as helping archaeologists to track the diseases evolution , infection and mortality rates and movement through ancient populations . Other diseases are caused by poor diet or a lack of certain minerals , example being Rickets ( children ) or ( adults ) caused by a lack of vitamin This particular affliction is generally associated with the industrial revolution and the subsequent problems with severe overcrowding and poor diet . This type of information is very important to archaeologists as they can then learn a lot about the conditions in which people lived and the effect disease and illness had on them . ( Stirland : ) Another important aspect concerning the body itself is its orientation and the way it is arranged within the grave itself . The orientation can be very suggestive and help to place the burial into religious and social contexts . For example graves are always orientated with the body facing no matter which part of the world the burial site is in . This would therefore indicate to archaeologists the importance of in the lives of members of the community . Another example would be burials with the grave orientation being with the head pointing west . The theory behind this involves the belief in , that god will appear in the east and deceased will rise to meet him face . These examples go a long way to prove that grave orientation is rarely random and is usually associated with some form of ritual behaviour or religious practice ; this therefore gives researchers a line of inquiry to follow in their investigations . ( Pearson 2003 : ) Within the grave itself the arrangement of body can be placed in varied positions , each representing different beliefs . Bodies have been found in various burial sites in many different positions ranging from lying face up to sitting or even standing . Many bodies are found lying on their backs with their hands crossed on their chests , this is a very peaceful pose and suggests a certain degree of care and tenderness in the placement of the body . The bodies arrangement is in the majority of cases one of the indicators of deliberate burial . Archaeologists can also make a judgement of the speed and care taken with a burial , if the body is an awkward pose it can prove that the body was buried in haste or even just dumped ( which in some cases , such as some bog bodies , can smaller groups with slightly different practices within a particular area . It is also reasonable to assume that the deceased had family , friends and had achieved some measure of respect during his / her lifetime . ( Pearson 2003 : ) Archaeologists can learn a lot from the grave of burial pit itself ; the size , shape , depth and care taken or not taken whilst digging it can provide the archaeological community with vital information . It can in some cases reflect the social standing or rank of that particular individual ; even gender can have some role to play in shaping the processes of funeral practices . Generally the more formal the funeral rites are the more effort is put in to the preparation and the grave itself . A modern example are graves , they are very formal and functional , and their dimensions vary according to coffin size and are mostly around 6 ft deep . The reasons for this depth is twofold , firstly to protect the body from tampering , to prevent the spread of disease . The graves are clearly marked with comparably little extravagance ( usually just a headstone or a small statue or in some cases a small mausoleum ) and set out in clear areas of grids . This is designed to give relatives a place to visit and to stop newer graves intersecting old ones , a common problem in the poorly planned cemeteries of medieval . ( Pearson 2003 : ) Not all burials required the digging of formal grave pits in specially prepared sites . Some groups , especially in pre - Iron Age societies made use of natural features such as caves , fissures , rocky overhangs and ditches . ( Pearson 2003 : ) This could show that these groups observed funeral practices with very little ritual and were just a way of disposing of a carcass rendered useless in death . It could be argued that the emphasis was on the spiritual rather than the mortal remains and if true says lot about the people who are represented by these types of burial and their belief systems . It could also indicate a lack of time and resources as well as a possible nomadic lifestyle with a lack of permanent structures . The most obvious and recognisable feature of burial archaeological are any above ground or semi - buried burial structures . Burial structures range from simple headstones to burial mounds to full scale monuments like the great pyramids in . When studying these monuments the general rule is the larger the structure the higher the social status and the more powerful the individual of individuals who are interned within . The larger monuments were hugely symblois ; they were statements of power and domination meant in some cases to remind the populace who 's in charge . They were built for a variety of other reasons , including the protection of the deceased and their grave goods and to help them ascend to the afterlife . Archaeologists can learn a lot from burials of this type , they can study building methods and technology , the positioning of the building itself , the wealth and resources of the particular civilisation that built it . Some burials were constructed to mimic structures from everyday life like houses or in the case of the change over time , for example , during the Neolithic some burial mounds and barrows were used communally ( although they did appear to contain individuals of higher rank ) whereas the emphasis did shift towards wealthy individual burials during the and ages . These monuments stand as a testament to human beliefs and ingenuity . ( : ) Grave goods are the items placed within the burial chamber or burial pit ; they can be personal in nature . They can also be gifts from family members , friends and even subjects ( in the case of royal burials ) . Grave goods can range from simple everyday items to the bodies of slaves and concubines . The goods themselves can be representative of the deceased 's profession , in other words , a warrior may be buried with his swords and other relevant items . Although this is not always accurate and the items present could be an idealised view of the individuals life and achievements . In many cultures the presence of grave goods serve the purpose of providing materials necessary for starting a new ' life ' in the afterlife . The Emperor had a vast terracotta army built in order to protect him in the afterlife , this shows a strong belief in the religious ideals surrounding death , a true belief that death is not an end but another beginning . It is physical evidence such as this that helps archaeologists to build a picture of a particular culture and its relgious and social belief . The artefacts themselves can provide vital information about lifestyle , religion , the extent of trade , artistic standards and technology , and social standing rank and power . The artefacts also reflect the growth through time of material wealth within a civilisation . As a civilisation grows it begins to develop wealthy powerful classes , an elite , which as they grow more powerful their burials generally grow more extravagant . This can be used as a method to chart the rise and fall of a civilisation ( for example during times of war and disease epidemics mass graves occur more regularly ) throughout a certain period of time as well as record changes in belief , attitude towards death and ideology . This information is vital in understanding a particular burial and being able to compare and contrast with similar burials and place it in a wider context . ( Pearson 2003 : ) The burial is an Iron Age tumulus located near in , was discovered in . The tumulus was m high ( 100 ft ) and surrounded by a low stone wall , it was dated to of the 6 th century . The interior consisted of alternating layers of planks and stones forming a chamber which contained a single body ft high of a male , aged . The grave goods contained within the chamber were of such magnificent quality that its occupant earned the nickname ' . The burial is clearly of ' ' origin but unlike most important ' Celts ' of the time he was not a warrior , the only weapon found was a small iron dagger which was more likely an essential accessory rather than a tool for killing . The ' prince was laid out in luxury on a Greek style bronze couch covered with expensive furs and finely woven fabrics . Around his neck was a golden torc of typical ' ' ; design , and placed just above his head was a strange conical hat made of birch bark of unknown design and origin . All around him lay items of immense value , suggesting great wealth , influence and power . Within the burial chamber itself a massive wheeled iron decorated was found filled with feasting equipment such as drinking horns and pottery vessels , suggesting that feasting was a big part of this individual 's life . At the foot of the couch stood another object of design and origin , a huge bronze cauldron hold or litres of wine ( an essential part of ' ' life ) . ( Bahn 2004 : ) This site is incredibly important , it helps archaeologists to understand the early ' ' world and al lot can be learned about their role in central history . did not have a writing tradition so sites like are very useful for filling the gaps in our knowledge . The archaeological evidence helps to prove that trade between the Greeks and the ' Celts ' was taking place and the ' Celts ' were in touch with what was at the time the most advanced civilisation in . Due to the fact that such a high status person was buried in such a manner without being a warrior suggests that there was more to ' ' culture than the filthy ' barbarians ' described by the invading . Dr of suggests that the ' could have been a cultured diplomat or trader , who traded in Greek goods and possibly ideas as well . The relationship between the Greeks and the ' Celts ' has been previously noted in the by a th writer known as the ' Father of History ' . Men like the ' Hochdorf Prince ' would have previously been made rich by the trade in iron using the river as a supply route . The burial provides physical evidence of this relationship and goes some way to disproving the traditional theory of the blood thirsty head hunting savages that rampaged through murdering indiscriminately . It also helps to build on the store of knowledge of burial practices at the time . ( Bahn 2004 : - 206 ) Burials in general provide archaeologists with huge amounts of information about past societies ; there is a vast amount of variation between cultures ( and even within cultures ) . Each group had different approach , from cremation , to mummification and simple burial a whole set of beliefs and rituals accompany each method from the highly extravagant to the downright bizarre and mundane .",0 "< heading > Exploratory research question In individuals with rheumatoid arthritis ( ) of the hand , does exercise treatment with the use of a resting hand splint increase ( or maintain ) range of movement ( ) and muscle strength better than exercise treatment alone ? < heading > Hypotheses < /heading> Research hypothesis : < /heading > There is a difference in effectiveness between using exercises alone , or exercises with the use of a resting splint in the treatment of individuals with of the hand . < heading > Null hypothesis : < /heading > Exercise treatment with the use of a resting hand splint will not increase ( or maintain ) ROM and muscle strength better than exercise treatment alone , in individuals with of the hand < heading > Alternative hypothesis: Exercise treatment with the use of a resting hand splint will increase ( or maintain ) ROM and muscle strength better than exercise treatment alone , in individuals with of the hand ( Robson , ) . < heading > Definition of RA , exercises and resting hand splints'RA is a chronic , progressive inflammatory disease primarily affecting joints , characterised by pain and fatigue ' ( , and , , p543 ) . The disease course is extremely variable between individuals and psychological status and social support affect its status . develops from early adulthood onwards , usually starting ( , and , ) . Exercise and rest strategies , and splinting to allow proper alignment of deformed joints , can be part of physical , and occupational therapy interventions to help manage symptoms ( and , ) . ' Muscle strength and joint should be maintained through exercise , full ranging of joints during activities and therapeutic activity programmes ' ( , and , , p558 ) . ' support the joint , reduce stress to the joint capsule , reduce pain during motion and help decrease inflammation ( , and , , p558 ) . < heading > Method Randomised controlled trials ( RCTs ) are a simple , clear design in which a variable is manipulated and change observed ( and , ) . They are seen to produce the most rigorous evidence which will result in objective and statistical analysis of the intervention outcomes ( , ) . This randomised controlled trial will encompass the following key elements : Random selection : a computerised selection from a group of people with , so the selection is not biased . Random allocation to treatment groups : a computerised selection of the selected participants to treatment group , and to the other . Single blinding of the researcher . < heading > Participants To estimate how large a sample will be required , a statistician will be consulted to perform a power analysis ( , ) . This will be done to ensure that an adequate number of participants will be included in the study to test the hypotheses and to have the power to determine whether the interventions made a difference in the study outcomes ( and , ) . There are a number of considerations in determining a sample size ; the data analytical procedures that will be used , statistical levels of significance , the strength of difference in sample values expected , and statistical power ( an power level is considered the minimum level of acceptability from the power analysis ) ( and , ) . These are all to be considered before a sample size is chosen . For the purpose of this proposal , ' X ' will be used to represent the number of participants . A sample of X number of randomly selected patients with of the hand , from referrals from GP surgeries and primary care physicians , will be invited to participate in the study and informed consent will be sought . They will be randomly selected by a computer from the eligible population of all adults with , i.e. the ' sampling frame ' . This is a simple random sampling technique involving random selection from the sampling frame ( Robson , ) . Willing and eligible participants will then be randomly allocated by a computer , in order to minimise bias ( , ) , to of groups : < list > The intervention group , to receive exercise and splinting treatment , or;The control group , to receive exercise treatment > A control group is important to provide a baseline against which the intervention group can be compared ( , ) . sets of data will be collected ; and muscle strength of the hand will be assessed in participants before the intervention , and after of receiving respective treatment , using ( ) ( Backman and , ) . This method is based on the before - and - after study design ( a type of experimental study design ) which is used to assess the impact of an intervention ( Kumar , ) . Participants will be asked to attend a hand clinic once every for to see an occupational therapist ( OT ) who will give them exercises to do in their own time , to help with the symptoms of their . For the treatment group who will also be receiving splinting treatment , the will fabricate an appropriate splint for the participant and educate them on how to use it . The aims of the sessions will be for the OT to ensure the participants are undertaking their exercise regime , or exercise and splinting regime , and undertaking it correctly , and also for the participants to express any concerns or questions that may arise over period . The will be undertaken in the session and after the last session . < table/> Inclusion and exclusion criteria Participants will be accepted into the study if the following inclusion criteria are satisfied: Aged Have a diagnosis of of the hand must be the only disease affecting hand function Able to attend a clinic for every 2 weeks for and for the final session at after the last ( th ) weekThe patient must be able to give informed consent The patient must be able to communicate adequately < /list> Exclusion criteria: Serious ill - health or pathology Recent surgeryPregnancyDiagnosis of clinical depression or other psychiatric pathologyAlready undergoing exercise and/or splinting treatment for RA(Buckeldee and , ; and Mead , > Variables(Kumar , ) Independent variable : The cause responsible for bringing about change , i.e. hand exercises with the use of resting splints . Dependent variable : The outcome of the change brought about by changes in an independent variable , i.e. and muscle strength . Extraneous variable : Several other factors which are not measured in the study , which may effect changes attributed to the independent variables , i.e. whether participants continue the exercises in their own time , disease exacerbation as the result of major psychological stressors ( and , ) , other illnesses , psychological status and social support ( , and , ) . < list> Other variables : < /heading > Age , gender , marital status , employment statusHow long individual has had a diagnosis of RAPrevious treatments received for RACo morbidity locus of control ( and , 2000) Ethical issues The researcher is in a state of genuine uncertainty over which type of treatment is more effective . It would be unethical to undertake this research if treatment was believed to be better than the other . The value of the project is an ethical issue , as its purpose should be to improve practice for all participants ( Winter and , ) , which this study is indeed aiming to do . The groups will be treated equally , aside from the intervention ( and Donald , ) . Informed consent will be sought from potential participants , after giving them an information sheet , sent through the post , explaining the following : the aims of the project and the nature of their involvement contact names , addresses and telephone numbers in case of queries or concerns their involvement is voluntary and choosing not to take part will in no way affect future treatment individuals have the right to withdraw from the study at any stage information gathered will be confidential and anonymous permission will be sought before including participants data in material to be published or circulated to others any potential risks of physical or psychological harm or discomfort A sign - off space will be included for the participant to sign if they have read and agreed to the previous stipulations ( , ; , 2000 ; and , ; , ) . Contact details of participants will also be requested . A copy of the signed consent form will be given to the participants ( , ) . This proposal will be submitted to to gain approval before it is put into practice ( Winter and , ; , ) . < heading > Blinding of the study An observer will be single blinded as double blinding of participants and observers technically impossible ( and Donald , ) . Patients can not be blinded , as they have to give their informed consent to be placed randomly in or the other group , they will therefore be aware of their treatment allocation . OTs applying the intervention can not be blinded as they must know which treatment to give which patient . The trial will therefore be single blinded , that is researcher will enter patients into the trail , and do the baseline measures of and muscle strength using ( ) , and another will do the evaluations at after the intervention , using the same test . This researcher doing the evaluation will be blinded , that is , unaware of treatment allocation to avoid bias ( , ) . < heading > Outcome measures The Arthritis Hand Function Test ( ) will be used to measure the variables of and muscle strength . This test consists of items designed to measure pure and applied strength and dexterity , and gives scores according to individuals ' ability ( Backman and , ) . The outcome measures will be recorded at baseline ( in of the programme ) and at after completion of programme . ' Other variables ' will be recorded at baseline only . A mean will be calculated for the age , gender and length of diagnosis of of the participants in each group , and the standard deviation ( SD ) given . SD will show the dispersion around the mean ( , ; and , ) . This information will be supplied to enable the reader of the research to see these other factors which may have an impact on the results . For participants who may withdraw from the treatment , an ' intention - to - treat ' analysis will be undertaken , so all participants are accounted for ( Bury and Mead , ) . The results will be assessed by comparing outcomes in the treatment and control groups ( and Oxman , , cited in and Mead , ) . The data produced will be ordinal data , which can be put into an order . For example , score from the can be better or worse than another score . A non - parametric test , the Mann Witney U test will be used to determine is there is a statistically significant difference between the control group and the treatment group . ( See table . ) ( Greene and D'Olivera , ; , ) . This needs to take place to determine whether any differences in outcome between these groups would have occurred by chance . That is , whether it can be certain that any improvement in the treatment group was due to the intervention or due to chance factors ( Taylor , ) . The level of significance is expressed in terms of the P - value ( P = probability ) . The smaller the P - value , the more confidence can be given that any differences are not due to chance ( , ) . < table/> Limitations A limitation of the before - and - after study design is that it measures total change , so it can not be determined whether independent or extraneous variables are responsible for producing the change in the dependent variable ( , ) . For example , individuals with may have disease exacerbation as the result of major psychological stressors ( extraneous variable ) , which would have an effect on the results . The nature of may also effect the results as there are various stages of ( early , moderate , severe , terminal ) and strength may vary depending on times of the day when joint stiffness is decreased ( , and , ) . It may therefore , depend on the is carried out as to what results are obtained , as well as the stage of each participant has .","In his pluralist thesis , describes politics as the analysis of the nature , exercise and distribution of power ; accordingly , a precise understanding of power is vital to all political study . Scholars and philosophers have struggled with the concept of power since ; debate has focused over whether power can be exercised responsibly , on how it should be distributed , and on whether power can be possessed as an attribute , or rather manifested purely as an activity , in the production of intended results . Theorists further question why people exercise power - while Nietzsche claims that humans possess a fundamental "" will to power "" , for power struggles are merely fuelled by the scarcity of resources . The complexity of these views suggests that claims that ' politics is power ' and that political power exists only within governments are oversimplified . So as to truly gain insight into 's political world , we must carefully reconsider the nature , uses and effects of power . < fnote > Dahl , . Who Governs ? Democracy and Power in an . Pg . . < /fnote> Goodwin , . Using Political Ideas . Pg . . < /fnote > Firstly , what is power ? For and other pluralists , "" A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something B would not otherwise have done "" , particularly when B is aware that the modified behaviour is contrary to his interests . Such power abounds in international politics , where developing states are often forced to counter their national interests and to comply with transnational companies ' potentially harmful requests due to these agencies ' superior financial and political status . , for instance , wields unquestionable power over the government , which has granted it subsidized water and land despite the grave environmental damage caused by production processes . Power is here understood in terms of its effects , and is seen as an attribute of individuals or groups ; it is a behavioural phenomenon , associated with domination more than merely with the capacity to influence outcomes . Power relationships are accordingly ' - sum games ' , which must deprive B of something if A is to benefit . Dahl thus provides a very precise and quantifiable definition of political power . < fnote > Hay , C. Political Analysis . Pg . < /fnote> Srivastava , Amit . "" Communities Reject Coca - Cola in "" . . Accessed at : URL < /fnote> Goodwin , . Using Political Ideas . Pg . . < /fnote > This explanation may be over - simplistic , however : it unrealistically assumes that actors possess perfect knowledge , knowing exactly where their interests lie in the power game . Furthermore , in measuring A 's power over B in terms of the decisions that A makes at B 's expense , 's theory does not weigh these decisions ' importance . and additionally criticize the pluralist approach for insufficiently differentiating power over people and power over matter . They also argue that the possession of instruments of power ( such as significant funds in the above example ) is merely latent power , which can only really be defined as power if A 's threat is found credible by B ( or if the government is convinced that will withdraw its investment if environmental regulations are reinforced ) . Most importantly , these scholars move beyond 's definition of power as decision - making , claiming instead that individuals exert power primarily by setting the agenda for political decisions . In this view , A has power over B if it can "" limit the scope of the political process to public consideration of only those issues which are comparatively innocuous to A "" . This theory , dubbed the ' face ' of political power , finds support in , for instance , where obtained - Palestinian consent to demilitarization of by formulating ' yesable propositions ' , in which the discussion of highly disputed issues was deliberately minimized . and theory also point to non - decision making as an indication of power : they suggest that B may bend to A 's power by choosing not to act against a violation of its own interests - as permanent members did by avoiding vetoing resolution on . Agenda - setting and non - decisions , both overlooked by 's ' face of power ' , are therefore clearly important indications of political power . < fnote > Bachrach , and , . Power and Poverty : Theory and Practice . Pg . . < /fnote> Goodwin , . Using Political Ideas . Pg . . < /fnote> Fisher , . International Conflict for Beginners . Pg . . < /fnote> Bachrach , and , . Power and Poverty : Theory and Practice . Pg . . < /fnote > In attempting to combine the pluralist definition of power with 's and 's explanation , a ' face of power ' has emerged : neo - elitism . This view extends the scope of power to preference - shaping , in which A exerts power over B unbeknownst to B , by manipulating B 's idea of his own preferences . warns that such power is widespread in everyday society , as social institutions "" prevent people from having grievances by shaping their perceptions ... in such a way that they accept their role in the existing order of things "" . Such manipulation was illustrated by the 's communist regime , which partially convinced citizens that their individual interests coincided exactly with those of the state . This "" institutionalized persuasion "" is key to the neo - elitist theory of power , diverging from the above ' faces ' in that it demonstrates power over and not only power to : rather than simply bringing about desired outcomes , this more virulent form of power allows player A to change player B 's incentive structure to achieve its goals . < fnote > Goodwin , . Using Political Ideas . Pg . . < /fnote> Goodwin , . Using Political Ideas . Pg . < /fnote > To better assess the accuracy of these definitions ( power as decision making , agenda - setting , and ideational restructuring ) they should be compared to common archetypes of political power . These include : authority ( power attached to offices ) ; coercion ( power to make others act and to legally punish them if they refuse ) ; force ( the rule - free use of coercion by a politically identifiable group ) ; and violence ( a "" coercive and destructive act by unauthorized people in orderly situations "" ) . Traditionally , power has been equated with these archetypes ; as political theorists refine their definitions of the concept , however , this is no longer the case . Force , for instance , was previously seen by as "" manifest power "" ; and , though , distinguish force from power by remarking that A does not achieve B 's compliance when implementing force . Lack of compliance implies that A 's use of force may expose it to deprivation as well as The application of force in the 's executions of civilian hostages in , for instance , inadvertently fueled rather than inhibited underground movements . Contrarily to conventional belief , therefore , force is perhaps not synonymous of political power ; rather , in the words of and , "" the application of sanctions [ or of force ] is an admission of defeat by the would - be wielder of power "" . < fnote > Goodwin , . Using Political Ideas . Pg . < /fnote> Bachrach , and , . Power and Poverty : Theory and Practice . Pg . . < /fnote> Bachrach , and , . Power and Poverty : Theory and Practice . Pg . . < /fnote> Bachrach , and , . Power and Poverty : Theory and Practice . Pg . . < /fnote > Similar ambiguities surround the relationship between power and authority . Whereas Hobbes claims that authority is not vital to state power ( as people will obey coercion out fear of anarchy ) , for most theorists power is meaningless without authority . On the psychological level , the Milgram Experiments demonstrated that an individual 's perception of another 's authority ( the authority of a recognized scientist , in this case ) prompted him to obey that individual 's orders even when these provoked intense moral dilemmas ( such as the belief that one was subjecting others to excruciating pain ) . On a more political level , argues that , "" no man has power unless his right to command is acknowledged by some of those who obey him "" . Likewise , for , a government devoid of authority is pre - social and can not achieve the cooperation of its people . The 's thus preserved most elements of the system it was theoretically ' replacing ' to ensure its citizens ' loyalty and to preserve its authority . Currently , states wielding somewhat unjustified power over minority regions - such as over or over - are losing their grip on these territories precisely due to their insufficient legitimacy ; as put by Ivo Daalder , "" legitimacy is not a luxury for the powerful and a necessity of the weak - it is what is necessary to translate power into success "" . and do not share such views , however . Whilst they accept that authority and power are mutually reinforcing , these theorists reject definitions of authority as "" institutionalized power "" and insist that the are not synonymous . In their view , authority involves B complying to A because A 's command is reasonable in terms of his values ; as such a relationship no longer contains any conflict in values , it can not be labeled as power . These scholars thus warn us that associations between authority , force and power must be discarded if one is to obtain an accurate understanding of political power . < fnote > Goodwin , . Using Political Ideas . Pg . < /fnote> Milgram , Stanley . "" . "" . Pg . . < /fnote> Goodwin , . Using Political Ideas . Pg . < /fnote> Goodwin , . Using Political Ideas . Pg . < /fnote> Shah , . "" "" , . Accessed at : URL < /fnote> Daalder , Ivo H.""Why Legitimacy In Iraq Matters "" . Center for American Progress . Accessed at : URL < /fnote> Bachrach , and , . Power and Poverty : Theory and Practice . Pg . < /fnote > Such an understanding would be incomplete without some comprehension of where power lies in society . Is political power ( especially power over state actions ) only available to influential groups , or can it be possessed by individuals ? The pluralist view of the state claims that individuals and interest groups possess the majority of political power . In the elections , for instance , the minority 's needs were particularly heeded , as "" the temporary government feared that [ this group ] would not participate in the elections "" otherwise . Extreme pluralists argue that even groups that are devoid of resources possess power , as governments respect their interests out of fear that their very deprivation may otherwise spark rebellion . Contradicting these views , elitists however hold that power lies not in individuals but in a society 's elite , whether this comprises large businesses in corporatist states or kinship ties in nepotistic regimes . Power , consequently , may exist both within civil society and in strictly governmental circles - depending on whether adheres to pluralism or elitism , and on the type of regime concerned . < fnote > Axford , , , Gary , Huggins , , & Rosamond , . Politics : an introduction . Pg . < /fnote> Bachrach , and , . Power and Poverty : Theory and Practice . Pg . < /fnote> Axford , , , Gary , Huggins , , & Rosamond , . Politics : an introduction . Pg . < /fnote > Having explored the differing definitions and locations of power in society , we can conclude that political power involves more than "" A get[ting ] B to do something that he or she would not otherwise do "" . Power implicates domination , agenda - setting , and preference - shaping , and is accessible to individuals as well as to elites in a community , depending on the social strata in which that power exists . When faced by such variability , the most important question for political theorists to answer concerning power may actually be , where should power lie ? If we can access a truly accurate definition of power , our next task may be to seriously challenge its distribution in our own societies , no longer in theory , but in practice .",0 "< heading > Introduction . < /heading > Any form of tourism has both positive and negative impacts on the society in which it operates , but the impacts of indigenous culture based tourism , while undoubtedly far - reaching , are particularly hard to measure . The use of indigenous culture as an asset for tourism is by no means a new phenomenon , but the study of the associated impacts is an area which has only in attracted any significant attention . The interdependence of social , cultural , historical , spiritual , political , anthropological , economic and management factors makes indigenous tourism a complex and interesting field , and one worthy of further study . This essay will therefore examine some of the impacts of indigenous culture based tourism in , where the have a significant role to play in a highly developed tourism industry . A review of existing literature reveals main schools of thought , one which accepts and even promotes the use of culture as a tool in tourism marketing : < quote>""The strong culture of the - unique to - is a major aspect of our national heritage which enhances appeal to the world 's travellers . "" ( , : , cited by , : 156) And the other which views such use of the culture as disrespectful and exploitative : < quote>""Pakeha have never been slow to exploit this indigenous culture in promotion and advertising - often in ways that drew disapproval . "" ( , : , cited by , : 157) Pakeha : A New Zealander of , extraction . ( , ) < /fnote > The essay will address each point of view with reference to recent studies ( , ; , ; , ; , ; , ) , while supporting evidence will be drawn from texts on other indigenous groups involved in tourism . It will also attempt to show that ( : ) assessment that ' cultural survival will contribute to economic success and economic success will contribute to cultural survival ' is simplistic and that a more thorough , multidisciplinary approach is needed to fully understand the issues and conflicts between indigenous peoples and tourism . < heading > Ethnocentrism . < /heading > Ethnocentrism is at the root of many conflicts between indigenous peoples and tourism . It is concerned with the tendency to see the world from a specific perspective , influenced by cultural factors . Quite simply , tourism providers and tourists often have a significantly different world view from that of the "" world communities "" ( , : ) whose culture they gaze upon . Tourism managers and policy makers are therefore unable to understand the true meaning of indigenous symbols , imagery , practices and beliefs , making sensitive management of that cultural heritage a near impossible task ; indigenous communities are often equally restricted in understanding the world priorities of economic viability and consumerism , leading to disenchantment with tourism . The are more integrated with pakeha society than many indigenous peoples are with their surrounding communities , but ethnocentrism remains an issue . "" Maori possess a holistic world view "" ( , : ) in which the people and the land ( and everything else ) are closely spiritually linked . Additionally , common to many indigenous groups around the world , family and tribal values are hugely significant , decision is traditionally by consensus , and individual entrepreneurship is frowned upon . In contrast , first world values of enterprise and "" economic rationalism "" ( , ) dominate tourism development and must be reconciled as far as possible with the aforementioned traditional values . However , as a tourism report highlighted : < quote>""There is perceived , among , to be a lack of understanding of values , culture and issues by ( including tourists and tour operators ) . [ ... ] . That perceived lack of understanding [ ... ] has also led , arguably , to an overly simplistic dependency on a marketing - led ideology of tourism rather than a concern and understanding of cultural issues . "" ( , : 7) Given that the key decision makers in the politics and management of tourism are predominantly non - indigenous - and above all businessmen , not anthropologists - it is not surprising that the worth of tourism projects is generally judged "" by the bottom line of the balance sheet rather than the well - being of people who contribute to the balance sheet "" ( , ) . world priorities often override the cultural sensibility of indigenous communities , including the . So , while ( ) and introduction ( ) would have us believe in an ideal , mutually beneficial relationship between indigenous culture and tourism , in reality there are deep - rooted interests and principles on both sides which come into direct conflict ; the very compatibility of indigenous culture and tourism is called into question . < heading > Overcoming ethnocentrism . < /heading > Despite the obvious issues related to cross - cultural understanding and communication , there are strategies which can be employed in order to minimise any problems . The have political representation ( Te ) as well as various groups that have shared responsibility for protecting rights ( ; , later ) and concerted efforts have been made to highlight the needs of the so that cultural sensibilities are respected by tourism development . The importance of meaningful dialogue between the industry and indigenous groups should not be understated . Traditionally "" there has been minimal consultation with over the promotion of culture in the tourism industry "" ( , : ) and various reports ( , ; , , ; / UNEP , ; , ; , ) highlight the lack of culturally appropriate communication with indigenous groups , who may ( as in the case of the ) favour a process of full partnership and consensus rather than merely being consulted ( , : ) , or may ( as with aborigines ) have an oral tradition , rendering letters to elders inappropriate as the predominant means of communication . McClean et al ( : , cited in , : ) refers to the ' spirit of partnership ' when working with indigenous peoples , a concept which is echoed in much of the existing literature studied on based tourism . This is more than simply involving indigenous peoples in planning and consulting them on the appropriateness of an attraction ; a real partnership includes "" development that is culturally sustainable , that is , owned , controlled , acceptable and desired by the indigenous communities affected , as well as economically sustainable "" ( McIntosh , : ) . The community must ideally be involved in all levels of tourism , including , crucially , the interpretation and management of it , for they are the people who best understand sensitive cultural issues and are best placed to manage them . The lack of indigenous involvement in tourism planning , development and management accentuates the problems caused by ethnocentrism and raises related issues regarding custodianship of their own culture and gaining access to the economic benefits of indigenous culture based tourism . Although the need for tourism industry - Maori partnerships is clear , there are obstacles to indigenous involvement . Dyer , ( ) identify several key factors , including limited business knowledge , poor education and inability to secure capital loans . Indigenous communities have valuable insights to offer in the interpretation of their culture , but often members of those communities experience a ' glass ceiling ' effect whereby they can become involved in low - level activities like guiding ( official or otherwise ) or arts and crafts , but wield little influence over large tour operators , large attractions or policy makers , and find it hard to access higher levels of management . ( : ) notes , "" ethnic groups have secured , at least theoretically , international support in their jockeying for cultural recognition and political influence "" , but case studies ( , ; , ; , ; , ; ; McGrath , 2004 ; McIntosh , ) suggest that in reality , many minority ethno - cultural groups lack any real influence and as such are excluded from the custodianship of their own culture . Furthermore , given the overwhelming dominance of ' outsiders ' in management positions , indigenous people are also denied access to a significant portion of the economic benefit . Although in the segregation of indigenous and non - indigenous people is not as severe as in other countries , face several of the same key issues as other indigenous peoples around the world ; If they are not involved in the management and interpretation of their own culture , negative impacts are likely to be greater , and the potential benefits to them , smaller . < heading > The use and abuse of images & symbols . < /heading > The potential negative impacts of indigenous culture based tourism are numerous and varied . "" Poverty , displacement of communities and the erosion of cultural traditions "" ( , ) , "" rejection of traditional culture itself "" ( Dyer , , ) , intrusion into sacred sites ( , ) , ' dispossession ' of culture ( , : ) and "" clashes of values "" ( Reisinger , in , ) are just some of the issues faced . However , many of the most serious issues in are related to the use and abuse of symbols and images which are sacred to the , but which have become commonplace in tourism marketing , literature and souvenirs . At its extreme , "" treating culture as a natural resource or a commodity over which tourists have rights is not simply perverse , it is a violation of the people 's cultural rights "" ( , , in , : ) and is a profoundly negative impact of tourism which arises from an ethnocentric attitude to management ; a refusal to consider that perhaps what to us seems a simple design , may , for someone else , have a much deeper spiritual meaning . The ethical dimension of commercially using indigenous images is rarely fully considered . The value of imagery to tourism has long been recognised so has often been exploited . In the Maori Tourism Task Force highlighted the issue : "" It has been of deep concern to the that the image has been used as a marketing tool in the promotion of the tourist industry for [ ... ] It is clear that the image has commercial value . The expressed desire of the people is that they should control their image ... "" ( , : , cited by , : ) . However , nothing changed and in identified the "" misuse of . This involves the misuse of names and language , mispronunciation , inappropriate use of images on souvenirs and photographs , and the incorrect and inappropriate communication of histories and tribal lore "" ( cited by , : ) . < fnote > Taonga : Property , treasure . Used more widely to mean culture as well as tangible items . ( , ) < /fnote > There is still significant stereotyping , misuse of images and symbols , exploitation , misrepresentation , commoditisation and/or bastardisation of culture . Modern indigenous culture is often neglected in favour of meeting overseas tourist expectations , so a rose - tinted view of a more primitive , bygone age is presented ( see for example right - Discover the World , : ) . It is important to recognise that any culture is "" dynamic and emergent "" ( , : ) rather than static , so to present a complex and continually evolving culture simply as a tradition may be considered misleading . < picture/>The misrepresentation of indigenous culture and misuse of symbols , due at least in part to pakeha dominance of the industry , highlights the need for indigenous involvement in tourism management as a means of ensuring ethical practices . Furthermore , a lack of legislation leads to problems securing intellectual property rights ( , : ) , meaning that , just like indigenous communities in less developed countries , have to an extent lost control over their heritage . While for the it is an important , respected and valued part of life , in the tourism industry , heritage is largely viewed as an asset ; a tool for attracting visitors to . The use of indigenous people and culture as a marketing tool is by no means restricted to . There are abundant examples in a wide variety of brochures and tourist board promotional materials ( , ; , ; , ; , ; Tourism , ; Wanderlust / Journey , ) as well as in company logos ( see right - Air aircraft livery , in , : ) . < picture/>Easily identifiable images which tourists immediately relate to a particular country or destination are obviously immensely valuable for tourism promotion . There is little problem when those images are buildings ( e.g. ) , monuments ( ) or other features of the built environment ( e.g. ) , but when those images are of deep social , cultural or spiritual significance to a community then an assessment must be made regarding their suitability for commoditisation . culture is undeniably valuable to tourism and there are notable successes of communities involved in the industry ( e.g. at , and affiliated to ) , but they are successful partly because their ethos reflects an understanding of indigenous culture , values and practices which is written into company mission statements ( e.g. , ) . Other , pakeha dominated , companies do not always take such a respectful approach . < heading > Conclusions . < /heading > is right to emphasise the importance of heritage for tourism and there are undeniably some positive economic and social impacts of tourism for the , e.g. preservation of cultural heritage . This is , however , a superficial view and a more thorough examination reveals deep - rooted problems with the management - or rather , mismanagement - of culture based tourism products . Beyond specifically products , heritage is used inappropriately in the wider tourism industry , particularly in marketing . It seems an unequal relationship in which sacred heritage is exploited for commercial ends and the have little or no political or legal recourse , while , as with other indigenous communities around the world , the economic and social benefits are minimal . The industry is dominated by economic rationalism with a near total disregard for anthropological issues , which are left to academics . As ( : ) highlights , "" [ ... ] notes the need for more attention to environmental , social and cultural effects of tourism and that "" greater resources need to be devoted to thinking and a little less to selling "" ( Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment , : ) "" [ emphasis added ] . The issues associated with indigenous peoples and tourism go far beyond balancing cultural survival and economic success , but non - indigenous tourism professionals are often not in a position to fully understand all the related social , cultural , historical , spiritual and political issues . The sharing of any indigenous culture is a gift , and demands an appropriately sensitive response from tourists and the tourism industry . Without cooperation and knowledge from other disciplines and above all indigenous people themselves , tourism can become highly intrusive and exploitative . Preventing this requires an "" acknowledgement of the limitations of Western thinking and assumptions in applying value - judgements "" ( , , in , : ) and a departure from the ethnocentric , economic rationalist viewpoint discussed by ( ) which is still so dominant . If this is not possible , then the use of cultural symbols and imagery is perhaps best left to the legitimate custodians of that culture rather than allow it to be appropriated by those who do not fully appreciate its significance .","< heading > Aims For the purposes of this assignment , I decided that I would look at a specific aspect of language and compare its use in both tabloid and broadsheet newspapers . In order to make the most accurate comparisons , equivalent stories from the newspapers had to be collected and so I decided to look at the recent events surrounding the former leader , . It then had to be decided which aspect of language to investigate . Initially , I decided to look at adjectives but this seemed too broad an area and so it was narrowed down to look at the use of superlative adjectives . In order to be able to carry out a full investigation , it was appropriate to choose just newspapers to compare . The main consideration which had to be taken into account when choosing these newspapers was how well their stories are represented by their online websites . The website is notoriously good for their online representation of news articles and therefore I decided this would be a suitably appropriate broadsheet newspaper to use for this purpose . The search for the right tabloid newspaper , however , was more complicated as very few had good representations of the articles but ultimately it was decided that The gave the best online demonstrations . Eventually it was therefore decided that my final research question would be : ' How does the use of superlative adjectives differ between the broadsheet newspaper The and the tabloid newspaper The ? ' < heading ( and principles upon which corpus was designed) The stage of the method was the collection of the data , which was achieved by locating the suitable websites ; URL and URL . The articles applicable to the recent events surrounding were then viewed as a printable version and saved as a text file . A word count was then performed on each of the corpuses to establish the total number of words in each . Since there was a slightly uneven number in each , the necessary quantities of words were deleted , leaving the total number of words in each corpus as . To carry out the appropriate study of the relevant material , it was decided that the analytical software ' AntConc 3.1.1 ' was to be used , which was located by the website , URL The set of data from The was then opened in the programme and the query was entered into the search box , as shown below ; < picture/>The search button was then pressed in order to begin exploring the use of superlative adjectives in this corpus data . Superlative adjectives are generally characterised due to their ' est ' endings . However , there are exceptions to this ; best , worst , most and least . Therefore , the search query had to be entered as ' * st ' in order to incorporate all possible occurrences . Consequently , not all of the lexical items in the list were superlative adjectives , such as in the cases of ' first ' or ' against ' , which meant that the appropriate words had to be sought out of the total hits . The same process was then carried out on the corpus data from The and once this had been completed , the results were compared . It then seemed appropriate to look at the general use of superlative adjectives in the and so the website was located : URL The frequency list of adjectives only displayed the base form of verbs such as ' close ' and ' big ' and so the relevant words were located using the Alphabetical frequency list of the whole corpus . However , the data shown was a representation of both spoken and written data together and therefore as this particular investigation focuses on the written form , it was unsuitable to make large comparisons . The analytical software programme , , was then used in order to look at the percentage frequency of each of the superlative adjectives . This was carried out by going to Statistics , then Unique words and then comparing the adjectives found in with the equivalent percentages in . This was therefore able to display how influential in terms of frequency , superlative adjectives were in each of the corpuses . < heading > Discussion of Results Superlative adjectives are used when something is unique because it is either the most or least or a specific quality . An ' est ' is added to shorter adjectives or when they are longer , ' most ' or ' least ' precede them . ( , ) It should also be noted that there are exceptions , as in the cases of ' best ' and ' worst ' as a result of their stems ( good and bad ) being inflectionally irregular . ( , 2000 ) "" The "" always comes before a superlative adjective as a result of them describing something individual . Once the superlative adjectives had been extracted from the results of the search , it was seen that there were huge comparisons between the sets of newspaper data . The corpus found instances of superlative adjectives throughout the text where as The 's corpus contained of his amount at . Superlative adjectives are generally used when making a statement about something and therefore , as seen by the evidence from The , they tend to be used when the author is completely certain about the subject they are writing about , for example ; ' his relationship with his most senior parliamentary colleagues ... ' . By using far fewer superlative adjectives in the text of The , it tends to portray the view that they are far more unsure about what they are writing about . Tabloid newspapers are generally associated far more with writing about sport and entertainment news , where as broadsheets are more well known for politics , business and economics . Therefore , The 's information about the particular story may not be completely precise and therefore they may feel unable to be completely certain about the statements or allegations they are making . By using less superlative adjectives , therefore , they are making less definite claims in their articles and consequently are able to avoid any negative comebacks if the claims turn out to be untrue . It was also interesting to look at which of the superlative adjectives were used most frequently by each paper and whether they appeared in the same order in each case . As is seen from Fig 3 , the most frequent superlative adjective used in The was ' most ' , which preceded adjectives but this appeared only once throughout the whole of the data extracted from The . On the other hand however , ' best ' was the most frequent superlative adjective used in The , appearing times but this times in The . ' Least ' occurred times in The but only once in The and ' closest ' appeared times in The but was not present at all in The . These frequency disparities are the main feature of the analysis but there are also some similarities , as in the case of biggest , youngest and largest which each appeared just once in the data for both The and The . When looking at the use of superlative adjectives in the whole of the , the dominance of the word ' most ' is greatly apparent as a result of their being appearances . This consequently forms a strong link with The , as ' most ' was the most frequent superlative adjective to appear in the corpus data . As previously mentioned , however , it was not appropriate to fully compare the newspaper data with the data from the , as this investigation focuses primarily on written data alone where as the incorporated both spoken and written varieties . By then using , it was possible to look at the percentage frequency of these superlative adjectives in each of the corpuses . As seen in Fig.3 , ' most ' accounted for of the whole of The corpus where as in The , the single appearance of ' most ' only accounted for . However , in The Mirror , ' best ' occupied of the total frequency of words where as in The , this only accounted for . Consequently , it was then possible to determine that superlative adjectives take up of the total use of words throughout The , where as in The , they only account for of the total word use . < heading > Conclusion In conclusion , it is clear from the data that the use of superlative adjectives varies dramatically between the newspapers . The far greater use of superlative adjectives in The seems to suggest utmost confidence of the content of their articles in order that they feel able to use lexis such as ' most ' and ' closest ' to make a definite and absolute statement for instance in the case of ' once the closest of allies to Mr ' . In The , however , the lesser use of these superlative adjectives tends to signify a lack of assurance , possibly as they may not be confident that the information they have is completely factual and therefore do not feel able to make definite statements . The sets of corpus data only consisted of just words each , which is not particularly large and therefore is unlikely to be able to give a true comparison of the use of these superlative adjectives in the newspapers . There is also the issue of the subject matter of the articles . The , along with most other broadsheet newspapers , is well known for its portrayal of political and current affairs stories and consequently , their representation of the situation is likely to be far more informative and precise . The , on the other hand , along with many tabloid newspapers of its kind , is more connected with lightweight news stories , especially sport and entertainment . Consequently , for further investigation , it would be interesting to explore whether The uses more superlative adjectives in their entertainment stories than The does , as they are more distinguished in this topical area .",0 "The is a period of remarkable hominin diversity , and there has been considerable progress in the later part of in unravelling the hominin tree , and much understanding of the terminal beginnings of our own genus attained . Yet , there is much yet to uncover before we can say with any justified conviction who the earliest members of our taxonomic group , , where . This essay can be functionally conceptionalized as running parallel contents in essay . A regarding ; the identification of the earliest potential members of the Homo genus , and subsequent description of diversity contained among them . , a detailed discussion and critical refinement of a general problem in biology , that of taxonomic classification , with special regard to the terminal boundaries of our own genus ; Homo . In effect , discussion and debate will ensue in the style of a literary ' spandrel ' , algorithms advancing in one . The issue of geographic and chronological distribution of early hominids will , of course , be dealt with specifically and generally within and throughout the essay . With special attention to their necessary connection with the earliest tool makers . Prospective candidates for the earliest members of the Homo genus will be discussed in alignment with pre - determined membership criteria and factors of cladistic interpretation . Contrast will be made with related and contemporaneous genera . Although , a final decisive judgement on who are the earliest taxa with Homo will not be reached in this work , the attempt here is too clarify the strongest lines of thought available in contemporary debate , fully elaborate on hominin diversity contained within , with review in a historical context . Following , to explain why a final , decisive adjudication can not be attained . < heading own genus Homo exemplifies taxonomic difficulties of classification . Established by Linnaeus in , in the systemae naturae , Homo is of genera currently assigned to the ' tribe ' ( ) . For , the fossil record for human evolution was viewed as ladder like series of succession of species , with an apelike ancestor at the bottom and modern humans at the top . The modern fossil record is now demonstrating it to be more complex than that , more like a series of dramatic adaptive radiations of early hominin species . For necessity of clarification , when H.ergaster is referred to , it can be understood as being representative of all H.ergaster and H.erectus material contained within . H.erectus will refer to all related material . Who are the members of early Homo ? As the essay progresses it will become apparent that the species of ( ( H / K).rudolfensis are to be considered the strongest candidates for the earliest terminal taxon , merits and problems of classification discussed . < heading > What is a Genus? There is currently great debate among systematists over the definition of genus category as part of a wider discussion about the taxonomic implications of recent developments in phylogenetic analysis ( ) . I want to illustrate the main interpretations of the category genus being debated . The being that of the evolutionary systematic , species belonging to a particular genus sharing a common ancestry and occupying a similar adaptive zone or ecological situation different to that of related genera ( Mayr ) . Under this definition the genus can either be monophyletic or paraphyletic . Species can still have common ancestry , yet it is not necessary that they share a common ancestor within the ontological time spanned by the species of the genus . They must just share an inter - related adaptive zone . The definition demands species within a genus be more closely related to each other , than to that of other species assigned to related genera . Under the cladistic definition the species of the genus can only be monophyletic . Advocates of the cladistic system reject that of the evolutionary systematic due to their belief that paraphyletic taxa are not real evolutionary units . Yet , on the other hand problems persist for those who classify taxa in virtue of their monophyletic basis , in that ; there is no criterion for specifying how many species should be included in the genus . Evolution is a gradual process over grand periods of time , evolution by punctuated equilibrium is theoretically problematic ( Dawkins , ; ) . So , where do you define lower limits ? Which are the terminal species ? In the gradual sense of adaptationism a terminal species within a monophylum would share an adaptive strategy with directly related taxa contained within an ancestrally related juxtaposed genus ; units in gradual evolution on a monophyletic line . Can this possibly be overcome by recognising the terminal species as an evolutionary coherent unit and classifying it as a monotypic genus ? In addition , determination and removal of paraphyletic taxa is particularly problematic when dealing with such forces as convergent evolution . pragmatic solution from ( : ) is to carefully revise and redefine a genus category in gradistic terms of the interpretation above , so that paraphyletic taxa are inadmissible . Yet , such as strategy is not an easy task when applying it to taxa of the fossil record . Although to highlight difficulties as illustrated above , that adaptationism in its gradual evolutionary sense is problematic in the classification of monophyletic taxa . I still concur with that : < quote> ... a genus should be defined as a species , or monophylum , whose members occupy a single adaptive zone ( : ) . < /quote > Therefore , we have determined cladistics as the method of choice for identifying monophyletic groups . Yet , we still require an equivocal system for identifying adaptive strategies , or zones as stated by above . A definition of a genus category that does not permit the entry of paraphyletic taxa ; a strategy unique to the monophyletic genus . ( ) combat this by stating that taxonomic units contained within the Homo genus should , by monophyletic definition , be more related to H.sapiens than to other related genera such as the Australopithicines or Paranthropines . In the course of the essay will shall take this into account and also consider other criteria of membership considered to be unique to the Homo genus . < heading > Historical Context ; Leakey Debate Olduvai Gorge in National Park has been the site of many convention redefining finds of early hominin fossil remains . The discoveries of prospective remains were found not long after found ' Zinj ' ( Zinjanthropus Boisei ) , now known as A.boisei , in . tooling had previously been found in the area dating to - 2.3mya ( Semaw et.al ) , yet were only tentatively being connected to ' Zinj ' , being of small cranial vault size dated to via the application of radiometric dating ( argon / potassium ) in anthropology ( . ) . , in a period of pressure and interest in the public eye to uncover more about out earliest ancestors , who had been working in the area since made a series of discoveries . The fossil remains known as OH 7 , found by in , were the dawn of a new era in the debate of Homo . With an increased cranial vault size of , compared to that of 513cc of A.boisei , Leakey quickly made the connection between the remains of OH7 and the Mode 1 stone tooling found in the area . Leakey was determined to press H.habilis ( OH7 ) , as a member of the Homo genus , even though it did not fit the requirements of Homo classification . Named ' habilis on recommendation ( ) . Therefore , acting accordingly , ( ) in his paper redefined the criteria of the Homo genus to ensure entry of H.habilis . This caused a great deal of uproar , as it broke convention and it did not fit with contemporary thinking of Homo . < heading > Criteria for Entry into Homo In the late 1940 's Sir Author proposed a figure of for the bottom limit of , that being a calculated mid - point between the largest known gorilla brain and the smallest human brain . This was of main criteria for entry in the Homo genus , and by this proposal was widely accepted . As previously mentioned , OH7 's estimated cranium capacity was , yet not being fully mature it was estimated at adulthood it would have reached a full capacity of . Although , still too small to be accepted by the general consensus of requirement for entry of Homo at the time . This did not deter , who continued to insist the reliability of his argument which included that of of cultural traits , in that OH-7 was the logically deductive candidate for the maker and user of the tools that had been found in . This being the time the use of an argument of cultural traits had been utilized to explain reasoning in the fossil record ( ) , and caused much wide spread disagreement . However , due to other fossil findings that fitted with H.habilis , ( see Fossils table at beginning of next section ) , and 's continued pressure on the scientific community H.habilis and the revision of the original criteria for membership of Homo have become more or less accepted . Yet , further debate still persists and will be a continued theme of this essay . Without taking any formal definitions into account , taking 's ( ) revisions into account , in practise fossil hominin species are assigned to Homo in satisfying of of the following criteria ( ; Tobias ): < list > An absolute brain size of . The possession of language , as is theoretically possible to infer from endocranial casts . The possession of a modern humanlike precision grip involving a well developed and opposable pollex . The ability to manufacture stone tools . < /list > Yet , these criteria are anything but fixed convention for membership of Homo . It is recently been proposed ( e.g. Wood & Collard , ) than none of these criteria are now satisfactory , as it is not certain whether the criteria accurately represent features essential to membership of , or unique to the Homo genus . Doubts and areas for further debate in the course of this essay are as follows ; As ( ) suggests , is now problematic due to the doubt of absolute cranial capacity being of biological significance . In relevance to the point of criteria , there is substantial doubt that the language function can not reliably be inferred from the structure of , neither are language related parts of the brain as well localised as previous studies implied ( ; Gannon ) . Functional morphological analyses of the hands of the early hominins have indicated that either a precision grip should not only be restricted to the genus of Homo , as there is evidence for its functional use amongst the genus whose behaviour and diet is likely to be radically different to that of Homo according to other related morphological data . Or , that it can not be assured of the possession of the precision grip amongst any of the early hominins ( ; ) . With respect to the criterion ( ) has suggested that the connection between Homo and stone tool manufacture , which come from deposits years old , were almost certainly contemporaneous with both early Homo and the genera . It is even difficult to find at present a likely candidate amongst the Homo fossil remains as stone tooling appears to precede them . The above criticisms are anything but final and will be further discussed in the essay . Yet , ( ) , as discussed in a previous section prefer to adopt an alternative cladistic strategy of trying to identify an adaptive strategy unique to the genus , in the attempt to eliminate paraphyletic taxa . Yet , in that attempt they are forced to identify criteria of that adaptive zone . It is hard to dismiss criteria such as use of tooling requiring sophisticated cognitive architecture as not being an integral part of what is to be part of the Homo genus , or integral to the adaptive zone or strategy of the genus . There must be criteria , grey areas to exist with respect to terminal species in a gradual ( not punctuated ) monophyletic evolutionary line . Therefore , we shall continue with ( ) notion that of a genus should be a monophylum , yet will offer flexibility with respect to criteria in what constitutes an adaptive strategy . Classification of a gradual process is problematic , better to view many criteria instead of few and abduct a decision among convention . < heading > Leakey : Further Debate - Habilis & Rudolfensis In , due to new substantial discoveries made and , and the increasing diversity of fossils being assigned to H.habilis taxon , centrally determined by finds of and and the find of a taxonomic split was determined as necessary . Previously assigned fossils were split amongst the new independent taxa . H.habilis remained , H.rudolfensis named after , now known as Lake was created . This section discusses the increase diversity amongst early Homo that lead to the split . Fossils remains and their new relative assigned taxa . according to region , adapted from Bilsborough ( ) . < list> Olduvai Gorge OH7 ( Leakey , ) mandible with upper dentition upper molar parietal bones with other cranial fragments and hand bones , cranial capacity estimated in adulthood hominin foot ( May belong to OH7)OH48 clavicle ( May belong to OH7) All assigned to H.habilis < list ( , ) Incomplete cranial vault with frontal , parietal , temporals and occipital . Some of the palate and cheek teeth . Mandible with complete dentition . Other fragments TwiggyOH 62 proportions < /list> Lake Turkana KNM - ER 1805 Moderately sized teeth Small sagittal crest Facial fragment cc 600cmKNM - ER > Both assigned to Homo habilis < list > KNM - ER 1470 ( , ) relatively complete cranium cc Very little facial prognathismKNM - ER 3732 left orbital region part of vaultKNM - ER 1590 . Cranial cc in adulthood > KNM - ER 1470 All assigned to Homo rudolfensis , but only ER 1470 generally accepted as evidence < picture/>In , made a discovery which was to make him world famous and further effect the clade of Homo . ( figure ) was the larger part of a cranium pieced together by and ( ) . The face of the fossil was reconstructed to have a face that was large and flat with little prognathism , the eye brow ridges were greatly reduced and palate that was large and wide , the absent teeth would have been large . These features did not immediately align it with either the or Homo as contained features of both genera , but it 's cranial capacity was measured to be in excess of fitting with even Sir Author 's proposal for criterion of Homo . Problems of acceptance and interpretation persisted . Minimal bone remained in the specimen , the cranial vault capacity was taken to be reliable , yet the angle at with the face jutted out from the face was questioned by the scientific community . As and ( : ) point out ; if the face was place straight and flat it was to resemble , if it was placed at an increased angle it was more representative of . Even Walker and debated over to which genera the fossil was to be assigned , and explain that the reluctance at the time to name habilis is an obvious one : It 's brain was considerably larger than the 640cc of the Olduvai habilis , and was thought to be much older . The Olduvai habilis was , while state - of - the - art radiometric dating gave an age of for ( ) . It late transpired that the - ER radiometric dating could be considered unreliable , and the actual figure could be reduced as low as 1.9mya . Yet , despite uncertainties about the fossil remains it had gone the way of showing itself to be physically different from both A.africanus and H.ergaster ( H.erectus at the time ) , and brought into question the whole classification of H.habilis . after discovery another fossil find at was to further increase the diversity in the lumped category of H.habilis . ) , its face and palate were similar to those the H.habilis finds at Olduvai and different to that of , but only had a cranial vault of ( figure ) . Some scientists attributed the find to H.habilis on account of its being a female , yet himself was not responsible for this . < picture/>OH was discovered in in by , . It was extremely fragmented and was comprised of part of the upper jaw , some cranial fragments most of the right arm and parts of both legs . They assigned it to H.habilis ( ) . They also gave reason that it resembled a fossil specimen assigned to H.habilis found in , . had some startling characteristics . It was a mature female approximating a height of m tall , similar to that of AL-288 - 1 the robust australopithecine ' ' . But , the most poignant feature was , as pointed out in the paper by and ( ) ' Was more human than her child ? ' the intermembral index of the arms and legs of were similar to that of a chimpanzee . As the relative charts show ( figures ) OH 62 's arms were longer than that of ' ' and it 's leg shorter . The average intermembral ratio in humans is , in chimpanzees , ' ' , yet was calculated to be ! < figure/>In is not hard to see why the fossil remains of and instrumentative in the decision to split the H.habilis taxon into , rather than having them all lumped into one which could have formed some kind of biological unreality . We can now further contrast characteristics of what are currently considered typical traits of both H.habilis and H.rudolfensis , and contrast them with the Australopithecine , where applicable , with the aim of further demonstrating diversity amongst potentially early hominids . The summary is roughly based around ( ) taxonomic distinction for the separate taxa , and drawn from many sources . < list> Homo rudolfensis Cranial capacity of cm reduced brow ridgeReduced postorbital constrictionBroad flat face . Very little prognathismBroader post - canine teeth , more complex crowns and roots and thickly enameled skull and skeleton Homo habilis Cranial capacity of ( much larger than that of Australopithecus who had a maximum capacity of cm ) Strong curved brow ridgeGreater prognathism ( although less prognathism than the Australopithecine)Reduced postorbital constriction Smaller post - canine teeth than Australopithecus , more representative of that of the Homo genus . More angulated occipital boneIntramembral index similar to that of apes. Geographic Distribution & Tool Making and re - assessing a temporal bone of a hominin found in , in the formation near , central , determined the fossil reminiscent of that of Homo , and radiometric dated it to be . The structure of the ear was of particular interest , the mandibular fossa , which they identified diagnostic of Homo . In another similar such case , in published a description of a hominid mandible fragment found near . The mandible was substantially less robust than that of the and had smaller cheek teeth , indicative of a connection with Homo . The authors drew comparisons and assigned the fossil to H.rudolfensis . The remains were dated by faunal correlation to . The necessary connection that is facilitated due to these earliest prospective Homo dates , is the link to that of the Mode 1 stone tooling that has been discovered in both and , and recently in bone tools in ( and ) at dates correlating to these ages . The question that needs to be asked : Is mode tooling enough to constitute automatic membership of ? As noted previously ( ) points out that the stone tools found to 2.6 million years ago are right in the middle of a hominin radiation with potentially genera of hominins present . Who made them ? Susman in his paper examined all available material of the morphology of hand structure of hominins present at this time . He proposed although the fingertips of A.afarensis were very apelike having curved phalanges , thin tips to the fingers and a short thumb ( ) . Susman ( ) in contrast , upon inspection of the fossil remains of robust australopithecine site at in reported that the thumb was much broader and more mobile and the fingertips much broader . Susman conjectured that this would have enabled stone tool making amongst the robust australopithicines if the appropriate cognitive facility was applicable . Although differences in opinion have arisen over these conclusions , the recent discovery of simple bone tools such as digging sticks at a related site at Swarkrans by and ( ) could further substantiate 's theory . < picture/>Of course there is plenty of room for doubt in 's theory , the fingers of the robust could be adaptive for some other function . We also need to take into account that of A.garhi , the fossil remains that were found near to animal bones with cut marks , suggestive of tool use and consumption ( Asfaw et.al ) . It is easy to make the connection between this small brained and the manufacture of tools , but maybe it should be taken so rashly . There is , of course the possible scenario that this hominin was too consumed along with the animal remains by a larger brained early hominid . As stated at the start of this section , there is evidence that exists showing the possibility of a related hominid around at this time , and extensive faunal flow between the regions ( ) . H.rudolfensis ? It is now worthy of note that no remains have been found of H.habilis that could be connected to the earliest known tools dated , as H.habilis at earliest appears after . < heading > KenyanthropusIn , found an almost complete cranium , amongst other hominin pieces on the shore of at . These fossils known as , dated to ( making it contemporaneous with A.afarensis ) were too dissimilar to any Homo , or Australopithecus fossils found before ; so much so in fact , that they were given a new genus ; . ( Lewin and ) . The question then arose of how this hominin played a part in the phylogenic lines of Homo . When H.habilis had been announced and others had voiced opinion that there had there had been insufficient evolutionary time between the subject and the . Could K.Platyops have evolved on a separate phylogenic line to that of the that gave rise to ? Lewin and ( 2004 : ) have suggested that the closest known specimen which would fit would be , originally assumed to be a specimen of Homo rudolfensis , certainly a contentious issue as the striking feature of is its broad flat face reminiscent of both and members of . A contentious issue gaining academic support ( ) . < heading > Phylogeny and Increasing Hominin Diversity ; Cladistic Interpretation The inclusion of K.Platyops in the fossil record certainly adds support to the possibility of there being a monophyletic line connecting the Homo through an early terminal taxonomic member to earlier genera . This was as you will remember one of the key criteria for our definition of a genus defined in the earlier relevant section . If we view the tabulated phylogeny ( figure ) by and , it can be seen that ( H / K).rudolfensis has already been entered as by and Silk as part of the genus . Just to remember , ( H / K).rudolfensis is a terminal species of both these genera , and could be considered a boundary species , yet it does illustrate an extremely appealing monophyletic possibility . < figure/>In relation to chronology , I should like to bring attention to the issue surrounding assigned to H.habilis , and to H.ergaster also known as ' Turkana Boy ' . dated mya having the the post - cranial structure and index of an ape and a height of m , and dated to around being post - carnially anatomically modern at a height of m tall ( ) . You of course have to allow for anatomically within a species , yet how within a time period of could OH 62 evolve into ? Rapid evolution ? We can fairly safely say that both of these species were most probably contemporaneous to each other . This , in effect , ruling out the possibility of a monophyletic line , making them paraphylum , and drawing substantial doubt on the worthiness of membership of this group of fossil remains to Homo . < heading > Concluding Remarks Well established debate is justifiably founded as to where to place and how indeed to taxonomically classify H.habilis and H.rudolfensis . The fossil record is impoverished for this time period , and any taxonomic grouping highly theoretical . Therefore , in conclusion we can only hints towards true concluding remarks and areas of interest for the future . As follows ; If is to be monophyletic H.habilis should not be entered in to the Homo genus as evidence strongly shows it to come from a paraphyletic line of ancestry . Remains of H.rudolfenesis although coming from an impoverished fossil record , with the recent inclusion of K.Platyops in the fossil record and that of the possibility of a monophyletic line appears to be the better candidate for entry into the Homo genus . Including being the better candidate for maker of the earliest stone tooling found by at Olduvai , as to have shown contemporaneous with it . Further early hominid discoveries are sure to shed light on this debate . Further finds of H.rudolfensis would be of much interest especially if containing more post - cranial material . Possible finds facilitating the connection of K.platyops through ( H / K).rudolfensis to post cranial similarities with H.ergaster on a monophyletic line . Classification for criteria of adaptive strategies themselves is highly problematic for terminal species in the fossil record . Alignment with a genus of ( ( H / A).habilis is possibly too soon . If truly terminal species , discoveries in the fossil record will facilitate a truer taxonomic classification . The is being revealed to have been a remarkable time of diversity for early hominin radiations . Only with the increase of material found in the fossil record will our understanding and taxonomic classifications improve ."," Evolutionary theory tries to determine genotypic frequencies in populations and change through time , past , present and future . A variety of evolutionary mechanisms and forces have been classified by geneticists that affect the frequency of alternative genotypes in populations from generation to the next . The most important of these evolutionary processes that also govern our variation are sexual reproduction , natural selection , genetic drift , mutation and recombination . Many ecological and other adaptive pressures also have affects on the exchange of genetic material between populations . All genetic evolutionary theory is based on the principles of genetics discovered by the monk , . using experiments with peas , with differing physical characteristics such skin colour and wrinkled skin discovered the foundational laws of all genetics , based on what would be alleles operating at a single locus on a chromosome . He determined a distinction between genotype and phenotype , the genotype having alleles or genes , in most cases on being ' dominant ' and expressed and the other being ' recessive ' hidden . Therefore , possible combinations of genes ( if alleles acting at single locus ) determining genotype could be classified as homozygous and one heterozygous , further leading to phenotypes ( if dominant , recessive ) , physically expressed traits . Not all alleles are either ' dominant ' or ' recessive ' , there can be a joint affect of the alleles of a heterozygous genotype , making an equal number of physically expressed blended phenotypes , although of course all gene remain distinct , it is only the expressed characters that are blended . For example sickle cell anaemia as will be discussed in the course of the essay . and Silk suggest that : < quote > Biologists describe the genetic composition of a population by specifying the frequency of alternative genotypes . ( : 53) Gene frequency is calculated by the total number of the particular allele within a determined pool of gametes . Gene frequency is the total number of an individual allele at a particular locus on a chromosome within a determined population possessing the gene . ( summation of all gene frequencies for genotypes at a particular locus equals , therefore is not proportionally affected by the size of the population ) . FORMULA As long as there are alleles at the genetic locus of interest in the gamete pool , gene frequency can also be calculated from collected genotypic information at the locus . After basic calculation the following equation is possible , taken from ( : ): FORMULA Looks to be common sense , but therefore works for genotypic information as well , as long as there are alleles affecting the genotype at a genetic locus . < heading > Sexual Reproduction < /heading > The role of sexual reproduction can change the gene frequency , or genotypic frequency within a population from generation to the next . If we model sexual reproduction as random mating amongst individuals , when no other forces are operating , gene frequencies reach stable proportions within generation of change . As long as alleles are acting at a locus , taking information from the gene frequency of the allele of interest and its opposing allele , this can be illustrated with the use of probability tables to calculate the creation of zygotes in the next generation , then recalculating the gene frequency of the allele of interest . After generation , all gene frequencies in repeated probability tables , turn out to be the same number . This is known as Hardy - Weinberg equilibrium , from the work of the physician in . He also formulated the following formulas for genotypic frequency for a genetic locus with alleles . Taken from ( : ): < quote > FORMULA Where q is the frequency of allele ( a ) , and p is the frequency of allele ( A). Therefore if sexual reproduction is just random mating between individuals , it can not be the only force leading to evolution . Of course , sexual reproduction could be considered an infinitely more complex contest . ( ) would regard describing sex amongst humans as random mating very questionable , together with most evolutionary psychologists . Socially stratifying psychological hierarchies exist between individuals and societies , genetic selecting processes such as the competing dichotomy in sexual selection theory of ' ' of the neo - Darwinist and ' Good - genes ' . ( ) might even go so far as to attribute the mechanism of sexual reproduction as a response to the perennial battle against parasitic invasion , within which the genders themselves were determined , separating us from an asexual nature . Modelling goes to show other genetic mechanisms must be involved in evolutional change . < heading > Natural Selection If different genotypes are associated with the different phenotypes and those phenotypes differ in their ability to reproduce , then the alleles that lead to the development of the favoured phenotype will increase in frequency . and Silk ( : 58) To illustrate the quote , consider a genetic disease such as which usually kills the individual with the homozygous genotype by . Every generation that passes , all homozygous individuals with the lethal allele will be removed from the population . Following , alleles for every homozygous individual will be removed from the affected population , leaving only heterozygous individuals with the allele of interest . Therefore substantially lowering the overall gene frequency within the population ( unless other selective factors are involved with regard it 's original popularity ) , and increasing the gene frequency of the non - detrimental allele . The strength and direction of selection depends on the environment it operates in . If medical care is available for the treatment of a potentially deadly genotype , the strength of selection against the otherwise deleterious allele is negligible . While the example of deleterious alleles been removed from a population shows how selection changes gene frequencies , it does not show how selection can lead to the evolution of new adaptations , and the change in gene frequencies which ensue from it . It is important to note all organisms are capable of producing more offspring that can survive ( ) . Of the offspring that do survive , on average , they are more likely to have an anatomy , physiology or behaviour that better prepares them for the demands of their environment . < heading Variation The principles of environmental variation are often associated with the ' modern synthesis ' a body of theory based on empirical knowledge in the attributed to the biologists , and Haldane in . They were also known as ' Neo - Darwinists ' , so by called due to the prior popularity of theories based on genetics following its own rediscovery and subsequent increase in popularity . 's theories were perceived incompatible with 's theory of evolution by natural selection at the time . showed how genetics could not be used to explain continuous variation , leading to a theory of inheritance , and accounting for the way variation is maintained within a population based on natural selection within an environment . Although , himself knew nothing about genetics , all his theory of adaptation by natural selection is framed in purely phenotypic terms . The fundamental theory of modern synthesis basically goes , continuous variation can not be accounted for by changes of genotype at a locus per trait , as in 's peas . To achieve the varying sizes of physical characteristics seen in a species there must be many different genotypes at many different loci , on different chromosomes ( although genes were undiscovered the , but the principle is parallel ) . This coupled with the pressures of the environment , some individuals being better or less nourished than other individuals , therefore , aiding or retarding the growth of the physical expressed characteristic in question . For example , the famous example given by and Silk ( ) of the varieties finches that inhabit the , originally studied by , more recently studied by and . The studied the continuous variation involved in the beak depth and width of finches . Their results go to show : < quote > Continuously varying characters are affected by genes at many loci , each locus having only a small effect on phenotype ( : > If there were only a few genes at a couple of loci affecting beak size , with no environmental affects such as nourishment affecting growth , a stratified effect would be observed in the collect information of beak dimensions of different individuals . Could be analogous to the way we buy our clothes , ' small , medium or large ' . In reality , empirical data shows the majority of expressed characteristics we see as un - stratified , complex gradual continuous variation , with no visible increments amongst data collected . Environment change and variation have large effects on gene frequencies within populations . Using 's finches again as an example , when the climate changed and drought ensued on , the mean relative beak size of the finches increased due to pressures of natural selection to adapt to the change of available food . Larger beaked individuals survived better than small beaked individuals due to the increased size and hardness of nut and seed food source . This therefore increased gene frequencies affecting large beak size and growth . What is theoretically alleles controlling growth hormones , or calcium supply to the beak . Data collected from have shown a positive correlation between beak width and beak depth . Although , this was actually maladaptive . Whatever genotypes were increasing the advantageous trait of beak depth , were also by pleiotropic effect , increasing the beak width at the same time . It turns out selection favoured beak depth , and not beak width . The thinner beak could apply more pressure , than an individual with a wide beak . It therefore follows , as the finches neared selective equilibrium in the environment , the threshold for deletion also included birds with the largest beaks as well as the smallest beaks , altering gene frequencies for large and small beak characteristics . Still of 's problems remains , selection tends to deplete genetic variation when selection reaches adaptive equilibrium . < heading > Mutation Mutations can slowly add new genetic variation to populations and may produce novel phenotypic affects that selection can assemble into adaptation . But , not all mutations are advantageous , they can also have a deadly affect on the individual , or a neutral undetected affect . Mutations can be caused by certain forms of ionising radiation , such as X rays , and certain kinds of chemicals that damage the DNA and alter the message that it carries . Rates of mutation are very low , and Silk suggest ranging from in to in per locus per gamete in each generation ( : ) . and Silk calculate the gene frequency of a single mutation to be ( in a million new - borns ) according to equations , based on the frequency of deleterious recessive genes being about 1 in . This low - rate of mutation is sufficient to maintain variation within a population at selective equilibrium , and so solve 's problem of selection tending to deplete selection . When mutation introduces enough new mutations to maintain a constant frequency of the gene , it can be said there is selection - mutation balance . Varying types of events exist in the mutation of somatic cells . Jurmain ( ) gives examples of ' frame - shift mutation ' , in which , during recombination base(s ) can be omitted from the process causing the entire translation of bases into different codons , or amino acids . It is also possible for entire codons that normally contain ' stop ' information between genes to be omitted or have the translation changed allowing the joining of genes . Point mutation is a change of a single base at one locus , changing the translation of a single codon , or amino acid . Sickle cell anaemia , is a disease with affects population in tropical regions in which falciparum malaria is prevalent . When the haemoglobin S allele in homozygous in the individual they suffer debilitating anaemia and do not live until adulthood , and so substantial amounts of the allele are removed from each generation . But , it happens in this case that the heterozygous phenotype is actually selected by natural selection , individuals heterozygous with the allele are more likely to reach adulthood than individuals homozygous with the standard haemoglobin A allele . This is because of the resistance heterozygous individuals receive against malaria , although their blood cells do not carry oxygen quite as well homozygous haemoglobin A individuals . A balanced polymorphism is reached when heterozygotes have a higher genetic fitness than either homozygote , a steady rate at which both alleles exist in the population . From this , it can easily be understood how an advantageous single point mutation in an individual gene could be selected to reach substantial gene frequencies within the population ( maybe within a few occurrences , over many generation to proliferate . ) . A crossing - over of alleles during the recombination of meiosis can producing novel combinations of traits . Chromosomes are frequently damaged during the process , break and recombine . Such an event can cause a crossing - over of alleles to create genotypes that were not in the parents , and therefore express new phenotypic characteristics . < heading > Genetic Drift Sometimes known as a random force , operating on small genetically isolated populations . To give a simple example , if we had an genetically and physically isolated island population of individuals , and during a storm a tree collapses killing of the most successful , genetically fit individuals within the population . Much potentially advantageous genetic material could be lost . This could potentially have great changes on gene frequencies within the small population . Genetic drift in small populations causes random changes in gene frequencies . Gene frequency can change by chance alone bypassing the operations of natural selection . If a certain locus has roughly equal gene frequencies of different alleles acting on it , analogy could be pretty much like people repeatedly flipping a hand full of coins ( the population are the individual coins ) , in turn , guessing if it is heads or tails until person or the other has won all the coins . And so the individual would be homozygous with or the other allele . If the people had of coins to flip between them , the time taken until person had them all would take much , much longer , if ever . Such a homozygous state is be called a point of ' fixation ' . This process operates far quicker than natural selection on a small isolated population , mostly leading to maladaptation . The population will remain at fixation until mutation introduces a new allele . ( ) gives examples of his experiences in the highlands of . Papua probably has the most genetic diversity between populations on the planet . Being roughly the size of , it has of the earths mutually indistinguishable languages , its isolated inhabitants having been there over . The islands physical boundaries and thick vegetation are notoriously difficult to travel through , expedition to explore the mountain peaks in being abandoned after , only moving inland . There is also very little naturally occurring edible food to further inhibit travel . The inhabited highlands we only discovered in the mid - early part of the by a botanist interested in studying the great diversity in birds there . through his own study and travel has described the phenotypic diversities that exist between the small population groups that exist there , describing some small populations as been inflicted with various genetic diseases , and other equally isolated populations as having unusually late starting age for puberty amongst individuals , for example . Most scientists agree that population sizes must be fairly small , around individuals for genetic drift to have an important effect when it is opposed to natural selection . It is agreed , genetic drift has more noticeable affects on traits expressed by a genotype at a single locus , it is unlikely genetic drift would generate significant maladaptation in traits that vary continuously and are affected by many genetic loci . Genetic drift can also include the ' founder effect ' or ' sewell height ' . To give example from and Silk , the , descendants of immigrants who arrived in in . The small group of individuals who were part of the colonising population carried with them a number of rare genetic diseases . These diseases are preserved within the modern population in high frequencies . For example the disease porphyria variegata , sufferers have an severe adverse reaction to anaesthetics . of the modern population carry the dominant allele for the disease , every on of them being descended from a single couple in the original population of immigrants ( : ) . < heading > Concluding Remarks It is difficult to know where the boundaries are of the processes that do and do n't affect gene frequency are . Do you discuss gene flow between isolated populations , species ( ecological species concept ) , in detail ? Allopatric speciation ? Parapatric and sympatric speciation ( although they do n't seem to compatible with allopatric speciation ) ? The further affects of disease , and the environment in the way of adaptation could affect gene frequencies ? Hidden variation ? It seems processes and relative ideas can easily traverse into topics of environmental adaptation , pathology , and further genetic theory . Apparently , it is often easy to view a species as being in adaptive equilibrium , when equilibrium is not necessarily reached . The environment of the species could have changed in the recent past . and Silk give the example the species . Since the advent of agriculture and subsequent improved social infrastructure , the supply of sugar , fats and salts has been readily available for many humans . Before agriculture and animal husbandry , it was advantageous for the individual to have a behavioural trait to crave , and eat as much sugar , fat and salt as he could find , living on a diet of wild game , grass seeds and other plant foods . In the modern age it seems natural selection has yet to catch up with the technological advances , will still crave these foods , but they are not always advantageous . They can lead to well known problems including bad teeth , obesity , diabetes , and high blood pressure .",1 "Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry ( LCMS ) is a rapidly growing analytical technique . The combination of analytical techniques provides far more information than using each separately . LCMS can provide a chromatographic trace of a sample , on par with , along with the mass spectra of each fraction of the sample . This can provide essential structural information on compounds in the sample without having to isolate them and analyse them separately . of the most important aspects of LCMS is the interface between the liquid chromatograph and the mass spectrometer . Mass analysis requires the analyte to be in the form of gaseous ions within a vacuum . However , liquid chromatography requires the analyte to be neutral and in solution at atmospheric pressure . Therefore , there are main aspects important to each type of LCMS interface : evaporation , pressure reduction and ionisation . The evaporation of the eluent from the LC is required to convert the analyte from the liquid to the gas phase . The pressure reduction is required to create the low pressures or vacuum needed . Ionisation converts the neutral analyte molecules to ions . Different interfaces deal with these issues in different ways and in different orders , with each with its own advantages and disadvantages , such as atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation ( APCI ) , particle beam ( ) and thermospray ( TS ) . < enote > R. Willoughby , , , A of LCMS , , , edn . , , ch . , pp . < /enote>
In at AstraZeneca the LCMS instruments use the electrospray ( ) interface . Work by and colleagues developed for commercial use , and it has increased in popularity ever since due to its ability to ionise a wide range of compounds . Its low energy ionisation technique means that most organic molecules can be ionised by it without causing major fragmentation , so a mass ion can be detected . It also has the ability to vaporise large involatile molecules that would decompose through vaporisation by heat . < enote > J. B. Fenn , , , , Mass Spectrometry Reviews , , , < /enote > ES ionises the analyte molecules whilst still in solution , vaporises the ions and then submits them to a pressure gradient . Ionisation occurs by passing the analyte solution through a fine needle with a high electrical potential . The potential is concentrated at the tip of the needle , causing the positively charged ions to accumulate there , creating a cone - like meniscus , called a "" cone "" . Droplets of the solution are formed when the electrostatic forces exceed the surface tension . As the droplets travel down the pressure gradient solvent evaporates from the droplet , causing the electrical field strength of the droplet surface to increase . Eventually the field strength will reach the instability limit , causing the droplet to explode into microdroplets . This process is repeated over and over until the ions are completely desolvated and in the gaseous phase . However , at a critical field strength of the microdroplets direct desorption of ions from the droplet 's surface can occur . The gaseous ions are then sampled into the mass analyser . < enote , , , , - 688 < /enote>
As with interfaces there are many different types of mass analysers , such as section mass analysers , time - of - flight analysers ( TOF ) and ion trap mass analysers ( IT ) . instruments generally use quadrupole mass analysers . A quadrupole mass analyser consists of poles that run parallel down a central axis . Controlled voltages are applied to opposite sets of poles , which interact with the charges on the ions that pass down the central axis . The voltages are used to distinguish a certain mass - to - charge ratio ( m / z ) range , which creates a mass filter . Ions of a too low m / z will be attracted to one set of poles & collide with them . Ions of too high an m / z will be attracted to the opposite set of poles . Ions of the selected m / z will pass down the axis to the detector . Although the voltages of the poles can be changed to analyse different m / z range , range can be analysed at a time . < enote > R. Willoughby , , , A of LCMS , , , edn . , , ch . , pp . < /enote > LCMS plays an important role when characterising impurities in a reaction . Isolating the impurities to acquire spectra would require a lot of resource , compared to running a reaction sample on an LCMS instrument to obtain its retention time and mass . The mass spectrum can also be used to determine other structural information , such the presence of heteroatoms and certain functional groups . This information allows for a preliminary chemical structure of the impurity to be deduced . LCMS has also been instrumental in my work in the synthesis of impurities . Using LCMS to monitor the reaction I was able to determine if I was producing the correct compound . It is more useful than HPLC alone , as the reaction could have been producing an undesired compound with the same retention time as the desired one , which would lead to the wrong conclusion about the synthesis . However , using LCMS the mass spectrum of the relevant peak can be scrutinised , and the compound correctly identified . LCMS is also useful for actually determining the retention times of compounds , when using a new LC method . When a reaction sample is submitted to a new method the peaks on the chromatogram can not be conclusively assigned to any compounds without knowledge of the retention times . This requires running standards of the compounds on the LC method , which can require a lot of time . However , with LCMS the mass ions of each peak are available so the compounds can be assigned by their molecular masses , without need for standards . This is also useful when no standard has been produced of a compound . In this way LCMS saves time and resource . < figure/>Throughout this report the advantages of the dual analysis by LCMS have been detailed . However , this analytical method is not infallible . It can not analyse all organic compounds and has the same disadvantages as the individual methods . As the LC generally uses a UV detector a without a UV chromaphore will not appear on the chromatogram . Therefore its retention time is unknown , along with the location of its mass spectrum on the chromatogram . Also not all organic compounds ionise , so they may appear on the chromatogram but only have background noise for the corresponding mass spectrum . Also mass analysis measures m / z , so multiply charged compounds will have a mass ion at an m / z a fraction of its actual mass , which can be misleading if not considered . However , these disadvantages only cover a small percentage of compounds that may require analysis . Therefore , in general LCMS is an extremely useful analytical tool , which will no doubt continue to increase in popularity .","Communication is important within a large company such as . It is needed to share information , ideas , and opinions , which are required to organise individuals , teams and ultimately the company . There are many types of communication as well as many skills that depend on it . All communication , whatever the form , has the same objectives . These begin with receiving the information presented , which sees that everyone has the information or data required for them to carry out their tasks . The information then needs to be understood , so it can be used effectively . Next is for the information to be accepted , ensuring that the information will not be discarded and will be considered useful . Then finally for action on the information to be undertaken , which is the ultimate aim of communicating . Effective use of communication skills will guarantee that these main objectives are achieved . Communication can be either verbal or non - verbal . communication involves the skills of speaking and listening . Good speaking skills require a clear voice , correct tone and smooth delivery . A speaker must connect with their audience to encourage mutual interest in their topic . Some of the key qualities a good speaker should have are alertness , pleasantness , distinctiveness and expressiveness . Alertness shows interest in the audience , making the audience more inclined to listen . Pleasantness will encourage cooperation and distinctiveness will ensure that the speaker 's message is understood . Finally expressiveness conveys personal interest in the topic , which will stir interest from the audience . < enote , , Palgrave Macmillan , , edn . , , ch . , pp . - 20 . < /enote > Listening is a key communication skill , "" Unless somebody listens to the message and understands it , there is no communication , only noise "" . of all communication is listening , which places receiving information just as important as delivering it . Good listening can also impart the listener with understanding of the information received . Listening well to a person will initiate listening in return , allowing one 's own ideas to be registered with others . Ultimately good listening provides cooperation . < enote , , Palgrave Macmillan , , edn . , , ch . , pp . . < /enote> Non - verbal communication mostly consists of body language . This includes many things , such as facial expressions , hand gestures and eye contact . These factors can be useful in adding depth to what is already being spoken , however , they must be used appropriately . For example , good eye contact can show interest in the audience , which can increase participation . However , too much eye contact can be unsettling and make the audience uncomfortable . Many communicating skills rely on good verbal or non - verbal communication , such as influencing , diplomacy , networking , and presenting . < enote , , ed . , , , , ch . , pp . . < /enote > Meetings are a forum for communication within groups and require the use of many communication skills , including the speaking and listening skills described above . A meeting is "" a gathering of or more people sharing common objectives where communication ( oral and/or written ) , is the primary means of achieving those objectives . "" Meetings are required to pool information , which in turn allows for informed decision - making . Within meetings occur regularly , each with its own aim and agenda . These occur throughout the hierarchy of the company , from one - to - one meetings between an employee and their manager to executive board meetings . Some meetings provide information , some provide decisions and some provide both . For example , departmental meetings involve whole departments to deliver information about company and departmental performance and future targets . Project presentation meetings present the work of a team on a certain project , providing useful tips and points that can be applied to other projects . These information - providing meetings are important in maintaining workforce morale , as they incite a feeling of being included . Meetings also occur at periodic intervals throughout the project to discuss its future . This usually involves senior management as it can have major implications for the company . These meetings share some information but are primarily for decision - making . They can decide whether a project should proceed to the next stage of development , or if it has reached the end of its lifespan . These decisions rely on many different pieces of information from various departments , so a well - informed decision can only be made by the group in collaboration , rather than by an individual . < enote > M. E. Hayne , Effective Meeting Skills , , , , ch . , pp . . < /enote > A regular key meeting in my work at is . This brings together members of the project from different departments , including , , . Key pieces of information from each department are shared so everyone is kept up - to - date and the progress of the project can be viewed as a whole , not just from the particular viewpoint of department . From the information given actions can then be decided upon and distributed to suitable individuals . Before each meeting an agenda is distributed which contains the layout for the meeting . This provides the schedule for the meeting , with the topics that will be discussed , who will present the topics and how long each topic should take . This is important to the meeting 's success as it lets the members of the meeting prepare any information they may need , so they can give a full and accurate account of their work . For each of the meetings mentioned success depends on their ability to achieve targets , use the minimum time required and satisfy all of its participants.5 For these to be accomplished the meeting must have a reliable chair who will ensure that the agenda is adhered to throughout the meeting , but also have an open atmosphere to encourage people to participate . A good meeting can inform , solve problems , inspire , motivate , persuade or instigate change . < enote , , , , ch . , pp . - 7 < /enote > However , meetings can also be run ineffectively , and in meetings do work effectively . An ineffective meeting can be the result of poor time keeping , people not listening to each other or person being too domineering , as well as many other factors . A bad meeting can waste time , result in missed opportunity , cause conflict and waste All of these factors can leave people feeling bored , frustrated and ignored . This in turn can affect team morale and slow the progress of the project . To avoid a poorly run meeting effective planning must be carried out . This includes the consideration of whether the meeting is actually needed , as well as the venue , who should attend and a detailed agenda . < enote , , Palgrave Macmillan , , edn . , , ch . , pp . . < /enote > In general meetings can be an effective way to communicate from the lowest ranks of a company to the highest . Meetings facilitate the flow of information between colleagues as well as improving the decision making process . Meetings are also an excellent forum for people to hone their speaking and listening , as well non - verbal , communicative skills . However , unless carefully planned a meeting can have the opposite of its desired effect . It is the responsibility of every attendant of a meeting to ensure its success by communicating effectively .",1 "< heading > Introduction: During there has been a growing interest in the topic of employee participation and involvement and successive ( WIRS ) and ( ) have confirmed that the use of direct employee involvement ( ) has become considerably more extensive while the use of indirect has declined during ( . ; . defined by ( ) , EI ' represents a concerted attempt by employers to find participative ways in which to manage their staff ... Its aims are those which support the achievement of management 's goals , either directly in relation to performance improvements ... or indirectly through higher levels of employee commitment , satisfaction and identification with their employer . ' Generally , there are forms of employee involvement : indirect and direct . According to and ( : ) , indirect is ' where employees are involved through their representatives , usually elected from the wider group ' , such as joint consultation , work councils and collective bargaining . Direct EI is ' concerned with face - to - face or written communications between managers and subordinated that involves individuals rather than representatives . ' ( Ibid ) Examples of direct include team briefing , quality circles , problem - solving groups , team work . In order to evaluate the use of direct by employers , this essay will begin with the analysis of the empirical evidence for the use of direct techniques by organisations ; then the key motives for employers to operate these direct techniques will be evaluated followed by the critical assessment of the benefits which have been gained through the use of direct techniques ; a conclusion and some implications for organisations will be provided at last . < heading > Evidence for the Use of Direct EI by Employers In order to assess the empirical evidence for the use of direct techniques by employers , successive surveys ( ) are chosen as the data source . WERS are not only comprehensive in scope , but also are statistically reliable and representative of employment ; while although is not as comprehensive as , it provides more detailed explanations , therefore the combined use of these surveys will represent a more reliable and representative picture about the use of direct by organisations . Generally , there are main categories of the use of direct techniques which will be examined as follows ( and ) . < heading > Downward communications One category of direct is downward communications from employers to employees ; it includes practices such as briefing groups/ team briefing , notice board , company intranet and emails , formal written media such as employee reports , house journals or company newsletters , and video presentations ( Marchington ) . According to the ( ) data , there is an increased use of direct communications by employers compared with the . For example , the use of meetings with entire workforce or team briefings has increased from to 91 per cent ; systematic use of management chain has risen from to 64 per cent and the use of regular newsletters also has grown from to 45 per cent . Moreover , ( ) also supports the view that downward communications practices are widespread and have increased compared with data . For example , the use of team briefing has increased from to 88 per cent ; and the use of email communications also has increased from . < heading > Upward problem - solving The other category of direct is upward problem - solving , it includes practices such as quality circles , suggestion schemes , attitude surveys and total quality management / customer care programmes ( Marchiongton ) . The ( ) indicated that around 21 per cent of workplace had groups of non - managerial employees that met to solve specific problems or discuss aspects of performance or quality while the equivalent figure in was only 16 per cent . Similar to the findings of , ( ) reported that there is an increased use of suggestion schemes ( from to 56 per cent ) and quality initiatives ( from to 44 per cent ) by organizations from . < heading - based participation and team working Another set of direct initiatives is task - based participation and team working and the practices of this category include job redesign , job enrichment and team working ( , ) . According to ( ) , team working is the one of the top ' new management practices and employee involvement schemes ' , although the use of team working has decreased from of workplaces having at least some core employees in formally - designed teams in to in . For the task - based participation , neither of the surveys includes it in their research , therefore it is difficult to comment about the use ( the extent and the change ) of it in practice . From the above analysis , it is fair to conclude generally the use of direct techniques by employers has increased over but it is worthy noting that not all the forms of direct techniques usage increased , in contrast use of suggestion schemes , and team working decreased ( WERS 2004 ) . Moreover , although the use of direct techniques may increase in scope ( more and more organisations implement the techniques ) , it does not mean the intensity of the use increased as well . For example , the percentage of autonomous work groups where team members are given responsibility for the task , jointly decide how work will be done or appointed their own leader has not increased since ( WERS 2004 ) . Furthermore , sector differences about the use of the techniques should also be taken into account , the use of direct may increase in some sectors while decrease in other sectors . For instance , the use of suggestion schemes increased from to 30 per cent in private sector while decreased from to 30 per cent in public sector ( WERS 2004 ) Also , there is a considerable variation in teamworking by occupations , it is much more prevalent among professionals , technicians , sales , clerical and secretarial staff than among plant and machine operatives , crafts , and personal and protective services ( Cullyal . ) . The final point need to notice is that the use of direct techniques is also affected by the workplace size and the presence of HR specialist . In smaller workplace and in the workplaces that are part of small organisations it is common to have form of or not at all upward communications ( WERS ) and attitude surveys and quality circles are used by a higher proportion of workplaces with an HR specialist ( and , ) . Besides that , we should also be alert to the limitations and problems due to definitions and survey design . Techniques with the same title may vary in terms of their operational characteristics , thus making direct comparisons is almost impossible . For example , a daily team briefing before the shift commences may be quite different from the one which is held on a basis . The former is far more significant in relations to everyday work activities , while the latter is less intensive and has minimal impact on work ( and ) . In addition , due to the change of survey design , some forms of techniques ( such as the use of e - mail , intranet ) can not be compared since there is no comparable data for . < heading > Employers Motives for Direct Employee Involvement Having evaluated the increased use of direct techniques by organisations , this section will turn to look at the reasons why employers have an interest in direct initiatives . , as suggested by and ( ) , of the major factors shaping direct participation within organizations is the competition and pressure from the product market . These competitions not only apply to private sector but also to public sector which has been subjected to the forces arising from deregulation and commercialization and linked to notions of customer choice ( Ibid ) . As et ( ) explain , ' increased competition and concerns about economic performance have encouraged the development of as a route to better market performance . ' For example , ( ) , a public service organisation which is undergoing ' commercialisation ' into a business unit , has operated the national Total Quality Management ( TQM ) and team briefing schemes and some local initiatives in order to open up a new and direct line to employees and hence improve their performance ( . ) . Moreover , the development of new technology ( such as just - in - time system ) and the scale of direct contact between staffs and customers required more direct communication between employers and their employees in order to achieve business success ( Emmott ) . Employers are expected to increase the level of employee commitment to the organisation and improve the performance or productivity from the use of techniques ( Marchington ) . , since many academics and managers regard as a central element in the bundle of practices associated with high commitment or ' soft ' human resource management ( and ) , organisations operate direct techniques and adopted them as a part of ' soft ' human resource management approach ( ) . Some researchers argue that employers are now moving away from old ways of organising work around principles to the new form of work organization ( Geary and Dobbins , ) , since managers have now begun to realize that workers respond best when they are ' given broader responsibilities , encouraged to contribute , and helped to take satisfaction from their work ' ( 1985:76 ) . However , others argue that technique is just a new form of management control ; to have an extension in management control is their primary motive of introducing this new form of work organization ( , ) . Therefore it is a dual strategy of management to implement direct techniques , not only providing more autonomy to employees but also seeking greater control over the work by setting demanding performance targets and holding employees responsible for their achievement ( Ibid ) . , since direct techniques can offer an alternative source of information , especially through downward communications , it can be considered as an alternative to that provided by the trade unions ( and ) . Direct EI techniques could help to erode distrust and enable employees to identify more with their employers and hence diminish the role of the union ( Ibid ) . Some organisations have introduced direct techniques with the objective of marginalizing trade unions ( et ) . For example , according to ( ) , organisations reported that undermining the role of recognised trade unions had been one of the aims of their employee involvement initiatives . , another likely cause for organisations to operate direct techniques is fashion . Introducing direct techniques into the organisations might be either a bright idea from the senior management or requirement from a major customer or just want to keep up and follow the practices of others ( Ackers et al ) . Since there is a relatively low technical base to implement those techniques compared with the introduction of new information technology , it has been easy for managers to introduce these new practices without extensive profession training ( and ) . As the work by ( ) showed , some organisations did EI because of ' reputational effects ' since their organisations were seen as more innovative and having better management if they operated techniques . Finally , we should bear in mind that organizations may operate different forms of techniques for different purposes . For example , the principal purpose of downward communications is to inform and ' educate ' staff , ensure employees understand the strategic direction of the business so they are more likely to accept management plans and help to achieve business success ( Marchington ) ; while problem - solving groups are designed to achieve production or service goals ( such as productivity improvements or defects ) as well as enhance employee morale and commitment ( and ) . Moreover , the organisations with different HRM strategies will have different interests in direct techniques . Organisations have a ' hard ' HRM strategy , which focus more on cost control , deskilled jobs and lack of investment in training , tend to have weak interests in the use of direct ; on the other hand , organisations have a ' soft ' HRM strategy , who treated employees as an important asset of the organisation and a potential source of competitive advantage and whose product market competed on the basis of quality rather than price , tend to have a strong interest in the use of direct techniques and a variety of forms of techniques may be present in practice ( Marchington ) . < heading > Benefits Gained from the Use of Direct EI Techniques A number of senior managers and consultants have made grand claims about the benefits of employee involvement to the organisations ( and ) . They claimed that the implementation of techniques will have a big impact on employees ' attitudes , lead to higher levels of employee commitment and hence improve business performance ( Marchington ) . According to the data ( ) , when the organisations they surveyed were asked if they have actually achieved anything positive from employee involvement , the overall answer is yes . Similar to the results employee relations and employee commitment and motivations are the areas most likely to benefit from initiatives . Moreover , some studies have indicated that employees tend to be more satisfied and motivated when they are working in team situations than in the more traditional ways ( and ; Geary ) . In addition , 's et al ( 2004 ) research also support this argument , among their case studies within and , of the managers reported some improvements in employee attitudes and behaviours as a result of employee voice . Many managers commented that the use of techniques helped to generate a better environment and contributed to the improved performance ( Ibid ) . Cunninghamal . ( ) also reported organisations gained benefits in terms of cost savings , improvements in quality and increased employee commitment through the use of techniques . However , some researchers are still sceptical about the possible impact of on employees ' attitudes and more especially on employee commitment and performance ( and ) . For example , . ( ) find that employees do not think team briefing has a great impact on employment relations or on their attitudes to work and of respondents indicate that there is ' no change ' in the case of commitment . ( 1993:87 ) makes this point effectively with the example of quality circles , ' at most these ( quality circle ) programmes operate for per week , with unchanged . Why should change in of a person 's job have a major impact ? ' Besides the above contradictory arguments about the benefits of the use of direct techniques , evaluating the impact of direct is tricky for a number of reasons . , there are some problems in specifying precisely what is meant by commitment , improved employee attitudes and how it is measured ( Guest the data from ( ) , although majority of respondents have admitted the improvements of performance since the implementation of techniques , a number of employers said their responses to these questions were based on their subjective feelings rather than hard evidence . , although Guest et al ( ) study confirm the association between HR practices and organisation performance , it is difficult to specify the precise contribution of direct since it does not take place in isolation but as a part of a bundle of HR practices ( and ) . As ( : ) notes , ' it is important to recognise that the practices are interrelated , it is difficult to do thing by itself with much positive result ' . Moreover we should notice that direct techniques or HR practices is factor among many that can affect organisation 's performance . Factors , such as technology change , shifts in the labour markets will also affect the performance ( and ) . , even we agree that there is a significant association between the use of direct techniques and performance ; it is very difficult to determine the direction of causality ( Ibid ) . Even for Guest et al ( ) study , they failed to show HR practices causes higher performance . It could be argued that superior organisational performance contributes to positive employee attitudes rather than the conventional view ( and ) . Furthermore , researchers also find that the impacts of using direct techniques on employee attitudes and commitment appear to be influenced by a number of factors . In other words , the results organisations gained through the use of direct techniques vary according to a number of factors . , different forms of direct techniques have different impacts on employee attitudes . For example , ( ) suggests that self - directed work teams have a strong effect on employee attitudes while job enrichment has an intermediate effect and quality circles have a weak effect . , management 's business strategies and approach to HRM , worker 's previous experience of participation and work in general affect the employees ' reactions to direct and hence the impact of direct on employee attitudes , commitment and organisational performance ( . ) For example , it is easy to see a link between ' open ' management styles and positive employee responses to initiatives ; while in those organisations having a tightening - up management styles , employees were les positive about techniques ( Ibid ) . In and ' ( ) case study about the introduction of teamworking in the pharmaceutical industry , they find that employees are more committed to the introduction of team working since management made an enhanced support to company 's competitive strategy and committed to employment security . Also , regular ' bad news ' conveyed through team briefing can therefore be converted into negative assessments of the briefing system itself or direct techniques ( Ibid ) . Finally , ( ) notes that the effectiveness of implementation of direct techniques is dependent upon a number of factors and the effectiveness of the operation of direct techniques will affect the benefits gained to the organisations . These factors include the coherent and well - planned development of techniques as part of a broader HR strategy ; support from senior management ; enthusiasm and commitment from line mangers ; sufficient training for supervisors to deliver ; complete coverage and cooperation with trade unions . < heading > Conclusions To sum up , empirical evidence has confirmed that the increased use of direct techniques by organisations during , although the extent of the use is not clear due to the limitations and problems of definitions and survey design . Moreover , it is found that the use of direct techniques vary according to forms of techniques , sectors , workplaces size and the presence of HR specialists . In addition , the key motives for organisations to implement direct techniques include responding to the competitive pressures ; increasing employee commitment and organisational performance ; changing to the commitment approach and diminishing the role of trade unions . Organisations operate those initiatives for different reasons depending on their HRM strategy and environment in which they operate . Furthermore , although in theory the direct is connected with high levels of commitment and organisational performance , this prediction is quite problematic in practice . Organisations ' gaining from direct techniques varies according to the forms of techniques they implemented ; their management styles and the environment the organisations operated as well as the employees ' previous experience about the techniques . Definitely the use of direct techniques has some value for the organisations , but in order to achieve a better result , employers need to carefully consider the congruence among their approaches to , the remainder of their employee relations policies , and the market context within which the organisation operates . Although has focused attention on representative participation , as and ( ) pointed that the combination of direct and indirect consultative arrangements has the potential to improve organisational performance , so organisations which have direct participation alone will probably need to adopt a dual approach for the best result .","< heading > Introduction: In order to exam whether ' A happy worker is a productive worker ' , it is worthwhile to look back the literature which deals with the relationship between satisfaction and performance . Academics and researchers proposed different views about this issue , and ( ) concluded that there is little evidence to suggest that employees ' attitudes bear any simple or appreciable relationship to performance on the job . However , by contrast , et ( ) provided a quite different conclusion : there is frequent evidence to suggest that positive job attitudes are favourable to increased productivity . Facing these contradictory opinions , the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance will be examined in detail firstly . Then the determinants of job performance and job satisfaction will be discussed , finally the conclusion and suggestions for management in the real world will be provided . < heading > Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Job Performance: Satisfaction causes performance ; a happy worker is a productive worker . < /heading > According to Greene ( ) , a proposition widely agreed by researchers and often identified with the so - called is that a happy worker is a productive worker , which means the degree of job satisfaction felt by the employee determines his / her performance , in other words , satisfaction causes performance . A number of academicians have found it quiet appealing , 's ( ) valance - instrumentality- expectance model is an example of theory - based support for the satisfaction causes performance case ( Greene ) . In 's model ( and Buchanan ) , ' valence ' refers to the perceived values or degree of preference that an individual has for a particular outcome ; ' instrumentality ' refers to individual 's perceived likelihood that good performance will lead to values reward and ' expectancy ' concerns the individual 's perceived likelihood that effort will result in good performance . The force of the motivation to work hard is the result of the multiplication of above variables ( and Buchanan ) . Thus it is fair to say from 's model that job satisfaction reflects the valence of the job and the function of valence of the job is the force to motivate employees to work harder . Thus satisfaction should be and it is negatively related to absenteeism and labour turnover , thought the empirical evidence for valence also leads to higher performance is less ( Greene ) . In 's field studies which examined the relationship between satisfaction and performance showed that satisfaction explained of the variance in performance ( Greene ) . However , and ( ) reported that group performance is , in part , caused by group 's awareness of member satisfaction . In addition , ( ) indicated that job satisfaction was found to affect the performance of the operative level of employees but not for managers . Therefore , based on the above analysis and evidence , the possibility that job satisfaction leads to work performance still remains , although it might for some employees and under some conditions ( Greene ) . Argyle ( ) also produced similar result which is absenteeism and turnover did have a direct relationship to levels of satisfaction , but productivity only did so for highly skilled or intrinsically motivated employees . Individual differences were very significant ; some people may work harder when less satisfied while some people may work less hard when more satisfied . In addition , the underlying belief of 's ( ) factor theory proposed that increased job satisfaction is an important source of motivation and will lead to better performance since job satisfaction is associated with increased productivity and reduced turnover , absenteeism ( ) . The sets of factors mentioned by are motivator and hygiene factors . Motivator factors are those producing good feelings in the work place and thus lead to high levels of job satisfaction , motivation and performance , which include achievement , recognition , responsibility , advancement , growth and the work itself ( and Buchanan ) . By contrast , hygiene factors are those remove , prevent job dissatisfaction but do not contribute to motivation and performance , which include pay , company policy , supervision , status , security and working conditions ( Ibid , ) . Therefore , in practice , managers should build motivators into the jobs to promote job satisfaction and improve hygiene factors to minimize dissatisfaction hence increase productivity . Moreover , job enrichment , such as make tasks more interesting , involving and rewarding can be used to increase motivation and performance ( and Buchanan ) . As Paul et al described ( ) job enrichment ' seeks to improve both efficiency and human satisfaction ' . 's ( ) study about the effect of job enrichment of typists , 's ( ) job enrichment projects at all provided support evidence for this proposition . However , Orpen ( ) found that enrichment caused significant increases in employee job satisfaction , job involvement , and internal motivation and led to significance decrease in absenteeism and turnover but had little impact on performance . Also , the social , cultural , organizational and environmental factors might make ' more satisfaction , more performance ' relationship less likely ( and ) . < heading > Performance causes satisfaction : a productive worker is a happy worker The proposition concerning the relationship between satisfaction and performance posits that satisfaction , rather than being a cause , is an effort of performance ( and Lawler ) . According to and ( as showed in the figure ) , the effort expended on the task depends on the perceived values of rewards plus the expectation that performance will lead to reward . Moreover , job performance depends on individual perception , individual abilities and traits together with role perceptions . Furthermore , differential performance determines rewards and produces variation in employee 's expression of job satisfaction ( and Buchanan ) . types of rewards are intrinsic ( refers to the feeling of challenge , achievement and success ) and extrinsic ( refers to organizational rewards such as pay , promotion and benefits ) . Here , rewards serve as a moderating variable and satisfaction comes from the receipt of both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards which are the consequences of performance , although intrinsic need satisfaction was more closely related to performance than was extrinsic need satisfaction ( ; Greene ) . < figure/>At the empirical level , this position has received support from a number of studies . For example , ( ) and and ( ) reported that the correlations between performance and satisfaction were significantly higher than the correlations between satisfaction and performance . Additional support for this proposition was offered by and ( ) who reported that performance leading to satisfaction but the mediating variable is leader behaviour ( Greene ) . Other variables , such as occupational group ( and Gunderson ) , self - esteem ( and ) , job values ( Locke 1973 ) and ability ( Carlson ) have also been suggested as the variables moderating the relationship between performance and satisfaction ( Greene ) . Moreover , ( ) , using a cross - lag correlation design , tested causal relationships between work performance and different measures of job satisfaction over period , indicated that performance caused satisfaction for a line and staff management sample . In addition , ( ) collected job satisfaction and performance data from newly hired female telephone operators after work experience . A combination of cross - lagged and dynamic correlations was used to make causal inferences about the satisfaction - performance relationship . When job satisfaction was split into extrinsic and intrinsic components , the findings suggested that performance causes intrinsic satisfaction and extrinsic satisfaction causes performance . Although literature reviews and a number of empirical studies have focused on the performance - to - satisfaction relationship , only a few investigators have directly examined the issue of causality . Clearly a more logic view is that performance is determined by people 's efforts to obtain the goals and outcomes they desire , and satisfaction is determined by the outcomes people actually obtain . < heading > Determinants of Job Performance and Satisfaction: Empirical support for each of the theoretical positions outlined above has been weak , With respect to the assumption ( satisfaction causes performance ) . Steers stated that "" the fact that workers are satisfied does not mean they will necessarily produce more , only that they are satisfied "" ( : ) . Regarding the position ( performance causes satisfaction ) , he said that "" there is no compelling argument that performance must necessarily cause satisfaction , particularly if performance goes unrewarded "" ( ) . （ Petty et al 1984）In other words , employee satisfaction does not necessarily lead to high employee performance , while highly productive employees are not necessarily the highly satisfied employees . The underlying reasons are both job performance and job satisfaction are caused by a variety of factors . < heading > Determinants of Job Performance: A basic conceptualization of the determinants of job performance was pointed by ( ) , which is , performance is determined by people 's ability and motivation . Similarly , and ( ) indicated that performance was caused by the multiplication of effort , abilities and traits of the individual and role perception . Although it is clearly that ability and motivations are the most significant determinants of job performance , ( ) criticized that these ideas are too simple , excluding other factors outside the individual that can still impact job performance . Facing this problem , and Pringle ( ) proposed a - way categorization of variables determining job performance , adding another influence factor which they termed ' opportunity ' into it . Therefore , in the following sections , the determinants of job performance will be mainly analysed based on this model . < heading > Ability: Traditionally , identification of people 's abilities , usually through cognitive tests , is required in the successful performance of a job ( Fleishman ) . Moreover , and ( ) found that these tests have been successful at predicting people 's job performance in a number of settings and across many job categories . Indeed , and ( ) provided evidence that cognitive tests tend to be an important determinant in job performance . A more causal approach to understanding the impact of ability on job performance has been presented by ( ) . Through the findings , ( ) suggested that general cognitive abilities and people 's previous work experience directly affected people 's level of job knowledge and job performance . Job experience enables people to gain competence and thus perform better , evidence has shown that the length or amount of job experience affects people 's performance ( and ) . Therefore organizations which attempt to get the most capable and suitable people for the jobs , induced psychological tests and required pervious work experiences when they are recruiting and selecting employees , since most organizations believe that people 's ability and past experience will play an important role for their future job performance . < heading > Motivation According to and ( ) , a factor for the determinant of job performance is the broad theoretical area of motivation . is defined as ' the cognitive decision - making process through which goal - directed behaviour is initiated , energized and directed and maintained ' ( and ) . Motivation concerns factors push or pull people to behave in certain ways ; it is the factor but not the only factor which influences work performance ( Arnold et al ) . In the literature , there are main categories of motivation theories , which are content theory and process theory . Content theories examine what motivates people through the concepts such as goals , needs and ' motivators ' . Widely known theories in this category include of needs ' ( ) , which suggested that people are motivated by a number of factors at work , aiming to satisfy particular need before moving to another factor in the higher level of the hierarchy ; 's ( ) theory argued that it was more realistic to consider basic needs for people , which are existence needs , relatedness and growth needs ; Also 's ( ) need for achievement theory and 's ( ) - factor theory which has been examined above . While process theories examine how behaviours are selected , directed , initiated and maintained , as in the work of , and ( which have been mentioned in the above section ) and and ) . Equity theory is based on the perception of ' fair treatment ' . The most influential work done by ) argued that people are motivated to act in situations which they perceive to be inequitable or unfair . Inequality occurs when people either get more or less than they think they deserve and the more intense the perceived inequality , the higher tension and stronger the motivation to act ( and ) . The implementations of motivation theory in practice are diverse . The ideas of job design and restructure in order to satisfy people 's needs and thus increase their satisfaction and performance are widely used . Moreover , since money is not the only motivator for people , other motivators such as self - esteem also played a role , therefore when designing reward systems , various reward systems should be used , people should not only be rewarded by financial items such as pay but also be rewarded by non - financial items , such as promotion . However , the difference among individuals and countries towards the value of incentives may cause different patterns of behaviour even in the same situation . Such as in , people will place sense of belongingness and love higher than self - esteem and self - actualization ( Nevis , ) . < heading > Opportunity Besides ability and motivation , researchers have claimed that opportunity variables including available resources for people ( such as the quality of equipment and material ) , working conditions , leader behaviour , and co - ordination of team members are also the determinants of job performance ( and ; ) . Matsui et al ( ) showed group process may enhance individual performance , having group goals cause people to accept more difficult goals and develop a sense of shared responsibility for the achievement of individual goals . Moreover , leadership style has been considered as a factor affects job performance ( and ) . For example , leadership which emphasized the use of contingent rewards will enhance individual 's performance - outcome expectancy beliefs and hence improve their performance . Therefore , based on the above analysis , it is fair to conclude that job performances are determined by a variety of factors . A happy worker might be a productive worker but a productive worker may also be caused by individual 's ability and previous experience or may be motivated by the potential chance of getting higher pay and promotion . < heading > Determinants of Job Satisfaction In addition to the determinants for job performance , scholars have also been interested in why some people report being fell satisfied with their jobs , while others express much low levels of satisfaction ( ) . According to Agho et al ( ) , job satisfaction is defined as the extent to which employees like their work . It is employee 's attitude towards their jobs or work environment ; it can be either negative or positive . Moreover , general categories of antecedent variables associated with job satisfaction have been defined , which are environmental and personal characteristics ( and Logsdon ) . Environmental determinants refer to the factors associated with the work itself or work environment such as pay and promotion , supervision , fair evaluation of work etc . and ( ) indicated that promotional opportunities and pay have a positive link with job satisfaction . and ( ) found that there was significant negative links between organizational obstacles ( such as insufficient training , unsafe work environment , uneven work distribution ) and employee job satisfaction in the study of bank employees . In addition , the positive relationships between supervisors and employees contribute to the higher level of job satisfaction . ( ) reported that government employees who enjoyed a supportive relationship with their supervisors experienced higher levels of job satisfaction than those who did not . Finally , ( ) provided evidence for the positive relationship between employee performance appraisal satisfaction and overall job satisfaction . While personal factors refer to individual attributes and characteristics , such as age , gender and personality and so on . Although and ( ) found that gender and age had a weak relationship with job satisfaction , personality might play a role in determining job satisfaction . For example , optimistic people might be more easily satisfied and feel happier than those pessimistic people . Besides environmental and personal characteristics , social , cultural and situational factors may also affect job satisfaction . For example , ( ) indicated that managers , skilled worker 's satisfaction were caused by ' motivator ' factor while unskilled worker 's satisfaction appeared to be dependent on hygiene factors . Thus a productive worker might be a happy worker as discussed before but not necessarily a happy work , a happy worker might be caused by the good work condition , attractive payment or the worker himself or herself personality . < heading > Conclusion: To sum up , the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance is still debatable due to the weak academic and empirical evidence . Also , it is find that job performance is mainly determined by ability , motivation and opportunity , while job satisfaction is affected by environmental , personal , social , cultural and situational factors . Thus , a happy worker can be a productive worker or vice verse , however , employee satisfaction does not necessarily lead to high employee performance , while highly productive employees are not necessarily the highly satisfied employees . Moreover , the causality between job performance and job satisfaction might not be the interests for management in practice ; however , in order to win in the increasing competition , effective manager can provide both productivity and satisfaction for the organizations . The techniques such as ' goal setting ' and ' job enrichment ' can be used jointly . The increased autonomy , feedback and task identify that typically accompany job enrichment programs should facilitate management to gain higher levels of employee job satisfaction . On the other hand , the use of goal - setting program should enhance employees ' task performance . Lastly but very importantly , the existence of individual differences and culture differences should be taken into account when management are seeking for greater job performance and job satisfaction .",1 "Diversity management has become more important in since the workforce is growing more diverse . This essay will discuss if managing diversity effectively and upholding individual rights has a positive impact on hospitality and tourism organisations . In the beginning it will look at the workforce in the industry and explain . It will then discuss the claimed benefits of and bring forward arguments for and against applying it . Finally it will draw conclusions for the future of diversity management . According to ( ) the composition of the workforce in the hospitality and tourism industry in the is constantly changing . In there has been an increase of women , workers of ethnic minorities and young workers ( , , et al . , ; et al . , ; and , ) . To prevent unfair treatment against members of these and other minorities in the workforces , have seen an increase in legislations against discrimination . These rank from in to the recent update of the Disability Discrimination Act in . As et . al ( ) explain , these acts build the foundation for ( ) . According to . ( ) the acts are "" an attempt to force employers to guarantee equality of opportunity and freedom from discrimination and harassment "" ( et . al , : p 50 ) . However , as ( ) point out , the approach has their main focus on groups that are believed to be less advantaged . Although it protects the rights of the groups in the workforce , the individual as such is not considered . In a new approach was started , due to the ever increasing diversity of the workforce ( Groeschl and Doherty , ): the so called ( ) approach . In comparison to the approach "" has individuals at its centre "" ( and , cited in , ) . The main believe , as and ( ) explain , is that everyone is different and that those differences can be valuable assets to an organisation and therefore should be harnessed . They go on to say that is about people "" maximising their potential and their contribution to the organisation "" ( and , : p 9 ) , in comparison to the approach which mainly has the prevention of discrimination in mind . of the main differences between and , as et . ( ) as well as and ( ) point out , is that is a strategy which the whole organisation needs to obey to . It is not only the responsibility of the HR department but of every manager and staff member in the business . "" Without proper and total commitment from the very top of the company , no diversity policy is ever going to be successful "" ( ) . At the basis of the approach lays the so called business case . As ( ) explains , "" a business case sees achieving equality as essential to achieving organisational goals "" ( , : p ) . As the main business goal normally is to achieve profit , anything to lessen that profit , such as potentially expensive law suits filed by employees who feel treated unfairly ( , ) , need to be avoided . ( ) therefore states that not valuing the differences of employees can be very expensive for an organisation . Yet , as et . ( ) point out , is not only interesting for the employer . Since it involves everyone in the company , it is also attractive for the employee . At the time of recruitment the employer will have the choice of a bigger selection of skilled applicants . Once working , it is argued that the employees will feel that their rights are respected and therefore will be more motivated and less likely to leave ( , in and , ; et . al , ) . Also it is claimed that through , the organisation will improve creativity , be more flexible and also project a better image to the public ( et . al , ; , ) . Lastly Doyle ( ) as well as et . ( ) claim that there will be better customer service if the diverse workforce "" reflects the diverse customer base "" ( et . al , : p ) . This can be especially interesting for hospitality and tourism organisations , which are known to have customers from all over the world , including many minorities . However , and ( ) point out , that it is hard to prove that many of these claimed benefits are actually related to . They therefore distinguish between proven , debatable and indirect benefits . For them the only proven benefits are the attraction of a bigger variety of employees , the retention and therefore the cost saved in turnover . The improved quality and better customer service are debatable , as it can not be proven that they are directly linked to . The last set of benefits , the indirect ones , can only be achieved if both the proven as well as the debatable benefits are achieved ( and , ) . These include , amongst other , higher motivation , more job satisfaction and a better image of the company . and ( ) explain that evidence has yet to be collected to show the relationship between these factors and . Beside the lack of proof of relationship between and the claimed benefits , there are also some other criticisms of brought forward in the literature . The one is that is heavily leaned on the business case . According to ( ) this does not pose a problem as long as the business feels that it is benefiting from employing . However , once the economic climate changes , and the organisation does not see any benefits in promoting the individuals right , it might loose interest . This is crucial , since , as et . ( ) and ( ) point out , the benefits of will not be seen in just a short period of time , but more likely after a long time of managing the diverse workforce effectively . The next point criticised is the argument that is practised to improve the customer service . It is easy to say that a guest from an ethnic minority would prefer to be served by someone from the same group . Yet ( ) asks if the same applies for a disabled person . Would that person automatically prefer to be served by a disabled employee ? ( ) goes on to explain that the business case can also work the other way around : if the guests prefer the contact to type of employee , e.g. in a hotel a female , blonde receptionist , should the only applications considered in the future be of blonde females ? He argues that this again would be discrimination and therefore the rights of the employees would not be respected . Also , as et . ( ) state , not every employee has direct contact with the customers . Therefore the approach would not apply to every job , if improved image and customer service are its main objectives . The last argument brought forward in the literature is that when practising , there might be too much attention on the individual . ( ) and Liff ( ) [ cited in , ] point out that it might be a mistake to not pay any attention to the possible needs of the "" traditional groups "" ( , ) . et . ( ) also state that employees might feel uncomfortable to be singled out and would prefer to be seen as part of group . As can be seen from the arguments above there are many points that are for , but also many that are against . However , with an ever increasing diverse workforce as well as a diverse customer base , especially in the hospitality and tourism industry , the fact that some approach must be taken can no longer be ignored . Even though not all of the claimed benefits can be directly linked to managing diversity , there are still some that definitely can be , such as the cost saved through a lower turnover rate and the avoidance of expensive law suits because of discrimination . The lack of evidence of the benefits could also spring from the fact that is a relatively new approach and therefore the relationship could not be proven yet . However , as explained , organisations need to realise that is a long - term process and therefore must accept that they have to invest time to be able to see the benefits after a while . For to work properly , it is also essential that it is clear that is not something only concerned with the HR department but with everyone . The top management as well as every employee needs to believe in and promote it for it to function well . The approach is the next step from . By avoiding discrimination of minorities but at the same time looking out for the needs of every individual , no one will be excluded in the future , and the organisations as well as the employees should benefit .","Modernism as a movement came about as a reaction to the ' inescapable forces of turbulent social modernization . "" The race for empire , , the Suffrage movement , and conflict in , as well as popular concerns over novel ways of thinking : nihilism , relativism , fakery- all gave rise to a desire for radical breaks with tradition in favour of new beginnings ; a desire that ' penetrated the interior of artistic invention . "" It is a movement characterized by an ' emphasis on verbal texture , ' and by ' clusters of images , metaphors and symbols . "" One of the ways the aesthetics of Modernism were displayed was through the ' disintegration of coherent narratives and settings into startling and apparently unrelated images . "" The critic states that ' poetry ... is a paradigm , a model of the pattern , of Modernism ; ' therefore in order to explore the 's ' attention to "" form "" as opposed to "" content "" ' and illustrate the move away from a traditional narrative form I will discuss the work of . Similarly , radically departed from the formula - oriented modes and devices of the plotted story ' in his collection of short stories , entitled , another text I will examine . < fnote > M. Levenson ( ed . ) ; to Modernism ; ( , , ) Pg < /fnote> Ibid , Pg 4 < /fnote> E. San Juan , ; and ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote> R. Emig ; Modernism in Poetry : Motivations , Structures , & Limits ; ( , , ) Pg 1 < /fnote> R. Emig ; Modernism in Poetry : Motivations , Structures , & Limits ; ( , , ) Pg < /fnote> It is worth comparing some works of to those in by and , in order to see clearly the rejection of ' both explicit and identifiable speakers and narratives ' in the latter . Both ' ' and 's ' deal with the issue of poverty ; however , Wordsworth goes to great lengths describing to the reader the ' artless story ' of the vagrant . The poem begins with the beginning of her tale : < fnote > R. Emig ; Modernism in Poetry : Motivations , Structures , & Limits ; ( , , ) Pg < /fnote> ' "" by Derwent 's side my father 's cottage stood "" , The woman thus her artless story told . ' D. Wu ( ed ) Romanticism , An Anthology ; edition ( , ) Pg < /fnote > The reader is presented with the story as a narrative , encompassing the entirety of the vagrant 's experience of poverty . The vagrant is speaking directly to the narrator , giving a heightened sense of reality to her tale . In contrast , 's poem presents the ' in the gutter ' as he would be seen by a passer - by . The opinions of the beggar himself are of no interest to the poet ; instead he is focused on the image of the beggar in itself . Therefore , although their subject matter is similar , the aims of the poets are different . Whilst 's verses can be read as a social commentary , intended to inspire pity in the reader , is striving to present what called the ' intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time . "" Pound stated that an Imagist poet ' seeks out the luminous detail . He does not comment . "" Thus we , as readers , are given no background and are instead presented with a myriad of impressions : ' huddled and mean , ' ' winds beat him , ' ' wind from an empty belly . ' < fnote > ( ed ) ; ; ( Wiltshire , Penguin , ) Pg < /fnote> R. Emig ; Modernism in Poetry : Motivations , Structures , & Limits ; ( , , ) Pg < /fnote> Ezra Pound , cited in handout , 17.02.06 < /fnote > This layering of images characterises the poetry of the which is typically ' made of details ' but devoid of a narrative . 's poem showcases the ' depersonalizing [ of ] the poetic voice ; ' what we are given instead is a picture made almost photographic by an overabundance of details and adjectives : ' shrivelled , ' ' draggled , ' ' forlorn . "" By presenting an image in such a manner is demonstrating of the ' rules ' of the Imagist school : ' direct treatment of the "" thing , "" whether subjective or objective . "" The lack of a narrative serves to negate what impact the opinions of a conventional narrator may otherwise have had , and thus allows the reader to be much more sensitized to the mood , rather than the moral message , of the piece . < fnote > ( ed ) ; ; ( Wiltshire , Penguin , ) Pg < /fnote> Ibid , Pg , Pg < /fnote > The story ' , ' in 's , is similarly lacking in a moral message . In it , ' tacitly acknowledges the undercurrents of anger , frustration & helplessness that pervade life . "" The story clearly showcases the dangers of a life stifled by oppression : is trapped in a job he dislikes and is treated badly by his boss . He does not act on the ' spasm of rage ' that he feels towards Mr Alleyne ; instead he cruelly beats his young son on returning home . The cries of the ' little boy ' inspire great pathos : < fnote > Suzette A. Henke ; the Politics of Desire ; ( , Routledge , ) pg < /fnote> ; ; ( , , ) pg < , pa ! "" he cried . "" Do n't beat me , pa ! And I 'll ... I 'll say a Hail Mary for you ... I 'll say a Hail Mary for you , pa , if you do n't beat me ... ""' Ibid , pg < /fnote > However , like in The , is not condemning 's actions . praised for presenting ' average lives in their uncompromising truth , ' and in this story he is doing just that . ' held up a mirror to the average ' in what he termed his ' nicely polished looking glass . "" In this story and throughout Dubliners is highlighting the effects of ' moral paralysis or hemiplegia of the will , ' something he put down to ' the experience of modern urban life . "" Like the Imagist poets , moved away from a traditional narrative form to convey this message , instead recognising ' the complexity of language as the fundamental medium of culture in its historical , creative and unconscious dimensions . ' < fnote > , cited in : ( ed ) ; to Modernism ; ( , , ) Pg < /fnote> , in lecture handout , 10.02.06 < /fnote> M. Levenson ( ed ) ; to Modernism ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote > Joyce 's focus on language is skilfully paired with ' a detailed , closely observed depiction of the surfaces of life . "" As such he adopts a ' naturalistic ' approach . Humans are imprisoned in the social and physical ; therefore places less emphasis on a heavily plotted narrative , and the intensity of his stories comes instead from his ability to precisely capture a mood . In ' Eveline ' the entirety of the story is presented as a stream of consciousness . Up to the last section there is an air of pensive musing to the tale , as sits at the window weighing up her decision : < fnote > Lecture handout , 10.02.06 < /fnote> ' She had consented to go away , to leave her home . Was that wise?' ; ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote > This meditative air is paired with many small details , which add a sense of reality to the story and make it more vivid : < quote>'Her head was leaned against the window curtains and in her nostrils was the odour of dusty cretonne . She was tired . ' Ibid , pg < /fnote > By using language in this manner is able to capture a precise mood , and although we are given little detail about the life of herself , by adjusting the style of the story to the experience of the main protagonist , is able to bring her character alive . is vague about , where she is proposing to spend the rest of her life . As readers we can assume that this is due to the fact that she has never previously left . It is perhaps for this reason that although feels that ' she must escape ' and that ' would save her , ' when it comes to it she finds herself in ' a maze of distress : ' < fnote > Ibid , pg , pg < /fnote>'No ! No ! No ! It was impossible . Her hands clutched the iron in frenzy . Amid the seas she sent a cry of anguish!' Ibid . < /fnote > We can emphasise completely with 's distress in this story . Despite there being little by way of an ' exciting suspenseful narrative , ' the development of her character shows a very human complexity to her wants and desires , a paradoxical nature to her feelings which the readers can easily relate to . < fnote > Lecture handout , 10.02.06 < /fnote > Joyce uses a similar technique to develop a character in , ' the story in the collection . It is written from the point of view of a young boy , and is careful , therefore , to keep the language and opinions of the piece consistent with his protagonist . For that reason he changed the following passage which was originally written in a comparatively adult cadence : < quote>'The ceremonious candles in the light of which the must take his last sleep . ' , cited in ; ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote > The sentence was replaced with the much more straightforward and child - like : < quote>'The reflection of candles on the darkened blind for I knew that candles must be set at the head of a corpse . ' ; ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote > This retains the meaning of the original , yet by simplifying the language and extending the sentence length , ensures that it is much more in keeping with a younger narrator . Very little action takes place in this story ; it is instead the complexity and authenticity of the characterization that maintains the reader 's interest . immediately sets the tone of the piece with the opening lines . The story opens with a negative : ' There was no hope for him this time , ' and throughout the paragraph the gloomy atmosphere is intensified by his use of language : ' dead , ' ' corpse , ' ' paralysis . "" Much of the story takes place at or at twilight , and throughout is permeated with the powerful image of the ' old priest ... lying still in his coffin . "" The tale ends abruptly , with a startling image : that of the priest in his confession box , ' wide - awake and laughing - like to himself . "" The unexpected nature of this image could be explained by the ' resolve to startle and disturb the public . "" In any case , it ensures that the figure of the priest is a vivid one , showing that ' [ 's ] most powerful characters are often those who are barely seen . "" By creating such a powerful image is able to ensure , with out the use of a lengthy narrative , that a character who does not speak once throughout the piece is one who will leave a lasting impression on the reader . < fnote > Ibid < /fnote> Ibid pg < /fnote> Ibid < /fnote> T. S. Eliot , cited in ( ed ) ; to Modernism ; ( , , ) Pg < /fnote> D. T. Torchiana ; 's Dubliners ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote > This stress on what was termed the ' doctrine of the image ' can also be seen in poem , . In it , the theme of love is explored in stanzas , each presenting the reader with striking imagery , made more compelling by the use of both simile and metaphor : ' The blue smoke leaps/ Like swirling clouds of birds vanishing . ' ' A rose yellow moon in a pale sky . "" The style is succinct and direct ; language , such as this , ' checked by the application of sculptural analysis , ' has the effect of creating a poetic method that is fragmented and yet unified in its presentation of 's ' desires . "" By using strong imagery in this fashion , creates a poem that is full of what may be termed ' static beauty . ' However despite the clarity and precision of the image , 's poem displays little real emotion or psychology . The character of his love is not revealed to us , nor is the progress of the relationship . This shows the school 's break away from conventional lyric poetry which evolved out of the ballad form , and therefore maintained strong narrative traditions . By ' cutting , arresting , limiting , permitting no flow ' in the language used , the were able to concentrate on capturing a precise mood in their poetry . < fnote > Ezra Pound , cited in ; ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote> Peter Jones ( ed ) ; ; ( Wiltshire , Penguin , ) Pg < /fnote> A similar focus on mood is seen in The . The entire poem is an extended metaphor based on a single image- that of ice - skaters as they ' skim over the frozen river . "" Fletcher compares the skaters to ' black swallows , ' and at the end of the poem describes the sound of their skating to ' the brushing together of thin wing - tips of silver . "" By beginning and ending with images of flight , Fletcher is surrounding the central image , that of the skaters , with the metaphor . By doing so , the poet is lending these brief lines a sense of neatness and completeness . It is this aspect of poetry that is described by when he states that ' every element of the work is an instrument of its effect . "" The brevity of the verse results in a necessary precision in the language ; there is no room for superfluous details in this poem . If is to maintain this sense of crispness to the text , ' language is no longer freely available for mere ornamental descriptions of reality , ' and lengthy narrative styles become obsolete . < fnote > ( ed ) ; ; ( Wiltshire , Penguin , ) Pg < /fnote> Ibid < /fnote> M. Levenson ( ed ) ; to Modernism ; ( , , ) Pg < /fnote> R. Emig ; Modernism in Poetry : Motivations , Structures , & Limits ; ( , , ) Pg < /fnote > The poet , of the founders of the Imagist school along with and , was particularly noted for her sharp , direct style of poetry . She strove to think exclusively through images , and in her verses she presented ' no detail not germane to such thinking , no detail obligated merely by pictorial completeness . "" In this sense , her poem entitled ' Evening ' is redolent of heap of broken images . "" In description of a garden at sunset there is a distinct feel of fragmentation and obtuseness about the verses , which at times seems almost wilfully obscure : < fnote > Hugh Kenner ; ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote> ' shadow seeks shadow , then both leaf and leaf - shadow are lost . ' ( ed ) ; ; ( Wiltshire , Penguin , ) Pg < /fnote > The poem is written in vers libre : there is no ostensibly fixed rhyme scheme or rhythm . Therefore the line breaks , not determined by form , take on ' an integrity and function of [ their ] own . "" does not capitalize the beginning of each line , and makes little use of punctuation throughout the poem . Eliot called this rejection of any formulaic poetic structure the ' unperceived evasion of monotony . "" Changes in religious and scientific thinking , which had resulted from the works of in , had placed a new emphasis on man as an individual rather than as part of the prevalent religious and social ideals of his time . ' Within an intellectual framework based on human autonomy , originality becomes the benchmark of human quality ; ' H. D is not conforming to what Modernists saw as the empty musicality of literature , the ' horrible agglomerate compost ... a doughy mess of - hand , ... - hand sonority . "" She is instead asserting her ' claim to aesthetic dignity ' by rejecting a style which ' had sold itself to a mass reading public . "" In common with the poems previously discussed , these are verses ' liberated from metaphysical and religious master - plans , ' and as such are free to create and capture a mood rather than to tell a story . < fnote > ; : An Introduction ( , , ) Pg < /fnote> T. S. Eliot , ' Reflections on Vers Libre ' , cited in lecture handout , < /fnote> R. Emig ; Modernism in Poetry : Motivations , Structures , & Limits ; ( , , ) Pg < /fnote> Ezra Pound ( in The , ) cited in lecture handout , < /fnote> R. Emig ; Modernism in Poetry : Motivations , Structures , & Limits ; ( , , ) Pg < /fnote > It is clear , then , that the Imagist poets desired a complete break with tradition and , in doing so , strove to focus on capturing an exact image rather than telling interesting stories . They , like many involved with the movement , were ' reaffirming and fortifying the boundaries between art and mass culture ; ' a mass culture they ' construed as a threat of encroaching formlessness . "" As a writer , was concerned with similar aesthetic ideals : those of focus not on content but on method , of brevity and accuracy in prose , of ' directness , verbal economy , and musicality . "" However , unlike the poems , 's Dubliners does contain elements of an ' underlying theme or argument ' that unfolds like a thread throughout the stories . It is for this reason that the critic argues that is ' less a sequence of stories than a kind of multi - faceted novel . "" It is the theme of paralysis , introduced in the of the stories and returned to in each , that serves as a ' unifying concern ' throughout . The main protagonists in each tale are ' trapped in limited domestic situations ; ' again and again escape is offered , only to be turned down . This can be seen , for example , in ' , ' in which Mr is offered the chance of companionship to relieve his futile and lonely existence . It is not until he hears of death that he becomes fully aware of the misplaced ' rectitude of his life . ' < fnote > L Rainey ; Institutions of Modernism : Literary Elites and Public Culture ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote> Lecture handout , 10.02.06 < /fnote> E. San Juan , ; and ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote> ; 's ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote> E. San Juan , ; and ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote> Suzette A. Henke ; the Politics of Desire ; ( , Routledge , ) pg < /fnote> ; ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote>'He gnawed at the rectitude of his life ; he felt that he had been outcast from life 's feast . ' Ibid < /fnote > Joyce repeats the latter phrase , stressing how has ' withheld life ; ' in it was ' 's intention to expose the spiritual decay of his countrymen and to caricature their afflicted souls . "" Therefore the motif of entrapment and paralysis is central to each story . < fnote > , ; and ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote > The changes to contemporary aesthetic ideals at can be interpreted as a ' late endeavour to come to terms with the rifts that were thrown open by modernity . "" Great social , economic and political turmoil caused writers to loose faith in the artistic conventions of the immediate past , and to look instead to the Greco - Roman period for inspiration . They ' disavowed their inheritance in order to assert their roots in an earlier tradition trumpeted as "" classicism . "" ' This ' contempt for popular culture ' created a literary upheaval ; one that dramatically changed the shape of the narrative form . The Imagist poets abandoned the idea of telling interesting stories in their poetry , instead adopting what called ' laconic speech . "" It is this speech : ' objective - no slither - direct ... straight as the Greek ' - which allows the poets to capture so skilfully an exact mood or to present so faithful an image . In Dubliners adopts a similar ' generalization of unexpected exactness . "" His ' almost obsessive demand for accuracy , ' and insistence that ' only the accurate fact ensured the meaning , ' resulted in a style that moved away from traditional narratives packed with action and event , and towards presenting ' a single individual in the infinite labyrinth of his little life . ' By not presenting the reader with a narrative , does not take his characters through several stages of development . He is free instead to concentrate on developing and capturing the complexity of the characters that we find in every story , presented as they are in a moment in time . < fnote > R. Emig ; Modernism in Poetry : ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote> Ibid , ( Forward ) vii < /fnote> L. Rainey ; Institutions of Modernism : ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote> Hugh Kenner ; ; ( , , ) pg < /fnote> Ibid < /fnote> Ibid , pg < /fnote> D. T. Torichiana ; 's Dubliners ; ( , , ) pg 1 H. Deming ( ed . ) ; : ; ( , , ) volume < /fnote>",0 "< heading > Introduction Contemporary English abortion debate has been a tug - of - war between the pro - life camp and the pro - choice camp . For neither side of the debate has been able to declare a conclusive victory . Central to the debate are questions : whether or not abortion should ever be justified in law ( ' the First Question ' ) ; and if answered in the positive , in what circumstances should abortion be permitted ( ' the Second Question ' ) . Despite the on - going controversy , the legal position has moved forward by the enactment of and . In general , the law allows abortion in specific circumstances , thus answering the First Question in the positive , while pragmatically addressing the Question by setting out certain statutory grounds . However , a closer examination of the abortion law in the context of foetal disability reveals that the current law is fails to distinguish those circumstances satisfactorily . By drawing the legal position as a complementary approach , it is contended that a rights - based approach would give a better result in the balancing exercise than the current approach adopted in the . < heading > The abortion debate However , neither side has come up with a conclusive set of arguments to convince the other . On hand , the pro - life camp has been plagued by questions such as when life begins and law is clear that the foetus has no legal status until it is born . On the other , the pro - choice camp has disputed over which right is best to emphasize and shows a lack of theoretical consensus . While it would be futile to pursue the extent of the debate to the whole here , it is safe to conclude that the debate has never really ended . < fnote > See Lord Mustill 's judgment in 3 of 1994 ) [ ] 3 All ER at . < /fnote> J. Herring , Medical Law and Ethics ( OUP 2006 ) at . < /fnote> The legal position The on - going debate has not impeded the development of law on abortion . While abortion remains a criminal offence , the law was liberalized through the enactment of , which was subsequently amended by . < fnote > Offences Against the Person Act ss.58 and ( Preservation ) Act s.1 ; There was also the common law defence of necessity for a doctor facing a criminal charge of procuring a miscarriage , see R v Bourne [ ] 1 KB . < /fnote> Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act s.37 amends time limits of viability from to to reflect improving medical technology . < /fnote > In general , allows a woman to have an abortion if it is performed by a registered medical practitioner and doctors are satisfied that of the stipulated statutory grounds is met . The statutory grounds are : ( a ) to avoid ' injury to the physical or mental health of the pregnant woman or any existing children of her family ; ( b ) to ' prevent grave permanent injury to the physical or mental health of the pregnant woman ' ; ( c ) to save the life of the pregnant woman ; and ( d ) where there is a substantial risk that if the child were born it would be ' seriously handicapped ' . < fnote > Abortion Act 1967 s.1 . < /fnote> Abortion Act 1967 s.1(a ) . < /fnote> Abortion Act s.1(b ) . < /fnote> Abortion Act 1967 s.1(c ) . < /fnote> Abortion Act s.1(d ) . < /fnote > The law recognizes some interests of the foetus , as advocated by the pro - life groups , partly by retaining the crime of abortion ; by allowing abortion in certain circumstances , accepts the position advocated by the pro - choice groups . Abortion is allowed in specific circumstances , thus answering the First Question in the positive , while the Question is pragmatically addressed by setting out each statutory ground for abortion . < fnote > See Judge LJ in ( ) BMLR . See also R v Gibson [ ] 2 QB 619 . < /fnote > Hence , the legal position has moved forward despite the on - going controversy and appears to have achieved a middle ground between outlawing abortions completely and allowing abortion on demand . < heading > Difficulty in distinguishing circumstances However , the debate is far from conclusion . The legal position has been criticized for its lack of a ' single , coherent , philosophy ' that properly considers ' issues of individual rights , the balance between individual rights and public policy , and issues of conflicting rights ' . By allowing doctors to consider whether the statutory grounds for abortion are met , the decision is shifted onto the medical profession . < fnote > M. Brazier , ' Regulating the Reproduction Business ' ( ) 7 Med . L. Rev. at . < /fnote> More importantly , the Act fails to distinguish the circumstances where abortion is allowed in a satisfactory manner . While this is illustrated in the section following , 's failure to address the Question highlights how difficult it is to distinguish circumstances in which abortion should not be permitted from those in which it should . In other words , the more difficult moral questions have not been satisfactorily addressed . The circumstances to be considered may range from the circumstances of conception , to the characteristics of the foetus , to the physical or mental conditions of the woman , which then turns on how fine - grain each circumstance is defined . The difficulty is in determining whether abortion should not be permitted from those in which it should . The answer might depend on one 's moral values . This allows diverse opinions on each circumstance yet the law could only entertain answer . Apart from the notion that abortion should be allowed where a mother 's life is in danger , there is little consensus on the circumstances that allow abortion . For example , whether abortion should be allowed after rape is already contentious by some . < fnote > BPAS , Public Opinions 2004 , as cited in ) , n.3 , at . The level of support where a woman 's life was at risk from the pregnancy was at . < /fnote> The Roman Catholic Church holds a firm line against abortion which includes rape cases . See for example , The , condemns abortion performed on raped girl , URL < /fnote > The question to be answered , framed in the context of law , is whether it would be unjust to deny legal protection ( from the crime of abortion ) in such circumstances . The difficulty in answering this question is best illustrated in the context of disability . < heading > Abortion on grounds of foetal disability Section 1(1)(d ) of the English Act allows abortion on grounds of ' serious disability ' if doctors consider that ' there is a substantial risk that if the child were born it would suffer from such physical or mental abnormalities as to be seriously handicapped ' . The difficult questions posed is threefold : ( a ) whether abortion on grounds of foetal disability should be allowed ; ( b ) which conditions of disability merit termination ; and ( c ) what are the factors to be taken into account when considering ' seriousness ' . < heading>(a ) Whether abortion on grounds of foetal disability should be allowed off , this is contentious on its own . Some would argue that aborting a severely disabled foetus should be acceptable , at the very least understandable . The ' Parental Interests Argument ' contends that abortion on grounds of foetal disability is justified because ' the strain of caring for a disabled child may be substantially greater than that of caring for a non - disabled one ' . < fnote and , ' Termination of Pregnancy for Reason of Foetal Disability : Are There Grounds for a Special Exception in Law ? ' ( 2001 ) Med . L. Rev. . The authors explored other arguments to defend abortion on grounds of foetal disability ( the ' Foetal Interests Argument ' and ) but found them to fail . < /fnote > Others would argue that disability should not be perceived as a ground for abortion in the place . The ' Disability Discrimination Objection ' relies on the idea ' that disability is relevantly similar to other categories , such as race , gender and sexuality and that , therefore , selectively terminating disabled foetuses is like selectively terminating black or female foetuses ( which would , in the context of a general ban on ' late ' abortions , be unacceptably discriminatory ) ' . < fnote and ( . The authors argued against this objection by distinguishing that in addition to harms caused by social discrimination , disability involves harm caused directly by impairment . < /fnote > Thus the rationale for allowing abortion on grounds of foetal disability is still open to question . < heading>(b ) Which conditions of disability merit termination , and perhaps more importantly , the difficulty is in distinguishing which conditions of disability merit termination . The statute does little to further the meaning of ' seriousness ' , and and ' guidelines regarding this point do little to help . The lack of consensus , even amongst genetic professionals , as to the ' seriousness ' of the various disabilities that may occur , renders it ' one of the most difficult issues in this context ' . < fnote > See R. Scott , ' Interpreting the Disability Ground of the Abortion Act ' ( ) : . < /fnote> E. Parens and A. Asch , ' The Disability Rights Critique of Prenatal Genetic Testing : Reflections and Recommendations ' in and A. Asch ( eds ) , ) , as cited in , ' Prenatal Screening , Autonomy and Reasons : The Relationship between the Law of Abortion and ( ) Med . L. Rev. 265 . < /fnote > While it is relatively clear at the extremes ( for example 's syndrome versus a susceptibility to moderate obesity ) , it is the huge range of mid - spectrum disabilities in between that is most contentious . The test for each condition should be whether ' such a disability is sufficiently serious for the parents ' interests to merit legal protection ' . < fnote > D. Wertz , ' Drawing Lines : Notes for Policy - Makers ' in and A. Asch ( eds ) , at , as cited in ( ) , ibid .. < /fnote> R. Scott ( ) , supra , n.19 . < /fnote > Apart from the controversy that this test relies on the judgment of doctors , given the degree of disagreement , which conditions of disability merit termination remains an open question . < fnote > S. Sheldon ( Pluto ) , supra , n.13 . < /fnote>(c ) What are the factors to be taken into account when considering ' seriousness' Thirdly , in deciding whether it would be unjust to deny a woman 's access to abortion , whether other circumstances , such as the family 's ability to raise a disabled child , or the parents ' perceptions , should be taken into consideration as well is still open to question . In other words , should parents ' interests be taken into account ? On hand , there would be circumstances where it would be unjust to deny legal protection ; on the other , taking socioeconomic reasons into consideration may blur the moral status of foetus . The vague guidance provided by and on this point leads one to seriously doubt whether the current regulation is practical or not . < fnote > As indicated in the letter to the police from the Vice President of and in the case of West Mercia Police Constabulary [ ] EWHC 3318 , which reads : "" The decision to abort under Clause E would always ultimately be with the mother having taken into consideration the perception of the parents to the serious nature of the handicap following counselling and information from experts with special knowledge of the condition . "" . See also , ' The Uncertain Scope of Reproductive Autonomy in Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis and Selective Abortion ' ( 2005b ) Med . L. Rev. . < /fnote> The Jepson case The uncertainties highlighted in the previous section were raised in the case of West Mercia Police Constabulary . < fnote>[2003 ] EWHC 3318 . < /fnote > The case was a successful application for permission to proceed with judicial review for the police 's decision not to investigate doctors who authorized an abortion for bilateral cleft lip and palate at under the disability ground of the Act . Although the issue was left unresolved , the case raises various issues on the legality of an abortion for foetal disability . The raised a challenge to abortion on grounds of foetal disability by claiming ' that the foetus at gestation and greater has a right to life pursuant to , which is only subject to the competing right of the mother ' and ' that section 1(1)(d ) of is incompatible with , , and of . There is no case law directly on this point but it has been suggested that it is unlikely for this claim to succeed . < fnote > Ibid . , at [ ] . < /fnote> R. Scott ( ) , supra , n.18 , at . See also the judgment from , Vo v [ 2004 ] 2 FCR 577 . < /fnote > The main thrust of the claim was whether cleft lip and palate constitutes ' serious handicap ' within the meaning of section 1(1)(d ) of . Notions of remediability were invoked to support of this claim . < fnote > Supra , n.24 , at [ ] . < /fnote> Scott is sceptical of this idea , although ' certain solidity ' is acknowledged . See ( ) , supra , n.18 , at . < /fnote > Thirdly , although this was not explicitly contended in the case , an issue raised was whether taking the parents ' views into account in considering the definition of ' serious handicap ' is consistent with the disability ground of . While the claim has not been pursued further , the issues raised in the previous section were recognized as issues that will receive judicial attention . < fnote > See also ( ) , supra , n.23 . < /fnote> The Claimant , Rev. issued a press statement ( available at URL ) which read : ' I have consulted my solicitor over and am advised that the decision of the does not in any way protect disabled unborn babies in later stages of pregnancy . Prime responsibility for these abortions rests with the Secretary of . I will therefore pursue this against the Secretary of but will not be seeking the prosecution of the doctors concerned . Tragic as it is that this baby 's life was ended , I hope this case will prevent further late term abortions . ' , as cited in ( ) , supra , n.23 . < /fnote > In summary , it has been seen that abortion on grounds of foetal disability is a problematic area which raises difficult moral questions . Aborting a severely disabled foetus as a circumstance on its own is already arguable . What is more difficult is in distinguishing which conditions of disability merit termination . Determining the factors that should be taken into consideration in allowing an abortion regarding foetal disability further complicates the matter . The case shows that the court recognizes these difficulties as issues that will receive judicial attention . In other words , a closer examination of abortion law in the context of foetal disability has revealed that the current law fails to address the more difficult moral issues that arise in the Question . Given the unsatisfactory state of the law and the stalemate in the abortion debate , is there a way out ? < heading > The approach - a plausible alternative ? < /heading > It may be useful to look at the position across the . While the English Act does not provide a ' right to abortion ' in any sense , abortion law in is concerned with a pregnant woman 's autonomy and is rights - based . Instead of treating abortion as a wrong , the right of abortion is derived from the Due Process Clause of . A woman can exercise her right to abort her foetus ( pre - viability ) for any reason , unlike the position where justification is required for abortion . < fnote > , L.Ed.2d 147 ( ) ; of South - eastern v. , ( ) . < /fnote> Planned Parenthood of South - eastern v. , ( ) . < /fnote> For a discussion on the and legal position on abortion , see ( ) , supra , n.19 . < /fnote > Since no reasons are required , there is no dispute as to the circumstances where abortion is allowed , such as foetal disability . Rather , regulation is achieved through the recognition of ' important State interests ' which are capable of limiting the right of abortion . Hence cases usually turn on whether a woman 's right to abort was subject to illegitimate state interference . Only in states allowing termination after viability on the basis of foetal disability does questions of definition , analogous to the difficulty in interpreting ' seriousness ' in , arise . < fnote > R. Scott ( ) , supra , n.19 . < /fnote> See Akron v Akron Centre for Reproductive Health ( ) ; and v and 90 L.Ed.2d 779 ( ) . < /fnote> See D. Stoller , ' : ( ) at - 137 . < /fnote > In other words , the approach treats abortion as a positive right of autonomy . State regulations are valid only if it does not impose a ' substantial obstacle in the path of a woman seeking an abortion before the foetus attains viability ' . On the contrary , the approach treats abortion as a negative liberty . Access to abortion is allowed only if statutory circumstances are met . < fnote > Supra , n.31 at . < /fnote> See R. Scott ( ) , supra , n.19 . < /fnote > It is not contended that the position should be adopted , but the rights - based approach may be taken as a plausible complementary alternative . Instead of defining circumstances that allow abortion , regulation could alternatively be achieved by stipulating situations where abortion is prohibited . Although this alternative merely phrases the same question the other way round , it would have significant changes on the law . < fnote > Such as differences in the restrictive period . The position is that abortion is not allowed after viability ( subject to exceptions ) ; whereas the position is that abortion is not allowed throughout the pregnancy ( subject to exceptions ) . < /fnote > On one hand , this would give women greater freedom in abortion by removing circumstances where legislation is silent on ; on the other , interests of the foetus , in the context of abortion , would be better protected by explicit stipulation . In other words , by adopting this alternative approach would recognize circumstances where the foetus is better treated as a person than a non - person . < fnote > This line of reasoning is extended from the ' Playing it safe ' argument in ) , n.3 , . < /fnote> Conclusion Putting abortion in terms of the rights / interests of the woman and those of the foetus , the issue of distinguishing circumstances in which abortion should not be permitted from those in which it should is essentially a balancing exercise . Between the extremes of banning abortion and allowing it on demand , the extent to which a woman could have access to abortion legally is a matter of degree laid down by . The current regime in , and fails to give a clear distinction between the circumstances where abortion should be allowed and is in an unsatisfactory state . Although it is unlikely for the to adopt the position , perhaps a move towards a rights based approach would result in a more objective approach to answering the difficult moral questions that arise in distinguishing circumstances in which abortion should not be permitted from those in which it should in the future .","< heading > Introduction In De Beer v ( a firm ) , stated that there is no application of contributory negligence for breach of trust or for breach of fiduciary duty . This contention is supported by the judgment of in Balmer Radmore ( a firm ) and others , where his held that there is no application of contributory negligence in breach of fiduciary duty . The effect of this is to render the trustee entirely culpable even in a case where the gross negligence of a beneficiary had contributed significantly to her own loss . Without a mechanism to effect a just allocation of responsibility , this seems to assert considerable hardship on the part of trustees . < fnote > Hans v ( A Firm ) and another [ ] EWHC 688 ( Ch ) . < /fnote> Ibid , at [ ] . < /fnote>[1999 ] ( ) . < /fnote > However , and authorities seem to point to the contrary . A plea of contributory negligence has been allowed in the context of a trustee 's breach of fiduciary duty . Moreover , it has been pointed out that while rejected apportionment in cases of conscious breach of fiduciary duty , his left open the door to finding contributory fault as a plea to reduce liability for mere careless breach of trust . Hence there is no binding authority on the application of contributory negligence to trustee liability for careless breach of trust . As a result , the issue is to be determined as a question of principle and deserves closer scrutiny . < fnote > Day v Mead [ ] NZLR . < /fnote> Canson Enterprises Ltd v Boughton & Co [ 1991 ] 3 SCR 534 , ( ) DLR ( SCC ) . < /fnote> G Watt , ' Contributory Fault and Breach of Trust ' , ( ) OUCLJ 5(2 ) , - 224 , at - 208 . < /fnote> G Watt , ' Contributory Fault and Breach of Trust ' , ( ) OUCLJ 5(2 ) , - 224 , at - 208 . < /fnote > In this paper we examine whether there is room for the introduction of contributory negligence on the part of claimants into the realm of liability of trustees for breach of their duty of care . The starting point of our analysis is the issue regarding fusion of common law and equity . We distinguish breach of fiduciary duty from breach of duty of care and make certain assumptions before proceeding to identify the relevant distinctions between tort principles and trusts law . We then focus our attention to the fault principle by comparing tortuous negligence to trustees ' breach of their duty of care . After taking a closer look at the common law damages and equitable compensation , we observe that the compensatory goals of the remedies are essentially the same . Based on this remedial congruence , we argue that both should attract the same sort of analysis in determining limitations on the remedies . < heading > Law and Equity - Fusion < /heading > Since we are concerned with introducing a tort concept into trusts law , caution is taken with regard to the issue of fusion of common law and equity . There have been contrasting attitudes towards fusion in the debate concerning contributory fault . While some opine that fusion is of crucial importance in introducing contributory fault into trusts , others have their reservations . However , the debate regarding the fusion of law and equity concerns a wide range of issues involving the entirety of both disciplines . This is clearly out of the scope of a paper merely concerning the issue of contributory fault . Also , it must be pointed out that common law and equity are still held to be separate to . Fusion will only affect contributory fault if it becomes a reality , that is the entirety of common law and equity has been amalgamated into such that contributory negligence directly applies in the context of trusts . However , given the institutional difference between legal and equitable title in modern trusts , it is submitted that fusion would have little relevance in our analysis . < fnote > See A Burrows , ' We do this at Common Law but that in Equity ' ( ) OJLS 1 . < /fnote> See J Martin , ' ) The Conveyancer and Property Lawyer . < /fnote> See G Watt , ' Contributory Fault and Breach of Trust ' , ( ) OUCLJ 5(2 ) , - 224 , at - 211 ; see also [ 1991 ] 3 SCR at , ( ) , at ( SCC ) . < /fnote> P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at - 187 . < /fnote> G Watt , ' Contributory Fault and Breach of Trust ' , ( ) OUCLJ 5(2 ) , - 224 , at . < /fnote> Comparing the Duties - The Fiduciary Principle It would be appropriate to distinguish breach of fiduciary duty from breach of duty of care at this point . This has been described as a "" dimly lit area "" of law . As we will see shortly , the distinguishing breach of fiduciary duty from breach of duty of care is quite similar to distinguishing breach of fiduciary duty from tortuous negligence . This observation will be carried on to the next phase of analysis . < fnote > G Watt , ' Contributory Fault and Breach of Trust ' , ( ) OUCLJ 5(2 ) , - 224 , at . < /fnote > In and Society v Mothew , ( as he was then ) stated that ' not every breach of duty by a fiduciary is a breach of fiduciary duty ' . A trustee 's fiduciary duty and a trustee 's duty of care are theoretically distinct , i.e. a trustee can be in breach of without another . The former is primarily concerned with a trustee 's loyalty to the beneficiary , whereas the latter is concerned with trustee 's prudence in administering affairs concerned with the trust . The fiduciary 's obligation is designed to prevent the exploitation of conflicts of interest by the trustees , even if innocent , whereas a trustee 's duty of care is more attributable to preventing carelessness on the part of trustees . < fnote>[1998 ] 1 Ch 1 ( CA ) . < /fnote>[1998 ] 1 Ch 1 ( CA ) at . < /fnote> G Watt , ' Contributory Fault and Breach of Trust ' , ( ) OUCLJ 5(2 ) , - 224 , at ; see also , Trusts and Equity ( , ) at . < /fnote> Or reasonableness , according to . < /fnote> Bristol and Society v Mothew [ 1998 ] 1 Ch 1 ( CA ) , at < /fnote> P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at - 190 . < /fnote > While a breach of a trustee 's duty of care is arguably more concerned with justice between parties , the fiduciary principle is not only concerned with justice between parties , but also to maintain exemplary standards of trust in the public interest . Another distinguishing feature is that fiduciary liability may be concerned with either unauthorized gains or harm done to the trust , whereas breach of trustee 's duty of care is primarily concerned with losses caused . A fiduciary is obliged to disgorge any gains by improperly exploiting her position to the person for whose benefit the fiduciary ought to have acted , whereas no such obligation is known to a trustee in breach of her duty of care . It is also interesting to note that fiduciary duties are different from ' any obligation imposed by tort law ' , since tort law generally ' does not require people to act for the benefit of others and to ignore their own interests , but to avoid causing "" disbenefit "" to others ' . < fnote > Regal ( Hastings ) Ltd v Gulliver [ 1967 ] 2 AC 134n ( HL ) at 157B. < /fnote> Bristol and Society v Mothew [ 1998 ] 1 Ch 1 ( CA ) , at ; see also M Conaglen , ' The Nature and Function of Fiduciary Loyalty ' ( 2005 ) LQR , at - 478 . < /fnote> P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at - 190 . < /fnote > As mentioned on the outset , authorities have diverged on the point concerning apportionment of fiduciary liability on the ground of contributory fault . In , Sir in Day v Mead advocated a role for contributory negligence in the context of fiduciary breach . This was approved by the majority of in v However , in Balmer Radmore ( a firm ) and others declined its application to breach of a fiduciary duty . Although Sir approach in received unanimous approval in , in ( in liq ) dramatically rejected the and approach and found ' severe conceptual difficulties in the path ' of introducing contributory negligence into fiduciary duty . In v ( a firm ) , reiterated its view that the defence of contributory negligence has no application to liability for breach of fiduciary duty . Hence it is not surprising that whether a fiduciary should be allowed the defence of contributory negligence has been academically questioned . < fnote>[1987 ] NZLR . < /fnote> Canson Enterprises Ltd v Boughton & Co [ 1991 ] 3 SCR 534 , ( ) DLR ( SCC ) . < /fnote>[1999 ] ( ) . < /fnote> Duke Group Ltd ( in liq ) v Pilmer ( No 2 ) ( ) . < /fnote>(2001 ) CLR 165 . < /fnote> Pilmer ( 2001 ) CLR 165 , at . < /fnote> Hans v ( A Firm ) and another [ ] EWHC 688 < /fnote> Hans v ( A Firm ) and another [ ] EWHC 688 , at [ ] . < /fnote> See , for example , Where Are We Going With Equitable Compensation ? ' in AJ Oakley ( ed ) , Trends in ( Clarendon Press Oxford ) at , as cited in R Mulheron ' negligence in equity : Should fiduciaries accept all the blame ? ' , ( ) 19(3 ) Professional Negligence - 436 . < /fnote > Due to the close conceptual proximity of liability for a trustee 's breach of fiduciary duty and liability of trustees for breach of their duty of care , it is important to dispel arguments that stem from the fiduciary principle before proceeding . Case law rejecting contributory negligence in breach of fiduciary duty has been based primarily on the distinctive features of a trustee 's fiduciary duty . Considerable argument is related to the exemplary function of the fiduciary principle . This is the strong policy - based presumption that a trustee should bear the risk of all losses flowing from breach of fiduciary duty . For this reason , it has been suggested that finding contributory negligence on the part of the beneficiary is notionally inconsistent with the existence of a fiduciary relationship . While there is considerable force in this argument , the argument dissipates when considers the context of a trustee in breach of her duty of care . A trustee 's duty of care is simply not concerned with maintaining any exemplary standards in the public interest . It may be noted that the same may be said for tortuous negligence as well , where there is arguably no similar exemplary function . Hence this argument does not directly apply in the context of trustees ' duty of care . < fnote > G Watt , ' Contributory Fault and Breach of Trust ' , ( ) OUCLJ 5(2 ) , - 224 , at . < /fnote> For a survey on both sides of the argument , see R Mulheron ' negligence in equity : Should fiduciaries accept all the blame ? ' , ( ) 19(3 ) Professional Negligence - 436 , at - 435 . < /fnote> G Watt , ' Contributory Fault and Breach of Trust ' , ( ) OUCLJ 5(2 ) , - 224 , at - 212 . < /fnote> See P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at . < /fnote > The argument against the introduction of contributory negligence into liability for breach of fiduciary duty is related to the intention element . One must distinguish conscious disloyalty from mere careless breach . The argument for the rejection of contributory negligence in fiduciary duty is that contributory negligence has never been a defence to intentional torts and an intentional element must be present to establish a breach of fiduciary duty . Given the exemplary function of fiduciary duties , in Balmer Radmore ( a firm ) and others held that there was no good reason why equity should adopt a less rigorous approach . However , the argument must be qualified with the fact that contributory negligence is available to trespass to persons in tort . Moreover , the same could not be said for a trustee 's breach of her duty of care . Arguably , a trustee 's carelessness could not be said to be a deliberate act in the conscious sense referred to by ( as he was then ) in and Society v Mothew , such that this reason also loses force in the context of trustees ' duty of care . Again , the same may be said for tortuous negligence . Thus , trustees ' breach of their duty of care is in the same position as tortuous negligence in this sense . < fnote > G Watt , ' Contributory Fault and Breach of Trust ' , ( ) OUCLJ 5(2 ) , - 224 , at . < /fnote>[1999 ] ( ) . < /fnote> Nationwide Building Society v Balmer Radmore ( a firm ) and others [ 1999 ] ( ) . < /fnote> See R Mulheron ' negligence in equity : Should fiduciaries accept all the blame ? ' , ( ) 19(3 ) Professional Negligence - 436 , at . < /fnote> See G Watt , ' Contributory Fault and Breach of Trust ' , ( ) OUCLJ 5(2 ) , - 224 , at . < /fnote>[1998 ] 1 Ch 1 ( CA ) . < /fnote > It is appropriate to note that this area of law is still in flux and concepts are still being contested . For example , it has been pointed out that the line between conduct amounting to mere negligence and that amounting to breach of fiduciary duty is ' a fine one ' . Before proceeding to the fault principle , it is important to lay down solid conclusions in this section . These conclusions are to be assumed for the rest of this paper . We assume that fiduciary duty and a trustee 's duty of care are distinct , non - overlapping concepts . When we consider a trustee 's breach of her duty of care , we assume that her fiduciary duties , together with the exemplary functions of a trustee 's fiduciary duties do not come into play . In other words , for the rest of this essay , we assume that taking account of the beneficiary 's fault to reduce trustee liability for her breach of duty of care would not infringe the fiduciary principle to such an extent that it would damage the public perception of trust . < fnote > T Dugdale , ' Contributory Negligence : Continuing Controversy ' ( ) ) , at . < /fnote> This is adopted from 's article concerning contributory fault in bare trusts , see , ' Contributory Fault and Breach of Trust ' , ( ) OUCLJ 5(2 ) , - 224 , at . < /fnote> Comparing the Wrongs - The Fault Principle We now consider tort negligence and the trustee 's breach of their duty of care ( hereinafter ' our breach in question ' ) . It would be appropriate to say a few words on the relationship of tort law and trusts law before moving on . Tort law is can be viewed as a set of protective rules which establish obligations designed to protect interests created by constitutive rules of the law of trusts , whereas trusts law contains both constitutive and protective rules . According to the same logic , the realm of liability of trustees for breach of their duty of care should be within the area of the protective rules of trusts . In this sense , liability for interference of with common law property rights is comparable with the trustee 's liability for breach of their duty of care . However , that is not to say that tort law protects equitable property rights , rather , it is to treat our breach in question as an "" equitable wrong "" . Hence , the basic ' building blocks ' of liability for interference of common law property rights should be comparable to those of liability for interference with equitable property rights . < fnote > Constitutive rules may be explained as rules which establish ( proprietary ) rights and interests , whereas protective rules are rules which protect those rights , see P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at . < /fnote> P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at . < /fnote> P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at . < /fnote > In theory , the tortuous duty of care and the trustee 's duty of care are distinct . A trustee 's duty of care means ' a duty to take care to avoid causing injury or loss ' , but operates to the exclusion of ' any common law duty of care which might otherwise have applied ' . However , there are emerging trends that the distinction is being blurred in practice . In fact , the duty of care owed by a trustee has been suggested to be recognized as the same type of duty as the duty of care owed by other professionals such as bailees , directors and agents . In determining whether a person 's conduct was reasonable in tortuous negligence , the degree of their personal or experience in relation to the risk activity is irrelevant , unless the defendant actively lead the claimant to think that she was more than typically skilled or experienced . Arguably , the same could be said for trustees , such that a certain standard of care and skill is reasonable ' in the circumstances ' . < fnote > Henderson v Merrett Syndicates Ltd [ ] 2 AC 145 ( HL ) . < /fnote> Explanatory notes of , note . < /fnote> See for example , Lord in v Merrett Syndicates Ltd [ ] 2 AC 145 ( HL ) , at . < /fnote> Henderson v Merrett Syndicates Ltd [ ] 2 AC 145 ( HL ) , at . < /fnote> P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at . < /fnote> See G Watt , Trusts and Equity ( , ) at . < /fnote > However , despite this resemblance , whether the fault principle of tortuous negligence is applicable in the realm of liability of trustees for breach of their duty of care has been contentious . According to Lord in Target Holdings v Redferns , trustee liability is fault - based and not strict . On the other hand , Sir has argued extra - judicially that where the breach of trust involves an unauthorized act , as opposed to mere faulty execution of an authorized act , liability should be strict liability on a common account rather than fault based liability to compensate . If this aspect of trustee liability is fault based , then the trustee should only be liable to the extent of losses property attributable to their fault . ' Primary fault and contributory fault are opposing sides of the fault principle coin ; the former is not legitimate unless the latter is acknowledged ' . Hence , following the principle in v Redferns , there should at least be room for the introduction of contributory negligence in the realm of liability for our breach in question . Due to these similarities between the tortuous duty of care and the trustee 's duty of care , it is suggested that the same sort of analysis should be adopted in determining appropriate remedies . < fnote>[1996 ] 1 AC 421 ( HL ) < /fnote> Target Holdings v Redferns [ 1996 ] 1 AC 421 ( HL ) , per Lord , at . < /fnote> G Watt , ' Contributory Fault and Breach of Trust ' , ( ) OUCLJ 5(2 ) , - 224 , at . < /fnote>[1996 ] 1 AC 421 ( HL ) < /fnote> See S Worthington , Equity ( ed , Clarendon Law Series 2006 ) . < /fnote > However , if trustee liability is strict , then room for introduction of contributory negligence may be a bit tight . Although contributory negligence may be available in certain tortuous strict liability by virtue of legislation , this is usually confined to the realm of outcome - based strict liability . In relation to conduct - based strict liability , the primary role of which is to protect property rights , tort law has consistently followed the principle that people should not be expected to take care of their own property . Likewise , the fact that the beneficiary was careless in handling affairs related to her trust property may render her an unworthy owner , but it should not make her beneficiary interests any less hers . An uncompromising attitude to the protection of property may be thought essential to the smooth running of a market economy . This is especially relevant in the context of bare trusts , since many trustees of bare trusts are nowadays in essence commercial agents . < fnote > For example , , ss.6(4),(5 ) , where there is a defence for contributory negligence even for strict liability for a defective product . < /fnote> See P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at . < /fnote> P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at . < /fnote> This argument is adopted from P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at . < /fnote> Bristol and Society v Mothew [ 1998 ] 1 Ch 1 ( CA ) , at . < /fnote > Although there are considerable similarities may be drawn between tortuous negligence and liability of trustees for breach of their duty of care , it remains to be seen whether the latter is governed by the same fault principle that governs the former . However , in the ensuing discussion about their respective remedies , we will make important distinctions that are decisive on this point . For the time being , we assume that the reasoning in is correct . < heading > Comparing the Remedies < /heading > In this section , we look at common law damages and equitable compensation . It is generally accepted that common law damages in tortuous negligence is to compensate a victim for actionable losses that a tortfeasor has caused her to suffer . Equitable compensation , however , is a rather tortured concept . Its use has been described as ' unclear ' with ' overlapping nomenclature ' with ' labels used interchangeably to describe quite different remedies commonly governed by the courts , and there are diverging opinions regarding the distinction between equitable compensation and equitable accounting for loss . < fnote > See for example , , ( Pearson Ed , ) , at . < /fnote> For an excellent disambiguation of nomenclature regarding various money awards against defaulting trustees , see , ' Money remedies against trustees ' , TLI ) , - 131 . < /fnote> For an outline of these arguments , see A ( eds ) , Commercial Remedies : Current Issues and Problems ( , ) , at . < /fnote > For the purpose of clarity without venturing off - topic into the debate concerning equitable compensation , we call on the aid of ' a powerful legal microscope ' and employ alternate nomenclature that has been provided elsewhere . In general , money awards against defaulting trustees can be divided into different types , each given on a different basis , namely : substitutive compensation , compensatory damages ( or reparative compensation ) , disgorgement damages , restitutionary damages and punitive damages . Of these types , only the are of interest to us . Substitutive compensation may refer to the money substitute for value required to perfect a failed duty a trustee promised to deliver ; whereas reparative compensation may refer to the money required to make good losses occasioned by a trustee 's breach of trust , including a trustee 's imprudent investment . ' Equitable compensation ' is a term that has been said to be used variably to encompass both substitutive and reparative compensation . This has been suggested to be the source of the confusion in terminology . In contrast , the notion covered by the latter term would better describe the type of remedy to be pursued in a case of a breach of trustee 's duty of care . Hence , to remove any ambiguity and confusion in terminology for the rest of this essay , ' equitable compensation ' for our purposes of considering liability of trustees for breach of their duty of care will be referring to reparative compensation rather than substitutive compensation . < fnote > The confusion amidst the debate on the ' restitution theory ' of equitable compensation and ' damages theory ' counterpart is noted , see , ' Money remedies against trustees ' , TLI ) , - 131 . < /fnote> Bartlett v ( Nos 1 and 2 ) [ ] Ch ( Ch ) , at . < /fnote> The discussion that follows regarding the types of money awards against defaulting trustees are taken from , ' Money remedies against trustees ' , TLI ) , - 131 . < /fnote> JJ Edelman & S Elliott , ' Money remedies against trustees ' , TLI ) , - 131 . < /fnote > Bearing this new meaning of equitable compensation in mind , the similarities between common law damages and equitable compensation immediately resonate . Both are clearly calculated to make good a loss sustained by the claimant by reason of the defendant 's wrongful act . Their goals of compensation are essentially the same . Even Blackburne J in Balmer Radmore ( a firm ) and others who advocated the view that there was no application of contributory negligence in breach of fiduciary duty , nevertheless took note that there is ' potential coincidence ' between principles of common law damages and equitable compensation . Moreover , there is considerable agreement that the differences between common law damages and equitable compensation are historical . Furthermore , it has also been suggested that ' the strict approach towards equitable compensation and the differentiation that once existed between it and compensation in tort , has gradually been eroded ' . This remedial congruence would add considerable weight to the reasoning in . Hence it is understandable that it has been suggested that in bare trusts , the trustee 's duty is not to compensate the beneficiary indirectly by accounting to the trust , but to compensate the beneficiary directly , such that there is no fundamental difference between the trustee 's duty to compensate for losses caused by breach of the trustee 's duty of care and common law liability to compensate an injured party for negligently caused harm ' . Likewise , if we accept our new view on ' equitable compensation ' , then according to the same logic , there should be no fundamental difference between this type of equitable compensation and common law liability to compensate an injured party for negligently caused harm . < fnote > See La Forest J 's judgment in [ 1991 ] 3 SCR 534 , ( ) DLR ( SCC ) . < /fnote>[1999 ] ( ) . < /fnote> Nationwide Building Society v Balmer Radmore ( a firm ) and others [ 1999 ] ( ) , per , at ; see also R Mulheron ' negligence in equity : Should fiduciaries accept all the blame ? ' , ( ) 19(3 ) Professional Negligence - 436 , at . < /fnote> See for example , , ' Contributory Fault and Breach of Trust ' , ( ) OUCLJ 5(2 ) , - 224 , at ; , ' Money remedies against trustees ' , TLI ) , - 131 ; , Equity ( ed , Clarendon Law Series 2006 ) . < /fnote> R Mulheron ' negligence in equity : Should fiduciaries accept all the blame ? ' , ( ) 19(3 ) Professional Negligence - 436 , at . < /fnote> G Watt , ' Contributory Fault and Breach of Trust ' , ( ) OUCLJ 5(2 ) , - 224 , at . < /fnote> Comparing the Limitations There are considerable objections concerning contributory negligence and contributory fault in relation to the victim and the beneficiary 's conduct must be drawn . In tort , contributory negligence consists of failure to take care for one 's own interests . Contributory negligence will only succeed if the victim 's conduct negligently contributed to the losses for which damages are to be awarded . The same should be said for contributory fault for our breach in question , that is the beneficiary 's careless conduct directly , and not coincidentally , contributed to her losses . However , contributory negligence rests on the assumption that the victim 's loss was caused by failure to take steps to protect her own interests , or that she relied unreasonably on a statement made by the tortfeasor . < fnote > P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at . < /fnote> P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at . < /fnote> P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at . < /fnote > The policy underlying the defence of contributory negligence is that ' people should take reasonable care for themselves as well as for others ' . In other words , a function of contributory negligence is to make people take care of themselves , which include mitigating their losses flowing from the tortuous conduct of others . The victim 's responsibility for losses resulting from her reactions to the tort , whether acts or omissions is governed by the doctrine of mitigation and the doctrine of intervening causation , such that the victim is expected to take reasonable care for themselves even if this requires positive steps . Conversely , if the beneficiary is entitled to ' single - minded loyalty ' and a duty of care from the trustee , it is difficult to see when a beneficiary is obliged to take steps to protect her own interests or occasions where she is not entitled to rely on a statement made by the trustee . While it is unclear whether courts would accept a duty to mitigate loss on the part of a claimant beneficiary , there are authorities that have recognized a duty on the part of a claimant beneficiary to mitigate loss caused by a fiduciary breach . Hence , the strength of these objections remain to be seen . < fnote > See P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at . < /fnote> P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at . < /fnote> Burke v Cory ( ) DLR ( ) ; see also R Mulheron ' negligence in equity : Should fiduciaries accept all the blame ? ' , ( ) 19(3 ) Professional Negligence - 436 , at . < /fnote > However , continuing the logic in the previous section of this paper , if the remedies for tortuous negligence and for our breach in question are essentially similar in substance , then the same sort of analysis in determining appropriate limitations on the remedies should be applied . This has already been echoed in an argument elsewhere that remoteness criteria for unintentional breach of trustee 's duty of care should be the same as those applied in the tort of negligence . Lord in Target Holdings v Redferns stated that ' [ t]he detailed rules of equity as to causation and the quantification of loss differ , at least ostensibly , from those applicable at common law . But the principles underlying both systems are the same ' . Although the contributory negligence statute clearly does not apply in the context of trusts , given the number of similar qualities between the as highlighted in the analysis above , the defence of contributory negligence from tort should be similarly applied as contributory fault in the realm of liability of trustees for breach of their duty of care . In particular , a function of contributory negligence in tort law is to act as a mechanism to effect a just allocation of responsibility . It is submitted that this function is directly comparable to that it might serve in the law of trusts . There is already support for apportionment in cases of merely careless breach in the area of bare trusts . It is submitted that the reason for confining the argument for introducing apportionment into breach of trustee 's duty of care to bare trusts rather than trusts in general was primarily related to avoiding potential arguments that arise from the confusion in equitable compensation . However , it is also submitted that our new meaning of equitable compensation dispels these concerns , such that there is room for the introduction of contributory negligence into liability for breach of trustee 's duty of care to trusts in general . < fnote > See S Elliott , ' Remoteness Criteria in Equity ' ( ) 588 . < /fnote>[1996 ] 1 AC 421 ( HL ) < /fnote> Target Holdings v Redferns [ 1996 ] 1 AC 421 ( HL ) , per Lord , at . < /fnote> Law Reform ( ) Act 1945 . < /fnote> . See G Watt , ' Contributory Fault and Breach of Trust ' , ( ) OUCLJ 5(2 ) , - 224 . < /fnote > Tort - like considerations of contributory negligence should be introduced to trustee liability for breach of their duty of care . A plausible mechanism would be to introduce a rebuttable presumption against apportionment of liability for the careless trustee . However , it is not suggested that apportionment should be taken lightly in the case of a trustee . Contributory negligence is an objective concept that depends on what the reasonable person would have done in the victim 's position . Likewise , contributory fault should be an objective concept that turns on what the reasonable person would have done in the beneficiary 's position . However , tort law allows leniency in applying the test of reasonableness ; some people may take less care for their own interests than it requires people to take care for the interests of others . Arguably , similar principles should be adopted in contributory fault for our breach in question . In other words , the defence of contributory fault would still lean towards favouring the beneficiary over the trustee . Only if the trustee could establish gross negligence on the part of the beneficiary that contributed significantly to her own loss , would the trustee be entitled to apportionment . The availability of contributory fault would ease the ethical concern of trustees being liable for losses not attributable to their own carelessness , while maintaining consistency with the fiduciary or moral duties the trustee may be in breach of by virtue of our breach in question . With this form of contributory fault , there should at least be room for the introduction of contributory negligence on the part of claimants into the realm of liability of trustees for breach of their duty of care in this sense . < fnote > This is adopted from 's argument for introducing apportionment in the case of bare trusts , see , ' Contributory Fault and Breach of Trust ' , ( ) OUCLJ 5(2 ) , - 224 , at . < /fnote> P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at . < /fnote> P Cane , The Anatomy of Tort Law ( , ) , at . < /fnote> Conclusion We highlighted the differences between a trustee 's fiduciary duty and a trustee 's duty of care and argued that the arguments against introducing contributory negligence into breach of fiduciary duty do not apply to our issue . We have also taken note of the similar positions a trustee 's breach of her duty of care and a tortfeasor is in when compared to breach of fiduciary duty . We went on to assume that fiduciary duty and a trustee 's duty of care are distinct , non - overlapping concepts in order to support the view that trustee 's breach of her duty of care is essentially the same as tortuous negligence , and that liability of trustees for breach of their duty of care is based on the principle of fault . Furthermore , we found considerable similarities between common law damages and equitable compensation and that the compensatory goals of the remedies are essentially the same . Bearing the wide range of similarities between tortuous negligence and trustees ' breach of their duty of care , we argued that the same sort of analysis in determining appropriate limitations on the remedies should be applied . We also proposed a plausible model for contributory fault in the context of liability of trustees for breach of their duty of care . Until an appropriate set of facts comes before , the principles that should be applied in determining apportionment of fault will remain unclear . However , in light of the above analysis , it is safe to say that there is room for the introduction of contributory negligence on the part of claimants into the realm of liability of trustees for breach of their duty of care .",1 "The emergence of new regulations on information and consultation rights for employees in the , transpositioned from the information and consultation ( Directive / OJ L80/29 - 34 ) has provoked keen interest and reactions from industrial relations scholars , employers ' and employees ' bodies , official authorities and trade union organisations . The importance of these new rules is defined , on the one hand , by the legal implications arising from that for the time the has , as Hall ( 2005:103 ) puts it ' a general statutory framework giving employees the right to insist on being informed and consulted by their employers on a range of key business , employment and restructuring issues ' . On the other hand , the new regulations are perceived by many as key , as they objectify a possible answer to a major problem in industrial relations - the ' representation gap ' . The evidence that such a ' representation gap ' exists is quite strong - in their analysis of the findings of ( ) , et al summarise that of workplaces ( both private and public sector ) with and more employees in the have trade union members . This leaves a huge of workplaces with no union representation which is an increasing trend compared to of such workplaces quoted in WERS . Moving to alternative forms of representative ' voice ' et al ( ) point to the fact that of the workplaces have joint consultative committees ( in ) and a mere operate a consultative forum at a higher level ( compared to in ) . As for the qualitative aspects of information likely to be discussed with employees or their representatives the same sources state that it is staffing plans that are brought forward most often ( in of the cases in and in ) , rather than the financial position of the company ( in decreasing from in ) or investment plans ( in , down from in ) . All this illustrates that both the quantity and quality of information exchanged between employers and employees as well as the representation and feedback mechanisms need to be improved and the new regulations granting information and consultation rights are looked upon as a possible solution . In this , their significance is anticipated to be key and change - prompting . < heading > Defining the terms < /heading > Before moving on , it is felt that clarification of the terms of ' consultation ' , ' negotiation ' and ' collective bargaining ' , incorporated in the quotation in the text title is necessary , as it will make further discussion on the features of new legal rights and their implications much more feasible . As Dill and Oxenbridge comment ( ) the blurring of boundaries between these terms is ' often an issue in workplaces where the employer / employee discussions [ have ] focused exclusively on pay bargaining involving the trade union . ' Still , using definitions from the part of ( EIRO ) homepage we could refer to the term of consultation as the ' process of discussion and debate ( ... ) between employers and employees , usually distinguished from collective bargaining and negotiation in that it does not imply a process of bargaining , compromise and joint agreement but is rather a means through which employers seek views before deciding on action . ' Drawing on the same source , collective bargaining will be perceived as ' necessarily containing an element of negotiation and hence as distinct from processes of consultation , from which negotiation is absent , and where outcomes are determined unilaterally by the employer "" . Consultation should then be referred to the broader process of asking feedback from employees on certain key issues in the organisation , which may not necessarily result in this feedback being implemented , while the process of negotiation ( by means of collective bargaining for example or leading to joint decision - making ) is firmly oriented towards agreeing on results ( often on pay issues ) ( see also DTI Guidance on Information and Consultation Regulations 2005 ) . In addition , the distinction between the processes of ' information ' and ' consultation ' should be noted . For the purpose of this essay the definitions used by Dill and Oxenbridge in their research paper ( ) will be taken into consideration : < quote > Perhaps most important , information and consultation are not one and the same . The is essentially "" top down "" and involves the disclosure of information by management . Consultation on the other hand assumes employees will be in possession of information , but also that managers are actively involved in seeking opinions and "" taking account of the views of employees before making decisions "" . < /quote > These definitions would suggest a form of continuum which sees the provision of information as the most basic level of employer - employee communication , followed by involvement in consultation , when management still has full prerogative on decision - making , finally reaching negotiation which allows for employees ' agendas to be introduced . ( ) supports the idea of kind of continuum but reinforces that < quote>'to minimize any misunderstanding , management and employee representatives will need to agree where consultation sits on the continuum between the formal noting of views and joint decision - making , and what each party expects from it'. Having clarified terms and established the importance and relevance of the debate around the new regulations on information and consultation rights for employees , this essay will attempt to discuss the form of the new legal rights , provide a summary of the perspectives of all the actors affected by them - employers , employees and trade unions , and assess the likely significance and impact of the new legislation . By looking into the possibilities incorporated in them , it will try to demonstrate that the effect of the new rules , although eagerly anticipated and extolled by official institutions , might not be that quick or dramatic for employment relations in the as yet . Although regulations on information and consultation rights should be transposed by means of into all countries - members of the and the process is currently at various stages of progress , this text will concentrate only on the effect they have in the , due to limitations of space and relevance to the topic of the essay . < heading > Form of Information and Consultation Regulations The Information and Consultation of Employees ( ICE ) Regulations entered into force in the on , transposing in a framework agreed jointly by ( DTI ) , ( ) and ( ) , this multi - sided approach representing as has rightly pointed out ' a notable departure in the context ' ( 2005:104 ) . Here several features of the regulations ' form will be commented upon . < heading > Scope < /heading > The implementation of the ICE Regulations in the has been divided into stages - they apply to undertakings with employees from , to those with - from ; and for those with - from . Authors like ( ) have argued that in this the new regulations ' impact will be massive , ' with of all employees in the country within [ their ] reach ' . This may be true ultimately , if carried out properly and from 2008 onwards , but it still leaves a significant number of the employees in smaller establishments outside the coverage of the rights and very possibly , without representation at all . As and ( ) note ' information and consultation rights shall be denied to a quarter of the workforce when the regulations apply to undertakings with employees in , just as more than 5 million workers currently are denied access to the statutory trade union recognition because they are in workplaces employing people ' . It is clear then that although the new regulations will cover a major part of the workforce by , there still remains a not negligible proportion of the workforce for which the new rights will have no impact at all . < heading > Trigger Mechanisms The legislation is triggered when a valid employee request ( supported by of the employees ) is made to negotiate an Information and Consultation agreement , or an employer starts the process ( DTI 2004 ) . Although of the work force may seem like an easily achieved figure on the surface , ( ) draws attention to the fact that ' the [ additional ] specified minimum of employees could be seen as a somewhat high hurdle in small undertakings , and at the other end of the scale , the maximum of signatures can also be said to constitute a very stiff test in absolute terms ' . Hall and ( ) reinforce this argument , adding that that it is especially true ' in cases where agrees arrangements already provide for direct forms of information and consultation ' . This demonstrates that employee willingness , familiarity with the procedures and commitment for ensuring mechanisms are in line with the regulations are crucial for starting the process in the place . It is then equally visible that as and Terry ( ) suggest ' employee apathy , perhaps combined with an awareness of lack of employer enthusiasm , could limit the take - up rate ' . This lack of automatic trigger and the implicitly built voluntary start of the process may prove to be another reason for the new legal rights not to have a very widespread impact . < heading > Pre - existing ( ) specifies that pre - existing arrangements which have employee support may be retained . This allows for great flexibility on the employers ' part , granting them the possibility to , as Hall ( 2005:111 ) puts it ' avoid unnecessary disruption to existing arrangements and rely on direct forms of information and consultation where these have the support of employees ' . It could be said , that by providing the right to keep the status quo , the legislation once again limits the likely impact of new rights as it guarantees even greater discretion to employers in their relations with employees . Moreover , goes on to argue that the existence of PEAs ' then prompts the application of substantially higher thresholds of support for negotiations over the new information and consultation arrangements to take place ( of the employees and the majority of those voting in the ballot ) ' ( ) . These increased requirements , existing due to and alongside the fact that the keeping of PEAs is regulated by legislation , are another barrier to granting universal and unconditional rights to information and consultation to workers and could significantly diminish implications for the workforce . < heading > Forms of employee representation The provisions for different types of employee representation in the new regulations must also be addressed . Hall summarizes that ' the law prioritises information and consultation via the representatives of independent trade unions where they are recognized by employers , and that otherwise information and consultation should take place with representatives elected by employees under regulated balloting procedures ' ( : ) . It seems evident then that the successful implementation of the ICE regulations would largely depend on the sufficient expertise of the employee representatives balloted by their fellow workers . But as goes on to point that ' it ( ... ) seems odd that the Regulations do not provide the right to time off for employee representatives to undergo training ' ( : ) , a view not at odds with that of Davies et al ( ) who conclude that ' it is difficult to place much confidence in the quality of the consultation - or therefore in its potential for transforming work - place cultures - where ( ... ) the representatives are inexperienced ' . It is then clear why this feature of the regulations ' form might not lead to significant implications for employment relations or at least not highly effective ones . It should be noted though , that however highly prescriptive the new legislation is , it incorporates the vision that , even with regard to form there is no ' one size fits all ' solution . A survey executed by ( ) illustrates there is no uniform solution to consultation and information with ' arrangements ranging from purely direct forms of consultation with individual employees at some organisations to a patchwork of different arrangements with different groups of employees in some larger ones . ' Various company - specific arrangements do exist but the above - mentioned points of the regulations ' form affect all of them . < heading > Implications for parties concerned < /heading> Employees ' perspective The new regulations introducing minimum standards for information and consultation of employees should , by definition , benefit employees and foremost . They are a part of a more general framework , aiming at , as states , ' introducing fair standards for employees and a better framework for industrial relations designed to promote both fairness and flexibility in the workplace ' ( : . of the key elements in the new legislation with regard to employee participation is that it would bring forward mechanisms for representation of non union members , alongside union members ( already represented by their relevant union ) , as the new regulations have to cover all employees . This would mean that as the Chief executive of ( the independent advisor on workplace issues ) notes ' these [ ICE ] proposals have the potential to transform the way this country conducts relations at work ' ( quoted in 781:9 ; emphasis added ) . The question seems to emerge about if this general potential will be realized to bring the much promised advantages closer to employees . Several factors may hamper this with regard to employee participation . of all , the success of the implementation the new rights to information and consultation largely depends on the awareness employees have of their existence and the ways to set procedures in motion . If employees have no or limited information about their own rights and the key role they have in triggering them , this could prove to be a serious hurdle for them to enforce these rights ( see also and Terry 2004 ) . In addition , even if employees are informed about their new rights , they might be sceptical about their real potential to introduce change . ( ) advances this argument by illustrating : < quote>[Employees ] have , in , witnessed and been party to a range of initiatives , many of which have entailed elements of an involved , and even empowered , approach . Team working , team briefings , town hall meetings , corporate videos , quality circles , ( total quality management ) , and Six Sigma to name a few , have entailed messages about the importance of involving employees . Accordingly , the basic message about involvement is not new , and beyond these direct forms of involvement , there may be even more scepticism about representational modes . < /quote > It can be concluded then that , although apparently introducing new rights for employees in the course of the employment relationships , these rights may not initially mean significant implications for workers , due to their lack of awareness of new statutory rights or scepticism about their enforcement . < heading > Employers ' views Being one of the sides to be consulted about the implementation of ICE regulations , officially seems to support them , especially in the aspect that they allow a great scope of flexibility for employers . As the analysis confirms ' is pleased that the proposals encourage voluntary arrangements and that they do not allow ' small groups of employees to overturn successful consultation arrangements ' ( 781:8 ) . Still , there is some sceptism among employers as well . ( ) notes that the reasons for this sceptism stem from various sources including unwillingness to accept initiatives prompted by employees , dubious rationale of investment in information and consultation mechanisms and desire to keep the prerogative of managing processes for managers . Still , the inherent scope of flexibility in the new legislation guarantees employers the right , as Hall ( 2005:125 ) points out ' not [ to ] act unless of their workforce triggers negotiations under the legislation ' . Moreover , the absence of serious penalties for non - enforcement of new rights on the side of employees ( maximum fine of £ ) could encourage them to maintain their passive stance or even pay the fine but refuse employees certain kinds of information ( see also ) . All this illustrates that , although employers may not feel the impact of new provisions to a great extent or even at all , what is more important is that this would lead to non - existent consequences for employees as well and could deny the workforce the chance to balance the power within the employee - employer relationship . < heading > Trade unions ' reactions On the face of it , most major union bodies in the seem generally in favour of the new regulations as well . Their position can be summarized by 's General Secretary , who claims that ' it 's an opportunity for both employees and employers to improve the quality of working life and boost productivity ' ( quoted in 781:8 ) However , 's positive outlook could be largely attributed to the partner role it played in the formulation of proposals by the , as arguably the attitude of trade unions towards the contents of the newly adopted regulations remains quite ambivalent . As notes ( ) ' the fact that the Regulations establish information and consultation rights for employees , irrespective of union recognition , could present significant new opportunities ( ... ) in terms of building influence in unorganised workplaces and aiding recruitment . ' As far is the ' qualitative ' aspect of union communication is concerned , he mentions that the increased breadth of issues to be covered under new rules ' could in many workplaces enable recognised unions to address a substantially broader agenda than is currently the case ( 2005:124 ) . Yet the reality of union acceptance and activity with regard to the ICE regulations looks different . The unions ' main suspicion seems to stem from the fear of allowing another tool to define the dialogue between actors in employment relationships , other than collective bargaining . Union officials feel that it might lead to the depreciation of this traditional institution . As ( ) puts it ' to intrude a wholly , or partially , non - union mode of representation is seen as a potentially dangerous undermining of the organised workforce approach . ' This argument is also present in 's analysis where he points out that ' union representatives regard the ' workforce - wide approach to information and consultation as a threat to ' single channel ' union - based representation arrangements where they exist ' ( 2005:125 ) . All this points to the conclusion that trade unions are currently quite wary of the consequences new regulations may have and would not act upon then as a possibility of gaining new positions in the fear of losing traditional ones . It then seems that the likely implications of ICE regulations for trade unions for the time being are very restricted . < heading > Conclusion It is clear that law and legal enactment are becoming more and more important with regard to regulating industrial relations in . The new regulations on information and consultation rights for employees serve only to underpin the shift from the traditional voluntarist system of regulation to more statutory models , controlled by the state . Yet , by examining several features of the form , application and concerned parties ' involvement with regard to new regulations , this essay has attempted to demonstrate that , for the time being , they may not have the strong normative effect they have been predicted to have . As states they ' do not constitute a new phenomenon and there is already a wide range of precedents and examples on which [ skilled ] negotiators will be able to draw ' ( ) . Moreover , and emphasizing the employers ' flexibility in applying them , the same author argues that ' the ICE Regulations fallback provisions are extremely ' minimalist ' in infrastructural terms , and offer little by way of an operational template ' ( ) . It can be inferred then that as and ( ) predict their success will be strongly dependant on the will of trade unions and especially employers and employees to challenge their traditional perceptions . As ( ) points out ' decision - making remains the responsibility of managers ' but that could stem form inability to implement provisions properly , alongside as well as instead of some of their inherent features . In addition , as and ( ) argue new legislative forms may mean that managers will be more likely to listen to their employees , recognize the benefits this different form of cooperation may bring and incorporate it in new styles of leadership . In summary , it is evident that new regulations possess strong intrinsic potential to introduce new employee rights and take employer - employee interaction and cooperation to a new level , but there is great dependence on involved actors ' interest , sufficient training of representatives and more proactive union response . It may be yet but these elements seem to be lacking currently in the employment relations with regard to ICE regulations which makes their effect for the time being if not dubious , then highly limited . Finally , it should be mentioned that as Hall ( 2005:125 ) notes ' it would be foolhardy to make firm predictions about the likely impact of the Regulations in practice ' . This essay has attempted some tentative forecasts , based on current conditions , but it is a question to be further researched as the new legislation comes fully into force and begins to be implemented under the influence of different factors and actors .","< abstract> Summary The aim of this laboratory is to devise an experiment to investigate the moment of Inertia of metal disks , whilst assessing the validity of the methods , discussing the ways in which accuracy could be improved . This is to introduce the basic concept of the moment of Inertia . The method to be used is that the metal disks will be attached to a spindle , with a line of string around it , on which will be attached defined masses . The time it takes for the mass to reach a certain distance will be recorded , and these figures will be compared and analysed with the aim of discovering the moment of Inertia for each disk . The significant conclusion found by this experiment is that the moment of increases as the radius and mass of the disk increase . The experiment results were indicative of a similar value for that were mathematically predicted , which suggest that the errors inherent in the experiment were not intrusive in analysis . < /abstract>1.0 Introduction The aim that was provided in the briefing sheet [ Appendix I ] , summarises the idea of the experiment . However , an ulterior motive of the laboratory was to explain the concept of , in a way that could be understood . The objective of the experiment set out by the briefing , was to investigate the moment Inertia of different sized metal disks , including an assessment of accuracy . The principal conclusion that can be drawn is that the larger the disk , the larger the moment of Inertia , because it takes a greater force to alter the direction and rotational velocities of the disk . < heading>2.0 Theory The Theory is mostly explained in the briefing sheet [ Appendix I ] , however , it is important to understand some basic principles : What is ? < quote > in·er·tia ( -nûrsh)n . The tendency of a body to resist acceleration ; the tendency of a body at rest to remain at rest or of a body in motion to stay in motion in a straight line unless acted on by an outside force . Resistance or disinclination to motion , action , or change . < /quote> URL , accessed . < /fnote > From this explanation , we can assume that we will need to know some basic formulae in order to analyse any results . The main ones that will be combined will be : < list>(a ) F = ma(b ) T = Iα(c ) T = Fr(d ) s = ut + 1/2at 2 whereby : F = the force required for the given acceleration [ N ] ; m = the mass of the object [ kg ] ; a = acceleration of the object [ ms -2 ] ; T = the torque required for the given angular acceleration [ Nm ] ; I = the moment of Inertia of the object [ kgm ] ; α = the angular acceleration of the object [ rad / s -2 ] s = vertical displacement of the object [ m ] ; u = initial velocity of the object [ ms -1 ] ; t = time that it takes for the action to take place [ s ] These formulae can be easily transformed to give the following equation that will be of use after the results have been taken [ workings can be found as ] : < list > m ( I disk 2s)/(gr 2 t 2) Therefore , the values of : s ; g ; and r must be discovered in order that the values for m can be put into the equation , so that the final moment of can be calculated for each disk , which will be the basis of analysis for the results . These formulae will also come of importance when plotting the results graphically . It is aimed that the y - axis value shall be a measure of the applied mass , and to obtain a graphical solution of the Inertia , we must have the x - axis representing the value FORMULA so that the gradient of the graph will be FORMULA which then can be rearranged easily to find the Inertia . < heading>3.0 Apparatus and MethodsThe set up for the experiment is as shown roughly in . . Where the yellow disk is indicative of the metal disks to be tested , and the yellow weights at the bottom are the variable masses . The experiment will take place , such that the string with mass shall be wound on a spindle attached to the disk , and the stopclock will be started as the weight is released , setting the disk spinning , and will stop as the string reaches the set distance . This is in order to record the time as the independent variable , where the mass is the dependent variable . A more detailed method can be read in Appendix III . Therefore , the apparatus required is : < list > Stopclock;Variable masses;String;Spindle;Mount;Rule. This reasonably simple set up will produce a good set of results for basic analysis . < heading>4.0 Observations and Results Observations that were made during the experiment were notably of the differences in the length of the string , as different masses were added . This meant that the timing of the drop - period was inaccurate because the extension of the string meant that the vertical displacement was different for each experiment . The time will also be inaccurate because the stopclock was not recorded mechanically , so human error will vary the results greatly . Ensuring that the same person is used for each set of results can reduce this . . is the table of results that were taken directly from the experiments , without analysis . The error for the times will be 0.5[s ] , and the error for the masses will be 0.002[kg ] . < table/>These results have been analysed to find averages [ Appendix IV ] , and also the values to be plotted on the x - axis of the graphs , which are / t values . . shows the results that will be plotted on the graph [ Appendix V ] < table/>5.0 Analysis and Discussion of Results The values for the moment of Inertia can not only be calculated from the results , but also mathematically by the means outlined in This means that the sets of results can be compared , as in and VII . From the graph Appendix V , we can see that the prediction for larger moment of for larger disks was very evident . The lines of best for , one for each disk , show also that the results were by no means perfect , taking into account the errors , however , these errors were minimal . Comparing the sets of results from and VII , we can see that the differences between the calculated figures and the mathematical figures are not too large . This suggests that the experiment 's inaccuracies were low . Therefore , there is reasonable confidence that the experiment was quite effective . To improve the method , and reduce errors , firstly a more accurate method of recording time should be installed . The use of light gates attached to a computer could log results in with a much smaller error . If the string were inelastic the times would also be more accurate . The heat increase should also be taken into account , as the more repetitions of experiments , the higher the heat of the system will be , as energy is lost . < heading>6.0 Conclusions The moment of Inertia can be calculated quite accurately from even simple experiments . It has been found that the moment of is dependant on the radius and mass of the object , both of which increase the final figure . This is because the measurement of is resistance to motion , which concurs with the fact that larger objects have greater resistance .",0 "< heading > Aim : < /heading > To look at the effects different acids have on the freezing point of water . Through experiment the depression of water 's freezing point will be studied and the results used to calculate the factor for each acid and therefore the degree of dissociation of each acid . < heading > Theory: A colligative property is one that depends only upon the concentration of a solute and not upon its nature . The colligative properties of electrolyte solutions are more complicated than those of non - electrolytes because the solute dissociates into free ions and because the ions in the solution are then subject to strong interactions . However colligative properties can be used to give a rough indication of the number of particles present in a solution , and hence the extent of dissociation of an electrolyte in solution . The depression of a freezing point is example of a colligative property . The depression , ∆T = T fo - T f is proportional to the concentration c of the solution . When defined in this way ∆T is positive . In the case of an electrolyte which dissociates into i particles when it dissolves , ∆T is proportional to ic . Hence : FORMULA k f is the molal freezing - point depression or cryoscopic constant for the solvent . For water , k f = K mol -1 dm , but it is different for other solvents . i is the factor . It is for non - electrolytes and for strong electrolytes like which are fully dissociated into ions . For a weak acid HA , with a degree of dissociation α : FORMULA For a solution of a monoprotic weak acid of concentration c and degree of dissociation α , the acidity constant K a = α2c/(1- α ) ≈α2c if α is small . Different equations apply for polyprotic acids . Strictly colligative properties depend on the molality ( moles of solute per kg of solvent ) rather than the concentration or molarity ( moles of solute per dm of solution ) , but the difference between the scales is small for aqueous solutions and was neglected in the experiment . Molality is independent of temperature and pressure whereas concentration is not , so k f was taken as 1.860 K mol -1(dm solution)3 , properly it is K mol -1(kg solvent ) . The value k f can be calculated from the relation : FORMULA R is the gas constant , J K -1 mol -1 . T f is the freezing point of pure solvent . M is the molar mass of the solvent in kg mol -1 . ∆H ofus is the molar heat of fusion of the solvent . < heading > Method:150 cm of ; distilled water , ethanoic acid , hydrochloric acid and M sulfuric acid were placed in separate cm conical flasks and all were immersed in a bowl of crushed ice . The flasks were shaken frequently until the temperature of each solution was below oC. Dewar flasks were filled full with crushed ice . Just enough of chilled solution was added to each flask to cover the surface of the ice . Each ice solution mixture was stirred thoroughly . After the calibration of a -20 to +20 x 0.1 oC thermometer was checked by immersing it in the flask containing ice and the water , stirring , and waiting until the reading was steady . The thermometer was then transferred to the flask containing the ethanoic acid - ice mixture . The mixture was stirred and the temperature recorded once the reading had steadied , with the thermometer in the middle and not the bottom of the ice . of the liquid phase were then removed using a pipette with a polymer - wool filter . The samples were set aside and later titrated against sodium hydroxide from a tap burette , using phenolphthalein as an indicator . This operation was repeated for each of the other acids . < heading > Results: Exact concentration of : mol dm -3 Reading of thermometer in melting ice : oC Results for each acid : FORMULA < table/>Mean Volume delivered = FORMULA < table/>Mean Volume delivered = FORMULA < table/>Mean Volume delivered = ( titration anomalous so not included in mean ) < heading > Calculations and Discussion:(i ) < /heading > Concentration of CH3CO2H : Moles of titrated : FORMULA mole of reacts with mole of CH 3CO , so of reacted with of CH 3CO 2H. contained in cm . FORMULA Concentration of HCl : Moles of titrated : FORMULA mole of reacts with mole of , so of reacted with of HCl . contained in cm . FORMULA Concentration of H2SO4 : Moles of titrated : FORMULA mole of reacts with moles of H 2SO 4 , so of reacted with of H 2SO 4 . contained in cm . FORMULA < heading > ( ii ) < /heading > Values of i for : FORMULA There is a high percentage error in these results for factor because of the inaccuracies in the method . The volumes of the acids and the ice and water were not measured accurately , the thermometer only read the temperature to of a degree and there was a time delay between extracting each of the 3 samples for titration . There were also inaccuracies due to the b - grade glassware used , and noting the end point of each titration . < heading>(iii ) < /heading > The calculated values of i ( the factor ) for each acid give an indication of the extent of dissociation of each acid . CH 3CO 2H had the lowest value of , this suggests that it is a weak monoprotic acid , weaker than HCl and H 2SO 4 because it only partially dissociates . had a value of , suggesting it is a stronger monoprotic acid which is more fully disassociated . H 2SO 4 had the highest value of , this would suggest it is the strongest acid of the but the high value could be due to the fact that it is a diprotic acid and therefore can loose protons per molecule and so would dissociate into a greater number of aqueous ions . < heading>(iv ) < /heading > Ka value and degree of dissociation for each acid : FORMULA HCl is a strong acid and is fully dissociated so i = . FORMULA The stage of dissociation is complete so i = stage : FORMULA My values for i are lower than the calculated values but they are in the same order for the degree of dissociation . The lower values may just be due to inaccuracies in my method . < heading>(v ) < /heading > Molality of a solution of hydrochloric acid of concentration 0.5000mol dm -3 , which has a density of g cm -3 or -3 . Molality FORMULA ","< abstract> Abstract Legionella pneumophila , a natural parasite of is an opportunistic pathogen of humans when inhaled in water droplets . The pathway taken in amoebae is the same as macrophage , with differences only in the entry . This , along with virulence factors expressed , is thought to be important to the survival in humans , a host that would usually kill the organism . It survives by creating conditions ideal for its growth and replication in its phagosome , then by induced factors fuses with the host lysosomes , creating another niche , and finally upon exhaustion of nutrient supply , lyses the host cell and moves onto another , causing pneumonias . < /abstract> Introduction Legionellosis is a recently emerged disease . It was found in humans in an outbreak of pneumonia at a meeting of in . It is a major concern with the cases reported thought to constitute of the actual cases , which is steadily rising . Legionellosis accounts for of all community obtained pneumonias . Cell mediated immunity in healthy individuals is able to control pneumophila lung infections . However , being the opportunistic pathogen that it is , in the elderly and those with previously compromised immune systems , pneumonias known as disease can arise . In these individuals it has the opportunity to replicate and consequently kill human macrophage . Initial symptoms include intestinal disorders , high fever , chills and muscle aches , which are closely followed by pneumonia . When pneumonia arises respiratory failure is the major cause of death , in of cases . However pneumonia is not always the result of infection . In many cases , the result is fever . This can have either no symptoms , or brief mild headaches and fever . Without treatment this is self - limiting and clears in , and is thought to account for many of the undiagnosed infections due to its high attack rate , but mortality rate . It is not known whether this is caused by bacterial toxin or the result of a strong immune response to the pathogen . Industrial settings and larger populations of immunocompromised people have brought about increased numbers of infections . The disease is usually caused by altering the environment for human benefit , so work to improve the water sources containing L. pneumophila could cause the occurrence of other opportunistic pathogens in human hosts . Patients with Legionnaires disease are seen to have significant amounts of cell debris , and the organism can be detected . L. pneumophila is sensitive to the antibiotics rifamycin and erythromycin , and treatment is usually by erythromycin . < heading > Characteristics of the organism Legionella pneumophila is a thin - negative rod , of in diameter . It has complex nutritional requirements , including the need for large amounts of iron . It is a motile bacterium with flagellum ( either polar or subpolar ) . Figure shows a cell infected with L. pneumophila . < picture/>L. pneumophila lives naturally , and multiplies in high numbers in fresh and potable water worldwide . The water must be warm ( oC ) , and stagnant . Places it can be found include heated reservoirs , cooling towers , evaporative condensers , large air conditioning systems , hot tanks , clinical respiratory devices , showers , mist machines in grocery stores and whirlpool spas . The water in each of these sources is nutrient poor for L. pneumophila and induces the bacterium into stationary phase . The organisms are carried in contaminated water droplets , from which they are inhaled and consequently cause disease , however human - to - human transmission has not been observed . Part of the support of transmission from water supplies to humans by aerosol droplets arises from the correlation of the peaks in disease in to the peaks in air conditioning use ( 7 ) . L. pneumophila is a parasite of , and the largest genus of bacteria to almost exclusively live as single - celled protozoa parasites . are protozoa that inhibit bottom vegetation and moist soils in water . The life cycle of in strongly resembles that observed in macrophages . L. pneumophila are very susceptible to dry conditions , but their encapsulation in cysts allows their transmission in water droplets . These cysts are very resistant to both chemical and physical agents , increasing their persistence in water supplies despite human attempts to eradicate them . < heading > How L. pneumophila causes infection Overview The entry of L. pneumophila into amoebae and macrophage appears to be the only part of the infection cycle that differs between the hosts ( ) . Infection of appears to be initiated solely by , however entry into human macrophage is dependent on the phagocyte cells to assist infection . Figure shows the model of infection for macrophage , the difference to being the coiling phagocytosis . < picture/> Attachment Attachment via a complement - mediated route has been proven feasible but is thought to be unlikely in macrophage , due to the low levels of complement in the human lung . Another possible method is the pili of pneumophila acting as a ligand to bind to lectin on the protozoa ( 7 ) supported by an insertional mutation in the structural gene for pili ( pilE L ) , reducing adhesion in both amoebae and human monocytes by ( ) , and type IV pili being known to mediate host - cell attachment by the pathogenic species ( ) . It is therefore thought to be a legitimate candidate for the job in L. pneumophila . < heading > Entry The entry is thought to differ between hosts . Coiling phagocytosis ( figure ) occurs in macrophage , when the plasma membrane engulfs the bacteria within coils of itself ( 1 ) . The receptors involved are known to be CR1 and CR3 ( complement receptors ) . Coiling phagocytosis has not been observed in amoebae and so entry here is thought to be independent of microfilaments , and possibly receptor mediated , although these receptors are unknown . < heading > Phagosome establishment Once entered into the host cell ( either or at a time ( ) ) , L pneumophila are inside a nascent ( non - acidifying ) phagosome with a single membrane . They export factors locally ( demonstrated by other cellular phagosomes still fusing lysosomes ) via the secretion system , which cause modifications , most likely to the membrane of the phagosome , and prevent it from fusing with the endocytic pathway : vital for their survival ( 7 ) . It has been seen that this replicative phagosome is missing the glycoprotein LAMP-1 on its membrane , which is seen on normal phagosomes as an endocytic pathway marker ( ) . The bacteria in these phagosomes are in stationary phase . This isolated phagosome then interacts with the mitochondria , and is engulfed by rough endoplasmic reticulum , becoming an autophagosomal vacuole . Inside this protected phagosome it converts to its replicative form , where it is acid tolerant and does not require the assistance of . Furthermore numerous virulence traits are not expressed , the key trait being the ability being able to block membrane fusion . This allows the phagosome to bind with the lysosomal compartment proving a harsh but nutrient rich replication niche . < heading > Depletion of amino acids , and lysis of macrophage When replication is complete , and amino acids are depleted , the progeny of pneumophila collect in the secondary messenger guanosine ' , ' - bispyrophosphate ( ppGpp ) . This induces the expression of virulence factors causing its new virulent phenotype , promoting transmission of L. pneumophila to a new phagocyte . This has been seen by cells in their post - exponential state converting to the virulent phenotype only when incubated in post - exponential phase culture supernatant lacking amino acids . Important traits include osmotic resistance , which increases survival in the extracellular environment , motility , which helps dispersal and contact with a new host cell , a cytotoxin , which promotes escape from the current host , and the ability to evade phagosome - lysosome gives it a better chance for survival in the next phagosome , where the cycle repeats ( 7 ) . L. pneumophila have been observed in the host cell swimming away from ruptured hosts , however , no motility is detected ( ) . This demonstrates the induction of the virulence factors just for the short period when it is necessary to enable it to find a new host . The promotion of escape from the current host occurs by the development of pores in the host membrane . This can be seen in macrophages in the form of tissue damage , however it has not been observed in , where the pores are thought to exist in the membrane of the single celled organism ( 7 ) . Through these pores effector molecules are sent to help evade phagosome - lysosome fusion . For up to a limited number of pores eukaryotic cells can survive ( possibly by blocking them ( 5 ) ) , but any more and lysis occurs . Pore formation requires the presence of the Dot / Icm complex , which mediates the activation of caspase ( 8) . Caspase induces nuclear apoptosis by cleavage of a specific substrate ( 7 ) . Another Dot region is also involved , with a very similar function but located in a separate but unknown loci ( ) . The genes in this region are called , and dotO ( 5 ) . Apoptosis allows L. pneumophila to rapidly infect an increasing number of cells , in each using up the nutrient supply , and causing them to die . It is therefore extremely important to the cytopathogenicity in the early stages of infection ( 8) . < heading > How bacterium can survive inside other organism that usually kills or inactivates invaders Lysosome avoidance The ability of L. pneumophila to control the fusion of its phagosome with lysosomes enables it to take advantage of distinctive niches . The apart from lysosome , and the after fusion . It is thought that fusion of the phagosome with lysosomes is blocked only temporarily ) whilst it converts to it replicative form ( as shown diagrammatically in figure ) . Avoidance of the lysosome is achieved by a formulin - resistant surface component being added to the phagosomal membrane . Changes in macrophages are thought to involve lectins and weak bases ( brought about by phospholipases ( ) and a cytotoxin ( 7 ) ) . The lectins induce cross - linking of glycoproteins bringing about endocytic vacuoles that do n't fuse with lysosomes . < heading > Lysosome fusion Once the phagosome is in its replicative form , virulence traits blocking membrane fusion are lost and so it is able to fuse with lysosomes to form phagolysosomes . This structure promotes growth and the acidic , hydrolytic , nutrient rich , dynamic environment is exploited for replication to take place . It has been presumed ( 7 ) that autophagy machinery recognises these nonfusigenic phagosomes and delivers them to lysosomes . The following evidence generated by et al ( 7 ) supports the fusion with lysosomes : The time at which lysosomal proteins can be seen correlates with when replication was observed . L. pneumophila in endocytic vacuoles are seen to be metabolically active . If acidification and maturation of the replication vacuole is blocked , bacterial replication is unable to continue . Replicating bacteria taken from macrophages are acid tolerant ( lysosomes are acidic ) . A change in from early in infection is seen from neutral to an average of pH 5.5 . Organelles resident in the vacuole later in infection lack the ribosome and protein components , yet granular and membranous material like that of endocytic is often seen ( ) . < heading > The genes involved Many of the genes expressed by L. pneumophila contribute to its virulence . Some of them are shown in table . < table/>Mutations in either the icm or dot loci lead to defects in intracellular growth , recruitment of host cell organelles , and inhibition of phagosome - lysosome fusion in both mammals and amoebae ( 1 ) . The dot / icm are gene clusters consisting ( not exclusively ) of dotA and dotB , of which dotA is next to icm and about 10 kilobases away . appears to be vital only in the early stages of infection ( phagocytosis ) to establish the isolated phagosome ( avoiding the endocytic pathway ( ) ) , and is involved in the assembly and activation of the type IV secretion system . This system works in the cell membrane to transport DNA and virulence factors out of the cell ( ) . These loci work together with the lvh locus ( vir homologs ) , of which components may be able to substitute for dotB and icmE functions for conjugation ( not virulence ) ( ) . In cultured replicating macrophages is seen to promote efficient establishment of infection , and contribute to virulence . , infection of neither mammalian of protozoan cells can occur . This was found by the work of B.S Fields ( ) . is expressed during the exponential growth phase to encode the cytoplasmic catalase , peroxidase . This enzyme is responsible for the stationary phase that follows , and may be important in intracellular lifestyle ( ) . Prior to replication there is a lag phase , which has been suspected to represent the induction of an activity that allows replication before is induced . katB also plays a role in hydrogen peroxide resistance and defence against H 2O 2 . Although their specific function is unknown mil ( macrophage - specific infectivity loci ) , mak and pmi are further loci that are known to be involved in intracellular multiplication and growth . Lastly a General Stress protein ( GspA ) is expressed after L. pneumophila 's entry , however it has been found not to be compulsory for the survival and growth in macrophages ( ) . < heading > Virulence factors The virulence factors expressed of part f of figure , all play a role in surviving in the human host cells that would usually kill L. pneumophila . It has been shown that proteins are induced at this stage and repressed in U937 cells ( 9 ) . Virulence proteins are expressed by the organism in response to depleted amino acid supplies . The factors include type II and type IV secretion systems , a pore forming toxin , type IV pili and flagella . The type II secretion system , not previously mentioned , like the type IV , exports proteins . However it is significant as L. pneumophila is the intracellular pathogen to contain the chromosomal locus for this protein ( ) and the secreted proteins are predicted to be used for intracellular growth . < heading > Contribution of amoebae to disease It is thanks to their natural host , , that L. pneumophila are able to evade the immune system of human macrophages . It is though very unlikely that it is linked to human selection pressures , as human - to - human transmission does not occur . The virulence function induced is therefore likely to be for safe entry , robust intracellular replication , survival in fresh water , and efficient transmission from phagocyte to another . These factors are then transferred to human macrophage , and allow infection . Experimental evidence from et al ( 4 ) compared the growth kinetics in mutants with similar phenotypic defects in virulence traits and found very similar patterns arise for both hosts . This shows that similar mechanisms are involved in replication in the protozoan and human hosts . Growth in prior to human infection is shown to enhance entry into macrophage by fold ( ) . Growth in also makes the bacteria more resistant to antimicrobial agents , and alters fatty acids and surface proteins , although it is not known if these affect the virulence ( ) . At different temperatures the virulence of pneumophila differs . At 30 oC there are more flagella ( ) , higher production of factors inducing piliation , and a greater rate of adherence than at 37 oC in both aquatic and alveolar environments . However , when cultured at L. pneumophila were less virulent than when cultured at the warmer oC. ( As observed in a guinea pig model of infection by measuring lethal dose ( ) ( ) ) It is thought that the higher virulence at higher temperatures is the result of environmental stress that L. pneumophila may sporadically encounter in their natural host . < heading > Conclusion In view of the evidential studies it can be said that L. pneumophila is a problem organism in a number of ways . It is a problem organism due to its ability to replicate in the human macrophage , despite this not serving as its natural host . It is convenient for the organism that the pathway used , and virulence factors expressed in , work incredibly well upon infection in alveolar monocytes . L. pneumophila are able to exploit mechanisms of their host to evade the immune system in multiple ways . Firstly L. pneumophila is capable of avoiding fusion with lysosomes that usually follows phagocytosis . This allows the phagosome to express the ideal conditions for converting to its replicative form . Upon completion of conversion , loss of virulence traits blocking membrane fusion and lysosome fusion occurrence enables it to take advantage of a niche for replication . Expression of an autophagy - like process facilitates host cells lyses by the high production of pores , and L. pneumophila has once again taken advantage of that host . The surveillance of the intracellular environment to react to , iron and amino acid levels etc , enable L. pneumophila to express virulent traits such as motility and gene expression at the appropriate times to take full advantage of the host , including transmission between hosts on exhaustion of the nutrient supply .",0 "Objectives : To develop an understanding of the principles underlying the freezing processes . To be able to estimate the freezing time for a particular type of freezer . < heading > Introduction Refrigeration can be described as the term covering areas of processes , chilling and freezing in which both processes involve the lowering and maintenance of the temperature below an ambient temperature . Chilling involves no phase changes of the water and thus only sensible heat is removed in the process . In freezing , this process includes the transformation of the water in their liquid phase into solid , so incorporate both sensible heat and latent heat removal . For this reason freezing always comes along with more energy expenditure and time to complete the operation ( ) . most common ways of attaining the low temperature are the mechanical refrigeration system and the use of cryogenic fluids ( ) . The mechanical refrigeration cycle comprises of components i.e. the evaporator ( low - temperature heat exchanger ) , compressor , condenser ( high - temperature heat exchanger ) , the expansion valve and the refrigerant . Heat from the food will be transferred to the evaporator by the temperature gradient resulting in the evaporation of the refrigerant . Then the compressor will caused the gaseous refrigerant to change into a superheated gas . After that , the passing of this high energy refrigerant through the condenser will lead to the condensation of the refrigerant back into the liquid phase . Next , the liquefied refrigerant will enter the expansion valve , which is a high / low pressure separator , leading to the pressure drop . Consequently , a mixture of liquid and gas refrigerant is formed . Finally , this mixture will participate in the evaporator and the cycle continues . ) catagorised refrigeration into systems . , the Plate Contact system in which the food is placed in direct contact with a cold surface e.g. a plate freezer where a refrigerant is circulating within the plate providing the temperature difference so the heat is transfer from the food to the colder surfaces . , the Gas Contact refrigerator , the cooling of the food is achieved by the circulation or the flow of cold gas ( usually air ) through the food and absorbing heat from it . Example of such system is air blast refrigerator . This procedure can also be incorporated with vacuum cooling where reduction in pressure will cause the water to vaporize , carrying with it the latent heat thus leading to the lowering in temperature . , Immersion or Liquid Contact refrigeration where an food is made into contact with the cold liquid e.g. water , brines or ethylene glycol by spraying or immersion . By this means , the food ( often unpacked ) can rapidly attain the temperature of the cold liquid . , freezing ; this involves the direct contact of the food with the low boiling point liquid , for instance ; liquid nitrogen ( -196 ° C ) or liquid carbon dioxide ( -78.5 ° C ) . Low temperature is produced by the phase change ( boiling ) of the cryogenic liquid at the atmospheric pressure , so this process is a total loss system since the refrigerant is discharged into the atmosphere ( Boast , ) . Consequently , it is the most expensive system of all . The system mentioned above can be used either to chill or freeze the food while the last method , cryogenic system , can only be used in freezing process due to the difficulty in controlling the final temperature of the food . Freezing process can be divided into steps ( and , ) ; ( i ) Prefreezing stage where the temperature of the food is reduced to its freezing point but ice crystal has yet to form . ( ii ) Supercooling stage , this is characterized by the further drop of the temperature below its freezing point without any ice formation . ( iii ) Freezing stage , starts when the temperature increases back to its freezing point and water - ice transformation takes place . This stage exhibit constant temperature until all water is crystallised i.e. completely change into ice . ( iv ) Subfreezing stage , the further decreases in temperature of the food to the end temperature or the intended storage temperature . This process occurs relatively fast due to the lower specific heat of ice compared to that of water and that no latent heat is being removed . Most foods have to pass through a preliminary process prior to being refrigerated . methods used are blanching and sulphiting . Blanching can be done by either steam or hot water . The purposes of this method are to heat inactivate enzymes e.g. polyphenol oxidase which would otherwise cause product deterioration during storage i.e. enzymatic browning reaction . Moreover , the reduction of microbial contamination and chemical contamination e.g. pesticide residue have also been reported . Sulphiting is the application of sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ) or inorganic sulphites ( SO3 2- ) in order to reduce both enzymic and nonenzymic browning reaction , microbial growth and as an reducing agent or antioxidant leading to a better characteristics of food ( Grandison , ) . < heading > Method1 . Blanching and sulphiting . Cut vegetables ( sprouts , mushroom , potato , carrot ) into smaller pieces in equal size . Blanching condition was ° C.The imitated hard water was prepared using calcium chloride solution . Divide similar amount and types of cut vegetables into set of experiment i.e.control : no further treatment blanched in soft water for minutesblanched in soft water for 5 minutesblanched in imitated hard water for minutesblanched in imitated hard water for minutesimmersion in sodium metabisulphite for minutesimmersion in sodium metabisulphite for minutesby put into different aluminium trays and label the tray . Performed the experiment according to each condition . After completed each set of condition , compared processed vegetables in each set of experiment with the control ones in terms of the inactivation of enzymes i.e. catalase ( by added a few drops of hydrogen peroxide ) and polyphenol oxidase ( by added a few drops of guaiacol ) . Look for the carbon dioxide formation and brown colour development , respectively . All sets of experiment were transferred to plate freezer.2 . Blast freezingPut each of the following : apple , tomato and potato into an aluminium tray and put into a blast freezer at -18 ° C for minutesMeasured the temperature at the center.3 . Vacuum chillingCut 2 tomatoes into halves i.e. pieces of tomatoes and put in an aluminium tray . Measured the over all weight and temperature at the center . After the vacuum chilling was run for , the weight and the temperature at the center were recorded.4 . Freezing using liquid nitrogenUsing potato , tomato and apple as a whole fruit . Measuring the center temperature of the fruits . Immersed in liquid nitrogen for . Temperature at the center was measured and compared with that before processed.5 . Plate freezer : continued from blanching and sulphiting . All 7 aluminium trays from blanching and sulphiting were transferred to the plate freezer ( -30 ° C ) for minutes.6 . Extra : to illustrate that the food is a poor conduction of heat . Choose different size apples i.e. smaller and bigger . Both apples were blanched at ° C for minutesTemperatures at the center were compared.7 . Make an estimation of the freezing time for tomatoes having diameter of by liquid nitrogen and air blast freezer by 's equation. Results < /heading>
No further experiment was performed . < table/>When cut , it was found that the there was a development of layers within both fruits . . Utilizing the 's equation , we can estimate the freezing time as follows ; FORMULA For tomatoes diameter of By liquid nitrogen where FORMULA by substitute the above values in the equation , the estimated freezing time for tomatoes having diameter of using liquid nitrogen would be 62.35 seconds depending on the extent of heat film coefficient ( h ) . By air blast where FORMULA by substitute the above value in the same equation , the estimated freezing time for tomatoes size ~4 cm using air blast freezer would be depending on the extent of the heat film coefficient ( h ) . < heading > Discussion From table , we could see the effects of blanching on the enzymes activity . Normally catalase cause no deterioration to the food during storage ( Fellows , ) but it is used as a marker because their relatively resistant to heat i.e. the absence of catalase could indicate the likelihood of other enzymes ' absence as well . Polyphenol oxidase cause browning of the food stuffs during storage of the freezing or dehydration products by transforming the polyphenol compounds existing abundant in the fruits into brown - coloured substances . The presence of catalase can be detected by air bubble formation following the addition of hydrogen peroxide since hydrogen peroxide is broken into water and oxygen molecule . Detection of polyphenol oxidase is demonstrated by the brown colour formation after the addition of the substrate for the reaction i.e. guaiacol . In both soft water and imitated hard water , the longer the blanching time , the larger the extent of enzymes inactivation . This could probably explained by the nature of the enzymes ; that is the longer exposure to heat , the more inactivation they would get . Calcium chloride added to the blanching medium is the reason for better texture retention of the fruits and vegetables after blanching due to the development of calcium pectate within the plant tissue ( Grandison , ) . As blanching applies relatively mild heat treatment compared to other heat treatment methods ( e.g. pasteurization ) , most of the spores would still survive the process . Sulphiting controls browning reaction by inhibition of so lowering the amount participated in enzymic browning . In addition , it binds with reducing sugar ( formyl group containing compound ) preventing them from binding with amino group in nonenzymic browning ( reaction ) . Plate freezer is a freezing method where temperature gradient takes the heat from the food to the cooler metallic plate which made into direct contact with the food . Thus , in the plate freezer , the main heat transfer mechanism would be the conduction process from metallic surface to the food ; hence heat removal could be enhanced by the closer contact between the metallic slab and food . In cold air freezing , i.e. air blast , the air is circulated in the chamber containing food and as doing so it absorbs the heat from the food . Both convection and conduction processes occur in cold air freezer i.e. convection between the food and the cold air and conduction within the food pieces . The blast - freezer gave quite similar results in all fruits . The highest temperature in tomatoes after processed ( 0 ° C ) could be attributed to its water content being the highest among the fruits used . No layer development was seen in all fruits . In liquid nitrogen , it was clear that immersion was not enough to uniformly freeze them as the temperature between the surface and thermal center of each fruit was significantly different i.e. ° C . Consequently , using liquid nitrogen for large food will result in the prolonged contact time which means the more lost of the expensive liquid nitrogen . These results illustrated the draw back of freezing large food by liquid nitrogen . However , cryogenic freezing can be coupled with air contact freezing for a better result e.g. producing a ' cold hard crust ' material by the cryogenic freezing then it is transferred to the cold chamber to finish off the solidification process ( ) . Because vacuum chilling lower the temperature of the food by losing some of its energy in the form of latent heat during evaporation , the final weight of the product were less than that of the fresh produce . From the experiment , it was found that a number of general factors affecting the cooling of the food i.e. the temperature difference between the refrigerant and the food , the size of the food pieces and the nature of the food . For temperature gradient ; the higher , the better since more rapid lose of heat to the refrigerant could be achieved as can be seen from the lower temperature at the surface of potato from liquid nitrogen ( -14 ° C ) and blast freezing ( -1 ° C ) . Because foods act as poor heat conduction medium as illustrated in the last part of the experiment , the smaller in size leads to faster freezing time . This is clearly demonstrated in the freezing by liquid nitrogen . Water content is example of the nature of the food which could affect the rate of cooling of food i.e. the more water exist , the longer it would take to freeze them all . In air blast system the higher velocity of the circulating air decreases the thickness of boundary film surrounding the food ( Fellows , ) thus increases the rate of heat transfer . The longer contact time between food and the freezing agent results in lower final temperature of the food . < heading > Freezing time and freezing rate . Freezing time can be defined in several ways follow and ( ) ; definition : it is ' the time required to lower the temperature of the product from its initial temperature to a given temperature ( normally -10 ° C ) at the center ' . definition is ' the time from surface reaching ° C to the center reaching -10 ° C ' . However , it is not very useful to compare freezing time between the products vastly different in size e.g. the large pieces of beef and peas . For this reason , the freezing rate comes in . It is defined as the average velocity of ice front advancing from the surface to the center of the food i.e. the ratio between the minimum distances from the surface to the thermal center ( cm ) and the freezing time ( hour ) using the definition . An advantage of commercial freezing over home freezing is the capability of regeneration . The heat or energy in refrigerant acquired from the food can be recycled e.g. use to generate heat for the rest of the factory / building . Moreover , the freezing chambers are normally a large with the sole purpose of freezing while home freezing is usually done by a small frozen chamber mostly with vertical loading / access facilities ( Boast , ) . As a result , the opening of the door in home freezing will cause the loss of cold air out and is replaced by warm air , leading to the formation of frost which hinders the heat transfer mechanism on the freezing surfaces . The more important is that in commercial freezing , the foods put inside the freezer each time are of the same condition e.g. same size , temperature whereas in the home freezing people put in different things in different time . This could impair the already frozen food due to the rising of temperature . In another word , more fluctuation in temperature is experienced by foods in the home freezing mode .","When speaking of spore many will think of the fungal spores which cause bread to become fluffy . But another kind of spore that is quite more interesting is the endospores . They are produced inside particular kinds of bacteria . This spore is different from the fungal spore in that it is not a means of reproduction . Unlike fungi , bacteria will only produce only single endospore and die , leaving the endospore waiting for another chance to grow . The generation of endospore and there components are quite interesting and significantly complicates the food industry . The formation of endospore is called the sporulation , after such period the spore will remain dormant until further activated , causing germination and outgrowth . Sporulation occurs when environmental conditions are unfavourable for the growth of the vegetative cells e.g. the nutrients deprivation or the extreme environment . The process starts when the stationary phase of the microbial growth is reached and takes to complete ( , ) . It begins with the inhibition of cell division by external signals followed by signal transduction within the cell and then the asymmetrical partitioning of the septum . The indistinct steps of sporulation based on the cytological changes detailed by and ( ) and Gould ( ) and ( 2000 ) could be summarized as follow . , the appearance of asymmetrical septation in the mother cell gives rise to unequal - sized cells ( the smaller , called forespore , will later become endospore ) , then the engulfment of the larger compartment around the smaller results in the membraned - forespore which has the unique back - to - font middle membrane and is believed to be responsible for the control of molecules into the protoplasm of the endospore . Dehydration starts , lessening the by and the dormancy begins . The generation of the peptidoglycan layer called cortex between inner and outer membrane along with the synthesis of Spore - specific ( SASPs ) and accumulation of Ca 2 + and acid ( ) of more or less dry weight basis of forespore in the core occur simultaneously with the dehydration process . After the cortex is synthesized , the deposition of spore coat protein on the surface of the outer forespore ( back - to - front membrane ) begins . The transformation of the forespore into an endospore is believed to be induced by the specific transcription of the gene in the forespore which occur by the communication between mother cell and forespore via signal transfer across the septum . This process results in the production of autolysin , releasing the forespore out while mother cell lyses and dies . The resulting endospores are varying in shape and position relative to mother cell e.g. lateral , central or terminal . The endospore consists of a number of layers which can be outlined as : the core - membrane - cortex -- reversed polarity membrane ( back - to - front ) - coat - exosporium . The innermost part , the core or protoplast , this lowest water content layer contains DNA , ribosome , enzymes , calcium dipicolinate ( ) and SASPs ' pool which binds to and stabilizes the DNA . The next layer is the inner membrane which inhibits the passing through of substance . , as stated , is a peptidoglycan layer but different from vegetative cells in that it contains only muramic acid , lacking peptide residues and has lower degree of cross - linking . It also involves in the dehydration process of the core and contributes to spore 's resistance as well . The back - to - front membrane being slightly different in the protein composition from the inner membrane will protect the influx of the small molecule into the deeper part of the spore . The disulfide bridges - containing coat serves as a protective barrier from lytic enzyme , extremes and oxidizing agents ( , ) but not to heat and irradiation and finally the thin covering layer known as exosporium . Apart from the differences in their physical appearance from their vegetative cell counterparts , the biochemical discrepancy are , for instances , the SASPs are found only in the endospore whereas the enzymes for amino acid or nucleotide synthesis are absent , high amounts of - phosphoglyceric acid in endospore and scarcely found the high energy compound i.e. deoxynucleotide triphosphate and the different protein founded at the DNA . After they became endospore ( released from the mother cell ) , there is hardly any metabolism but it is believed that there are enzyme - substrate pairs responsible for the few reaction during germination , ready and waiting for the right condition to start their reaction ( Gould , ) . This means that they must have the ability to detect suitable environmental conditions to start their growth once again . Such processes are the activation and germination ( ~25 after activation ) . Within , the returning of nutrients such as L - alanine , glucose or mineral ion such as or the sublethal heating i.e. the heating that cause no death to the microorganism or the chemicals such as long chain alkyl monoamine , lyzozyme or even pressure lower than MPa ( Patterson , ) could initiate the activation process . Mechanism for nutrients activation is believed to be that they change the series of enzyme action by binding to the endospore receptors , causing peptidoglycan cleavage so water moves into the core , swelling it . In addition , the excretion of stabilizing factors e.g. and hydrolysis of SASPs also occurs . Eventually , endospore starts to metabolize and lost their resistance properties . The final stage before transform to fully vegetative cell is the outgrowth which takes to complete ( and , ) . Unlike germination , this stage needs exogenous nutrients for their increasing synthesis and growth . By the end of the outgrowth , the endospore will have reclaimed the ability to synthesize amino acids and nucleotides . However , the endospore partial lysis and the shedding of their coating during this stage lead to the susceptibility of the bacteria to food preservatives ( Gould , ) . Such example is the use of bacteriocin nisin in cheese or canned food which inhibit the microorganism immediately after they have germinated . The significance of the endospores in the food industry lies in their extreme resistance to adverse conditions . Generally speaking , their resistances are mainly due to the dehydrated state of the core ( water compared to in vegetative cell ) ; meaning less water is available in reaction . At low water content , the protein denaturation is less likely to occur and the depurination of DNA is prevented by the stabilizing action of SASPs to DNA with the ratio of SASPs to base pairs ( Gould , ) , and to a lesser extent , the impermeability of their various membranes . has no effect on them since the DNA damage is prevented by SASPs . They can withstand a hydrostatic pressure up to MPa ( Adams and Moss , ) . γ - ray resistance is only to the virus but the precise mechanism is not known , possibly from the different DNA environment compared to vegetative cell . Their UV - ray resistant at nm , a maximum lethality , is - 7 times greater than their vegetative cell due to the DNA stabilizing effect of SASPs . Exposed to various chemical species e.g. oxidizing agents , phenol , extreme has little effect on them because the inhibitory effect of their coat on the influx of the molecule into the core . In addition , the low water content in the core help in reducing damage from H 2O 2 by refrain the production of •OH from chemistry ( and , ) . Their extreme heat resistances pose major problems in the food industry since heating is the widely used approach to control microorganisms . The combination of the intrinsic heat resistance ( inherited from their vegetative cell ) and the additional resistance from the mechanism in the spores ( add ~ 40 -50 ° C more ) contribute to their extreme resilient to thermal processing ( Gould , ) . Again , the low water content in the protoplast is likely to be the main cause for the resistance . Moreover , conditions during heating i.e. low a w , low ) and high Ca 2 + all contribute to the higher resistance . The higher sporulation temperature also gives rise to higher endospore heat resistance ( Leuschner , ) . Many survived after being heated at ° C for . Unfortunately , most sporeformer is capable of producing toxin and cause food poisoning which can range from mild e.g. Bacillus subtilis , to severe e.g. Bacillus cereus , perfringen to life threatening e.g. botulinum ( Gould , ) and many lead to the spoilage of the food . For example , the flat sour food spoilage of low acid ( pH>4.6 ) canned food e.g. canned peas , beans products by Bacillus stearothermophilus , which produce the most heat tolerant endospore . The contamination of endospores can occur in the raw materials or ingredients used . During heating , the endospore can be activated and multiply at high temperature region e.g. holding tank blanchers or warm filter bowls ( Kotzekidou , 2000 ) whereas the vegetative cells might form endospores that could germinate later during the improper transportation and storage . These complication leads to the necessity for controlling the endospore population in raw material and ingredients as well as the rapid cooling after heating process and low temperature ( < 43 ° C ) during transportation and storage of the products to minimize the germination of endospores thus lower the rate of food spoilage . Although many sporeformers can cause food poisoning in human , the notorious species are Bacillus cereus , perfringens and botulinum ( and , ) . In cereus , their endospores can survive spray - drying process so they are found widely in raw milk and dry foodstuffs ( Batt , ) such as starches , spices and also in infant formulas ( due to dried - milk powder ) and can cause food poisoning . To prevent the germination of endospores , the cooked food must be rapidly cooled down to ° C or maintain at > 60 ° C . The most pathogenic heat resistance spore of C. botulinum makes it the target for heating processes in canned food . Their spores germinate in anaerobic condition so the canning methods have to ensure the adequate inactivation of this microbe to prevent toxin production by the germinating spores . The mesophilic perfringens presents a problem in food service establishments , e.g. hospitals , prisons ( and , ) because the generation of toxins during sporulation due to an unfavorable conditions for their growth in our intestines . To prevent the intoxication the mass production of cooked food has to be rapidly cooled down and thoroughly heated . To reduce the incidents of food spoilage and poisoning , it is important to monitor the raw material to limit endospore load , adequate heat processing and rapid cooling of the processed food to adequately inactivate the endospores . Always make sure that your food is thoroughly cooked before serving and reheated every time before consumption .",1 "< abstract> Aim / Abstract The aim of the experiment was to establish the order of a number of genes important in amino acid metabolism and sugar catabolism . Using conjugation , pieces of coli ( E. coli ) chromosome were transferred from the donor strain to the recipient strain . As this occurs in a linear fashion in one direction , the mating pairs were broken apart at time intervals and plated . The plates were incubated for and from the appearance of the different number of , the order of the gene transfer for the high frequency donor ( Hfr ) strain can be estimated . < /abstract> Introduction Mutations are naturally occurring events in any genome and they can be point mutation , where a single base pair might be changed or more serious large - scale mutations , such as deletions , which involve removal of very long kilo bases of DNA . These mutations are of many mechanisms that bring change into genome of a species . When the characteristic brought about by the mutation , allow the organism to better fit the changing environment , the organism survives and passes down the trait through reproduction , bringing about evolution . The estimated mutation rate of E. coli is -3 mutations per genome replication due to a slightly inefficient repair mechanism . However , it takes a few generations for a rare beneficial mutation to dominate . The bacteria with the normal gene is known as the ' wild type ' and the transfer of a ' wild type ' gene to an organism with a mutation in that gene will ensure restoration of that gene activity due to recombination . Genetic exchange permits new combinations of alleles . The most common mechanisms of genetic exchange in bacteria are transformation , transduction and conjugation . Transformation is the process of genetic exchange between bacteria involving uptake of free DNA from environment . Transduction involves genetic exchange between bacteriophage , or virus and bacteria . Conjugation requires the intimate contact between the donor and recipient for genetic exchange . This horizontal gene transfer leads to evolution and the spread of multiple drug resistance . This gene transfer can be between members of the same species , between members of the same genus or even between very distantly related organisms . Conjugative plasmids are self - transmissible and only transfer between very closely related species of bacteria . In conjugation , an F pilus from the donor is used to anchor a recipient to form a mating pair . The Fertility or F factor , which is present in the donor but not in the recipient ( F- ) , was transferred through this pilus . Bacterial strains with the F factor integrated in their chromosomes are referred to as High Frequency Donor ( Hfr ) strains as they are capable of high efficiency chromosome transfer . The F factor in integrated in different positions and in different orientations in different Hfr strains . As the Hfr donate the chromosome in direction , the orientation determines the direction of chromosome donations from the Hfr strain , starting at the F factor integration site . The distance between genes is related to the time between their transfer , thus the map of an E. coli chromosome is referred to as a temporal map as it is time - dependent . In this experiment , conjugation was used to establish the order of genes and their distance apart through the degree of linkage between genes , or the recombination frequency . As large pieces of genetic material are transferred during conjugation , a rough mapping of the E. coli chromosome can be deduced from the order of gene transfer . < heading > Method All the steps in the laboratory manual were followed . was chosen as the donor strain and as the recipient strain . However , the cultures were left for instead as a - few - days growth was not enough for observation . Only a simple qualitative method was carried out was there were insufficient plates to do a full quantitative assay for recombination . < heading > Results Graph 1 was drawn on a semi - log scale and it was observed that the absorbance increases with time for both the donor and the recipient strains . Lines of best fit were drawn for the exponential phase ( from onwards ) for both cultures . The absorbance values for ( for both the donor and recipient strains ) were not included as they were the only points out of norm . From , the cultures were at the lag phase and thus the increase in absorbance was not huge . The absorbance values then increase sharply , exponential phase . The donor culture was transferred to the recipient culture and the absorbance was measured and was plated and taken as time . The culture was plated at time intervals ( , , , , , min ) and the growth for each quadrant was shown in table below . < figure/>
At , plate has more growth than plate . At 0min , plate has more growth than either plate or 7 , but plate has more growth than plate . Plate 6 has more growth than plate at 0min . From table , the order of genes established was : threonine ( plate ) , arginine ( plate ) , xylose ( plate ) , isoleucine and valine ( plate ) , leucine ( plate ) , proline ( plate ) and histidine ( plate ) . < heading > Discussion An uninoculated flask containing of was used to blank the spectrophotometer at nm . As the recipient strain gained the genes containing the ability to grow in the absence of a specific nutrient in the selective media , growth would be observed on the plate , depending the time of the gene transfer . This ability is due to the presence of genes capable of synthesising the absent nutrient . From the results section , the order of genes established was : threonine ( plate ) , arginine ( plate ) , xylose ( plate ) , isoleucine and valine ( plate ) , leucine ( plate ) , proline ( plate ) and histidine ( plate ) . A more precise method is required to obtain a fine structure mapping of the chromosome , such as restriction enzyme treatment of the total DNA . The gene order can be confirmed by using different donor strains , or Hfr ( high frequency donor ) and comparing the gene order obtained from each strain . The conjugation mix was incubated in a static water bath so that the mating pair will not be disrupted . The mating pairs are very fragile and easily broken apart . Nalidixic acid was included in all the selective plates to select against the donor strain and it also prevents further gene transfer from the donor to the recipient . Only the recombinant strain is resistant to nalidixic acid . If nalidixic acid was not included , the donor strain will also grow on the plates , thus the time for gene transfer can not be deduced , as all the plates will show the donor phenotypes . Both the donor and the recipient strains were plated on the selective media to control for the presence of revertents , as point mutations can revert unlike deletions . Even though this interrupted mating technique is important for rough mapping , fine structure mapping of genes which are close together ( such as leucine and proline ) can not be determined as the time difference for the transfer of those genes is very small . In plate , the recipient quadrant of the plate showed growth even though both the donor and the recipient ( the parental strains ) were counter selected . This is due to reversions , which is a form of point mutation that is capable of being reversed so that the original sequence is restored and thus , is resistant to nalidixic acid and can grow without threonine . However , reversions can only take place for certain classes of mutations thus , several different types of mutant alleles are required to test for a reversion . < heading > Conclusion Through conjugation , the chromosome map of E. coli was deduced from time of gene transfer . The accuracy of the experiment can not be confirmed , as a quantitative experiment was not carried out . Further tests need to be carried out to confirm the order of gene on the whole chromosome .","< heading > INTRODUCTION Sodium chloride content in foods can be determined by titrating the chloride ion with silver , and excess silver ions with potassium chromate . The end point occurs when all the chloride ions are complexed and the excess silver ions react with the chromate ion to form the orange color of silver chromate . The endpoint in this reaction is therefore at the hint of an orange color . FORMULA < heading > METHOD The method was completed after following the instructions of the handout , without any alterations . < heading > RESULTS - CALCULATIONS We had to do a determination of the concentration of a standard sodium chloride solution . This was done after titrating of the sodium chloride solution provided , with standard silver nitrate solution using potassium chromate indicator ( solution ) , until the red colour formed begins to fade more slowly . < concentration of sodium chloride solution : FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA For the determination of salt in a sample of butter we weighed g of butter and followed the procedure described in the handout . After the extractions of salt from the fat using hot water , we titrated ml aliquot of the diluted extract ( adding of potassium chromate indicator ) with standard silver nitrate . The results of this titration was : < table/>To calculate the percentage of in the butter : FORMULA Total salt : FORMULA < heading > DISCUSSION The result obtained for the % of salt in the butter is considered as satisfactory as most butter have a concentration of of salt . An error that may have altered the results is based on the fact that during the extractions , it has been calculated that you get only of the amount that you are required to extract . As the number of extractions grows , so does the percentage of error . So , in the st extraction we get of the aqueous phase , in the nd extraction we get of the st extract and in the rd extraction we get of the nd extract . In this case , when we refer to an error , we refer to the amount of the liquid phase ( aqueous phase ) that we were not able to extract . Some other errors may also occur . A common error is the sampling error which is partly avoided by the use of sample when titrating . Limitations due to the uncertainty of the instruments also exist but we consider them as not significant when doing our calculations . After obtaining the results from the other teams , we constructed a diagram showing the differences in the percentages of salt in butter found by all teams in terms of confidence limits ( + /- SE ) . , where σ = standard deviation and n = sample number So we had : < table/>
As we can see most of the results are between these confidence limits . For the critical values , such as the in sample ( ) , we can justify them by referring to the error that is described above and is referring to the extraction method error .",0 "< heading > Optimum Canopy Orientation for maximum power output The optimum position for a ' ' type PV installation at your Reading Primary School installed on a tilted canopy roof with an area of m x 5 m ( m -2 ) would be when modules are orientated at from the and facing directly ( bearing of ) . ( See Fig.1 below ) < heading > Power Output Sensitivity Azimuth Sensitivity Calculated with slope angled at Optimum from horizontal ( + OR - 4 degrees ) . FORMULA There are similar percentage losses at equal degrees east of south . < figure/> Slope Angle Sensitivity < /heading>(Degrees from horizontal showing % power loss ) FORMULA < heading > Electrical Output < /heading > The maximum power output per year when using m -2 monocrystalline installation at the optimum slope and azimuth orientation would be kWh / yr ( / yr ) . This equates to 102.9kWh per year per m-2 of canopy roof . would be £ 0.57p / kWh . The nominal power for this installation would be kWp ( Peak ) < heading > PV system orientation on the schools proposed canopy roof . < /heading>
The maximum electrical power output per year when using m -2 monocrystalline installation on the proposed canopy roof ( fig.2 ) where the slope is with an azimuth orientation of of South would be as follows : 3996 kWh / yr ( MWh / yr ) This equates to kWh per year per m-2 of canopy roof . would be £ 0.59p / kWh . The nominal power for this installation would be kWp ( Peak ) < heading > Proposed canopy compared with a monocrystalline system on your proposed canopy roof would generate less power in when compared to the same installation at the optimum orientation as discussed in . < heading > Comparisons with your linked school in , , . < /heading > An identical monocrystalline PV system the same size m x 5 m ( m -2 ) at the same orientation as your proposed canopy roof though built at a school in , , would give the following electrical outputs : The maximum electrical power output per year would be kWh / yr ( MWh / yr ) , This equates to kWh per year per m-2 of canopy roof . would be £ 0.38p / kWh . The nominal power for this installation would be kWp ( Peak ) The greater total electrical power output is mostly due to the difference in solar irradiation ( energy from the sun ) between Reading and . Figure.3 a graphical representation of the solar irradiation receives over the course of . We can see that on average receives kWh of energy from the sun per m -2 per day for . is located at of the equator and so receives up to kWh per m -2 per day peak solar irradiation though this is only during . Figure.4 Shows the Annual Solar paths for . The suns path rises quickly up to from the horizon ( fig.4 ) . As the suns position is mostly directly overhead during the core , this means there is a lot more solar energy available to utilise . < figure/>
Figure.5 Shows that Reading receives on average kWh of solar energy from the sun per m -2 per day during the course of . This is due to the higher Northerly latitude of Reading ( deg N ) compared to the more equatorial location of ( 6 deg N ) . Reading receives most of its solar radiation during where solar irradiation can reach as high as kWh per m -2 per day when the sun is at between 45 and above the horizon ( fig.6 ) . During the solar irradiation energy falls down to kWh per m -2 per day . This is due to the low angle of the sun in the winter sky being at above the horizon ( fig.6 ) . < figure/>
Choice of PV type Here are different types of technology . Although both types use wafers , they have physical , efficiency and most importantly price differences . < heading > Monocrystalline ( Expensive yet most efficient) The maximum electrical power output per year when using m -2 monocrystalline installation on the proposed canopy roof ( fig.2 ) where the slope is with an azimuth orientation of of South would be approximately 3996 kWh / yr ( MWh / yr ) . This equates to kWh per year per m-2 of canopy roof . would be £ 0.59p / kWh . The nominal power for this installation would be kWp ( Peak ) < heading > Amorphous thin film ( yet less efficient) The maximum electrical power output per year when using m -2 amorphous installation on the proposed canopy roof where the slope is with an azimuth orientation of of South would be kWh / yr ( MWh / yr ) . This equates to kWh per year per m-2 of canopy roof . would be £ / kWh . The nominal power for this installation would be kWp ( Peak ) < heading and Income Assessment
Sources of Funding < /heading > There are a number of funding sources available to schools interested in installing renewable energy technologies . could provide government funding through their ' Low Carbon Buildings Programme ' . Grants will be up to a maximum of £ or of the capital and installation cost of the micro generation technologies installed . These grants will be awarded on a rolling - come - first - served basis . Details of how to apply can be found through their website : URL ( 5 ) More details of other sources of funding can be found on .pdf pages available through the website at URL ( 3 ) < heading There may be grants available from the ' ' fund from the national lottery . Although exact fund details are not published , your school could apply telephoning telephone 0845 20 30 . Details at URL or ( 4 ) < heading > Utility Companies Funding Schools can also go to utilities companies for extra funding . , Npower , and power are all major community investment funders . Npower , for example , provided £ to high school and community college in , for the installation of a wind turbine ; gave high school in £ for its solar panel installation . ( ) < heading > Project Design Modules < /heading > suitable for your installation requirements would be of type modules manufactured by ( model ) each rated at There would be required in an array to nearly match the potential nominal power of as calculated for the size of the proposed canopy roof . The nominal power for the array would be , this is just under the power required for this size roof . < heading > Inverters < /heading > suitable for your installation would be , - 600V ( input Voltage = 800V ) , model : 4000xi manufactured by . The total nominal power rating for the inverter is . This is less than the array nominal power of . This is deliberate because the inverter will work more efficiently if it is working flat out at maximum power output most of the time . On the very few occasions during when the total array output exceeds the inverter will either shutdown temporarily or safely ensure excess power from the array is dealt with by power electronics in order to continue operation . The should require an installation area of and would be wired to the inverters as follows : FORMULA My software assures me that the inverter can take this array output . < heading > Layout Benefits < /heading > There are parallel strings of in series . If of the roof suffers from either shading influences , or module problems then of the circuit suffers . The other of the roof will still produce electricity at full power . The voltages in the circuit are high at within the series strings and 868V in the parallel wires of the circuit . High voltages reduce the current load ( 5.3Amps ) hence allowing the use of thinner core wires to transmit the same overall power to the inverter . Lower voltages transmitting currents at high would require larger diameter wire cores to reduce the risk of high currents heating the wires . High currents heat wires by converting electrical energy into heat , a process that wastes energy . < figure/>The estimated energy output available at the inverter after all losses within the system have been deducted is 3627kWh ( ) < heading>6 . Power losses due to nearby tree . < /heading > A tree stands m high and m in front ( south of ) the proposed canopy roof . At different times of throughout the sun will cast a shadow of the tree onto the system installed on the proposed canopy roof . On this particular tree location forms shadows across the roof starting and then on throughout . < figure/>Winter time . The sun arcs low in the sky at above the horizon at . This low sun will cast long shadows of the tree trunk upon the roof throughout . This time of year the will the receiving mostly diffuse light due to likely cloud cover and less direct sunlight . Shadows will make little difference to low energy output levels . < time . The sun arcs across the sky at above the horizon at . This will cause a greater % of decreased power output due to the bulk of the tree causing a large shadow which could cover of the roof . < figure/>Summer time around midday . The sun arcs high in the sky at above the horizon . From this position the sun forms less of a shadow , which covers a smaller % of the roof . The suns irradiance is at its greatest this time of day and year so the shadow should not make a great deal of difference in power output . < figure/>Summer time . During the shadow increases and is at its greatest around 3 pm after which the shadow lessens in size . The output at this time will be affected more than the shadows position at . The total energy loss due to shading from this tree will be . The total annual energy output with shading from this tree will be 3353kWh < list> Conclusion - Two options:1 . Ideally the proposed canopy roof would be built away from this tree to avoid the effects on the annual electrical output of the system through shading losses.2 . Remove the tree.7.Power output for un - shaded roof using RETSCREEN ( 10) The system output predicted using software suggests that at a location using mono - silicon at a nominal rated output of 4.6kWh we could generate . This is more than PVSYST , though to be fair we can not directly compare , as we can not choose the same modules or inverter in RETscreen as in PVSYST . < heading>8 . Comparing PVSYST with RETscreen software . ( 2)(10) PVSYST is a comprehensive project design package that has lots of potential . It has great graphical representations of sun path diagrams , data histograms , energy losses . It has the ability to design and view your systems orientation with nearby shading objects such as trees and buildings in 3 - D. The data from these shading factors can then be seen to affect your systems power output . The software is by no means perfect and could be further improved by addition of more features and better navigation throughout pages . annoyance is the fact you can only specify your array size in the ' Preliminary ' and not the ' Project ' sections of the software . This would be immensely helpful when choosing your module types , numbers of and hence size of area taken up by modules . is based on excel spreadsheets and is therefore a case of plug in your values and see how this affects the final values . The spreadsheet trends to over calculate your power output compared to even though it assumes some losses . You are unable to enter the area required in m , only the nominal array power that then automatically predicts the array area in m . There is less choice in module manufacturers to choose from . You can not choose a specific inverter , only the number of inverters but it does allow you to enter the inverter efficiency if you are lucky enough to know it . RETscreen feels and looks more like a ' system costs model ' for business , rather than a piece of software designed specifically for design such as . RETscreen lacks any graphical representations of data or design , and lacks the broader overall features of . The only real advantage of RETscreen over is that the software is free !","Parmenides of Elea 's doctrine is set forth in his poem On Nature , the survival of the remaining lines we owe to Simplicius and Sextus Empiricus [ ] . This is divided into parts , an initial allegorical prologue , and the Way of Appearance or Seeming . The prologue , or proem , tells of how is led to a goddess who lays before him ways : "" That it is and it can not not be "" and "" that it is not and that it must not be""[2 ] . This is immediately discounted as a "" misguided route "" and so is led down the "" Path Of Trust "" , . This leads him to conclusion of ' real ' monism * : That everything is in fact one , indivisible , unchangeable singularity , tò en ( The One)[3 ] . This conclusion is widely regarded as of the most influential arguments in early Western thought as it challenged , and continues to challenge , many preconceptions in scientific thought and much of the evidence we daily see about us . This challenge was felt by many to require a response before any further progress could be made . After this huge achievement , is led by the goddess through , which is concerned with "" the beliefs of mortals , in which there is no true trust""[4 ] . The Way Of Seeming or Appearance consists of a fairly typical cosmology but its entirety is completely in contradiction to the part of his doctrine as it immediately introduces the idea of plurality . There are a number of theories as to why this was included . Among these are interpretations of the reasons the goddess herself gives within the piece about the Way Of Seeming , while still false , being a superior explanation of the world perceived by men and 's ( unfortunately almost certainly ) fictional conversation at between , and Parmenides[5 ] . < fnote>*As opposed to material monism that suggests everything is composed of a single common material < /fnote > Parmenides decision to include a cosmology that he has already ( apparently ) proved to be flawed is an interesting one to say the least . Completely aside from whether or not the Way of Truth is valid or not , which is by far the most hotly debated topic surrounding the doctrine , the Way of Seeming appear to lack much purpose , especially placed as it is , after the section that invalidates it . By 's time he was remembered as a spokesman for singularity rather than for any cosmology . , for one , curtly dismisses the Way Of Seeming [ 6 ] and it is often considered unnecessary even to the extent that appears to have greatly favoured in the lines that he reproduced . This , however , makes it all the more interesting , why included this at all . The reasons to consider are those put forward by the goddess herself that this in fact the best cosmology available to deal with this world of change that we perceive . This is fairly practical as there a number of almost certainly insurmountable difficulties associated with living in a world consisting entirely of a singularity , felt that struggling human beings caught in the twilight world of opinions need a relatively coherent cosmology , for even though it is all a deception there are relatively superior and inferior accounts of the nature of things . Also , earlier in the proem the goddess talks of how Parmenides "" shall learn them [ The beliefs of mortals ] too and come to see how beliefs must exist in an acceptable form , all pervasive as they altogether are "" meaning that it is necessary to think in terms of the beliefs of mortals , ( A slight nod towards ) , we must find a way of accepting them as they are what defines the world around us . However , is not only interested in finding a sensible way to live , the goddess is also keen that is never outstripped by other mortals . This for me is a slightly unnerving as it suggests that is taking himself too literally somewhere and otherwise he seems to be in a fully allegorical mood . Here however , the claims of superiority of the divine argument , with all the deferred praise that this heaps upon the mortal author smacks of a certain arrogance or in fact a fervent belief in the literal meaning of what he is saying . There are suggestions from a number of quarters that ' poem is in no way allegorical and that he was in fact some sort of shaman [ 7 ] but in order to discuss the rationale behind his arguments it seems easier to assume that this was the product of a rational , mortal mind , like the man described by . have been suggested for reconciling the apparent contradictory stances , did much in this field suggesting in the Metaphysics[8 ] that and Seeming are in fact different views of the world , one through the senses and the other through reason . This suggests that we should not perhaps view the goddess ' concept of a singularity as a ontological truth but as an epistemological one . is a perception relying on a priori reasoning rather than the senses and is thus a superior view showing what lies beneath the untrustworthy world of the senses . This image of an underlying world reminds us of the allegory where makes his journey into the underworld to learn of , for Greeks at the time the idea of an underlying world would be easy to assimilate because of their belief in . This leads to the conclusion that the Ways are right and wrong methods of viewing world rather than distinct ones , a difference that was very important to . Some do not take it quite as far , suggesting instead that is really just an important metaphysical truth [ ] with bearing on how how we think about the world but The cosmology stems from the plurality that witnesses upon leaving the Underworld where he has been learning , through the portal of , namely the distinction between light and dark . This duality underpins most of the rest of the cosmology , in a way similar to other philosophies at the time in and , for example teaches "" These , light and darkness , are the world 's eternal ways "" and the principles of manifestation in are yang and yin , often represented as light and darkness . This sort of duality is recurring theme throughout Greek philosophy . Despite the fact that the philosophers have often discovered something of great import through the application of reason , this discovery 's application to the everyday world of the audience was often less than apparent . As is suggested by the goddess , some sort of guide is needed to bridge the gap between the singularity and the world as we see it . ' audience faced similar difficulties , confronted with a deterministic world of atoms and void and being forced , like ' audience , to doubt the evidence of their senses . does not leave the audience in a complete quandary but provides a number of appropriate ethical guidelines and avoids completely turning essentials like free will on their head . These are obviously not strongly dependent on the major part of the doctrine but they guarantee that those who deny or can not follow the previous arguments are left with something to which they can easily reference . This technique of leading listeners to the edge of accepted reason through logical argument and then bringing them slowly back was an important part of the dialectic tradition and a persuasive method . Melissus , a staunch defender of monism , is an excellent example of the division between what reason tells us and the actions we must take on the evidence of the senses , for as well as being a philosopher he was also a military commander of some note . The worlds of warfare and politics do not sit well with changelessness , so through his way of life Melissus demonstrates that it is essential that we view the singularity as epistemological [ ] , if we are to find a way of reconciling the levels of thinking which emerge from On Nature . The philosophies of also ended concluded that there existed levels of perception , the contradictory world above and the underlying union of opposites . Although they disagree in the details it is interesting to notice how pervasive this dualist world view was . This epistemological debate , essentially about the practicality of data obtained through reason as opposed to the unreliability of that obtained through the senses , is divided into the realist and anti - realist camps . Realists hold that there is a world independent of the mind that we can make inferences about this in the form of scientific theories , which can then be used to make predictions about this objective reality . The fact that these theories are often able to predict events remarkably accurately is one of the main arguments for this point of view . The Way Of Seeming does in fact have many things in common with a scientific calculation , for example were you wanting to calculate the orbit of a planet you would not calculate the movement of each individual atom you would approximate and treat the planet as a point . takes the approximation in a slightly different direction , rather than to the material monism of atomism instead to the real monism of the singularity . A final dualism to examine that appears to have at least some of its roots in the doctrine of is Theory Of Ideas . The Forms have a lot of similarities to The , in that they are distinct from "" just the things we see""[11 ] , on a different plane of existence . In argues fairly inconclusively around the idea of the Forms but it is obvious that there he is concurrent with many of the essential ideas and it is their which he contends most strongly . One must be careful when examining the through the medium of the as they are always a mouthpiece for in form or another and one can only hope that their views correspond to history . However , the does raise a number of issues that are not suggested by the fragments of his work . of the most interesting quotations , relating to the uses of and , is from who issues a challenge saying the "" supposition that there is a plurality leads to even more absurd consequences than the hypothesis of the one "" . This is greatly significant , for it suggests and accept that even their is an approximation , a less absurd than the pluralist model , but an approximation all the same . If appreciated this then he certainly puts it in very firm terms within his doctrine but that is to be expected of someone so obviously self - assured in his beliefs and the fact that it was deduced logically does give him a right to have confidence . Parmenides Way Of Truth , however , was , as already mentioned , but of many philosophical world views that contained an underlying layer of order and the fact that so many of these were propounded shows us the beginnings of scientific reductionism , attempting to explain many complex events in terms of simpler more universal entities . Though the Way Of Seeming is widely disregarded by philosophers , because of its outdated cosmology , less significant subject matter and also the discord it strikes with , it is significant in a number of ways . There is the significance that it had at the time to , namely that it gave him a documented cosmology that he could be compared with other thinkers of the time so that he would not have to rely solely on his most cutting edge argument , that of esti and . It also gives his listeners a slightly more secure point of reference one that is not so far from the world views of other . The fact that he reaches the Way Of Seeming with reference to both in his allegorical journey and in the line of the argument means that listeners can perhaps see where there own perspective is flawed in comparison to the Way Of Seeming and from there move on to . Furthermore , the Way Of Seeming , coupled with 's comments in the Parmenides and Melissus ' attitude to life seem to suggest that both of the are epistemological rather than ontological ( suggests that the section would be better titled , as an epistemological method rather than a physical or metaphysical description [ ] ) and refer to different views of the same world . The duality of the Way Of Seeming and the Way Of Truth is actually symptomatic of a wider dualistic theme across the whole of Greek thought , a tradition that has continued to . Many philosophies involve a tier system of belief in which there is a layer of order that explains the higher more chaotic and complex layer , which is a forerunner of 's multi - layered scientific reductionism , with being very similar to the much sought after of physics . In this way the cosmology is a necessity to show the contrast between the layers , and to highlight the significant features of simplicity that contains . is undoubtedly a philosophical work of tremendous significance , highly challenging and highly original , but taken only as the bare bones of dialectic steps it loses a lot of weight and becomes much harder to interpret . There is little enough of remaining as it is and to address Way without the other will lead to a reader missing a number of crucial points regarding ' intentions , an understanding of which is essential if one hopes to grasp the implications of his main doctrine .",0 "At Versailles conference , promoters of the cause immediately realised the international precariousness of their aims to forge the rebirth of an independent state . Moving with caution , , Head of and Commander of the troops , in even went as far as addressing his archrival Dmowski of in as ' My Dear Roman ' in an attempt to reconcile the feuding factions . From the outset , it appeared that 's independence ' would depend almost exclusively on the endeavours of the themselves ' , however , soon after the official acknowledgement of 's , the political struggle grew bitter . It was only the realisation of hostility toward their new western neighbour that forced the antagonistic political forces to work together in a somewhat efficient war cabinet , though even then with the greatest difficulty and resentment . At nearly the same time that peace was concluded with the in the Treaty of Riga , the endeks , as 's National popularly came to be know , managed to pass an overly liberal constitution which left virtually no freedom to the president of the new and much procedural liberty with the endek - dominated parliament . It was immediately recognised as ' a monument to anti- ' , and left bereft of a meaningful role within politics , despite his nationwide fame as 's liberator gained through his successful military operations against the troops in the war of . The seed was thus planted for 's initial decision to overthrow the government in by uncompromising political attitude and wish for political domination . While the direct cause for 's coup d'etat can be said to have sprung from his ' personal ambition and intolerance ' , and obsession ' with the idea of 's unity and greatness ' , it must be added that 's frustrations were partly validated by the sheer incapability of the multitude of governments quickly succeeding each other of dealing with a great number of urgent and pressing matters . Thus , the reasons for the collapse of parliamentary democracy in and the subsequent usurpation of power by the aggressors thereafter can be brought back to a number of reasons , of which 's ' own fundamental weaknesses , the instability of its institutions , and its irresponsible governments , as well as to the active and passive faults of are the most important and general ones . < fnote > , Politics in , . ( , ) , p. . < /fnote> , ' , , and the Development of the Polish Republic ' in , ( ed . ) , between the Wars , ( , ) , p. . < /fnote> , in the Twentieth Century - And After ( / , ) , p. . < /fnote> Hugh Seton - Watson , The East European Revolution ( , ) , p. . < /fnote> Alexandra Piłsudska , . A Biography by His Wife ( , ) , p. . < /fnote> , Return to Diversity . A Political History of Since ( , ) , p. . < /fnote > The list of problems and grievances that the young state was thrust into from was indeed impressive . While basic issues , such as the development of a political system and the role of minorities in the new state still had to be addressed , was confronted with ' a veritable fight for survival ' . < fnote > , ' in , ( ed . ) , between the Wars , ( , ) , p. . < /fnote > National unity was far to be sought . The dominion claimed by included vast numbers of minorities with loyalties elsewhere . Of inhabitants not even 70 per cent were , while per cent were of other decent and of the population were , often not speaking and many opposed to the establishment of a nation . The same went for the small minority of , whom , by conducing themselves ' in manner that was at once provocative and calculated to give notice that it regarded its status in , and herself , as temporary ' , outraged the majority . A long struggle between and her minorities persisted throughout the interbellum period . While it has been noted that ' [ n]othing the did was ever right , as far as [ the Jews ] were concerned ' , there was little effort on the government 's side to draw the into appreciated and meaningful participation of national life . On the contrary , when 's president , , came to be elected with support of the bloc of minority parties , he was murdered within after his election by the . Despite the endeks ' initial condemnation of the murderer , whom saw the election of a minority - dependent president as a ' symbol of shame ' , he was later celebrated as a nationalistic hero . Generally , the antagonistic sense existed , in which when the minorities , with the little representation they had in parliament , exercised their rightful power , it was seen as invalid and unjustified by a wide range of centre - right and rightist Polonocentric parties , thus blocking the way for meaningful political participation of the minorities . < fnote , , p. . < /fnote> , ' Minorities in Early Inter - War Poland ' in , ( ed . ) , between the Wars , ( , ) , p. . < /fnote> Ibid , p. . < /fnote> , A History of Modern Poland . From in to the Present Day ( , ) , p. . < /fnote> Ibid , p. . < /fnote > While , to some degree , all political factions agreed with 's insistence on ' complete independence for , [ ... ] sceptical of the value of co - operation with any ' , little was done to involve the and minorities in decision - making of their lot , even though 's border with came to run ' far to the east of that originally suggested by Lord ' during the Versailles conference . 's ideal of a federal model incorporating largely autonomous minority factions were soon defeated ; instead there existed ' acrimony and distrust , a sort of internal war ' . Moreover , while the minorities did little to contribute to a ' modus vivendi ' , a sense of community spirit , which might have brought more peaceful social relations , many themselves were unrealistic and intolerant about the formal and informal shape society must take . This had not only racial , but also religious , economic and political reasons . Pre - war conditions of many created a resentful attitude toward minorities and this made it hard to deal with the minorities in a fair way . < fnote > Seton - Watson , The East European Revolution , p. . < /fnote> Stachura , ' , p. . < /fnote> Ibid , p. . < /fnote> Polonsky , Politics in , p. . < /fnote > Politically and economically antagonistic views were from the onset a mutually enforcing problem , which caused great obstacles for the creation of a healthily functioning government . Additionally , the multitude of independence parties which had formerly existed , maintained their air of secrecy and ' conspiratorial character ' even when government bodies had been created , which had disastrous results in the conflict between and , which took its toll on 's national interest . The passing of an overly liberal constitution based on that of at the end of the - Russian war in resulted in extreme factionism ; by , there existed parties , of which around parties were at times represented in the . As parliament held most power within the political structure , governments found it very difficult to pass reforms . The economy , in particular , proved a disastrously antagonising force . Extreme inflation , such as in , where food prices with a unitary value of "" "" in rose to "" "" in , brought several governments to fall , while rising unemployment caused , the , to organise strikes throughout and . Dmowski and his endecja became increasingly entangled in their bid for power . While land reform was the way out for a country too poor to introduce any significantly contributing industrialisation , the National , with many landowning members , were reluctant to land redistribution of any real importance , which in turn caused the anomosity of the peasant parties . This , in all , caused land reforms to be rather ineffective and certainly insufficient . A sense of lingering problems thus left a general discontent throughout all layers of society . < fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote> Stachura , ' , p. . < /fnote> Stachura , ' Historiographical Outline ' , p. . < /fnote> Polonsky , Politics in , , p. . < /fnote> Roos , A History of Modern Poland , p. - 7 . < /fnote > Additional to internal problems , came the issue of 's national security . continued a revisionist policy of regaining its former areas and southeastern from . This caused a particular as had no natural defensive barrier and the western powers , although they ratified 's borders to the east , took little affirmative action against 's revisionist campaign , which lent its support to in and in a number of ways , thus destabilising the nation through what was essentially a very small percentage of its population . < fnote > Rothschild , Return to Diversity , p. . < /fnote> Stachura , ' , p. . < /fnote > Another form of support to the new independent state which was pressingly lacking was financial aid . Having of its roads , railways and public buildings destroyed during , and a continuing expenditure of over 50 per cent of the state budget on defense and the railway system , the government lacked the essential funds to modernise industry and thus create employment . The absence of foreign loans and apparent disinterest in creating political stability from the western powers might have done much to help establish a parliamentary democratic routine . Thus , when the foreign office sneeringly contradicted allegation of involvement in 's coup d'etat in a telegram to its ambassador in , arguing that ' [ the ] are of less consequence to us than they suppose ' , this revealed much of its indifferent attitude towards politics as well . < fnote > Roos , A History of Modern Poland , p. . < /fnote> Ibid , p. . < /fnote> Polonsky , Politics in , p. . < /fnote > The exigent situation that was in did not go unnoticed . Piłsudksi , embittered by the course of events since , grew increasingly convinced that ' parliamentarianism had [ ... ] opened the door to general corruption ' . But not just was displeased with the situation . Much of the - cadre , frustrated with of ineffective government and endek domination , now turned their hopes to , which prompted theorist to foreshadowingly argue in : ' He can not be made into a left - wing ' . leader argued that political immaturity of the state was the main cause for political feuding , but , in , also urged for immediate constitutional reforms empowering the presidential post in order to contain parliamentary quarreling . < fnote > Roos , A History of Modern Poland , p. . < /fnote> Ibid , p. . < /fnote> Not just the opposition of the left had their thoughts about the functioning of the state . In , wrote ' if we could create even the organization like the ... I would willingly agree to a dictatorship in ' . Discontents with the democratic procedure and democracy as such proved different degrees of the same slippery slope , as it soon turned out . University students radicalised under the prospect of unemployment and resented the apparent greater success of their peers ; they formed the leadership of fascist movements that were to increase their power - base throughout . < fnote > , Politics in , . ( , ) , p. . < /fnote> Seton - Watson , The East European Revolution , p. . < /fnote > Overwhelmed by problems of such dimensions , historians have argued , ' some action [ ... ] seems in retrospect to have been almost inevitable ' within the political landscape . This seems , however , an unlikely viewpoint and it is worthwhile considering what other course of events politics might have taken . An internal conflict in 's course of action appears quite clearly , as when in , when is requested to take over the rule of the country by factions of the army . He claimed he ' would never be a cause of trouble and dissention in the ' . It seems , from this , to have been rather a passionate , naturalistic sense of justice that drove him to carry out the coup d'etat than a positivistic , legal course of action . Already earlier in had shown this duality in his character . By declining a bid for the presidency , he proudly refused ' to be enclosed in a ' gilded cage '' , while apparently seeing no value in attempting reforms through coalition in the . Rather than acknowledging his objections to domination , he slid further back into the trappings of "" moral dictatorship "" , hereby only united the body politic in their opposition against his rule . Thus , the peasant parties united in the to resist political persecution , while his own rule alienated moderate supporters of his "" parliamentary dictatorship "" . While open confrontation with the initially supportive socialists became ever more discernible , still drew a legitimacy from the backing of the 's members , which became , however , increasingly difficult to forge . When , in , he personally came to reopen the accompanied by armed officers , refused to open the session ' under the threat of bayonets , guns and sabres ' , abstained from openly breaching the constitution by forcefully opening the session . The failure of 's coup must thus been assessed within his own framework of legitimacy , which was to "" cleanse "" the parliamentary body politic . ' It is the basis of democracy , for which there is always place in ' , he still argued in . By , a number of oppositionist politicians were arrested , held captive and tortured . When eventually a number of politicians chose exile rather than imprisonment , was as far as ever from his ideal of a federalist republic . His cabinets governed for simpy by repeatedly adjourning the Sejm ' . Growing older , became an increasingly mistrustful statesman , believing in before his death that ' the nation had reached real unity at last ' . In reality , the new 1935 ' formally put an end to democracy ' , calling in a period known as the "" rule of the colonels "" which incorporated a mixture of nationalism and fascism . < fnote > Polonsky , Politics in , p. . < /fnote> Piłsudska , , p. . < /fnote> Seton - Watson , The East European Revolution , p. . < /fnote> , ' Protection for Obedience ' , , URL : P_SGvaU6aDYJ : web.mit.edu / polisci / research / cohen / protection_for_obediance.pdf+cohen+obedience+and+protection&hl = nl&ie = ( ) < /fnote> Roos , A History of Modern Poland , p. . < /fnote> Polonsky , Politics in , p. . < /fnote> Roos , A History of Modern Poland , p. . < /fnote> Ibid , p. . < /fnote> Piłsudska , , p. . < /fnote> Seton - Watson , The East European Revolution , p. . < /fnote> By carrying out a coup d'etat , essentially interfered forcefully with the democratic institutions . While initially hesitant , the sanacja 's breeches of the constitution and civil rights were increasingly necessary for to maintain power . This , however , had detrimental effects on the democratic institutions and increasingly alienated many parts of society from his government . Being insufficiently successful in curbing further economic regression into the and failing to integrate increasingly militant groups of minorities , failures played in the hand of the right , which made a comeback in radical form , while his sanacja leadership was increasingly chosen from a clique of military cronies . 's coup d'etat of proved , thus , not only to be ineffective on theoretical grounds , but also on practical grounds , eventually breaking with 's personal visions on good statesmanship . < fnote > Polonsky , Politics in , p. . < /fnote>","The emergence of the sociological school of ethnomethodology in created a shock wave across the sociological establishment . Its revision of social norms and their relation to the social action springing from individual cases of social interaction was indeed deemed so radical that stories exist of ' ethnomethodologists being fired from their jobs simply because they were ethnomethodologists ' ( Craib : ) . However , what may at glance appear a drastically individualistic approach to social relations theory must be seen as embedded within a wider philosophical and social scientific critique of the value of conventional types of knowledge ( Alexander ) . Ethnomethodology asserts that functionalist theory lays an exaggerated amount of emphasis on collectivity within social relations , crystallised in organisations and norms of interaction that are derived therefrom . By theorising a consistent system of norms , subsequent data gathered from social observation are then "" made to fit "" within this system . These data are , as traditional sociology has it , ' as it were , readily waiting ' ( Silverman : ) to be categorised . This , however , naturally creates a tension , as ' the meaning employed by those we study - their norms , values , attitudes and beliefs ; the rules which govern their conduct - are treated as if their meaning were unproblematic ' ( Craib : ) . This can even be observed to be the case in highly advanced social theories , as the overarching theoretical grid still requires the classification of a highly contestable and unstable social reality "" out there "" : ' To employ such ' operational ' or ' theory - laden ' categories is not to escape the ascriptive or imputative work that ordinary action - concept usages carry with them ' ( Coulter : ) . By failing to observe the complication characteristic of such norm - attribution , sociologists fall into the trap of taking sets of typification for granted , thereby tacitly avoiding the ' problem of concealed , commonsense commitments ' ( Coulter : ) to which all social actors involved conform . Instead , according to ethnomethodologists , the only way to avoid adding to such a body of affirmative "" folk sociology "" is to ' seek to understand the process of experiencing ' ( Silverman : ) , by searching for the underlying motivation of action of each social actor . Such a methodology abstains from explaining social phenomena in immediate relation to abstract , theoretical norms , deriving actual interaction from alternative , everyday commonsensical approaches to social interaction , which have also been described as "" - order typifications "" , ' typifications of our common - sense typifications which order the social world in a rational way ' ( Craib : ) . Instead of taking methods of social ordering for granted , the sociologist may then concern himself or herself with ' the manner in which members use rules to do the work of defining and interpreting actions ' ( Silverman : ) . In this essay I shall discuss the D. case study of "" the code "" , a semi - formal normative body maintained as the set of social rules by which residents in a ' rehabilitative facility for narcotic - addict felons on parole ' ( Wieder 1974 : ) claim to measure the validity of their social action . This ethnomethodological ethnographic study may provide interesting insights into how , for all actors involved in any organisational structure , ' talk and action are produced and understood as indexical displays of the everyday world ' ( Cicourel : ) . The problematic relation discovers between the norms as he has them explained to him , and as he sees those norms put in practice reveals the usefulness for , ' not a commonsense sociology but a sociology of commonsense ' ( Silverman : ) , an often arbitrary and precarious battlefield for social power negotiation . I shall thereafter also look at the limitations of such an approach to sociological studies . In his analysis of the role of "" telling the code "" , begins by looking more closely at the way in which he personally internalised its meaning . As he received information on the content of "" the code "" piecemeal , it became necessary to create an internal schema for understanding it . In this way , it became possible to interpret further bits of information , while simultaneously elaborating the internal system into a generic and constantly expanding body of understanding . ' Each newly encountered ' piece ' of talk was simultaneously rendered sensible by interpreting it in terms of the developing relevancies of the code and was , at the same time , more evidence of the existence of that code ' ( Wieder 1974 : ) . , points out the indexical functioning of the "" code system "" : the various norms at the core serve to interpret behaviour which is said to be based on it . However , this "" indexing "" of behaviour was not quite an unproblematic or effortless method . Behavioural significance was rendered only ' meaningful in the ways that it was said socially - in - a - context ' ( Wieder 1974 : ) . While initially observed that he related residents ' uncooperative attitudes quite naturally to the norms described in the convict code , he found that such categorisation could at times be rather arbitrary , resulting in situations in which < quote > ' ... either chosen alternative would be equally plausible interpretations in terms of the same rule , even though the alternatives propose opposite actions . [ ... ] Instead of ' predicting ' behavior , the rule is actually employed as an interpretative device ' ( Wieder 1974 : > According to , all of residents ' behaviour was , in the end , placed , and thereafter rendered rational , in the light of the convict code . It created , for the observer , a method in which social ' ... order and orderliness is accomplished - that is , it involves interpretive "" work "" ' ( Silverman : ) . In the light of such formalistic social meta - theories as 's , the position of residents is understandable in terms of the social force of the convict code weighing upon them as an "" institutionalised "" norms of interaction . This position , however , fails to see the manipulative , indefinite character of the convict code , using instead ' the fact of norm compliance to assume that [ the residents ' ] action has a compliant character , that it is passive and conformistic rather than active and constructing ' ( Alexander : ) . In opposition to this , ethnomethodology , rather taking an individualistic stance , argues that in the enactment of norms ( in this case described as "" telling the code "" ) , ' there is negotiation vis - à - vis [ the meaning of these ] rules ' . In a similar vein , has argued that ' this [ ... ] environment of objects can not be tied easily to notions like status , role and norms , employed by actors in less structured or controlled everyday situations ' ( Cicourel : ) . In other words , norms only derive meaning from their enactment , which is continually negotiated and whose stability depends on the degree of acceptance which the various social actors concede to the meaning contained within the enactment . Under normal circumstances , the process of norm negotiation takes place without great complication , as ' we are frequently engaged in making connections in our descriptions ' ( Coulter : ) . In this process of "" making sense "" of the social stimuli around us , we draw upon previous experience , thus arriving at ' a series of commonsense constructs [ which we ] have pre - selected and pre - interpreted [ from ] this world which [ we ] experience as the reality of their daily lives ' ( in Coulter : ) . Beyond this , the analogy of "" making sense "" extends further in the sense of serving the purpose of creating structural coherence and predictability in our perception of the world that we experience . A convincing set of behavioural rules such as the convict code is necessary to order the residents ' forms of social interaction , which is , in fact , ' knowledge [ that ] is itself inherently unstable , something which is created anew in each encounter ' ( Craib : ) . The precariousness of resident - staff interaction is pointed out by its strong dependence on contextuality . With "" the code "" in mind as an interpretative tool , all actors involved ( which in this case may involve the residents , members of staff and the observer ) , continually scan incoming social stimuli for recognisable modes of behaviour which may contextually seem logical . In doing this , variables as the particular social actors , the setting and the timing play an indispensable role for practices of indexing , i.e. , "" sense - making "" ( Cicourel : , ) . In this context , staff 's reaction to residents ' ' problematic acts ' were not confronted as subversive behaviour ; rather was their character now converted ' into instances of a familiar pattern ' ( Wieder 1974 : ) . In this way , the facility 's staff utilised the convicts ' code in order ' to formulate a recognizable coherent story , standard , typical , cogent , uniform , planful , i.e. , a professionally defensible , and thereby , for members , a recognizably rational account ' ( Garfinkel in Alexander : ) . Unsurprisingly , sees "" telling the code "" in the place as a means of justification of the chosen course of action . By "" telling the code "" , residents explain and justify why they will not cooperate in certain situations or answer certain questions posed by staff . By accepting the code , staff , in turn , account for residents ' uncooperativeness in activities and rehabilitative procedures . < quote>''Telling the code ' provided staff with a useful way of talking about residents and themselves which portrayed both teams as more or less reasonable and more or less helpless to change the character of the relationship between the teams , because of the social - fact character ( in 's sense ) of the regularities made available by ' telling the code ' which were none of anybody 's specific doing or responsibility ' ( Wieder 1974 : 151) Interesting is 's reference to : in "" telling the code "" , all social actors in the facility render types of social interaction institutionalised , thereby attempting to ( though not actually ) reifying them ( 's "" social facts "" ) . With this , however , the door is only just opened to further and more penetrating interpretations of action - motivation . Ethnomethodology points out that , in order to gain real understanding that means something , ' intentions and the actor 's views are always potentially relevant and must be taken into account ' ( in Coulter : ) . Indeed , by assuming interpretation ends at normative causality , sociologists inevitably miss out on the politics underlying social action ( Coulter : , Silverman : ) . The darker , more precarious side of social interaction lies in the tensions of power underneath its surface . Ethnomethodology does not deny the existence of a "" common culture "" , and this would be an absurd claim to make ( : ) ; however , the precariousness of social interaction is exactly that what this "" common culture "" is not : individuals may challenge the existing order by either directly confronting it , or , more subtly , by manipulating its general traits to their advantage . Whether this challenge is pursued consciously or not is , strictly spoken , not relevant ; as asserts , ' One may have to intend to lie in order to lie , but need not intend to deceive in order to deceive ' ( in Coulter : ) . An analogy may here be found in the functioning of penal codes , in that ' the fit is ' managed ' through negotiating socially organized activities ' ( Cicourel : ) in which both hidden and open methods of manipulation are used . The position takes in his account of the role of the convict code draws on the traditions of both radically challenging all knowledge in a systematic way , and emphasising the inescapable burdens of responsibility that social action brings with it . It is therefore no surprise that ' phenomenological sociology , existential sociology , [ and ] the sociology of everyday life ' ( Craib : ) are often mentioned in conjunction with one another . The indefiniteness of society described by such a sociology stresses a few characteristics . In the place , we can observe that social "" roles "" have a dynamic character that extends beyond the immediately observable social surface . It can be observed that ' the dynamic aspect of status or office and such is always influenced by factors other than the stipulations of the position itself ' ( David in : ) . From this follows , , that the situational placement of social interaction takes an important place in determining its meaning , i.e. it is not just about what actors speak , but more importantly about how communication takes place ( Garfinkel in Alexander : ) . , the constant change in interpretation of social norms results in an extreme degree of relativism invoked by ethnomethodology ( Craib : ) . In assuming the ' "" adequate "" or "" appropriate "" operational definitions ' ( Silverman : ) , staff of the "" halfway house "" avoided facing up to the existential question of where this appropriateness was derived from . Thus , can ultimately only conclude thing : '' Telling the code ' masked what was ' really going on ' at the halfway house - what was ' really going on ' was residents ' pursuing their immediate interests by fabricating instances of ' telling the code ' which deceived me and the staff ' ( Wieder 1974 : ) . Naturally , 's approach is not free from criticism . It can , in the place , be said that it gives a rather cynical , or at least extremely sceptical account the natural course that social interaction takes within the example of his case study . While underlying forces may be at work in social interaction , it is entirely possible that even the social actors involved are not aware of them . Residents in the facility may , in fact , feel that behaviour represents a genuine reflection of the loyalty and distrust that the convict code at varying times demands of him . Likewise , it is not unrealistic to think that staff generally recognises the "" realness "" of the code and in instances acts in accordance with it to protect certain individual residents . In other words , the convict code is not entirely without justified grounded . This problem brings under discussion the extent to which the freedom to negotiate socials norms actually exists . Regarded as a whole , society can be said to be rather more stable than the claims from within the ethnomethodological perspective . Thus , while 's approach may be laudably seen to attempt to incorporate ' a genuine humanism in an ideological sense ' , it can be asked ' [ w]hether this moral humanism is theoretically justified ' ( Alexander : ) . In his account of how the convict code is to be interpreted , emphasises how it obtains a indexical status . Rather like the coding system of books in a library , its norms serve to interpret rather than to describe it . Thus , norms serve as a tacit justification of real events , for both social actors and the sociologist . A truer account of events , is , however , more complicated . By accepting norms as motivation and authentic drives of social actors , the convict code came to serve as a tool of rendering behaviour logical and coherent . For staff , this tool justified an acceptance of nonconformist behaviour from the residents ' side , while the residents often successfully manipulated it to their direct advantage . This underlying differentiation reveals the political and arbitrary nature of social norms , however developed and "" theory - laden "" . In his approach to sociology , , and the wider school of ethnomethodologists , build upon the work of phenomenology and existentialism to show the inescapability of situational variables in the everyday context of social interaction . Thus , the "" what "" of social norms must separated from the "" how "" of interpretation , and subsequently analysed at a different level . This approach , however , has not remained uncriticised . Many sociologists deem the extent of manipulative power that ethnomethodologists award the individual with unrealistic . According to them , behaviour is more context - bound and can be seen to be derived from this context . In that case , 's account of the convict code serves , foremostly , as an existential reminder of the forces underlying our everyday commonsense social interaction . .",1 "< abstract> Summary The purpose of this assignment was to design and construct a Wheatstone Deflection Bridge and amplifier system in order to measure and analyse the change in output under loading . The stage involved applying a force to the end of the cantilever beam by stacking washers onto the end . This enabled the sensitivity of the system to be calculated . The system was also analysed using a computer software package to record the output . It was possible to determine the resonant frequency of the system after it was disturbed by analysing a graph of output voltage against time . The system had a low pass filter added in order to reduce the noise that would have reduced the accuracy of all the readings . < /abstract>1 . Introduction The investigation involved the use a cantilever beam with strain gauges attached to the top and bottom at the same distance along the beam . The application of force at the end of the beam causes a variation in the resistance in the strain gauges . This variation can be measured by analysing the output voltage produced by the system , called a Wheatstone Deflection Bridge . The Voltage must be amplified to a suitable level since the output of the bridge is in the order of millivolts . set up is shown in Figure . < picture/>The signal must be amplified because the output is very small . The amplified signal can be displayed either by an oscilloscope or digital voltmeter . The process is illustrated as a flow diagram in figure . The method section outlines how the system was used to measure the strain variation in the beam caused by loading the end of the beam with washers . < picture/>As well as the analysis using the digital voltmeter , a computer package was used to record the change in output voltage with time . The software package is called Labview . The bridge and amplifier system used in the part of the investigation can be plugged into a computer and the system analysed by the program . The program allows the user to record the output voltage for a given length of time at any chosen sample rate . For example ; samples to be collected at a sample rate of samples per will cause the program to record the system for and collect enough sample to plot a very accurate graph of output voltage against time . The results can be used to calculate the resonant frequency of the system when disturbed and also the length of time it takes to stabilise . < heading>2 . Theory and Calculation Figure shows the Wheatstone bridge setup with dimensions for the beam and the distance from the built - in end to the strain gauges . < picture/>The beam is made of steel which has a modulus of elasticity of GPa . The is given by the following equation : , where x is the distance from the built in end to the strain gauges , w is the width of the beam , t is the thickness , l is the length , E is the modulus of elasticity of the beam material and F is the force applied at the end of the beam . The dimensions measure with a standard ruler . Using the dimensions from Figure the equation becomes : FORMULA FORMULA . This equation of FORMULA in terms of the force suggests that the system is not very sensitive to changes in force because the coefficient of force is very small . The thickness of the beam is a more influential factor because the strain varies inversely with the square of this dimension . If we assume that the gauges are located at or near the beam support and have the maximum moment we can estimate the maximum loading force using the given values : E=210 GPa and . FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA . If we now combine this with the expression for strain in terms of force we can calculate the maximum force . FORMULA FORMULA . In theory the system should be able to support a load of about 3 N which corresponds to an applied mass of . The bridge has a supply voltage of from a battery . Balancing the bridge allows us to measure very small changes in output voltage . Figure shows the circuit diagram for the system . R 1 and R 2 are the strain gauges . < figure/>The output voltage is equal to V BD which is equal to the sum of the voltages across R 1 and R 4 ( V BA and V DA ) . FORMULA Since . The above equation can be rewritten in the form : FORMULA . To balance the bridge we need to set the output voltage to . For this to occur either the input voltage must be ( which it clearly wo n't be ) or the top section of the resistance fraction must equal . Thus for the bridge to be balanced : FORMULA . Since we are going to be measuring the output voltage of the system we need to relate this to the changing resistance of the strain gauges . If R 1 and R 2 represent the resistance of the stain gauges then we can express the change in resistance when a force is applied to the beam as follows : FORMULA For the investigation the value of the resistors R 3 and R 4 are 1KΩ . If these resistors have the same value then the conditions for balancing results in R 1 and R 2 also having the same value . The change in output voltage can now be expressed as follows : FORMULA . Since as explained above the resistances are all the same ; , we can express the change in output voltage as : FORMULA . If we substitute in the values for the resistance and the input voltage to the bridge we get an expression for the change in output voltage as : FORMULA . The amplifier that was chosen needed to have again , the closer to being the more favourable . The amplifier was a non - inverting type ( shown in Figure below ) and the resistors were chosen using the following calculations . A non - inverting amplifier was chosen over the inverting type because it has a high output impedance and the integration of a low pass filter in the form of a capacitor is very simple . < figure/>The gain of a non - inverting amplifier is given by : FORMULA In order to calculate values for R 1 and R 2 we set the gain at : FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA Using this we set R 1= 1 MΩ and R . A problem associated with this set - up is that of noise . To counter this problem a low pass filter can be added in the form of a capacitor . For the addition of the capacitor we are given that RC = . The R referred to here is the R 1 of the amplifier set up ( see Figure ) not the R 1 in the bridge set up : FORMULA FORMULA . We therefore use a capacitor with a capacitance of μF. < heading>3 . Method This section describes the process of the investigation and the implementation of the theory outlined in the above section . was set up as shown in Figure . A V battery was attached as the power supply . The resistors each have a resistance of 1000 Ω. The next step involved constructing the non - inverting amplifier using a ' breadboard ' with a operational amplifier provided . The amplifier was set up using the resistors of and as calculated in the ' Theory and Calculations ' section . A digital voltmeter was connected to the circuit to display the output voltage of the system . The system was also zeroed using the potentiometer . To measure the change in output voltage a force was applied to the end of the cantilever beam by placing washers on the peg . Each washer has a mass of g ( or ) . A table of output voltage against mass was created by adding washers to the beam . A graph of output voltage against force was then drawn to calculate the sensitivity of the system . Having analysed the system using a digital voltmeter the system was then connected up to a computer . The computer software is able to record the output voltage over a period of time at any given sampling rate . Recordings were made of the following scenarios : < list > Static without the capacitorOscillating with the capacitor present in the systemOscillating without the capacitor In order to record the oscillating beam it was held down to its maximum deflection and released . It was left to oscillate freely until it came to rest . of output voltage against time were created by transferring the data from the program into . < heading>4 . Results and Discussion The graph of output voltage against force from the experiment with the washers is shown in the appendix . The graph is very much linear all the way . A trend line has been added so that the sensitivity of the systems can be calculated . The sensitivity is given by the gradient therefore this system has a sensitivity of -1 . The maximum force that was applied to the system is shown on the graph as just under 0.05 N. This is well below the theoretical maximum force of about 3 N that was calculated earlier in this report . This explains why the graph is linear up to the maximum value that was applied in the test . It should be noted that it was not possible to approach the maximum load of N because the peg at the end of the beam was not tall enough to accommodate the required number of washers . The linear range can however be calculated using the maximum load and the equation shown on the graph that we found the sensitivity from : FORMULA FORMULA . This means that the linear range goes from up to V if the maximum for of N is applied . The output of the system depends on the strain . The strain in turn depends on the force applied and the dimensions of the beam . To measure the influence of each parameter let us consider the equation for strain : FORMULA . The parameters that affect the output voltage are therefore l , x , w , t , E and F. We can see that the strain varies linearly with all of these except the thickness of the beam ( t ) . The strain varies inversely with the square of the thickness , thus we can say that this is the most influential parameter . The system would be significantly more sensitive if we reduced the thickness of the beam . It is possible to work out the maximum possible change in resistance using the maximum strain ( εmax ) , the gauge factor ( G ) and the unstrained resistance of the strain gauges ( R o ) . The maximum strain is equal to , the gauge factor is and the unstrained resistance of the gauges is 1000 Ω. Using the relationship : FORMULA FORMULA . This value of R max corresponds to the maximum force that the system can support , which is N. The graph of output voltage against time for the oscillating system with the low pass filter is shown in the appendix . It is possible to calculate the resonant frequency of the system using this graph . If we count the number of peaks to the second we can see that there are . This gives us an estimate for the resonant frequency of Hz . A more accurate method would be to use the exact time coordinates of peaks or troughs and then to apply the expression : . Selected troughs have time coordinates of ms and ms . Putting these values into the above expression will give us a more accurate value for the resonant frequency : FORMULA . We can also use the graph to work out how long it takes for the system to stabilise after being disturbed . To do this we can use both the graph of the oscillating system with the low pass filter in place and the graph showing the same scenario without the low pass filter ( also shown in the appendix ) . The graph without the low pass filter shows up the noise more than the one with the filter but they are both useful for determining the length of time it takes for the system to settle . In both cases the line appears to stabilise just short of . The graph showing output voltage against time when no load is applied and no filter is in place ( shown in the appendix ) highlights the level of noise the system has if we do n't have the low pass filter . We will now consider whether the ambient temperature will affect the measured results . The error or change in length of a dimension can be expressed using the following equation : , where α is the thermal expansion coefficient of the material , L o is the original length at a temperature of ° C and ∆T is the change in temperature . The thermal expansion coefficient for steel is -6 / ° C and the temperature variations where virtually . This means that temperature would have had little effect on our measured results since α is very small and ∆T is also very small . < heading>5 . Conclusion The Wheatstone Deflection Bridge system was tested using methods . In both cases a non - inverting amplifier was constructed in order to amplify the output signal front the system . The amplifier increased the signal form the order of millivolts to volts . The test involving the application of force by placing washers on the end of the beam gave us the information we needed to calculate the sensitivity of the system . The sensitivity was found to be VN -1 . Of the parameters that affect the output of the system , the thickness of the cantilever beam was found to be the most influential . The maximum load that the bridge could support was calculated to be N. This was not possible to get close to however because the equipment was not capable of accommodating the required number of washers . The resulting graph of output voltage against force was therefore completely linear . The test involving the computer software allowed us to calculate the resonant frequency of the system if it is disturbed and left to settle . It was estimated to be Hz . The system took to settle after being disturbed . It was also found that the output voltage settled nearer to much faster if a low pass filter was present in the system . The system could be improved by using a more sensitive beam . This could be achieved by reducing the thickness of the beam . The peg at then end should be taller so that enough washers can be added to reach the maximum load of N. Although the temperature was shown not to have a significant effect on the experiment , a material with a lower thermal expansion coefficient for the beam would be an improvement . The measurements of the dimensions were done using a standard ruler . More accurate measuring equipment would result in a more accurate calculation of the strain .","< abstract> Summary: Drag plays an important role in vehicle design . There a types of drag mechanism whose significance depends on the type of body that the fluid must flow past . In all cases we seek to reduce the drag . For a racing car this is particularly important along with generating downforce . < /abstract> Introduction: Drag is a force that is generated as a result of a body blocking the path of a fluid flow . This force can be expressed by the following equation : FORMULA < fnote>""Engineering Data Book "" ( ed ) ed . < /fnote > The coefficient of drag ( C D ) can be analysed using dimensional analysis . We assume that drag is a function of fluid density ρ , viscosity μ , free stream velocity , a linear dimension of the body l , weight of the body per unit mass g ( acceleration due to gravity ) , surface tension σ and bulk modulus K. < fnote > Analysis from JF , , JA Swaffield "" Fluid mechanics "" ed . < /fnote > FORMULA FORMULA . Substituting in the dimensions : FORMULA . Equating indices : , therefore FORMULA . , therefore FORMULA . . From which FORMULA FORMULA . Therefore FORMULA FORMULA . , FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA so that : FORMULA . Compare with our original equation for drag : FORMULA . Since for a body of a fixed shape FORMULA , where l is a numerical constant and incorporating the constant ½ as well as l into the function FORMULA such that , we obtain FORMULA FORMULA The drag coefficient is therefore a dimensionless quantity that is determined by dimensionless groups . < heading > Design Solutions: The level and type of drag depends on the shape of the body . Bluff and streamlined bodies are both subject to drag forces , but of a different nature . For bluff bodies it is pressure drag that dominates . This is caused by adverse pressure gradients resulting in a low pressure area at the rear of the body . The adverse pressure gradient causes the boundary layer to separate ( see figure ) and a wake forms . The wake exists in the form of eddies that flow in a rotary manner and where the fluid pressure is low . The size of the wake depends on the point at which the boundary layer separates . It is desirable to delay the separation so that the wake is as small as possible and hence the pressure drag will be lower because the pressure difference between the front and rear of the body will be smaller . < figure/>In the case of streamlined bodies the boundary layer separation takes place very near to the rear of the body . The pressure drag is not that significant ( although still a factor ) . In this case it is the skin friction drag that is dominant . This type of drag is caused by the action of viscosity in the boundary layer setting up shear forces that act on the body . We can relate the mechanisms to a coach and a racing car . The coach is not at all aerodynamic and therefore the pressure drag will be dominant . A racing car is designed to minimise drag and maximise downforce . The car is made with stream lining in mind and therefore skin friction is an important factor . The generation of negative lift does however cause a separation of the boundary layer and so pressure drag is of more significance to a racing car than to a purely streamlined body that does not need to generate downforce . < figure/>The relationship between drag and turbulence has been touched upon above . The turbulence in the wake causes the low pressure and hence pressure drag . The turbulent boundary layer is also important . The turbulent boundary layer separates less easily than the laminar boundary layer . The turbulence in the boundary layer causes the streamlines to move closer together at the rear of the body thus increasing the pressure at the rear of the body hence reducing pressure drag . The design of a car is completely under the control of engineers working on different aspects such as chassis , engine , suspension , tyres , aerodynamics etc . The aesthetics are important because a car needs to look good to sell but also it must be aerodynamically efficient . There is a compromise that must be reached . We can estimate the drag force exerted on a coach by modelling it as a rectangular cross section . We will assume that the cross section is m x m. Existing data for drag coefficients gives a value of for such a body . < fnote > Streeter , , "" . < /fnote > Calculation of drag force and power required to travel at : FORMULA The density of air is FORMULA . FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA . The most aerodynamically efficient design for a racing car is shown on the right below and a calculation for the drag force and power output required to attain a speed of follows . Existing data for the design on the right gives a value for C D of . The cross section can be modelled as an ellipse with an area of m . < fnote > JA Roberson , T Crowe "" Fluid Mechanics "" 1997 Wiley < /fnote > FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA . Scale models can be used in a wind tunnel to model the air flow over a prototype design . The conditions for model testing are geometric similarity , kinematic similarity and dynamic similarity FORMULA . This is hard to achieve . A huge wind tunnel is needed which must also be pressurised in order to achieve the same number for model and prototype . Other techniques would be by the use of computer programs using computational fluid dynamics . This reduces amount of wind tunnel testing but is not yet advanced enough to allow for no physical testing at all . < heading > Conclusions: Drag occurs as a result of the interruption of a flow by a body . It is a function primarily of the number and also of other dimensionless numbers . In vehicle design it is desirable to reduce drag but there is always a compromise between the best aerodynamic solution and the aesthetics .",1 "< abstract> Summary The whole world is undergoing what is now an unavoidable change in climate and how and the extent to which this will affect people will range substantially from region to region . How the water supplies and water - related disease in semi - arid areas such as the grasslands of , , The and parts of will be affected by the changes is investigated in this report . The water supply in these areas will be diminished by changes in precipitation , evaporation and soil moisture , river flows and groundwater re - charge which occur due to the rising temperature . Food production will be greatly affected by the unpredictable nature of the weather with changing seasons , high rainfall , floods , and droughts all featuring . These factors also greatly influence the spread of disease . Water - borne disease can be brought about either by contamination brought on by flooding or the use of poor quality , contaminated freshwater during a drought . Flooding and the temperate nature of semi - arid countries will facilitate mosquitoes which aids the spread of malaria , yellow fever and dengue . Through flooding malaria could be transmitted to areas to dryer areas where it did not figure before as conditions were not favourable to mosquitoes , which creates the risk of a malaria epidemic . < /abstract> Introduction The 's climate is a major factor in the way that people across the world live their lives . Due to man 's activities , particularly with respect to carbon pollution , a mean global temperature rise of is now almost a certainty and this will impact hugely on everyone in the world . Particularly crucial to human survival is how the temperature increase will affect the water supply as fresh water will become scarce . Semi - arid areas such as the grasslands of , , The and parts of are very susceptible due to their very nature and as these areas cover of the 's surface , accommodating people , it is a very important issue . Global warming will affect the water supply by altering precipitation , evaporation and soil moisture , river flows and groundwater re - charge which will in turn affect diseases for which water is involved . Specifically how these will be affected is detailed below . < heading > Precipitation Precipitation is the main cause of variability in water balance over space and time and in semi - arid countries it is generally low already and highly seasonal . The change in climate is predicted , according to simulation studies to reduce precipitation in the monsoon , reduce precipitation all year round in the and increase rainfall in the monsoon . In all of these areas , the variability of the rainfall is set to increase . Different areas have varying rainy seasons and different levels of rainfall but the people are all well adapted to this and base their agricultural methods upon it . For the success of farming , factors such as the timing of the rains ( when affects when the crops are planted ) , distribution of the rains within the growing season and the effectiveness of the rains are all very important . However , due to global warming , rainfall will become more erratic and rainy seasons will tend to become shorter and less predictable without trend and this uncertainty will in turn affect crop yields . is another element that people have come to cope with , as in many instances it is predictable and they can therefore work around them , however with the changes in the climate , there will be little or no trend . On the other extreme , due to the erratic nature of the rainfall , there is risk of flooding . Risk of flood damage is particularly great in small settlements in semi - arid regions due to the rarity of extreme rainfall and in a warmer world the frequency of these storms would increase . During extreme rainfall , houses , roads , irrigation systems , and other constructions are destroyed and human settlements in oases are isolated because telecommunication and traffic connections are broken . As settlements have become adapted to the dry conditions , the total numbers of deaths and the total amount of damages caused by drought and other impacts of dry conditions often are smaller than those caused by heavy rainfall . Damages to the water supply caused by flooding can be disastrous ; it can damage water treatment works , flood wells , septic tanks and waste disposal areas and sometimes overwhelm treatment systems , contaminating water supplies . In the case of drought , reduced water availability could force people to use polluted water sources in settlements at the same time that reduced flow rates reduce the rate of dilution of water contaminants . The quality of the water supply can also be affected with the growth of algae and other plants being much more prolific in higher temperatures , leaving behind nutrients when they decompose . These changes and unpredictability of the rains will impact on the welfare of the people with increased hunger , tiredness and sickness . Massive impacts will also be felt on natural resource based livelihoods , which are very common , generally in terms of crops dying , less feed for animals , less or poorer quality grass which all compound to have financial implications . < enote > Climate Change 2001 : , . Page . Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . < /enote> Changes of Precipitation Characteristics by by the MRI CGCM , , MRI , , , ; and , , and . Taken from Symposium on Global Change and Climate Variations . , < /enote> Africa - Up in smoke ? Page . . nef , < /enote> Evaporation and Soil Moisture Climate change has the potential to affect all aspects of evaporation from the land 's surface , which encompasses evaporation from open water , soil , groundwater and water stored on vegetation . Evaporation will be enhanced by an increase in the land 's surface temperature , which combined with a saturated vapour pressure increase will lead to a decrease in soil moisture . In semi - arid regions , the soil moisture will be decreased to a greater extent than most other areas due to the relative humidity of the lower troposphere decreasing with global warming and the precipitation rate not increasing enough to replenish this . Semi - arid regions lack water in the place , so scarcity of water becomes an even greater possibility . The amount of water stored in the soil is of fundamental importance to agriculture and influences the amount of evaporation , groundwater recharge and generation of run off . The increase in temperature will increase the demands for evaporation and the soil moisture will therefore be reduced for most of . Irrigated water will also be subject to greater evaporative demands , which puts further strain on the water supply . As the majority of semi - arid regions are surrounded by desert , it is thought that the reduction of soil moisture will result in a worsening of desertification . River flows and other areas of open water will be subjected to heightened evaporation which will decrease their size and could lead to conflicts over water management . Hydroelectric power plants will be affected as levels in dams in these regions become lower which will impact upon electricity supplies . < enote > Prediction of Dryness in the Semi - Arid regions By . Dr. . NASDA . . < /enote> URL . . Program Director : Syukuro Manabe < /enote> Groundwater Recharge Groundwater is the major source of water across the world , but particularly so in semi - arid regions . Due to the aforementioned increase in evaporative demands and the resulting decrease in soil moisture and the drying out that this causes , the amount of water available for overland runoff and groundwater recharge will decrease . Changes in the frequency and the magnitude of the rainfall caused by global warming will affect how often recharge events can occur as it is often the case that such events occurred after flooding . < enote > Climate Change 2001 : , . Page . Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . < /enote > Some of the more lowland semi - arid areas will experience a salt contamination of groundwater resources caused by seawater intruding into freshwater aquifers brought about by the rising sea level owing to the melting of glaciers . < heading diseases Human exposure to water borne infections occurs by contact with contaminated drinking water , recreational water , or food . This may result from human actions such as improper disposal of sewage wastes or could be due to weather events . Rainfall can influence the transport and spreading of infectious agents , while temperature affects their growth and survival . Semi - arid countries are set to experience rising temperatures as well as changes in rain patterns and seasons . These changes are certain to have an effect on diseases that are already known in the areas and could well introduce conditions that are suitable for lesser know diseases to the areas . < enote > Climate Change and Human Health - Risk and Responses . Page of Summary , based on book Climate Change and Human Health - Risk and Responses . , al . ( , Geneva ) . < /enote > Many diarrhoeal diseases vary , showing that they are sensitive to climate , tending to peak during the rainy season and are especially prolific during droughts and floods . The erratic nature of the weather will mean that floods and droughts will become more common in semi - arid areas , which means that they will be particularly susceptible . Major causes of diarrhoea linked to heavy rainfall , flooding and the contamination of water supplies that this can bring are : cholera , cryptosporidium , E.coli infection , giardia , shigella , typhoid and viruses such as hepatitis A. It is therefore very important that handling of sewage is kept from separate from storm water defences that would be used in the event of a flood . In the other extreme , water scarcity , to which semi - arid regions will be subjected , can necessitate the use of poorer quality sources of freshwater , such as rivers which are often contaminated . Decreases in water supplies could also reduce the water available for drinking and washing , which would lead to increased concentration disease carrying organisms in water supplies through lowering of the efficiency of local sewage systems . Warming of open water areas , would also create favourable conditions for diseases such as cholera and increase the risk of transmission into surrounding countries . This could be especially prominent in the Lakes . < enote > Climate Change and Human Health - Risk and Responses . Page of Summary , based on book Climate Change and Human Health - Risk and Responses . , al . ( , Geneva ) . < /enote> Climate Change and Human Health - Risk and Responses . Page of Summary , based on book Climate Change and Human Health - Risk and Responses . , al . ( , Geneva ) . < /enote> Climate Change 2001 : , . Page 365 . Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . < /enote> Climate Change 2001 : , . Page 365 . Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . < /enote> Vector - borne diseases Although not water - borne diseases , vector and rodent - borne diseases are water - related in that they are affected by the presence of water and will be affected by the changes in the water supply . Both temperature and surface water have important influences on the insects that transmit vector - borne infectious disease . Of particular relevance are mosquitoes which spread malaria and viral diseases such as dengue and yellow fever . varies and mosquitoes require warm and wet conditions , with stagnant water to breed . Through global warming and the increase in incidence of floods , warming and drought the conditions for disease transmission will be facilitated . There will also be greater need for irrigation of crops due to the temperature increase , which could again facilitate mosquitoes . Flooding in particular will provide a breeding ground for mosquitoes and this could result in the spreading of malaria to otherwise dry areas where the disease in fairly uncommon , as very hot dry conditions reduce mosquito survival , and this therefore renews the risk of a malaria epidemic . Populations that have been previously malaria free will also lack immunity to the disease which will increase its impact . < enote > Climate Change and Human Health - Risk and Responses . Page of Summary , based on book Climate Change and Human Health - Risk and Responses . , al . ( , Geneva ) . < /enote> Rodent - borne diseases Rodent - borne diseases are diseases that are transmitted to humans via contact with rodent urine , faeces or other body fluids and are also host to fleas and ticks . Rodent population is affected by unusually high rainfall and drought , which are becoming more common with global warming . Outbreaks of Leptospirosis , which is an acute fever that can also be carried by dogs , often occur after heavy rainfall and during floods , and incidence of the disease could therefore be affected . , capable of causing severe and often fatal illnesses in humans , are associated with conditions favourable for the rapid increases in rodent populations , which are detailed above and again look set to increase with global warming . < enote > Climate Change 2001 : , . Page 365 . Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . < /enote> Malnutrition < /heading > Diseases caused by malnutrition could become very common if poor yields become factors of the unpredictable nature of the weather . This will result in again less productivity agriculturally as people would not be able to work to their full capacity . Also , it would be more difficult to fight off the aforementioned diseases if an individual was suffering from malnutrition . < heading > Conclusions At the centre of the water supply problem is the threat to food production . By , the amount of water needed for food production across the world will rise by , due to population increase and higher standards of living but the amount of available water is declining . People will have to make difficult choices between dedicating water for crop irrigation , domestic or industrial uses which may force imports of food , which for poorer people may be too expensive and may mean starvation . It will be difficult to adapt to the erratic rains and changing seasons , but it is imperative that efforts are made , through good water management , to obtain maximum usage from the precipitation that does occur . < enote > URL . Global water crisis by . . < /enote > Not only does the unpredictability of the weather affect food production but heavy rainfall , floods and drought are all factors in the spreading of disease as the majority are climate sensitive . Water - borne disease can be brought about either by contamination brought on by flooding or the use of poor quality , contaminated freshwater during a drought . Flooding and the temperate nature of semi - arid countries will facilitate mosquitoes which aids the spread of malaria , yellow fever and dengue . Through flooding malaria could be transmitted to areas to dryer areas where it did not figure before as conditions were not favourable to mosquitoes , which creates the risk of a malaria epidemic . Conditions that are inherent with global warming are favourable for rodent - borne diseases so this looks set to increase and malnutrition seems inevitable unless farming methods are adapted to meet with the changing climate .","< abstract> Summary This report investigates motivation and job satisfaction in the workplace with particular focus being placed on the construction industry . Motivation techniques that are used in the construction industry such as goal setting , incentives , worker participation , positive reinforcement and worker facilitation are detailed and the extent to which they work is analysed . For the purposes of this study , the industry is broken down into separate professions ; the design engineer , the site engineer , tradesman and labourer and the differing motivational and de - motivational factors that affect them are outlined . The extent to which and how the aforementioned techniques motivate the members of the different professions and which are more relevant to each of the professions is also analysed . It was concluded that the design engineer takes much of their motivation and job satisfaction from the challenges that a demanding and interesting project would entail . A site engineer is motivated by the decision making responsibilities held in supervising a project and the smooth running of a project would induce a large amount of job satisfaction . Tradesmen rely heavily on positive reinforcement and labourers respond well to worker participation . Overall it was thought that the greatest motivating factor , for all job descriptions , was being part of a well organised project and a great deal of satisfaction came from the project physically materialising . < /abstract > An initial answer immediately springs to mind - the need for money . Clearly this is the main motivation for people to primarily have a job but it is what motivates them to work well and efficiently within this job whilst being stimulated by the work they do that is much more crucial . A highly motivated workforce greatly enhances productivity and project effectiveness . There are many motivation techniques that are used throughout industry but there are also a great deal of demotivating factors that can undermine these strategies . The aim of this report is to outline in particular the motivational techniques of goal setting , incentives , worker participation , positive reinforcement and worker facilitation with the main focus being placed upon the construction industry . Different motivating factors exist in the different spheres of the construction industry so it is suitable to discuss them as ; the design engineer , the site engineer ( or foreman ) , the tradesman ( or craftsman ) and the labourer ( or operative ) . The design engineer is generally motivated by the work they do and can get self fulfilment from it because they are putting into practice what they have studied . When the work seems meaningful and exciting , for example on a large , challenging project , commitment will be generated and motivation and job satisfaction will be high . However , the engineer typically needs to be used to their full capacity to maintain interest as their work is generally associated with higher level needs . Due to this the engineer needs an autonomy over the pace and content of the work that they are involved in and if this is not present then de - motivation will be likely . The site engineer is motivated by such things as the challenge of running the work , keeping the job on its schedule , the job physically taking shape and good working relations within the crew . Job satisfaction can be achieved through a feeling of importance that comes with being able to make many decisions on site . On larger jobs , when the decisions are taken away somewhat as they are made by others higher up the hierarchy de - motivation may occur . Uncooperative workmen , lack of initiative amongst workers , lack of support from management and lack of resources can also de - motivate the foreman . Tradesmen take a great pride in the work that they carry out as it is skilled and quite individual . If a craftsman is allowed to be productive through a well planned and organised project then job satisfaction will follow . More so than in other areas , the craftsman is greatly encouraged by praise and lack of recognition can be a de - motivating factor . De - motivation is also inherent amongst craftsmen when the project is badly organised and , for example , they can not carry out their work through lack of resources or overcrowding due to bad organisation of workers . Labourers often do not feel a great affiliation to the company that they work for , which is often because they are only on short term contracts and feel that they have limited career prospects with the company , which in itself is de - motivating . Other causes of de - motivation amongst the labourers is poor organisation whereby they are not able to carry out their job properly . Motivation and job satisfaction comes from seeing how their work transforms into the final project , which they have been well informed about and feeling an integral part of the project which can be helped by contributing to decision making . The techniques used to generate motivation across the construction industry are detailed below . < heading > Goal Setting The technique of goal setting can be very useful in giving employees clarity of focus on a job and direction . The management must set carefully established goals for their employees , in particular labourers and craftsmen to follow . These goals can be set based on previous performances for quality and productivity . If the goals are set to a high but obtainable level there is an incentive to work towards and achieve it . If goals are set too low then workers do not need to perform to their maximum capability to achieve it and this leads to low performance . Also , if the goals are set too high then there may be no incentive to perform as it will be evident that it will not be achieved irrespective of how hard they work . Ideally , the goals would be set with worker input and participation which would increase the probability of worker acceptance . With goal setting performance monitoring and feedback are important so that the workers know how they are performing and this can lead to them setting new goals for themselves and possibly introduce a sense of competition between each other which is desirable as it will drive them to work harder . Motivation to achieve the goals can be heightened by the implementation of an incentives program , which is detailed later . There are however some disadvantages of such a goal setting program in that it may adversely affect quality if employees are completing the work with haste just in order to meet the target . This could therefore turn into a de - motivating factor if they were required to repeat the work . < heading > Incentives Closely linked and often used in partnership with goal setting are programmes of incentives that are used as a way of motivating the employees , where rewards are given to those who perform at a certain desired level . Rewards could come in the form of money , holidays , promotions or profit sharing . Again the target must be attainable otherwise the worker will not attempt to reach the goal and clearly the workers performance would not be altered . Similar to setting goals , it would be more effective as a motivator if the employees had an input in setting the required target for achieving the incentive . This form of motivation also has its downfalls similar to those for goal setting ; if a worker is just working to achieve the desired level to get a reward then quality may be affected , safety procedures may be ignored and materials may be used unscrupulously . A standard incentive used by employers are salary reviews . However , if these are done periodically at year known by the employees it can become taken for granted . A much better way of using them to improve motivation and job satisfaction would be to hold them irregularly as a surprise so that the employees feel fortunate to have achieved it . < heading > Worker Participation Worker participation is a way of involving the employees in managerial decisions . This can generate a feeling of loyalty towards the company and makes the employee feel valued and important within the company . Changes to the working environment will be much more readily accepted if the workers have been consulted in advance as opposed to having the changes enforced upon them . Worker participation can be conducted in several different ways . Suggestion boxes are a common method of achieving this , where if a workers suggestion is adopted then they receive a certain percentage of the profits / savings that ensue . However , this system is not without its de - motivating elements ; if a workers ideas are constantly overlooked , jealousy of other workers who are rewarded for ideas especially if they are in a lower position and some ideas may create saving in unit at the expense of another . Quality circles is another way of using the worker 's creativity , which is based on the idea that the worker knows best how to do the job and would like , if given the chance , to contribute to the success of the company . They are labour - management committees where the objective is to discuss and solve work related problems . The worker therefore has the chance to affect his own work environment , which in turn increases job satisfaction and productivity . The goals are set by the senior management but the route to achieving them is defined by the workers which is another way if making the workers have a more active role in proceedings which is good for motivation . < heading > Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement is simply consists of praise and compliments from supervisors . It is based on the idea that workers desire signs of approval from their supervisors and if necessary will change their behaviour to receive it . However if praise becomes a frequent event then it obviously loses its value and becomes useless . Strength can be added to the technique by supplementing praise with rewards . Tradesmen are thought to take a great pride in their word but typically receive little recognition which could clearly be very de - motivating . Such schemes as craftsman - of - the month awards or letters of commendation can be excellent methods of motivation because of the prestige and visibility that it brings , which , due to the nature of the work can be better than monetary gains as it instils a sense of pride in the job . Newsletters , banners and posters could also be used to again create a sense of pride in the work . < heading > Worker Facilitation The motivation of workers can be greatly improved if their employer makes an effort to aid their work and shows understanding . Motivation will be high if the employee feels that they are trusted by the employer and this in turn will make the worker feel good about their employer . The worker should feel as though they are able to talk to their management as artificial communication barriers will only hinder motivation . Workers should be kept informed of the performance levels of the other workers as they have tendencies to compete which is healthy in the workplace . Workers should be able to have a sense of contribution to the final product as it feels like what they are doing is meaningful . < heading > Organisational of the Project and Resources The way in which a construction project is organised can potentially be the most motivating or de - motivating factor of all . A well organised project will promote job satisfaction and provide individuals with an incentive to increase productivity . Construction workers can best be motivated through the work itself , when seeing the project physically taking shape . However for this to be the case each worker must feel as though he is a part of the job and not merely making up the numbers . On larger projects , there can be very large hierarchical structures which can create problems in communication that will lead to a de - motivated workforce . If a job is large and complex , individuals will find it hard to identify with the job as a whole and they will find it hard to achieve a feeling of accomplishment . This can be achieved by a well informed work force and a good communication system . Also on larger projects , the responsibility of the site engineer can be lessened which can adversely affect their motivation as the majority of the decision making is moved higher up the hierarchy . Another major de - motivator inherent in larger projects is the constant modifications that have to be made and the associated slip in schedules and due to the frequency of such occurrences it is hard to keep the workforce informed constantly , which again highlights the importance of an effective communication system . Effective pre - planning should be carried out so that the availability of resources will never be a problem . The motivation of labourers can easily be affected by this , and will often be highly motivated when they get the proper instruction and resources to carry out the job properly but if the work is not well planned or progress is interrupted by lack of tools or materials then it is easy for them to become de - motivated . Therefore it is essential , through good planning , that workers are allowed to carry out their work without any avoidable hindrances . < heading > Other Methods of Increasing Motivation Social activities can be a good way to increase the motivation of workers , for example having a project tour for families will help to instil a sense of pride within the worker . Also dinner functions for awardees will show that their efforts have been recognised and again create give the worker a sense of importance . can be a good way of providing the worker with an incentive to work well and efficiently ; if the work is completed satisfactorily ahead of schedule then the worker would be allowed paid time off as a way of recognising their extra effort . < heading > Conclusion Each of the motivational techniques , goal setting , incentives , work facilitation , positive reinforcement and worker participation , detailed in this report have a place in the construction industry . However workers from different professions within the industry may find themselves motivated by different techniques although some will be common to all professions . An design engineer will be primarily motivated by the work itself and the challenges that it holds . A site engineer would find motivation and job satisfaction from the smooth running of a project that they are supervising and the responsibilities that go with it . Craftsmen would be motivated by goal setting , worker participation and in particular positive reinforcement . Labourers would typically be motivated also by goal setting and in particular worker participation . Overall the greatest motivating factor that seems inherent in all job types in the industry is being part of a well organised project and a great deal of satisfaction comes from the project physically materialising .",1 "Of the available questions , I have chosen question , which asks me to what extent the knowledge and skills I acquire in the study of or both of my subject fields makes a contribution to human development . My field of study is and , the is Philosophy . I will concentrate on Language . I believe that the knowledge and skills I acquire will make a considerable development to my life as a human , but I am unable to say whether what I acquire during my study will affect human development as a whole . I will address the occurances in a human life , and distinguish what kinds of changes these are , obviously learning being of them . Following this , suggestions as to what makes a good human life will be brought up . Finally , how the knowledge and skills I acquire contribute to my development as a human , will be criticized . If I consider certain occurances throughout the stages of my life , there are many changes that have happened and made me what I am , whatever that may be . Obviously , I have been born and for I have gradually grown from being a small child to being what looks like a physically functional human adult male . Thus far I have gained the ability to walk , talk and acquired the knowledge of how to survive on my own . I have also experienced many things inbetween , like having attended a live performance or , having participated in a national schooling system ( and subsequently , an international one ) , which , amongst other things , honed my ability to speak as well as . I could go on , but the mentioned occurances ; palpable changes , should suffice to be catagorised into certain catagories around development . Being a product of evolution , I would say that being conceived can count as a substantial change , and being unaware of the way of death , I might return to the earth when I die becoming , within time , some kind of fertiliser for soil . I was not and will not be , assuming the latter , as I am now ; recognisable as a human . Attending concerts , has not really affected me in any significant way . They might have been inspiring , entertaining , exciting , etc . but they have left me the same as I was before I attended the concert thus falling under the category of being accidental changes . Gaining the ability to walk , to speak a language and now being able to feed myself and effectively live a little longer until I do so next time , are much less noticable in terms of both the physical and mental than substantial changes . Contrarily , these changes are a lot more substantial than accidental changes , as I certainly have remained recognisably the same , but these changes have contributed to my development as a human being . I have learned , and for the benefit of what will be an ending result ; something recognisable as a fully functioning , adult human being . A ' good human life ' assumes a lot . Above all , it is subjective , because what might be considered a good human life to person could very well be a very mediocre human life to another . It really depends on where a person 's standards lie , but there could be suggestions to what makes a human life good that are not specific enough to rule out some people . There should be suggestions that apply broadly enough to the majority to be considered ingredients to a good human life . The following suggestions are , arguably , some things that could make a human life good . Favourable and sustained relationships with the people in one 's life , such as their family and friends . This assumes that one has family and friends , but a good relationship with these people , or any other people for that matter , ensures much emotional stability . A sufficient understanding of one 's place in the world might offer inspiration as to which direction one would feel comfortable following . For to have control over the affairs in one 's life delivers a sense of satisfaction as it is a stage which has surpassed the majority of existentialist questions . A reasonable amount of leisure in one 's life is healthy in that it provides encouragement to continue living , however , the responsibilities would be best being paid attention to . The attaining of skills , or rather attaining a sense of being skilled in some area , can be very satisfying , ofcourse , this requires to learn these skills , which brings me to that very kind of development ; learning . Learning plays a large role in one 's life . I doubt that it is possible for any functional human being who has ever lived to have not learned a thing throughout their lives . Much of learning is down to discovery , in which case it is an unplanned development , which is what kind of a change in a life learning is ; a development . Learning , however , is not only mere discovery , but a search . Humanity has established learning institutions because it is human nature to seek knowledge . Philosophically , learning is defined as the process of knowing something and , thereafter , understanding something that one had no prior knowledge and understanding of . Learning is steadfast , unlike beliefs and opinions , which can very often be false . Using application to my field of study , which is and , I will try to explain what the conventional theories behind knowledge and understanding are , so I can argue why I feel this field of study can contribute to my development as a human being . Knowledge ( of the propositional p kind ) , initially , has what is called a tripartite definition , which means that there are parts to that definition . The part of something to be considered knowledge ; p must be true . Language in itself is a kind of truth . There are general rules to sentence structures , grammar , etc . and certain words mean certain things . There are , as with all languages , exceptions to rules , but those exceptions are still knowable ; they are established . The part of the tripartite definition of knowledge is that the subject believes p. It has been argued that belief in a proposition is not enough for all of a knowledge claim to be exactly that ; a knowledge claim . The argument was that a belief in p is insufficient and that absolute certainty is required , because one might be less ready to put forth a knowledge claim if one is less than certain of the claim ; one can still believe p with p being false . However , certainty replacing belief is an quarrelsome argument that does not suffieciently justify why it should happen . The of the tripartite definition is argued somewhat more . Initially , a subject must be able to justify p. I can justify , thus far even , that the knowledge of the language I attain is true , simply by communicating with a native speaker of the language . However , there have been suggestions that would imply that the part of the tripartite definition is volatile ; that it needs to be something else . Some say that if the subject has come by p through a reliable source , then that will suffice . In that case , I consider an established educational institution to be a reliable source . Another option is that p causes one 's belief in p , so if p was untrue one would not possibly believe p. Ultimately , something needs to be true in order for it to be a knowledge claim . Understanding is a different story though . Propositional knowledge is already a prerequisite for understanding . Practical knowledge would complete understanding , because with practical knowledge , one would be able to explain p. should be able to explain a proposition , which would imply knowing the proposition , and its nature in order to sufficiently be accepted as having an understanding of the proposition . I can know how to speak a language or know facts about the language 's country of origin , but I can not understand the aspects of both if I am unable to explain why these aspects are the way they are . Still , acquiring the language I am currently attempting to acquire will result in me being able communicate more broadly , and I therefore consider it a significant development . I expect to understand it as well , and this opens up a door for being able to assist in the development of someone else , should they choose to accept my knowledge as justified , true belief . Thus , I will be feeding one of the suggestions that one would require to lead a good human life ; maintaining healthy relationships with one 's acquaintances , friends , family , etc .. The knowledge and skills I acquire in my fields of study will contribute greatly to my development as a human being . That same knowledge , however , has the potential to contribute to the development of other people . The same can be said of them , that their knowledge and skills will contribute to my development . This kind of ' mentor and apprentice ' concept seems like a mass mutual contribution to human development .","The book under discussion is the ethnography by entitled Geisha . It covers a detailed interpretation of the lives of Geisha professionals , through - hand experience of the author 's own . During for , became the foreigner to be trained and established as a Geisha in one of the Geisha districts of the ancient capital . informs the reader of the differences between the post- and the pre - war world of the Geisha . That world is called karyoukai , literally , the flower and willow world . This world is , in anycase , rather separated from the mainstream society . The explanations of the post - war karyoukai are delivered to the reader as she recounts her experiences as the Geisha , Ichigiku ; a moniker derived from a combination of her family and her name , . Due to the karyoukai 's affiliation to the traditional arts , it is respected , however , involvement is often discouraged . This ethnography really brings out all the cultural misinterpretations about the and rectifies them appropriately , which is what I will be writing about in the following paragraphs . is probably the most historically preserved city in , and for the reason why it has managed to be so historically preserved , has often been used along with karyoukai , as well as other disciplines , to be the symbol of . It 's historical image , being preserved as much as it can considering the modern time it must exist in , has been preserved along with as many of the traditions of the flower and willow world as modernity will allow . Changes have occurred but there are ones that have easily remained regardless of the changing times , such as the nomenclature of 's Geisha name , as mentioned in the introduction , was , sticking to the tradition that anyone trained as a Geisha of a certain school ( in this case , the dai - ichi teahouse ) adopt a name that begins with ichi . Like the school 's founder , Ichiko right the way to 's ' elder sister ' Ichiume . I mentioned as 's , or more accurately 's , ' elder sister ' . This is not meant to be taken too literally , though . Geisha and maiko ( apprentice Geisha ) are bound in a ceremony as so - called sisters , as the elder is to watch over her younger sister and show her the way of life ; age is of no concern , where experience is . The whole Geisha household , or okiya , uses ' the family ' as a sort of guide for hierarchy . The head of the okiya being okaasan ( mother ) , and respectively the elder and younger sister(s ) . Pre - war , the relationship would not have been as friendly as . It was a harsh time for young girls . To become a Geisha would be a slim opportunity for financial independence , and on the way to that goal , if ever reached , a life of servitude and , more often than not , abuse . With a struggling pre - war economy , if a maiko was not born into the okiya , she was sold into it , either through recruitment or sacrifice . She would work as a maid for the okiya , and if she showed any promise of success as a Geisha would then begin training as a maiko . Apart from those born into okiya , the tales that were told to of these kind were often ones of tragedy and despair . Nowadays , the hardships have disappeared , for human rights are a notion that tend to show strong presence in most developed economies . from the old school see karyoukai as having lost its necessary bite that allowed for Geisha to reach masterdom in the arts . The reasons why pre - war Geisha entered karyoukai , were briefly described in the above paragraph . Post - war geisha , due to a sort of pro - rights clause erected in , are now treated with much respect from their ' family ' members . A Geisha who enters the ranks , often enters for a nostalgic love of the traditional arts . Afterall , the Gei- , in is the word for art . However , due to a lack of business for , compared to the boom in pre - war , where the shift of interest has gone from patrons to tourists , proprietoresses of teahouses and okiya tend to use niceness to lure young girls into karyoukai business . A lot of what allows for to become a geisha has changed . For instance , prior to the war , one would have to be born in the district ( where worked ) to become a Geisha there , for it was a prestigious place . But now that the number of maiko is dwindling , at or 5 around 1974 , young girls are allowed in purely to satisfy the tourist demand . It is also not unheard of now , that the maiko process is entirely skipped when becoming a Geisha . While the profession is highly respected by most families , many parents oppose that their daughters become Geisha . When one becomes a Geisha , she can forget about having any plans to marry . In , the role of a wife is very much what Western feminists have struggled to disestablish . A Geisha is to fulfil , what a wife does not . A wife is to be serious , where a Geisha is to be humorous ; homely , while a Geisha is to be sexy , etc . While this image does not appeal to the average female , it is something that is generally accepted by most people . Additionally , both find it perfectly acceptable that a man can have a wife and a Geisha as a mistress , for they see themselves as fulfilling specific roles in life , which is something that would definitely be frowned upon in the West . Wives and Geisha in are often quite friendly and acceptant toward eachother for that reason , as examplified in 's book . I chose to read this book because I was aware that karyoukai was a highly separate world from even the society of its homeland . The questions I had relating to the reasons why women become , and how this affects the wives of their patrons have been answered quite thoroughly . I have learned from this book , and been inspired to learn more about the arts of the , such as music and dance . This book has opened up my eyes to realising karyoukai as being part of the backbone to authentic identity , and has successfully vanquished any naïve negativisms that I might have had before . While they are described as courtesans , I think it is fair to say that they are courtesans of a much higher order , and that the Western image of Geisha is grossly misunderstood .",1 "In human prehistory , the transition from hunter - gatherers to agriculturists represents of the significant subsequent developments in the evolution . In its original form , the subsistence changes are considered as transported from to , introduced development of new productive bases , field monuments and social hierarchies ( 2003 : ) . At the same time , continuity is also observed in the basic lithic industries , utilitarian potteries and occupations of the same coastal localities ( Richardsal . : - 293 ) . Therefore the nature of the transition between and period is a major research concern at present ( and Hedges 1999 : - 897 ) . The dietary shift from maritime to terrestrial base foods is included in these significant changes at transition ( 2003 : ) . Particularly , archaeological record represents the continuation of marine subsistence activities and gradual transition to domesticated terrestrial foods , whereas the current interpretation of stable isotope data suggests that a rapid abandonment of marine resources in ( Richardsal . : - 293 ) . Thus , this essay intends to provide over view of the different results in archaeological and stable isotope evidences for examining the diet shift between Late Mesolithic and Early Neolithic in . section is going to introduce the transition theories and models , as well as the study of archaeological material records from sites . Subsequent section is going to represent stable isotope measurements of human skeletal remains from and sites , characterising the complete dietary changes . The concluding discussion summarises the isotope methodological issues with limitations and sample bias in order to discuss the interpretation of dietary shift at transition , and examining whether Neolithic people had marine base consumption , or not . Among authors , there are variety of the definitions for period , ( : - 16 ) has been summarized the definition as "" Cultural adaptations by the resident hunter gatherer societies to temperate climate , with major changes in population growth and the form of stone tools . The economically it is mainly based on hunting , fishing and gathering , and it lasted between 8000 - 4350BP "" ( Zvelebil : - 16 ) . Furthermore , radiocarbon years , the main characteristics of package ' appear throughout the Isles ( Richards 2003 : ) . These are often assumed introduction by immigrant agriculturalists or adopted by indigenous people ( and 1999:891 - 897 ) . This section is particularly going to represent the major transition theories and models with archaeological material remains , these evidences tend to contradict a rapid dietary shift at transition . In general , there are main explanations for the transition to farming . theory is the notion of agriculture as the superior mode of production . This theory includes the demic diffusion model , which is popularised by ( ) . The major theory is based on the notion of population , resource imbalance as relating to the transition to farming . Finally , the theory is based on the notion of social competition within and between societies ( : - 16 ) . Furthermore , the processes for the transition to farming are described in the several models , of the most simplified versions is wave of advance model by and Cavalli - Sforza ( : - 16 ) . This model has been applied quantitative methods from radiocarbon data , which led to produce regression analysis of the spread rate of agricultural diffusion from assumed origin in to approximately 1 km per year on average ( Gkiastaal . ) . The estimation of the agricultural arrival in different parts of is indicated by figure ( Ammerman and Cavalli - Sforza 1984:53 ) . The availability model of the transition to farming is the process towards the adoption of farming passes through several forms of frontier situations , which occurs simultaneously in geographical space . As figure represents , this framework stresses the importance of early stages in the transition and emphasises its length ( : - 16 ) . According to these transition theories and models , the Neolithic innovations , in especially agricultural practice , appear in the archaeological records throughout within , therefore the dietary shift at transition has been also considered as the gradual , ' piecemeal ' adoption ( 2003 : ) . These gradual dietary shift and cultural continuity is frequently supported by the archaeological records from and period , where has one of the richest artefactual evidence in coastal ( . : - 293 ) . culture has been lasted approximately 5400 and 3900 cal in northern , and south western . It is followed by the Funnel Beaker culture ( TRB ) in early , dated cal , with the evidence of cereal cultivation as well as animal husbandry ( Richardsal . : - 293 ) . culture is known as an abundant fishing , shell - gathering and sea - mammals hunting along coastal sites , with elaborate archaeological fishing tool evidences ( Richardsal . : - 293 ) . The evidences of sea mammals hunting are identified in table ( Milneral . 2004 : ) . More recently , underwater excavations have revealed the spectacular condition of organic evidences , such as wooden fish traps , fish spears and boats , from the now submerged shoreline ( Milneral . ) . < table/>Particularly , these archaeological evidences are often represented from shell middens , basically it is defined as a cultural deposit of which principal component is shell . The study of shell midden has contributed to interpret subsistence changes in transition , and demonstrate the importance of marine resources as a substantial contribution to diets ( 2003 : ) . In and , the occupation continuity is identified with the evidence of typical Neolithic ceramic and remains of domesticated animals above the Late Mesolithic contexts of shell middens ( Milneral . ) . However , it is frequently argued that the coastal sites were possibly the task - specific camps , and main settlements could be located inland . This perspective has suggested the collecting foods , and removing for consumption at other settlement sites , and this is reinforced by recent excavations , for example , bulky foods have been butchered and discarded to ease of transport at the coastal camps for transport to interior sites ( Milneral . ) . According to the combination of archaeological evidences and agricultural transition models , the gradual shift at transition and cultural continuity were expected . However , the study of the proportion of stable isotope from and human skeletons do not support the idea of a slow , gradual and ' piecemeal ' adoption , but indicate a rapid and dramatic change from marine to terrestrial based diets ( Milneral . ) . Thus , this section is going to provide the over view of stable isotope analysis , moreover represents data interpretation of stable isotope studies of dietary shift . Both of carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis have largely contributed to the understandings of human diets in and periods from protein portion of human skeletons . Generally , the δ¹³C value indicates whether the main dietary protein from marine or terrestrial sources , whereas the δ¹⁵N value indicates the trophic level of the protein consumed collagen ( . : - 293 ) . The basic estimated values for evaluation between marine and terrestrial based diets are represented in table ( and 1999:891 - 897 ) . However , the δ¹³C values is a quantitative measurement of the amounts of types of protein that have been consumed , for example δ¹³C values of -16‰ suggest a diet with terrestrial and marine protein ( and 1999:891 - 897 ) . < table/>The perspective of a rapid dietary shift at transition has been mainly came from the early work of Tauber , who firstly applied stable isotope value of radiocarbon dated human skeletal remains in and , and observed a rapid dietary shift ( Richardsal . : - 293 ) . Tauber concluded that there is a rapid change in diets associated with the introduction of the Neolithic culture into ( Richards 2003 : ) . . ( : - 293 ) quote 's data in figure . : - 293 ) , although this idea of a rapid shift had little impact on archaeology . The source of error is known as choice of samples from archaeological contexts , using coastal samples and interior Neolithic samples , the sample size of human skeletons tend to be small , and results are confined to ( Milneral . ) . Moreover , this 's work is chronologically dispersed due to the absence of applying "" marine - reservoir effect "" , which causes approximately gap in samples ( Richardsal . : - 293 ) . Recently , et ( - 293 ) have reassessed this previous work of Tauber , and have reported on new carbon and nitrogen stable isotope values and radiocarbon dates from and humans , and have been confirmed 's findings ( Richardsal . : - 293 ) . Table and figure represent carbon and nitrogen isotope values of and individuals ( Richardsal . : - 293 ) . This 's work has also been supported by data from the coasts of southern , the shell middens at in ( ) , , inland and coastal sites ( and 1999:891 - 897 ) , ( and Richards - 972 ) , eastern , and western , except the samples from due to its complex history ( : ) . Thus , the human remains from these sites have been representing a primarily marine - based diet ( and 1999:891 - 897 ) . However Richardsal . ( : - 293 ) suggest no distinct diets are identified by stable isotope data . It represents complex ranges of dietary throughout , , and , compared narrow diet range with some overlap data from the - Neolithic transition ( Richardsal . : - 293 ) . The isotope data are represented in figure , individuals are from and with radiocarbon dated ( Milneral . ) . The complex range of diet throughout is confirmed by the study of oyster consumption , in which introduced ( ) , that the oyster contributed very little to the overall diet , usually per cent in terms of calories ( Milner 2002 : ) . Moreover , and ( : - 897 ) also have sampled from Early and coastal and inland sites , include Neolithic tombs , ritual monuments , enclosure , as well as cave . The site locations are plotted on a figure ( and 1999:891 - 897 ) . These human remains from the early Neolithic have represented no evidence of significant consumption of marine foods after the introduction of Neolithic . However it can not suggest there were complete change of diets in all parts of after . It is significant that marine foods were being ignored at coastal sites , although the importance of marine foods in diets is suggested by the shell midden . Therefore and ( ) have been conclude there was a rapid change in diets at least in coastal southern , which was associated with the introduction of Neolithic material culture and the appearance of domesticated plants and animals . According to previous section , a rapid dietary shift at transition is supported by the stable isotope studies , therefore interpretation for the reasons on the abundance of marine food in have been studied by ( 2003:67 - 73 ) , ( ) and Milneral . ( ) . This section is going to introduce isotope methodological issues with the some explanations , which mainly describe the rejection of marine food at Neolithic . ( : ) has contributed to explain the mechanisms behind a rapid spread of dietary shift throughout by contrasting and isotope data with modern analogies : is the colonisation of by settlers , and another is the spread of maize agriculture into . In the study of , instead of a rapid spread of culture into the existing indigenous population , immigrants started to consume the same foods as those of native people consumed . In the study , native samples indicate a gradual adoption of domestication over , instead of a rapid adoption as the case of transition ( . : ) . Thus , these modern analogies could not explain a rapid dietary and cultural shifts at transition , therefore ( : ) concluded that the possibilities of practicing powerful religious elements by indigenous inhabitants in Neolithic period . The idea of religious elements has been supported by Milner et al.(2004:9 - 22 ) , who argue that peoples rejected marine diets as part of religious beliefs and myth about the sea . Furthermore , ( 2003:67 - 73 ) have argued that the complete shift in dietary preferences as a cultural prohibition or taboo on marine foods at least in southern . These prohibition or taboo have been required the avoidance of not only fish , but also consumption of seals and shellfish ( : ) . The recent works have revealed the common practice of dead disposal in rivers , suggesting a fundamental change in the relationship between human and the sea ( 2003 : ) . Moreover , there are several issues of isotope data interpretation . Milneral . ( ) suggest that an oversimplification of isotopic data from widely distributed skeletal remains from and sites . The composition of human bone collagen has been reflected by the protein portion of the diet ( Milneral . ) , therefore do not reflect the total diet of an individual , this problem is explained as ' Preliminary models "" which show that a diet dominated by plant - food might includes 20 per cent of marine protein without raising theδ¹³C values of bone collagen above 21‰ , this would standardly be interpreted as a diet dominated by terrestrial food ( and - 195 ) , therefore certainly do not demonstrate the complete abandonment of marine resources ( Milneral . ) . Moreover , ( : ) has explained the dietary shift from marine to terrestrial foods does not always show the shift from hunter - gatherer to agriculture society at transition , because stable isotope analysis can not distinguish between wild and domesticated resources , therefore ( 2004 : ) have argued the terrestrial foods might be as wild rather than domestic , and the Neolithic population is not easily sustained without a predominantly agricultural economy ( : ) . Furthermore , the reason why several archaeological evidences have supported the cultural continuity is that there are the significant interpretational differences between the isotope data and the artefactual evidences . These differences are often derived from representing different phenomena , for example isotope data often refers to the dominant protein intake by an individual during before death , whereas the faunal assemblages often refer to the generalised dietary tendency in specific environment over long period ( and - 195 ) . Thus , it is not preferred to completely rely on the stable isotope results for interpretation of dietary shift at transition . Furthermore , the change in subsistence economy has might been derived from the environmental factors , it is discussed by ( ) , a regression might have contributed to the dramatic reduction in the numbers of oysters , and led to a shift in subsistence practices to a farming economy , although it is hard to know the level of influence pressure on the oyster in and period . However , ( ) have concluded that the combination of these environmental factors and other social economic transformations might be the result of these subsistence shift at transition . Moreover , the sample size bias is came from less available Mesolithic samples , due to the submerged shoreline , therefore individuals are dated to and individuals are dated to , although the minimum numbers of individuals are hard to assess ( Milneral . ) . Milner et al.(2004:9 - 22 ) have been studied the estimation of total population size for , with assuming a population density of individuals per , and of simplicity of estimated population , and identified individuals in , therefore representing of the total population with stable isotope analysis . This estimated population densities are giving some idea of and period , although there should have been population fractionation . Thus , the limited sample size urges caution in interpretation ( Milneral . ) . As discussed above , the complete shift in main diets at transition are largely supported by stable isotope results from human skeletal remains . However , Preliminary model and isotope limitations largely suggest the possibilities of terrestrial diets intake in , and marine foods intake in . Furthermore , the cultural continuity is observed from archaeological material remains . Thus this essay hardly suggests the complete abandonment of marine foods in period . The dietary shift is considered as more gradual changes , which tend to be supported by agricultural transition theories and archaeological remains from . This conclusion attempts to summarise the brief discussion of the dietary shift from maritime to terrestrial base at transition , with comparing results between archaeological remains and stable isotope measurements . Although it is unknown the introduction of Neolithic material culture into either by immigrants or adopted by indigenous people , this essay largely suggests the dietary shift is considered as rather gradual than rapid and abrupt transition , which is supported by the limitations of stable isotope measurements , sample bias , transition theories , as well as abundant archaeological remains , which tend to support the cultural continuity at transition . Thus this essay mainly supports the possibility of marine foods consumption in Neolithic . In the future , further experimental investigation and more data accumulation are required for clear evaluation of the complete dietary shift at .","In the study of economic anthropology , pre - capitalist exchange mechanisms are mainly studied by the substantivists and formalists schools , which often represent several similarities with various analyses and interpretations . These schools tend to concern different types of analyses , is social context of exchange , and the other is distribution and output ( , I.1982:199 ) . Hence , this essay is mainly emphasised on the approaches of social exchange systems by distinctive schools , introducing the significance of substantivists ' approaches with its limitations . Furthermore , the case study of aboriginal societies in and northwest were represented in order to investigate the pre - capitalist society and material transaction , which mainly indicating several types of reciprocity within social contexts . Finally , this essay is going to represent the formalist approaches , which was largely contributed to the archaeological study of pre - capitalist economic system . This section is mainly going to represent the substantivists approaches with the outline of a functional theory of reciprocity and redistribution . Commonly , substantivists tend to identify the primitive economy is embedded in social relations . Therefore pre - capitalist economy is often studied as part of a local or regional cultural system . Furthermore , the use of ethnographic models for the study of pre - capitalist exchange processes is concerned with understanding exchange as social process . Generally , the substantivists approach tends to be identified as functionalists , because assumptions are made relating systemic equilibrium , adaptation for maintain equilibrium , and organic interrelations ( , I.1982:199 - 200 ) . Unlike capitalist economies , the primitive economies are generally resolved into types of exchange systems by the approaches of substantivists . Reciprocity and Redistribution , these different types of economic transaction contribute as integrating organizational principles of land and labour allocation , work organization , and the movement of goods in long term relationships ( , I.1982:199 - 200 ) . Although the social relation of redistribution and reciprocity represent various differences , these types of exchanges likely occur within same social contexts , consequently these tend to be merged ( Sahlins , M - 196 ) . The definition of reciprocity is that those vice versa movements , the action and reaction between parties . It tends to be considered as the types of social duality and symmetry . Furthermore , kinship distance is especially relevant to the form of reciprocity , because its relationship was more significant in pre - capitalist society than those of modern society . It is the organising principle of most social relations , and usually tend to be continued in family and inter - household relations(Sahlins , M .1972:194 - 196 ) Furthermore , 's definitions of generalised , balanced , and negative reciprocities are highly applicable to the substantivists approaches . ( , I.1982:200 ) Commonly , generalized reciprocity refers to transactions that are relatively altruistic . The examples of ethnographic formulae are sharing , hospitality , free gift , help , and generosity . Therefore , generalized reciprocity tends to be identified as less sociable . Balanced reciprocity refers to direct exchange , such as moral norm of give and take . It indicates the exchange of the same types of goods to the same amounts due to the obligation . In short there is concept of equivalence . Furthermore , balanced reciprocity tends to be recognised as "" less personal "" and "" more economic "" reciprocity , compared with generalized reciprocity . Finally , Negative reciprocity generally refers to the unsociable exchange , which tends to be concerned as get something for nothing without any punishment , therefore identified as the most impersonal type of exchange . For example , the different degrees of cunning , guile , stealth(Sahlins , M.1972:193 - 195 ) ( , I.1986:68 - 70 ) . , redistribution represents centralised movements by collection , and division of labour was identified within the members of a group . Redistribution often implies the existence of strong political centre in society , such as kinship based leadership , therefore redistribution tends to be identified as an organisation of reciprocities . Commonly , the contexts of redistribution in primitive communities takes various forms , such as redistributing local products , trade , rank , chieftainship , collective political action , succour of emergency food and refuge , subsidizing religious ceremony and construction of both public and religious buildings , war and hospitality . Typically , the acquisition of means of production in pre - capitalist societies is highly involved with the redistribution of goods through the communities . Therefore pre - capitalist society largely depend on output , it does not rely on a massive complex division of labour as modern economy . In especially the domestic mode of production represents the division of labour , which is determined by sex and age . Moreover , this principle is also applicable to higher - level cooperation , such as the task of procurement . ( , M 1972:185 - 191 ) There are basic criticisms against the substantivist approaches . , exchange tends to be seen as a moral act following social obligations , and often individuals are subject to the rules and demands of reciprocity . Therefore society tends to be considered as consist of preformed rules , which the individuals have to act . Hence , construction of social strategies by individuals tends to be unusual within society . Moreover , the conflicts and contradictions between interests are relatively identified as unusual . , the substantivists ' concepts of "" embeddedness "" have been controversial , because even the modern economy is embedded within relations of production as well as within political and social strategies . Hence , the problem is derived from the misleading of definition between primitives and modern economies . , the relationships between the types of exchange and societies represent lack in empirical support . Due to a cross - cultural analogy , the various correlations of different types of exchange indicate positive relationships . ( , I.1982:200 - 201 ) This section is going to represent of the substantivists approached of pre - capitalist societies , which focused on aboriginal economy of , , and . This case study mainly emphasized that these exchange system represent variety of reciprocity within these social contexts , in especially significance of relationship between alliance , which contains concepts of solidarity and hostility , and the political transaction of primitive valuable . Recent anthropological studies in and the northwest coast of lead to contrast aboriginal economies in stateless societies . Generally , the aboriginal societies have alliance networks , including small scale , stateless , primitive warfare , primitive valuables , and leadership roles . Commonly , groups and political units tend to be small in aboriginal societies , as hunter , gatherers , fisher , and agriculturalist , which all organized into lineage , lineage clusters , and clans of varying size , and the accessibility to food and natural resources are varying within society . Furthermore , these aboriginal societies widely shared ceremonial exchanges , which required the transaction of valuables and the feeding of guests at feast celebrations , especially in . Small clan segments tend to be useful in pre - capitalist societies , which are often identified as politically and economically vulnerable , therefore these groups need allies as ceremonial exchange partners , for the purpose of foodstuffs in the case of disasters , defence in the case of warfare , or external trade for valuables . Commonly , these political alliances for warfare and for ceremonial exchange are sustained through transaction of foods and valuables , as well as arranging a marriage to secure kindred , which tend to be identified as life long reciprocal transactions , therefore these marriage alliance are frequently controlled by corporate descent groups . Big men or lineage leaders in stateless societies occupy internal and external roles , and political leaderships particularly had better accessibilities to food stuffs , women , and valuables through ceremonial exchanges . In some region , leadership careers were open to talent , demonstrating superiority , achievement and luck would help to obtain leadership position . In , big men frequently demonstrate effectiveness in entrepreneurial roles , in especially success in warfare and ceremonial exchange . In , successive commonly leads to enhance the social position of leader , and also enhance the power of decent groups and followers . The meaning and usage of primitive valuables in aboriginal economies have internal and external roles , for example Kula shell necklace and bracelets are often identified as valuables . Acquiring the valuables in political or social transactions was commonly required the status . Furthermore , the difficulties of understanding the role of primitive valuables are derived from the various meaning of money , for example , the primitive valuables as reciprocal payment in warfare , as commodity money , or as early coinage . ( , G.1977:191 - 204 ) The introduction of processual archaeology by made large impact into the formalist approaches in especially the study of prehistory , which turned to emphasise quantitative modelling ( , , M.1993:4 - 5 ) . This section is going to discuss the development of exchange studies in archaeology with representing the outline of formalist approach , as well as those of limitations . In archaeological term , most widely applied formalist approach is regression analysis , which is known as a model of down the line exchange . The regression analysis of the fall - off curve was mainly applied to identify the particular types of exchange distribution , and explains this occurrence mathematically with the assumptions that the primitive economy is described in modern economical term , such as minimization of advantage , scarcity , and surplus . This mathematical model identified as relatively close to geographers . Moreover , this analysis is applicable cross - culturally in many archaeological cases studies . The regional study of exchange was pioneered by obsidian distribution in the Aegean and . It indicates the principle of fall - off procedure that the distribution of highly localised materials shows certain regularities that materials are abundant near the source(Hodder , I.1982:201 - 203 ) . This simple method tends to be considered as high validity , and this method has contributed the basic principles for various subsequent studies of obsidian trade on the regional level . ( R.Torrence .1986:14 ) Generally , mathematical curves have been considered relevant to the distance regressions analysis : Pareto model , Exponential distance decay , and fall off . In especially , fall off applied to archaeological case , considering the distributions of Iron Age coin types in and the distance of the find - spot from the , C.1977:73 - 76 ) The numbers of early analyses focused on the changing numbers of objects in relation to the distribution from the source . Almost without exception , the numbers decreased with distance from the source , because generally the transport of goods from a source requires the input of energy , therefore the greater the distance requires the greater the input energy . Hence the pattern of absence in directional exchange with distance from the source is confirmed . Furthermore , the concept of effective distance also depends on the degrees of difficulty in travelling . For instance , deserts and mountains would increase effective distance . On the other hand , rivers and sea frequently would decrease it , therefore depending on the available transport system . The development of new travel technologies decrease effective distance , such as long distance maritime travel or camel in , C.1977:71 - 74 ) . The principle of this analysis was formulated in 's work "" "" . This was an analytical device which was conducted to isolate anomalies , and distinguish between contact and supply , , . The concept of contact and supply zone is indicated in 's obsidian exchange works . The slope of the line summarizing the relationship between quantity and distance is nearly flat for sites located within from the source , but it decrease steeply after this point . Renfrew described this flat curve as "" supply zone "" , and the site located outside this region were termed the "" contact zone "" . The supply zone represents the area that residences have ability to travel to the source regularly . On the other hand , contact zone represent the area that residence did not have ability to contact with the source , largely rely on the exchange system . Furthermore , after keeping some amounts of obsidian for own use , people tend to exchange the rest of obsidian with residence who live further from the source . Renfrew termed this pattern "" down the line exchange "" . ( R.Torrence . ) < figure/>This was a pioneering attempt to lead a quantitative link between a specific anthropological model of exchange and its material residue and its material consequences , these were nearly recoverable archaeologically . Moreover , formalist techniques tend to be used as identify "" types "" of exchange that substantivist anthropologist placed along an evolutionary continuous ( , , . Furthermore , the study by represents the high developments of the original regression analysis . This study indicates how the regression analysis of different "" fall off patterns "" could distinguish between the movements of low and high values commodities , which shows whether short or further movements in transport . Hence , it highly represents the prospects of extrapolating from distribution patterns to social organisation through understanding of how the exchange of goods had been organised . However , this analysis should be considered as not all the exchanges of artefacts were remained in archaeological record , such as in the case of recycling of metal and ceramic . Hence , the lithic artefacts tend to be considered as well suitable for this regression study , in especially obsidian . ( , , The several limitations lie behind the formal analyses . The most serious limitation of the mathematical formalist approach derived from those of assumptions . , there is the insufficiency of the ability to explain the process that lead to the archaeological distribution , because formalists largely depend on the cross - culture assumptions , therefore the social context is not adequately considered . Although the fall - off curve leads to the prediction of amount of exchange materials , it is inadequate to explain the whole exchange process even the relationship between the distance and amount of material fit in formula(Hodder , I.1982:201 - 203 ) . Furthermore , in the case of describing the observed data , there are the questionable assumptions between the nature of material culture and the roles that it plays in social life , due to the complexity of the , , . Moreover , the unreliable assumptions of scarcity , maximization and benefit of past economy lead to the insufficiency of explaining the reason why a particular formal pattern is found , even modern economic theory into primitive economy might be adequate for describing the past economy . In addition , the description of observable in economist terminology is controversial , because there is little attempt made to explore the social contexts and political strategies that lie behind the observation(Hodder , I.1982:201 - 203 ) . Thus , it could be say approach only offers a basis "" for describing and comparing distributions which are already reasonably well documented "" it does not provide sufficient grounds for inferring the character of the processes that lay behind those patterns(Bradley , , M.1993:7 - 8) . Hence , there is certainly a necessity for more of these detailed , further problem oriented regional studies to improve this approach . This conclusion attempts to summarise the application of anthropological approaches to the study of pre - capitalist economies in archaeological term . According to this essay , there are main anthropological schools of the study of exchange system in pre - capitalist society . Substantivist commonly assumes pre - capitalist economy is embedded in social relation , and tends to be considered that pre - capitalist economy were mainly derived from types of exchange systems , reciprocity and redistribution . The concepts of these exchange systems were represented by anthropological case studied of aboriginal societies . The study of and Northwest coast indicates that there were several reciprocities within social contexts , which was sustained by exchange of valuables between alliances . Furthermore , formalist approach generally apply "" regression analysis "" , this mathematical models of fall - off curve procedures have been widely applied to the archaeological studies of pre - capitalist economy . More specifically , 's obsidian distribution study enhanced to link between anthropological model of exchange and its archaeological material residues . Although there are several limitations in both substantivists and formalists approaches , it is certain that these anthropological knowledge was considered to contribute the improvement of archaeological pre - capitalist exchange studies .",1 "< heading > PROGRAM SPECIFICATION: Program to calculate the cost of an order off from an array of records of items < heading > BASIC DESIGN Declare records and array procedure to ask for details of record Ask user if they want to place an order If they want to , ask which product Search for product in database If found , display details of products Ask if they want to place an order for that product If yes , Ask how many they want to order Calculate cost , Decrease stock Ask if they want to add another product . Add until they say that they do not want to add another product , incrementing cost , and decreasing stock also if they want to place another order < heading > PSEUDOCODE Pseudocode 11 . Declare records and array . Procedure which gets all details about the products and store it in array Ask for the details for products . Procedure to determine if the user wants to place an order and to validate the answer Ask if user wants to place an order 4 . Procedure to ask which product the user wants to supposedly order Get product name from user . Procedure to search the array for product name entered by user Compare product in array with product name input by user 5.1.1When they match , call procedure to display details of that product call procedure to process order about that product else loop procedure to search array again Procedure used to do part of statement when product is not in array 5.2.1 display error message - record not found ask for product name again 5.2.3 call procedure to search the array again . Procedure to display details of products Display Product details . Procedure to get order amount for product displayed , calculate the cost of the order , and adjust stock level Ask user if they want to order the product If answer = ' N ' 7.3 Make loop exit Else Call procedure to obtain number of products that user wants to order cost , new stock number(procedure ) . Procedure to ask user how many of the product displayed they want to order and validate the Ask user how many he wants to order 9.Procedure to determine whether user wants to add another product to the order call procedure to ask for product user wants to order call procedure to search for item in array call procedure to check if item has been found in the array Call Procedure to ask whether to order again Procedure which coordinate the other procedure when the user wants to order . Call procedure to ask whether user wants to order something or not ask if the user wants to add another product to the order . call procedure that deals with adding product to order . output cost of order . loop and ask if user wants to place another order < heading program Call procedure to take product details from the user Process the order if user wants to order < heading > Pseudocode . Declare records and array . Procedure which gets all details about the products and store it in array - EnterProdDetails ask for the details for products store Product Name in array Call procedure to get Product ID - InputProdID Check range of Product ID 2.1.4 Call procedure to get Cost of Product - InputProdCost 2.1.5 Check Range of Cost of Product 2.1.6 Call procedure to get Stock Level - InputProdStkLevel 2.1.7 Check Range of Stock Level . Procedure to determine if the user wants to place an order and to validate the answer Question_Whether_to_place_order_or_not Ask if user wants to place an order Store Answer ( y / n ) 3.1.2 user answer . Procedure to ask which product the user wants to supposedly order - Ask_ProdName get product name from user . Procedure to search the array for product name entered by user - SearchArray 5.0 While Counter < = Compare product in array with product name input by user 5.1.3 if they match , call procedure to display details of that product - DisplayProdDetails call procedure to process order about that product - ProcessOrderForDisplayedProd else 5.1.4 increment counter so as to search next item in array loop procedure to search array again Procedure used to do part of statement when product is not in array - ProdNotInArray 5.2.1 display error message - record not found ask for product name again 5.2.3 call procedure to search the array again - SearchArray 6 . Procedure to display details of products - DisplayProdDetails 6.1 Display Product details Procedure to get order amount for product displayed , calculate the cost of the order , and adjust stock level - ProcessOrderForDisplayedProd 7.1 Ask user if they want to order the product 7.1.1 ( y / n ) If answer = ' N ' 7.3 Make loop exit Else Call procedure to obtain number of products that user wants to order - Ask_number_of_products_to_be_ordered Calculate cost , and new stock Increase amount in stock calculate , increment cost of order to ask user how many of the porduct displayed they want to order and validate the answer - 8.1 Ask_number_of_products_to_be_ordered 8.1.1 Ask user how many he wants to order - NumOrdered 8.1.2 Validate answer of user . Procedure to determine whether user wants to add another product to the order - User_wants_to_add_more_products_to_order loop when the answer in the procedure Process order = y call procedure to ask for product user wants to order - Ask_ProdName call procedure to search for item in array - SearchArray call procedure to check if item has been found in the array - ProdNotInArray Call Procedure to ask whether to order again - Question_Whether_to_place_order_or_not 10.Procedure which coordinate the other procedure when the user wants to order - ProcessOrder ; declare local variables Call procedure to ask whether user wants to order something or not - Qestion_Whether_to_place_order_or_not 10.2.1ask if the user wants to add another product to the order call procedure that deals with adding product to order - User_Wants_to_Add_More_products_to_order 10.2.3 output cost of order 10.2.4 loop and ask if user wants to place another order - Question_Whether_to_place_order_or_not < heading program call procedure to take product details from the user - EnterProdDetails ; Process the order if user wants to order ( loops on true ) - ProcessOrder ; < heading > Pseudocode 31 . Declare records and array Procedure to input the ID of the product - InputProdID 2.2.4.2Get Product I d from user 2.2.8.1 Procedure to input Cost of product - InputProdCost 2.2.8.2 get cost of product from user Procedure to get quantity in stock from the user - InputProdStkLevel get quantity in stock from user . Procedure which gets all details about the products and store it in array - EnterProdDetails ask for the details for products store in array Call procedure to get Product ID - InputProdID Product ID is not in range error message 2.2.4 Loop to ask for ID again - call InputProdID 2.2.5Call procedure to get Cost of Product - InputProdCost 2.2.6If Product Cost is not in range - ProdCost < 0 error message 2.2.8Loop to Ask for Product Cost again - call InputProdCost 2.2.9Call procedure to get Stock Level - InputProdStkLevel If is not in range - ProdStkLEvel < 0 2.2.11 display error message 2.2.12 Loop to ask for stock level again - Call InputProdStkLevel 3 . Procedure to determine if the user wants to place an order and to validate the answer - Question_Whether_to_place_order_or_not Ask if user wants to place an order Store Answer ( y / n ) 3.1.2 . validate user answer If not valid , ( not Y / N or y / n ) Display error message 3.1.2.3 loop statement to ask for answer again - call Question_Whether_to_place_order_or_not 4 . Procedure to ask which product the user wants to supposedly order - Ask_ProdName get product name from user . Procedure to search the array for product name entered by user - SearchArray Initialise local variables 5.0.1 While Counter < = Compare product in array with product name input by user if they match , procedure to display details of that product 5.1.3 call procedure to process order about that product - ProcessOrderForDisplayedProd 5.1.4 else increment counter so as to search next item in array 5.1.6 loop procedure to search array again Procedure used to do part of statement when product is not in array - ProdNotInArray Note : ocounter = means that we are already out of the array ( array of ) 5.2.0 Set resultname:= ' n ' ; If OCounter = then 5.2.1 display error message - record not found reset counter ask for product name again 5.2.3 call procedure to search the array again - SearchArray 6 . Procedure to display details of products - DisplayProdDetails 6.1 Diplay ' Product details are : ' 6.1.1 Display ' product i d : ' 6.1.2 Display ' product cost : ' 6.1.3 Display ' amount in stock ' 7 . Procedure to get order amount for product displayed , calculate the cost of the order , and adjust stock level initialise local variables Ask user if they want to order the product 7.1.0Ask user if they want to order product 7.1.1 ( y / n ) If answer = ' N ' counter to 5 so that the loop exits Else Call procedure to obtain number of products that user wants to order - Ask_number_of_products_to_be_ordered decrease amount in stock calculate , increment cost of order 7.6.3 set counter to 5 so that loop exits set answer to ' n ' so that loop exits . Procedure to ask user how many of the product displayed they want to order and validate the answer - Ask_number_of_products_to_be_ordered 8.1.1 Ask user how many he wants to order - NumOrdered 8.1.2 Validate answer of user 8.1.2.1 . If for that product or if < 0 8.1.2.2 Display error message 8.1.2.3 Loop procedure again - Ask_number_of_products_to_be_ordered . Procedure to determine whether user wants to add another product to the order - User_wants_to_add_more_products_to_order loop when the answer in the procedure Process order = y call procedure to ask for product user wants to order - Ask_ProdName call procedure to search for item in array - SearchArray call procedure to check if item has been found in the array - ProdNotInArray If Resultname = ' n ' then 9.3.2 ProdAnswer : = ' n ' ; Call Procedure to ask whether to order again - Question_Whether_to_place_order_or_not 10 . Procedure which coordinate the other procedure when the user wants to order - ProcessOrder ; declare local variables Call procedure to ask whether user wants to order something or not - Question_Whether_to_place_order_or_not 10.2.0 Loop only if answer to question in above procedure is true ask if the user wants to add another product to the order 10.2.1.1 10.2.2 call procedure that deals with adding product to order - User_Wants_to_Add_More_products_to_order 10.2.3 output cost of order 10.2.4 loop and ask if user wants to place another order - Question_Whether_to_place_order_or_not < heading program call procedure to take product details from the user - EnterProdDetails ; Process the order if user wants to order ( loops on true ) - ProcessOrder ; : As can be seen main procedures are used , this is because , the primary aim of the program is for the program is to capture input to put in the array and then know if the user wants to order something only happens if the user wants to order , so the program can then loop on true and just end when they do not want to order anymore end . < heading > DATA DICTIONARY
IMPLEMENTATION FORMULA < heading , , , , , , , , y , n , y , y mini - widgit , , , y , average widgit , 0 , y , mini - widgit , , n < heading > TEST DATA AND EXPECTED RESULT
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED Unable to make the program accept only Y or the logic was not good or I did not know the right syntax Parameter passing had to be done really carefully . But at the end , got the hang of it < heading > FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS Tell the user when the item is out of stock","< heading > PROGRAM SPECIFICATION: Program to input the name of the student , calculate mean of input , calculate the mean and output grade . < heading > DESIGN: Input : < /heading > Name of Student Mark 1 Mark 2 Mark 3 Process: Check if mark is in range , If yes , Proceed to next mark Else Ask marks again End Calculate total of marks Calculate average < /list> Output: Name of StudentGrade PSEUDOCODE Pseudocode 1 Introduce program Ask for Student Name Ask for mark1 Check If is in range If it is not , ask the user to re - input mark1 Ask for mark2 Check If Mark2 is in range If it is not , ask the user to re - input mark2 Ask for mark3 Check If Mark2 is in range If it is not , ask the user to re - input mark2 Calculate mean Compare with grades and see which grade corresponds to mean Output student name and grade Ask user if he wants the program to be repeated If yes , Loop program Else End program < heading > Pseudocode 2 Introduce program Ask for Student Name 2.1 Read name Ask for mark1 Read mark1 If mark1 > 100 or mark1 < 0 then Display error message Tell user to enter mark1 again Ask for mark2 If mark2 > 100 or mark2 < 0 then Display error message Tell user to enter mark2 again Ask for mark3 If mark3 > 100 or mark3 < 0 then Display error message Tell user to enter mark3 again mean Ototal = mark1 + mark2 + mark3 Oaverage = ototal/3 Compare with grades and see which grade corresponds to mean If oaverage > = 70 and oaverage < = Grade = A If oaverage > = and oaverage < = Grade = If oaverage > = and oaverage < = Grade = B If oaverage > = 40 and oaverage < = Grade = C If oaverage > = 0 and oaverage < = Grade = student name and grade Asks user whether they want to end program Display ' Do you want to end the program ? ( ) ' Read ' Answer ' If answer = ' y ' Loop program . Else End program < heading > Pseudocode 3 Introduce program Display ' Program to calculate the mean and output grade of a particular student ' Ask for Student Name 2.1 Display ' Please enter your student name ' Read name Ask for mark1 Display ' Please enter first mark ' Display ' The mark should be in the range ' Read mark1 If mark1 > 100 or mark1 < 0 then ' The value you entered is invalid . Please try again . ' Read mark1 Ask for mark2 Display ' Please enter mark ' Display ' The mark should be in the range ' Read mark2 If mark2 > 100 or mark2 < 0 then ' The value you entered is invalid . Please try again . ' Read mark2 Ask for mark3 Display ' Please enter mark ' Display ' The mark should be in the range ' Read mark3 If mark3 > 100 or mark3 < 0 then ' The value you entered is invalid . Please try again . ' Read mark3 Calculate mean Ototal = mark1 + mark2 + mark3 Oaverage = ototal/3 Compare with grades and see which grade corresponds to mean If oaverage > = 70 and oaverage < = Grade = A If oaverage > = and oaverage < = Grade = If oaverage > = and oaverage < = Grade = B If oaverage > = 40 and oaverage < = Grade = C If oaverage > = 0 and oaverage < = Grade = student name and grade Display ' [ Name ] your grade is [ grade ] ' Asks user whether they want to end program Display ' Do you want to end the program ? ( ) ' Read ' Answer ' If answer = ' N ' Loop program Else End program < heading > DATA DICTIONARY
IMPLEMENTATION FORMULA < heading TABLE TEST DATA AND EXPECTED RESULT
RESULTS OF PROGRAM
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED Unable to clear screen at the end of the program Had to review code as it seemed that the correct grade was n't output for Set 1 ( Had to use ' round ' function ) < heading > FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS Ensure that all the values for mark1 , mark2 , mark3 lie within the range that the name entered consists of characters that the answer to ' Do you want to end the program is really ' Y ' or ' N ' Allow the user more flexibility in the number of marks that he can enter the average of the marks also",1 "There is a strong argument that it was indeed artisans who were the most likely group to participate in militant action in as their tradition and culture was one of social and moral solidarity . It seemed to take a longer period of time for proletarian workers to find this solidarity , to organise themselves and to raise a so called ' class consciousness ' . There were exceptions , of course , but I will attempt to show why I agree with scholars such as that it was primarily artisans that resisted the changes brought by industrialization and who seemed to have more of a sense of unity in comparison to the factory workers . In many of the large - scale disturbances across , for example in , the Chartist protests and the tailors ' strike in in , it was artisans who made up the majority of those taking part . agrees as he says "" down to , the history of working - class protest in was essentially the history of artisan protest . "" Indeed , the thousands who were killed and arrested during were predominantly tailors , shoemakers , building craftsmen and furniture makers ; skilled workers who had a lot to lose . The militant movements across and , namely , Owenism and the , mainly included skilled craftsmen who were resisting the changes bought about by new technology . It is arguably not until that is more common to have seen factory workers rise up and participate in strikes in an attempt to improve their working and living conditions . < fnote > , Jr. ' , , and , in and ( eds . ) in and ( , ) p. . < /fnote > To try and find solid reasons for why this was so is easier to do so when looking at in particular . The period of industrialization occurred much more slowly than that of , and , and as a result the proletariat grew at a lesser rate . Coupled with this was the slow increase in population which meant that there was a "" relative continuity in the urban experience of workers . "" This led to more generations of artisans being aware of the changes that were occurring around them and to realise that they did not like the future they could see ahead of them . Calhoun argues this point as he believes that the artisans see no place for themselves in the emerging world , where as the proletariat had less to look back on and compare their new situation with . < fnote > Sewell , ' , , and , p. . < /fnote> The traditions of the artisan , too , meant that they already had a sense of solidarity and were willing to come together when they saw their livelihood being threatened by new developments . The artisans ' proclivity for class - conscious action was largely a consequence of "" a social understanding of their labor that derived from the corporate or guild system of the medieval and early modern cities . "" In there was the history of the compagnonnages which were organisations comprised of artisans and the "" journeymen who tramped across relied on these to provide them , in each town , with a mere who secured lodgings and a roleur who arranged their job placement "" . In some areas there had been cooperatives and mutual aid schemes to help out those who fell into difficulty ; often everyone paid money per month and this was redistributed when necessary . All of this meant that before the culture of the artisan was nothing if not social . < fnote > Sewell , ' , , and , p. . < /fnote> , A History of the French Working Class Volume I ( , ) p. . < /fnote> Sewell , ' , , and , p. . < /fnote > The Revolution itself contributed to why the artisans had to resort to militant action as under the had many corporations which were empowered to regulate the practice of a trade in a given city , for example , local monopolies , quality control and limitations on entry . These were organised by a collective body not an individual and were sometimes linked with a particular patron saint which meant people could celebrate on mass for special occasions . However , the swept away the privileged corporations so artisans were legally free to carry on their trade according to their own wishes . This led to ' abuses ' in various trades and most artisans became unhappy about new practices which they saw as creating unfair competition . Amongst other things they complained about "" a subdivision of the labour process , the use of cheaper materials and of larger manual machines , which permitted a scale of production appropriate to a mass market . "" With the collapse of all meaningful apprenticeship safeguards and the influx of unskilled , women and children : with the extension of hours and work : and with the lowering of wages , piece - rates and wholesale prices the dishonourable part of the trade grew . These difficulties meant that artisans were more likely to come together than factory workers because they had a shared history and knowledge of how much better their situation was prior to industrialisation . < fnote > , ' before ' , in ( ed . ) Labour and in before ( , ) p. . < /fnote> E.P. Thompson , , ) p. . < /fnote > Furthermore , the did not dispose of all the ways in which artisans were potentially tied to each other and were able to socialise in large groups . Often they worked extremely during and then spent drinking heavily and socialising with like minded craftsmen . In fact they often dubbed ' Saint ' as many of the workers would take off to recover from their hangovers and work especially hard from early on morning . There were also labour organisations after the , commonly known as associations , and "" artisans from different occupations came together ... and soon discovered that they suffered from similar problems . "" For example there was the which describes as the most important labour organization established in before and which drew its membership overwhelmingly from artisans . < fnote > , ' Artisan economy , and in Clive Emsley and ( eds . ) , and 1760 - 1860 ( , ) p. . < /fnote > Another reason why artisans were more likely to take part in political militancy was because they had the resources to resist the changes that were occurring and felt that they could be successful in challenging the system . In especially , where craftsmen often specialised in luxury items , their skills were often required in up market sectors and so they had a stronger position to bargain from . Artisans also tended to have higher rates of literacy than an average factory worker and they were able to sustain a radical press which made them stronger as a group across a larger area than could usually be communicated to . There seemed to be feelings of pride in the high quality of the goods produced and artisans were also skilled "" because they could adapt existing ideas and forms of action to the pressures upon them in order to put up a collective resistance to those pressures . "" < fnote > Breuilly , ' Artisan economy ' p. . < /fnote > However despite the above reasons as evidence for the ' radical artisan ' discourse it is not so simple to explain why it was artisans and not other groups in society who took part in political militancy in this period . There were often frictions between master and journeymen , for example in where the masters ' guilds persisted . Journeymen were often outcastes as they never really fitted into area and therefore could not become part of a local organisation or association . This led to resentment from local craftsmen as it was more difficult to try and regulate journeymen and make sure they did not become too great a competition . In addition , within the artisan world they had already experienced some of the so - called ' abuses ' such as division of labour which "" was not a innovation but was already taking place in tailoring , where workers were being forced to specialize in measuring , cutting and stitching or embroidery . "" < fnote > Magraw , French Working Class , p. . < /fnote > There is also criticism of 's idea that artisans looked back to a sort of golden age , which appeared infinitely better than the age which seemed to be coming , as "" only through selective nostalgia could it [ a previous time ] be characterized as a settled world of harmony , independence , skill and craft pride . "" Some have suggested that artisans were more likely to be found in conservative mobilisations , such as the in and in . During there were artisans on both sides , with a generational difference being apparent as the younger craftsmen were drafted in to fight on the side of the state against the older artisans . There is also the view that some of the discourse about craft - proud artisans derives from radical intellectuals who never actually set foot inside a workshop . However , it was certainly the case that "" there was a serious deterioration in the status and living standards of the artisan "" and this prompted action to be taken at various times throughout . < fnote > Magraw , French Working Class , p. . < /fnote> Thompson , , p. . < /fnote > As well as seeing why artisans seemed to be so active it is also important to look at why the proletarian factory workers were not active in political militancy in the same period . In , it tended to be more because artisans remained the majority of the working population and industrialisation occurred much more slowly . But this was not the case of or ; in the cities where factory workers were numerous and outnumbered the artisans there was more chance of a class consciousness rising amongst the proletariat . This did not tend to happen however as there was no culture or tradition of solidarity and so it took longer for the workers to feel a sense of unity with their fellow employees . There was also a very high turnover of workers in bigger factories and so there was no time to forge strong friendships or bonds . This high turnover also meant that if workers were to go on strike then they could easily be replaced and it would only be effective if a large proportion were to act at once . In conclusion , it is true that it was artisans who played a larger role in industrial action before , but it is more difficult to distinguish exactly why this was . I do believe that there are some convincing arguments however and I think the central reason for artisans participating in political militancy is because they were able to remember what , for them , seemed like a better past and they believed that their lives would be affected for the worse with the advent of industrialisation . They had the social means and tradition of coming together to face adversity and the period before was the time when they feared changes the most . After this they may have realised that it was probably too late to return to their preferred way of life and it was left up to the vast number of factory workers to fight for better living and working conditions . Moreover , following this period , the ideas of socialism and a class consciousness had had time to take hold in the proletariat and they were inclined to organise strikes and similar activities .","before broke out was of heightening tensions between the and states . This was due to many factors but the most important was unquestionably the divisive issue of slavery and whether or not it should be allowed to continue . Controversial legislation such as Nebraska Act created a huge amount of debate and politics became revolved around what was the correct action needed with regards to new states being formed . Added to this was the increasing difference between the economy of the and the and hence what they each required from the government . Therefore the government 's failure to unite both sides due to a highly centralised system and inadequate leadership meant that it was arguably inevitable that political accommodation between the and the would break down in the 's . The issue of slavery had always been a cause for disagreement between the halves of the country as the relied almost exclusively on cotton trade to form the bulk of their economy whereas the had never been involved in this industry to such an extent . In the it was a perfectly accepted way of life and there were a large amount of cotton plantations owning numerous amounts of Black slaves . argued that the plantation owners provided shelter , food and care for the slaves where as free workers in the had to endure much worse conditions and fend completely for themselves . However the difference of opinion was not really a cause for concern until new areas of land which were to be organised into new states appeared and suddenly legislation was needed from the government on whether or not slavery was to be permitted there . This was especially the case after ended in and land was acquired from and what is now . This resulted in the Compromise of 1850 where was allowed to enter as a free state , and could have popular sovereignty and slavery was prohibited in . This was , as its name suggests , an attempt to balance out the number of slave and free states but the was not entirely happy about new states being able to choose for themselves . In this way the Compromise was one of the acts to lead to public tension as it ' forced rival and visions of the national future out into the open ' . < fnote > , The North and the Nation in , ( , ) p. . < /fnote > The other major piece of legislation which was passed concerning slavery in was the - Nebraska Act in which has been described as ' the most important single event pushing the nation toward civil war ' . Whether this is entirely accurate or not it definitely caused a huge public split between the North and South as the legislation decreed that new territories could decide themselves whether to allow slavery . In the North ' it was widely and strongly felt that the was the aggressor ' in pushing the act through and it created further divisions by giving strength to both the pro - slavery and anti - slavery forces to try and determine the ' popular ' decision in to be in their favour . < fnote > , of Freedom : , ( Harmondsworth , ) p. . < /fnote> , , ( , ) p. . < /fnote > As tensions mounted feelings of nationalism within the began to gain in strength and the ' Northern threat to slavery was interpreted as a totally unacceptable intrusion into affairs , and led to a closing of ranks ' . During the 's , as we will see later on , the saw themselves in an increasingly minority position within the Union and came to see nationalism as being beneficial simply for the . Political accommodation further broke down due to this as ' defence of sectional interests within the Union could easily lead to the affirmation of separate national identity ' . This is , of course , exactly what happened and the more the attacked the notion of slavery the more the rallied together and vehemently defended the principle . < fnote > Parish , The North and the Nation , p. . < /fnote> Parish , The North and the Nation , p. . < /fnote > The reason these tensions became so apparent in the 's , however , can be attributed some what to the vocal nature of both the abolitionists of the and the so called ' fire - eaters ' of the . As early as 1850 the most prominent members of the fire - eaters , , and , were urging secession at a conference held in , . They were particularly extreme in their views and pointed out that they were ' wearing homespun , proclaiming the need for a economic self - sufficiency ' . These sorts of sentiments only continued throughout and it has been argued that actually ' resulted more from the whipping up of emotions than from the impact of realistic issues ' . < fnote > David M. Potter , The and , ( , ) p. . < /fnote> Potter , The , . < /fnote > The end of this decade was also the period of the - Douglas debates which captured the publics ' attention and persuaded people to take one side or the other . However these debates were misleading as did not believe in the total abolition of slavery and believed it should be protected where it already existed where as held a typical view that slavery should fully continue and be allowed in new territories . This did not stop the hatred of though and his presence in public and consequently running for President did a great deal to stir up feelings against the . The was also unhappy about literary publications regarding slavery and especially the publication of by which had sold a copies by . The book helped to raise awareness of the brutality of slavery and was based on a family of slaves who escaped to and set up a refuge for former slaves in , the Dawn Settlement . This kind of public and widespread criticism of the way of life further alienated the and hampered any potential compromise between the sides . saw another incident which demonstrated how far political accommodation had broken down between the sides . seizure of the 's Ferry arsenal in and his call for the insurrection of the slaves was a complete disaster after he was besieged within . He did however manage to seize , and the Federal armoury and his subsequent trial created a great deal of public attention . The abolitionists viewed him as a martyr when he was hung in and the perceived the as an ever increasing threat and one where its individuals were willing to use force and violence . < fnote > Potter , The , p. . < /fnote > I mentioned earlier that the was increasingly feeling as though it occupied a minority position within the Union but this was not just because of the pressure to abolish slavery . Economic differences between the North and South were becoming even more apparent as the century went on and by the 's ' industrial growth , urban growth , large - scale immigration were helping both to boost the 's majority status and to intensify the divergence of character between and society ' . In particular they disagreed over the possibility of bringing in a tariff which could protect manufacture but would at the same time be detrimental to the as trading cotton for foreign goods would not be as easy any more . < fnote > Parish , The North and the Nation , p. . < /fnote > In addition the wanted an improved banking and currency system and federal subsidies for shipping which the saw as discriminatory and favouring commercial interests . This led a contemporary , , to remark that ' agrarianism and industrialism must necessarily clash because of their dissimilarity ' and this view is certainly a valid one when the occurrence of is considered . When economic differences are analysed it is interesting to see that , although the is often seen as the side that encouraged sectionalism , the support for a tariff or for ' sectional internal improvements , adopted by sectional majorities in the national government , was no less sectional than Southern opposition to them ' . < fnote > Potter , The , p. . < /fnote> Potter , The , p. . < /fnote > These differing view points both about slavery and the economy may not have been such divisive issues , however , if the government had been able to unite the sides and create compromises as each difficult situation arose . had a highly de - centralized , federal system and was often referred to as a capital without a country . This meant that splits were inevitable let alone when a crisis occurred and it lacked ' the institutional safety net to cope with the great sectional crisis when it came ' . Therefore it may have been that by the 's the central government had already let the problems between and escalate too far and it was unlikely that their differences would ever be reconciled in a peaceful way which would accommodate both sides . < fnote > Parish , The North and the Nation , p. . < /fnote > In particular it was again the issue of slavery where the authorities gave out mixed signals with regards to its stance on whether it could continue and if it could then to what extent and where this was allowed . This was seen most publicly with which finally finished in after of deliberation on what the verdict would be . had been a slave and sought freedom after marrying another slave , , and spending time in the free states of and . Eventually it was ruled that was not recognised as an citizen and therefore could not sue for freedom and even if he was living a free state was not free from slavery . declaring ' for the position that the forbade the exclusion of slavery from the territories ' outraged many in the and greatly influenced the nomination of to and his subsequent election . < fnote > Fish , , p. . < /fnote > The 's was therefore the decisive decade in whether political accommodation between the North and South would be achieved and it was slavery that played the major role in ensuring that it would break down . The could not imagine life without it and it was seen as a necessity in keeping their economy going even if it was not growing at the same rate as in the . This divisive issue was not helped by the government 's failure to unite both sides and provide a firm stance on where they stood with strong leadership . Economic differences meant that the saw themselves in an increasingly minority position in the Union and it has been argued that the perceived ' takeover of nationalism impelled towards the idea of their own separate nationhood ' . These difficulties all combined to split the country in and a civil war seemed the only option to many to finally settle their disagreements and achieve a united once more . < fnote > Parish , The North and the Nation , p. . < /fnote >",1 "< heading > Description of chosen title This report will detail the marketing activities of : < list > Title : Dr. and Other Tales of WoeAuthor : Will SelfPublication Date : , : Penguin The product is an adult paperback re - launch of a short - story collection originally published in hardback by ( ) . It contains a novella and other pieces of fiction by established author and journalist , . of the stories were commissioned for other purposes before inclusion in the work , while the other , including the title piece , were written with the collection in mind . Each story is visceral , dark and urban , dealing with the theme of psychosis or ' mind games ' . They all have a narrative peppered with absurd premises , and for this reason they are characteristic of the innovative and satirical style that Self is famed for . The book adheres to some general conventions in adult trade paperback fiction . It is a B format standard size with perfect binding . Also , its £ price point reflects the typical recommended retail price across this sector of publishing . Throughout this report I will refer to and make comparisons with the hardback campaign where appropriate . < heading > Details on target consumer segment Dr. and Other Tales of Woe , both the hardback and paperback , is very generically targeted at the adult reader , and perhaps more the male adult reader . It also seems likely to be aimed largely at frequent book - buyers . That is , 's sophisticated treatment of language , as well as the dark subject area , make the title less likely to appeal to impulse buyers than other trade books . It is somewhat highbrow , attractive to more literary - aware rather than mass - market consumers . Specifically , I can identify types of segmentation used by Penguin to reach their target consumer for this title : Paperback Segmentation : Cheaper , more practical paperback editions appeal to a lot more people . With this title , are likely to attract those consumers who were interested in the product as a hardback but refused to pay its higher price . ( 's segment was quite opposite , of course , because the hardback book was likely to have been bought by avid fans of Self 's work , who felt the format and £ price tag distinguished them as appreciators of high - quality products . ) Behavioural Segmentation : Fans of the author , or indeed readers who have enjoyed of his previous books , are extremely likely to make a response purchase on recognising this title ( ) . This will largely be the case despite what , if anything , they have heard regarding its quality . As an established writer , has a definite following that the publishers can hope will be loyal to him . Psychological Segmentation : Dr. and Other Tales of Woe , like all books , is aimed at certain personalities . Its collection of stories fits with those readers who prefer fiction to be shorter and less dense , for example . Also , it importantly fulfills some definable needs and wants in consumers . The famous author and his perceived innovative writing might make the book a status or ' intelligence ' symbol to some . For instance , those who want to be seen to have an interest in reputable contemporary literature might have been persuaded to purchase the paperback for this reason ( ) . < heading > Penguin 's market research As a paperback re - launch , this latest Will Self novella was arguably a very safe venture . It could even be described as a reflex publication on part of , who has published all of Self 's fiction in paperback format ( URL ) . With such an established and esteemed writer as he , the publisher 's market research need not be so thorough . Still , the paperback giants obviously ascertained that their market would receive this new title well , and no doubt through these quantitative research methods ( Davies , ): They would have assessed the sales figures of the hardcover edition to judge the potential validity of a paperback rights purchase . The publishers need only look at their own sales figures for previous Will Self paperbacks to make a decision on the likely reception of the next . is a very prominent figure in both the print and broadcast media . He has won specialist literary prizes , including for his collection of stories , ( ) . Bloomsbury , the original publishers of the hardback , had this notoriety as a marketing advantage and an indicator of his work 's potential reach and success . < heading > Considerations of the competitive in the general adult fiction sector of publishing is rife , with more books published year on year and publishers vying for the window and shelf space of retailers . Also , Dr. and Other Tales of Woe was published on the 27th January 2005 , at a time when a certain phenomenon was very much affecting the book world . On th , the extremely popular and was launched for on . The chat show hosts reviewed books of all kinds for the public , with a tendency towards literary adult fiction such as Wife by ( Vintage ) . This was very positive for the book trade , importantly generating hype around new books and authors . Still , other books published around the same time , including 's , struggled to contend . The titles that had been reviewed on the television feature were naturally given a great deal more promotional space by booksellers , seizing the attention of many more adult book - buyers . However , proudly boasts the most recognisable publisher 's brand in the world , giving it a strong competitive edge . Since , it has distinctly branded all of Self 's paperback fiction including the latest novella ( Appendix 1 ) . Despite launching this title into a fiercely competitive trade environment , then , marked out both the author and themselves as his reputable publisher from rivals . < heading > The product The product is the most tangible aspect of the marketing mix , and definitely so in the case of Dr. and Other Tales of Woe . The front cover clearly informs us that this is an author - led book . Self 's name is written in a font size times bigger than the title , and in those large , lowercase and sans - serif letters which have become his brand , intended to trigger recognition and stamp quality ( Appendix 2 ) . The product remains conventional in terms of its format and extent . It is the industry standard B format , with perfect binding and the cheap cartridge paper that readers have come to expect from novels . All of this makes it a typical Penguin paperback , with the small but instantly identifiable orange logo in the top right corner . The bold red and white image of the cover , set against the black background , conveys the dark subject matter of 's novella . It is also rather striking and mysterious , no doubt in order to provoke intrigue in the passing book - buyer . of the most notable things about the product is that it lacks a blurb , and instead has quotations from reviews on the back cover ( Appendix 3 ) . This is likely due to the fact that it is a re - launched collection of stories , but also emphasises the achievement and receipt of the author in the literary world . This particular product , it is clear , fits into Penguin 's list as part of a brand that they are dedicated to . < heading > Price The £ price point of this paperback re - launch is as conventional as its format . Trade adult paperbacks largely remain in , and this reflects the fierce competition in the sector . In opting to meet the price of their competitors with this book , it seems Penguin have tried to excel in other areas of their marketing mix , and most noticeably promotion ( ) . This is true of all their other Will Self novels and novellas too , none of which exceed £ . < heading > Place The title was sold widely across chain and independent bookstores : very prominently displayed the title face out and shelved it with other frontlist books . They sold it throughout and as part of a for sales promotion . Will Self came to the store to sign copies in , and after his visit the remaining signed books were stacked at the till as an impulse - buy option for queuing customers . 's also used a multi - buy sales offer , selling the book in a for promotion until . The stores used these sales promotions to speed up the customer 's decision - making process by suggesting that the product represented good value ( ) . Also , they used the attention - grabbing technique of presenting the book face - out , so that the cover marketing messages were clearly visible . Waterstone 's were the only chain not to employ a sales promotion strategy with the product . They displayed it face out with 's older paperback books behind , perhaps relying on fans of the author who knew what they were looking for , rather than those customers swayed by sales offers . It was also sold direct to users by various on - line discount retailers , namely . < heading > Promotion Virtually all of the broadsheet reviews took place around the launch of the original hardback publication in . However , as mentioned , they were quoted on the back of the re - release , and most were archived in the on - line versions of the newspapers , still accessible to those who are interested ( Appendix 5 ) . It seems that Penguin 's promotional efforts were more focused on author public relations and establishment , given that the title had already been received and had made an impression . The author himself is clearly the hub of Penguin 's promotion campaign . He has for a long time been involved in various sectors of the media , and recognises that he has cultivated a brand with his publisher ( Appendix 6 , page ) . The promotion activities have taken place steadily since the book 's publication . In , Self toured chain bookshops in , usually stores , during which he signed copies of the paperback for fans . Details of these signings were broadcast and printed in local media . Also , and reflecting the esteem of the author and his work , he attended nd , and also the Bay Literary Festival on st , on both occasions discussing the re - launch . His reputation gets him invitations to other events , too , many outside of the publishing world . He can take these opportunities to raise - awareness about his new books , and did in at a Cinemas film fans series ( Appendix 8) . < fnote > Appendix 7 shows that he did similar tours of the to promote the hardback version . < /fnote > As part of its ' 70 Years ' celebration , is also launching seventy ' Pocket ' paperbacks . These are an eclectic selection of small format books , showcasing what Penguin regards as its most iconic and important authors . Number in the list gives a sample of 's work - short stories to demonstrate his gift for ' innovative , experimental work ' ( Appendix 4 ) . Of course , this spin - off promotion is intended to boost sales of all titles on the Penguin backlist , including Dr. and Other Tales of Woe . < heading > E - marketing Penguin 's website displayed the title cover in the ' new releases ' feature of its homepage throughout , and also contains a brief blurb about the product and author ( Appendix 9 ) . A navigable and simply designed site , I feel it worked well as a marketing tool , allowing consumers to inform themselves about the book , and also acting as Penguin 's distribution channel by giving them the ability to buy online via ( URL ) . Notably , the author 's unofficial website did not promote the new paperback . Instead it shows only the hardback version , and has content focused more on interviews with Self ( Appendix 10 ) . < heading > Conclusion All considered , it is most clear that this re - launch of Dr. and Other Tales of Woe was marketing - orientated . It was a campaign that optimised both the reputation of the author and of Penguin , far more than it pushed the content of the novella . Its mix of activities was well integrated , however , and revealed the publisher 's apparent objectives : The extensive author PR showed a desire to build loyalty among fans and thus boost sales long term . The campaign reminds readers and indeed competitors that ' inspired branding has always been 's trademark ' ( Walsh , The Independent ) . Penguin demonstrated that they have a commitment to esteemed literary authors like . The book essentially reiterates 's long - standing reputation for bringing high - brow titles to the masses , given the paperback segmentation and competition - pricing . I feel the publishers have succeeded in all of these respects , due to the attention they paid to heavy product branding and author promotion within their marketing mix . The campaign , it is obvious , did not intend to produce a bestseller , but as a re - launch on the brink of celebration , it certainly delivered the intended message that Penguin are still excellent at what they do .","Aggregate supply ( AS ) measures the quantity of goods and services produced within the economy at a given overall price level . It is determined by the supply side performance of the economy and reflects not only the overall productivity of the economy , but also the cost of production is each sector . of the AS curve are very different in , and models as a result of various assumptions and restrictions in each model . The model assumes that the AS curve is strictly vertical . The level of output depends on factors of production , i.e. capital , machines and physical work supplied by labour during the production of output . The only way to increase output is to increase the levels of capital and labour . For instance , firms could employ more workers or increase their investment to raise the capital stock . Therefore , AS can only be affected by the levels of capital and labour and is perfectly inelastic to the price level . In the labour market workers face the choice between leisure and the real wage . The real wage is rigid at full employment wages and prices are assumed to be flexible . Changes in the price would lead to relative adjustments in the nominal wage in order to keep the real wage constant . Often , the government uses fiscal policy ( its spending and taxation ) in order to achieve certain economic objectives . A fiscal stimulus acts as an impulse on the demand . A low taxation increases people 's disposable income and encourages spending , hence leading to a higher inflation . The excess demand would force the curve to shift upwards . In the labour market , increase demand for goods is accompanied by an upward shift in the labour supply curve because workers adjust their price expectations with respect to the actual price level . The price level and the interest rage go up , the real output , however , remains constant . The government spending is usually balanced via an increased interest policy ( restraining money supply or setting interest rates ) to control inflation . In the money market of a classical model , with a fixed money supply and rising price level , the supply of real balance decreases . Since the curve is vertical , the real interest rate must increase to restore the equilibrium . It is important to point out that the as the real demand for money falls , there is a change in the velocity of money circulation . If the government decides to increase money supply , this should be a reaction to an increase to price level only . Money is ' neutral ' in the classical model , i.e. an increase in the price level is always accompanied by a rise in nominal money . A higher money supply ensures that the real output , real wages , real money and real interest rate are unchanged . Since savings and government spending are constant and real output is fixed , investment rate does not experience any changes . The vertical AS curve in the case of Classical model proves the assumption that output is entirely determined by supply side . Therefore , any shifts in demand can not cause a change in output . Only price will adjust to match changes in the nominal wage . On the same ground , any changes in government policies such as a decrease in spending or the money supply have absolutely no effect on both output and employment . Fixed technology and capital and variable labour are also features of model . However , here , the labour supply curve is based on the nominal wage due to the imperfect information of the workers about the price level . The labour force responds to nominal wages with relatively stable expectations concerning prices . It has backward looking expectations , i.e. expectations are very much dependent on past or current experience . Keynes believed that nominal wages are ' sticky ' rather than flexible which means that if prices go up the nominal wage does not follow . The nominal wage does not adjust to return the economy to full employment . The actual level of employment is , therefore , determined purely by the demand for labour . As nominal wages are rigid and prices are flexible , firms choose the level of labour force they want to employ according to the price they receive for their output up to the point where the real wage is equal to the marginal product of labour , i.e. when the equation W / P = holds . Thus , if prices go up , given a fixed nominal wage , the real wage decreases making the labour cheaper . Companies will hire more workers to increase revenues and profits . Output goes up . Hence , curve is upward sloping . There can be a situation in which the quantity of labour demanded at a rigid nominal wage is less than what the labour is willing to supply . In this case there would be involuntary unemployment . Keynes did not exclude the possibility of nominal wage ever adjusting back to equilibrium but "" in the long run we are all dead "" . In this model , an increase in money supply will shift LM curve to the right . If prices are fixed , then the output increases . If the output increases , the price level will rise . The effect of a price increase would be a reduction of money supply shifting the curve back . Output would decrease , but not entirely to the original level . Overall , an increase in the money supply shifts the aggregate demand ( AD ) curve up to the right as an increase in money supply causes the real interest rate to decline leading to an increase in investment . As if is a shift on AD curve , both output and prices increase . Given the backward looking expectations of the labour , as prices go up firms earn a higher profit and increase employment . An increase in government spending shifts the IS curve up to the right . As prices are flexible in this case , a higher output leads to a higher price level which in turn will cause a real money supply reduction ( LM will shift up to the left ) . Output will fall back a bit , but not to its natural level . The belief of ' sticky ' prices plays a central role in the New Keynesian model . Economists tried to explain the theory of aggregate supply and why it is that prices adjust slowly . The reason for nominal price rigidities is that adjusting prices immediately can be very costly . To change its prices , a company may need to send out new catalogs to customers , distribute new price lists to staff or print new menus in restaurants . As a result of those ' menu costs ' , it would be extremely expensive to change menus and catalogues continuously in response to changing prices . Moreover , companies may simply prefer to hold prices stable in order not to annoy regular customers . Some economists really doubt that menu costs can explain short - run fluctuations in the economy because those costs are usually very small and , therefore , not strong enough reason to explain recessions that are costly to the society . Others argue that despite the small size of menu costs it has a huge impact on the economy as a whole . For instance , a price reduction by firm has externalities on the economy as a whole . For instance , a price reduction by firm has externalities to the economy as the average price level would be lowered slightly . Hence , the real income would be increase followed by an increase in demand . There are cases , when companies have to keep old prices because of fixed price long - term contracts . Before setting their prices companies usually take into account the expected price level . If it is high , they will set their prices high to compensate for the high price of inputs ( e.g. raw materials ) . In case of overestimation , companies may simply produce more output as the profits for production is still high . When they choose their ' sticky ' prices , they set them high to meet the high demand . The price level will increase . Therefore , a high level of output leads to a high level of demand , which in turn causes the price level to go up . Efficiency wage theory states that people tend to work harder with an increase in real wage . Higher wage will also attract more qualified labour . The overall productivity will improve . The relationship between output and real wage is procyclical , i.e. if output goes up , real wage will follow . Mankiw argued that monetary policy is a more useful tool for stabilizing the economy as the lags can be very long in fiscal policy . ' Fiscal rules have to be well crafted . A balanced budget amendment that is too strict could be a disaster . At certain times , like recessions and wars , it is appropriate to run budget deficits . So any fiscal rule has to take into account those special situations where budget deficits are appropriate policy response . A fiscal rule by itself would n't be a bad idea , but it has to be well crafted and so far I have n't seen one that is . ' With fixed prices , any changes in policies will cause the aggregate demand ( AD ) curve to shift either through the curve in case of changes in the money supply or the IS curve in the case of government spending . Nothing would be lost if price increases . However , the assumption states that the aggregate supply curve is horizontal . This would lead to situation of economic depression where increased output does not result in increases in prices or the nominal wage . To sum up , the aggregate supply curve is perfectly inelastic in the model , upward sloping in model and horizontal ( at least in the short run ) in the New Keynesian model . The reasons for AS curves to take those shapes can be explained by the differences in the core assumptions of each model . The classical model assumes that the labour supply depends only on the rigid real wage while the price level and the nominal wage are flexible . A slight movement in the price level will cause a change in nominal wage . The output is determined by factors of production such as capital and labour . Development of new technology is a possible way to change output . Both monetary and fiscal policies have absolutely no effect on real output . Under model labour supply depends only on ' sticky ' nominal wage . Prices are flexible . Output depends positively on price level . The real wage is countercyclical , i.e. it moves in the opposite direction from output . There is a possibility of involuntary unemployment . Monetary and fiscal policies can affect output . emphasizes on ' sticky ' prices . Nominal wage is flexible , labour market is competitive , and hence , there is no possibility of involuntary unemployment as workers are always on the labour supply curve . The real wage is procyclical , i.e. moves in the same direction as output . Monetary and Fiscal policies have no affect on prices , but can influence output .",0 "< abstract> Abstract : < /heading > Cosmopolitans consider that the is an incipient form of cosmopolitan democracy . Is their assumption valid ? This essay will make a critical interrogation of the possibility to apply the concept of cosmopolitan democracy to . Cosmopolitan democracy basically refers to democratisation as a double - sided process - deepening of democracy within nations and extension of democracy across territorial boundaries . The construction is for cosmopolitans the living example of such an ideal , ( though imperfect and only at the regional level ) . The present itself with loosen communal boundaries , increased influence of minority nations and local regions , re - conceptualisation of citizenship with duties and rights beyond borders , transnational democratic structures , and equality of participation . The section of the essay will describe the construction pointing out to the fact that it may be viewed as the most developed regional integration arrangement , which already displays a history of common development towards . The part of the essay will explain how and why can the be seen a cosmopolitan democracy . However , as the section of the paper will argue , both the construction and the cosmopolitan democracy project suffer from crucial flaws . Some of these flaws are common to both . For instance , the concept of liberal democracy may not be the proper ' standard ' model of democratisation neither at the regional nor at the global level . Moreover , the communitarian critiques refer to both cosmopolitan and construction as artificial inventions that will never enjoy the same communal attachments as the nation - state . The paper concludes that even if the may be seen as a model of transnational ( cosmopolitan ) democracy , the model itself ( based on the hegemonic concept position of liberal democracy ) needs re - conceptualisation as it can not be just re - iterated as such at the supra - state level . < /abstract> Introduction In envisioning the ideal of cosmopolitan democracy , authors like or use the term ' globalisation ' to capture some significant developments that have changed the nature of political communities and of democracy . These developments refer to global economic processes , the development of international law , intensified media / cultural exchanges , as well as collective and co - operative security . These in turn have prompted an increasingly multi - layered system of governance with sub - state and supra - state authorities as well as global private authorities . The world politics has changed significantly , making transnational decision - making unavoidable . But one can easily notice that , for instance , the meetings of or other global agencies are held behind closed doors . These kinds of institutions can not be held accountable not even when their decisions have a negative impact . Is there a possibility "" to reconcile the principle of the rule by the people with a world in which power is exercised increasingly on a transnational ( ... ) scale "" ? < fnote > , , and ( eds . ) , Re - imagining in Cosmopolitan Democracy , ( Cambridge : , ) . < /fnote> See , "" ? "" in and ( eds . ) , The Global Transformations Reader : An Introduction to the Globalization Debate ( Cambridge : , ) , p. . < /fnote > One of the most articulate responses to the quest to democratise global governance is the theory of cosmopolitan democracy . Cosmopolitan democracy refers to democratisation as a double - sided process - deepening of democracy within nations and extension of democracy across territorial boundaries . This essay will make a critical interrogation of the possibility to apply the concept of cosmopolitan democracy to following the assumption that "" the international organisation which begins to resemble the cosmopolitan model is . "" The construction is for cosmopolitans the living example of such an ideal , ( though imperfect and only at the regional level ) . The present itself with loosen communal boundaries , increased influence of minority nations and local regions , re - conceptualisation of citizenship with duties and rights beyond borders , transnational democratic structures , and equality of participation . Despite the well - known ' democratic deficit ' , the may be viewed as an incipient form of cosmopolitan democracy . The section of the essay will describe the construction pointing out to the fact that it may be viewed as the most developed regional integration arrangement , which already displays a history of common development towards democracy . < fnote > , "" "" , in , , and ( eds . ) , Re - imagining in Cosmopolitan Democracy , ( Cambridge : , ) p. . < /fnote> , "" in the "" , in , and ( eds . ) , Re - imagining in Cosmopolitan Democracy ( Cambridge : , ) , p. . < /fnote> David Held , "" Democracy : From City - states to a Cosmopolitan Order ? "" in ( ed . ) , Prospects for Democracy - North , , , , ( , ) . < /fnote > Nevertheless , democracy seemed designed for relatively small and definitely territorial spaces like the ' polis ' or the nation - state , where the "" demos "" is the nation . However , cosmopolitans urge us to analyse democracy and the concept of political community comparatively because they have never been fixed concepts . For instance , the "" polis "" is no longer democratic enough for us and for long time women had not been considered citizens lacking any political rights . The new conditions of require that democracy , like politics , be no longer perceived as nationally defined . Held mentions that "" More and more people recognise the need for enhanced political accountability , for transparency and openness of decision - making , in international , social and economic domains "" . That is why , the idea of democracy has to be reinvented . This way , cosmopolitan democracy is not optimistic or pessimistic it is a project and a ' position of advocacy ' . As one can notice , the seems to have attempted a cosmopolitan project of re - invention of democracy at a supra - state level . The part of the essay will explain how and why can the be seen a cosmopolitan democracy . < fnote > David Held , "" "" , in and ( eds . ) , The Global Transformations Reader , p. . < /fnote> Buzan , , and . "" Realism vs. cosmopolitanism : a Debate "" , , . , no . , pp . - 398 . < /fnote > However , as the section of the paper will argue , both the construction and the cosmopolitan democracy project suffer from crucial flaws . Some of these flaws are common to both . For instance , the concept of liberal democracy may not be the proper ' standard ' model of democratisation neither at the regional nor at the global level . Moreover , the communitarian critiques refer to both cosmopolitan and construction as artificial inventions that will never enjoy the same communal attachments as the nation - state . The as well as the cosmopolitan democracy project should focus less on institutional changes and more on identity construction . The paper concludes that even if the may be seen as a model of transnational ( cosmopolitan ) democracy , the model itself ( based on the hegemonic concept position of liberal democracy ) needs re - conceptualisation as it can not be just re - iterated as such at the supra - state level . Overall , the offers useful insights on the applicability of the cosmopolitan democracy project . But given the fact that even after of development , the model suffers from crucial democratic deficits , one can easily question the genuine possibility of the applicability of the cosmopolitan democracy project as such regionally or globally . < heading > 2 . Theoretical Framework - The EU Project < /heading > This section will describe construction pointing out to the fact that it may be viewed as the most developed regional integration arrangement , which already displays a history of common development towards democracy . The is not only an international organisation , it is surely not a state or a complete federation , and it might perhaps be better called a confederation . As specifies , "" the very language of modern democracy , ( ... ) revolves around the state . The Union , ( ... ) is not a state . The result is a description of oranges with a botanical vocabulary developed for apples "" . The policy is the result of a complex interplay of interconnected institutions , at the supranational , national and sub - national levels , forming a multi - level system of governance . Although states are important players , sovereignty is less exclusive and states no longer enjoy the monopoly over policy - making : ( ... ) in many ways the may present itself as a challenge to the prevailing norms of the international system . "" < fnote > See Emilio Gabaglio , "" "" , Yearbook ; or and ( eds . ) , Globalism and the New Regionalism ; or , Liberal Democracy into the : ( Manchester : , ) . < /fnote> , The Constitution of , "" Do have an Emperor ? "" and Other Essays on European Integration ( Cambridge : , ) , p. . < /fnote> , , and , "" from : State - Centric vs. Multi - level "" , in and , ( eds . ) , : Readings on the Theory and Practice of European Integration ( London : , ed . ) , pp . - 293 . < /fnote> Knud , , "" : for a Global Polity ? "" in , , . ( Eds ) Towards global polity : future trends and prospects ( London : Routledge , ) , p. < /fnote > Nowadays , a complex system of checks and balances operates within the . The alone has the power to initiate and draft legislation , but , given the increased checks and balances at the level , it can not override or in decision - making . The 's power to create soft law provides strong ways to circumvent the . In addition , even though the main legislative body is , governments are conditioned by the legislative power vested in the , and the as well as interests groups that erode the dominance of their influence . It seems , therefore , that both the citizens and all the member states are given more and more power to influence decision making at the level through the , the or interest - groups and respectively through . At the same time there are certain supranational institutions , such as the or , which safeguard what is prerequisite for the Union 's harmonious development . < fnote > Agenda setting is shared and contested by private actors whose input is valuable . There are interest groups and lobbies in . The Commission increasingly considers their standpoints as important . Moreover , apart from ( ) , established by ( ) , individual sub - national authorities have set up regional offices in . < /fnote > Furthermore , and introduced and extended the Qualified Majority Voting procedure , which is now used within in major fields such as agriculture , trade , issues connected to the internal market , competition policy , and transport . The decision making process is very complex and thus individual governments , even powerful groups of governments , may very well be outvoted . Consequently , since state control has become a weaker instrument to protect state - sovereignty , the decision - making procedures are designed to promote a consensus , reflecting the so - called "" Community method "" characterised by ongoing negotiations , openness to compromise , incorporation of as many parties as possible and mutual trust . This near - commitment of the member states to take into consideration the concerns of all member states is definitely important for the democratisation of the as a supra - state body . We witness a "" very strong inclination of the to seek consensus irrespective of the voting rules . "" Some authors call this model a model of "" consensus democracy "" , which is required by the diversity of interests at stake and facilitated by the similarities among the members of the , who share similar education and background and create something like a club - spirit . < fnote > Of course , considering ( ) , states can veto decisions if vital national interests are affected . However , since this concept of "" vital national interest "" has been altered in meaning , its understanding now being a matter of collective decision of all states and not of government and generally referring to the defense of substantive interests and not of national sovereignty . < /fnote> Roland Bieber , and ( eds . ) , : A Critical Analysis of ( for , ) , pp . - 373 . < /fnote> Philipp Dann , "" Looking through the Federal Lens : The Semi - parliamentary Democracy of the "" , , 2002 , URL , accessed 09.04.2004 . < /fnote> This form of decision - making has been called by some authors a consociational democracy by some authors while for others it represented just another "" intergovernmentalism in disguise , "" a position which neglects the fact that the positions on the 's problems are no longer exclusively divided along national lines . See , The Constitution of , "" Do have an Emperor ? "" and Other Essays on European Integration and and Lord , Legitimacy and ( : Longman , ) . < /fnote > Furthermore , the has a dual executive structure : - The Council of the has not only legislative but also executive powers , as does , and there is no clear - cut separation of powers between the . It reflects both supranational and national dimensions because , while lawmaking is a federal ( supranational ) business , it is the function of the nation states to implement those laws . Thus , the 's participation in the lawmaking is needed for the domestic implementation of those laws . < fnote > The Council is formed by the representatives of member - states , at ministerial level . < /fnote > The limitations imposed on state - sovereignty are beneficial for the democratisation of governance at the level . At the same time , state power is not completely shackled . We can see that the has helped member - states to cope with globalisation and to redress its uneven effects within the community . How otherwise can we explain the strong support for the of smaller states like the ? The opportunities provided by the enhance their capacities as states while the level of social and economic protection and administrative competence achieved through the community 's institutions is greater than at the domestic level . The is creating the infrastructure and the instruments needed for development and for reducing the gap between richer and poorer states and regions . Moreover , high institutionalisation of regional co - operation is crucial particularly for weaker states because these are given a voice and equitable support within the , and are not dominated by a powerful and small elite of "" permanent "" members ( as in the for instance ) . < fnote > Beetham , and Lord . Legitimacy and ( : Longman , ) . < /fnote> It is important to bear in mind that the 's powers were gained by the willing surrender of aspects of sovereignty by member - states - a surrender that arguably has actually helped the survival of the nation - state , given the dominance of the in after and the generation of intense economic competition with many countries in . ( ... ) the provides both opportunities and constraints . Its states retain the final and most general power in many areas of their domestic and foreign affairs ; and the itself seems to have strengthened their options in some of these domains . < /quote> David Held , Models of Democracy ( : , edition , ) , p. . < /fnote > Integration is said to have increased the power of manoeuvre has and its autonomy within the system of global economic relations . For instance , the single currency , , now has the international weight that none of the previous currencies could ever obtain . The has institutionalised intergovernmental co - operation to address collective and transferred problems . Current negotiations witness the countries acting as a unitary commercial power ; each country can seemingly protect its interests by being part of this power . < fnote > After the advent of ( ) and of ( ) in , external constraints for have undergone a redefinition . 's autonomy within global economic relations is modified through integration . See , Liberal Democracy into the : - state ( Manchester : , ) . < /fnote> Axtmann , Liberal Democracy into the : Nation - state . < /fnote > Despite democratic deficits , displays a continuous struggle between more efficiency ( performance ) and more democracy . The gains in terms of governmental and institutional performance ( also a feature of democratic legitimacy ) have generally been priorities for the member - states . The technocratic perspective on the 's functioning stresses that experts in certain fields across all countries gather together as epistemic communities and , since they seem to know best what is needed , they may not really need a mandate from citizens . Normative arguments are offered to support this vision . , the prevalence of bureaucracy in the is justified by the political consensus on the 's mission and goals and by the technical nature of problems to be solved . Since the major problem is in fact maximising wealth , and economics is widely considered a policy realm to be governed by technical expertise , it appears natural to let the experts deal with it . , the main business of the is regulation . Regulation is best carried out by independent agencies , staffed by specialists , who are entitled to act precisely because they are not constrained by the electorate and hence not subject to political manipulation . However , even technocrats admit that their judgement is a complement and not a substitute for democratic legitimacy . < fnote > , ( ed . ) , ( : Routledge , ) . < /fnote > Nevertheless , was inspired by the liberal cosmopolitan belief that the likelihood of conflict between and among states can be limited through the establishment of mutually beneficial frameworks of co - operation . The has given world politics a lesson about the possibility of fruitful co - operation in a region frequently affected by national conflicts . After this brief presentation of the , the next section will try to see how and why the may be seen as an incipient form of cosmopolitan democracy . < heading>3 . What makes the more democratic and cosmopolitan ? < /heading > This section explains how and why can the be seen a cosmopolitan democracy . The argument is based on the several observations . , the has undergone economic integration ( by which a transnational economy is fostered ) , but also political integration ( transfer of sovereignty to supranational organs ) and social integration ( creating a transnational society ) . Integration has been facilitated by the fact that the structure of decision - making displays a relatively equal distribution of power in comparison with , for instance , the states that form the or the . All members are ensured a voice in the decision making . They have willingly surrendered sovereignty for the sake of co - operation to solve transnational problems that they alone can no longer solve . This surrender is rewarded . Not only are states and regions supported to develop and compete in the global economy but also citizens are provided with authorities to which they can appeal . In addition , since transnational problems require a transnational approach , one can notice that the has institutionalised the process of transnational decision - making ( although still imperfect in terms of democratic criteria ) . < fnote > By contrast , global processes are coordinated within an ambiguous political framework with a myriad of actors whose power greatly varies ( the so - called "" governance without government "" ) . There is no institutionalized system of global political governance . See , "" Governance in a Globalizing World "" , in and ( eds . ) , The Global Transformations Reader , p. and , Liberal Democracy into the , p. . < /fnote > From the intergovernmental perspective , the 's democratic legitimacy is an indirect one , dependent on the legitimacy of the states involved , as in the case of other international organisations . But since policy is not exclusively a result of state - action we can easily conclude that the 's democratic credentials and legitimacy do not exclusively arise from national governments and parliaments . Consequently , new channels of democratic control had to be created , such as the and . < fnote > Beetham and Lord , Legitimacy and . < /fnote > The has now reached an important level of supranationalism in decision - making . While states still have a say , decisions made after a process of bargaining may also be imposed on states . Therefore , democratic accountability and the legitimisation of the entire decision - making process can not be assured only nationally . As the ideal of cosmopolitan democracy asks , the seeks to preserve both democracy inside nations and among nations and these levels are mutually re - enforcing themselves . The already has its own directly elected parliament , parliamentary party groups and a system of transnational party federations . Further mechanisms supportive of democracy already in place are accountability to the , which can enact sanctions , a strong and accessible , and free and regular elections . Political leaders in the are , to a certain extent , directly or indirectly authorised by the people . Consequently , a constant concern for empowerment of the and accountability of the other institutions does exist . < fnote > In , the added political to economic cooperation , and fostered cooperation in foreign policy , institutional and procedural reforms . It also brought an increased use of and the introduction of the cooperation procedure for the , which empowered this body to scrutinize and check the 's and 's legislative plans . < /fnote > However imperfect , the has dual parliamentary legitimacy : - If we take into account its intergovernmental structure , the legitimacy stems from , - while if we consider its supranational structure , legitimacy stems from the , which can be seen as a strong policy - shaping legislature . Moreover , as and Lord stress , there are good reasons to have such dual legitimisation and to acknowledge that both NPs and the have a role to play in providing consent , representation , and accountability . Moreover , the faces a dilemma : it can not rely only on the legitimacy it gets from national governments but it must preserve this in order to defend the interests of states and reach out to the citizens . < fnote > Beetham and Lord , Legitimacy and . < /fnote> Alex , Warleigh , Democracy in , practice and reform ( : SAGE , ) . < /fnote > Following the cosmopolitan perspective , the role of regional political arrangements in enhancing transnational democracy is a key role . Hence , the element , which may base the assumption that the is an incipient form of cosmopolitan democracy , is . The requirement of cosmopolitan democracy is enhanced political power of the EP : "" the "" cosmopolitan model of democracy "" presupposes the creation of regional parliaments ( for example , in and ) and the enhancement of the role of such bodies where they already exist ( ) "" . Nevertheless , the is a unique transnational institution that must however be further strengthened . One can notice the gradual increase of the 's legislative power Co - decision has brought a qualitative transformation because the can no longer override the . If the or the reject the other 's position , a conciliation committee , consisting of representatives from both institutions with the as broker , tries to reach a compromise , which can achieve absolute majority in the and qualified majority in the . If no agreement is reached the proposal goes back to the , which can make a "" take - it - or - leave - it "" offer , which the can reject . Hence "" the has the final word . "" < fnote > David Held , "" Democracy : From City - states to a Cosmopolitan Order ? "" in ( ed . ) , Prospects for Democracy - North , , , , ( , ) , p. . < /fnote> Under the consultation procedure only the has the final say , but the assent procedure grants to the one reading of the proposed law and , though it can not modify or amend the text , it can reject that law because of its veto power . The assent procedure applies to basic legislation dealing with the structural funds and to the adoption of international treaties , including accession treaties . The cooperation procedure involves a double reading by the and the can make amendments . Then the issues a "" common position "" , which is sent to the again with explanations ( including explanations for why amendments were rejected ) . The may pressure the further with its amendments and in the reading the may only reject the 's amendments with unanimity . < /fnote> , , and , "" from : State - Centric vs. Multi - level "" , p. . < /fnote > The EP has several formal rights of a debating parliament , which are used in plenary , such as the right to interrogate the , set question times , or the right to conduct urgent debates and to give political groups the opportunities to express their positions . The is also a controlling parliament . It has controlling rights such as co - decision and the power to set up committees of inquiry , to censure the and to appoint , approve or veto a new ( the case of ) . The EP must approve the President of the , has the right to influence appointments to other institutions , like or , and elects , who investigates the complaints of citizens about maladministration in the . Moreover , what is particularly important is the power of the committees of the , which are seen as the 's backbones , keeping its institutions upstanding by acting as the brain and the voice of the . These have the right to interrogate the , hold public hearings with special experts ( which leads to more expertise , more information , debates and expert analyses and links with the public ) , and to file reports for the plenary of the . < fnote > This right was introduced after the enlargement , in , which brought countries with great parliamentary tradition , the , and . < /fnote> It uses its approval powers to critically scan the prospective commissioners thus controlling the . < /fnote> Philipp Dann "" Looking through the Federal Lens : The Semi - parliamentary Democracy of the "" . < /fnote> The Committees facilitate the 's legislative function , increasing its ability to scrutinize the executive . They are small , specialized committees oriented toward the subject matters addressed in the 's DGs . Besides chairmen , they also have rapporteurs , who represent a voice to communicate both inside and outside the system . The committees form public fora through the hearing procedure , convening and negotiating in public . This creates closer links particularly with a specialized public and lobby activists , who have become close to a more and more powerful which shapes the process of policy making within the . There are now committees , which are indispensable for the and have evolved in line with the 's gradual empowerment . For instance , there is , giving the citizens the right to submit petitions directly to the . The is also particularly proud of , which monitors human rights protection and enables the to strongly advocate and raise awareness on human rights . However , as we have seen , apart from these activities of raising awareness on important political , economic and humanitarian issues , the also holds important responsibilities ranging from budgetary and legislative powers to scrutiny , oversight and expertise in foreign affairs . Its role is a key one for the democratization of the as a supranational institution . < /fnote > Not only has gradually increased its legislative power , its functioning through the various committees is a very important channel of communication with the public and of representation of public needs . Consequently , in the puzzling and confusing processes of world politics , the at least know that besides their ( less powerful ) states , the functions as another representative organ for them . Furthermore , the constant and genuine concern for the democratisation of has also been evidenced by the creation of . As the , has pushed for greater powers requesting , for instance , that the principle of subsidiarity be redefined to refer explicitly to sub - national levels of governance . Consequently , representation of the needs and values of citizens and regions ( although imperfect ) is a reality . < fnote > In , individual regions took the initiative of forming ( ) , a institution which contributed to both the democratic legitimization of the and to further federalization . It is composed of members ( representatives of local and regional collectivities ) who are formally appointed by the . Although it has only consultative power ( it advises on policy issues such as transport , public health , education , youth , culture and especially regional cohesion policy ) , we can not exclude a future development through empowerment . < /fnote> Its consultative role has been extended to other policy areas after , such as employment , environment , and cross - border cooperation . extended the committee 's consultative role to new fields , and allowed the to establish its own rules without reference to the , hence enhancing its independence . < /fnote > Third , as another resemblance with the cosmopolitan democracy requirements , the social and political dimensions of the seem to bring politics closer to the citizens of , by conferring rights as well as duties upon them . Democratisation implies constitutionality and shared identity or citizenship . law prevails over national law ( including constitutional law ) , even if it is far from having the simplicity that constitutions generally have , comprising articles . In this context , the role and power of is important . Given the unique "" surrender "" of sovereignty by member states , the treaties are considered by the as the basis of the constitutional framework . The has defined and shaped a new legal order for . As states , "" is largely seen as a successful model of the institutionalisation of supranationality . "" Its most important achievements are the principle of direct effect ( provisions of Union law must be applied by the national courts of the member states and the supremacy of Union law over national law ( a directly effective provision of Union law always prevails over a conflicting provision of national law ) . < fnote > Ulrich K. Preuss , "" Citizenship in : A Paradigm for Transnational Democracy ? "" in , , and ( eds . ) , Re - imagining in Cosmopolitan Democracy ( Cambridge : , ) , p. . < /fnote > In a liberal cosmopolitan fashion , the subjects of this new legal order are not only member states but also most importantly individuals , and it confers duties but also rights upon them . Every person being a citizen of a member state is also a citizen of the Union . rights include the right to move and reside freely within the territory of any member state . Those who reside in a member state of which they are not nationals take up employment in that member - state under the same conditions as a national of that state and have the right to vote in and become candidates for municipal elections or elections to the . Consequently , the principles of direct effect and supremacy create a bond of affiliation between the citizens . < fnote > See Valerie Symes , and ( eds . ) , The Future of Europe : Problems and Issues for the Twenty - first ( , ) ; or , "" Citizenship in : A Paradigm for Transnational Democracy ? "" < /fnote > The is the ultimate arbiter to which national courts can turn in case of conflict between domestic and legislation . Although decision - making power is restricted to certain fields of law , it has transcended the traditional distinction between international law ( applying to states ) and domestic law ( applying to citizens ) , creating a new constitutional order . Consequently , the unique and willing surrender of sovereignty undertaken by the member states is "" rewarded "" with a unique situation in world politics . A supra - state institution is not only supporting states and regions in developing and competing in the global economy but is also assisting citizens , offering them a channel of communication , an authority to which they can appeal . Moreover , identity formation has relied on various techniques , ranging from symbolic attempts ( creating a flag and the anthem ) and mutual relationships ( Union passport , civil rights or even the network of student exchanges ) to civic participation ( direct election of the ) and reminders of authority ( the ) . But national structures are still hesitant to surrender authority to such an extent as to let another centre of power provide for cultural reproduction . Such "" surrender "" would contradict the traditional principles of national liberal democracy , which are so deeply rooted in national consciousness that a different dimension can be added only with great difficulty . Although identity formation is a difficult and long process , the is concerned with it and makes much effort to create a identity and citizenship . To the extent that , as cosmopolitans argue , globalisation means a deterritorialization of social relations , regional integration might be an opportunity for re - territorialization . The has taken some steps towards this form of re - territorialization by searching for a identity and citizenship ( as reflected in the development of the rights ) . The next section will describe the problems associated with democracy within the , problems that may be attributed to the cosmopolitan democracy project as well . < heading>3 . The Problems of Cosmopolitan Deficits This section shows that both the construction and the cosmopolitan democracy , as liberal projects suffer from crucial flaws . Moreover , some of these flaws are common to both . The most common critique articulated with regard to the is that it still displays crucial democratic deficits . Just as globalisation is criticised because it is limiting the possibilities for democracy , the suffers from the same neo - liberal flaw since it has also become an exponent of economic growth at the expense of political values , culture and citizenship . Accusations of technocratic action monopolised by certain elites who represent states or corporate interests are expressed with regard to the as well . This accusation is even more strong if one notices that it is precisely this deficit that motivated the cosmopolitan urge to re - invent democracy in order to reform the current unfair system of global governance , in a globalised world politics . < fnote > Larry , Siedentop . Democracy in ( : , ) . < /fnote> Knud Erik , , , "" : for a Global Polity ? "" , p. . < /fnote > The deficits of the are even more strongly popularised because , by contrast with the global system , it has institutionalised a system of governance . These deficits usually refer to the unelected character of the , the weakness of the , or the withdrawal of powers from national parliaments . Most of all they refer to the lack of a identity or ' demos ' , enforced by the fact of low voter turnout , the absence of political parties , and the obscurity of its procedures . Moreover , "" the has no single decision - making authority which can ultimately be held accountable for decisions . "" < fnote > Warleigh , Democracy in , < /fnote> Warleigh , Democracy in , p. < /fnote > Moreover , the communitarian critiques refer to both cosmopolitan and construction as artificial inventions that will never enjoy the same communal attachments as the nation - state . The as well as the cosmopolitan democracy project should focus less on institutional changes and more on identity construction . Nonetheless , "" there is no coherent ' other ' against whom could identify themselves collectively "" . Democracy can be meaningful only within a community of shared fate and responsibility . Neither the nor the global community enjoys this level of communal attachment . People 's sense of solidarity has not reached a regional or global level . For communitarians , the "" can never expect to generate affective commitment from individuals , only instrumental use by them as they see fit "" . The is not loved but nevertheless its citizens enjoy its benefits . However , although "" the citizens can vote and stand in elections to the in a member state in which they reside but whose nationality they lack "" they do not seem too eager to ' enjoy ' this privilege . < fnote > Warleigh , Democracy in , p. . < /fnote> Kaldor argues that the 's democratic flaws lie in the absence of a ' domestic politics ' and not so much the democratic deficit in formal or institutional terms . There is no sense of civic belonging , no channels of influence and hence no room for change from below which is so powerfully stipulated by the cosmopolitan democracy project . Kaldor considers that respect for national cultures and institutions is essential but also invention of ' grand collective ' projects for to identify with , and build their own common future . However , she sees the treaty as a step in this direction . < fnote > Kaldor quoted in , Catherine "" Democratising the : evidence and argument "" , in and ( eds . ) , : Issues for ( , ) , p. . < /fnote > In addition , the concept of liberal democracy may not be the proper ' standard ' model of democratisation neither at the regional nor at the global level . Public pressures drive efforts for democratisation within the but they do not question whether the model to be implemented should be the liberal democratic model . The conceptual hegemony of this model is not challenged and although cosmopolitan thinkers urge for a re - invention of the concept of democracy , they build their theories upon the same liberal democratic premises . The whole edifice of cosmopolitan democracy is based on a hierarchical account in which the principles of representation and accountability remain territorial . 's model is criticised of since the history of is simply presented as the history of the entire world . That is why , instead of providing a detailed blueprint of future institutional arrangements , global and regional systems of governance should focus on the ethical problems of the open - ended process of global democratisation . < fnote > Warleigh , Democracy in , p. . < /fnote> Cosmopolitan democracy makes standard Western assumptions about linear world historical time . History is expected to be a movement towards something better , towards an ultimate destination . The movement is from lower to higher levels giving rise to the hierarchy of beings , which re - enforces the communitarian critique towards liberalism ( and hence cosmopolitanism ) according to which the liberal values can not possibly be neutral with regard to the concept of a ' good life ' to be embraced by all rational individuals . See , ( ed . ) and its critics , ( : , ) . < /fnote > Moreover , both the and the global model of cosmopolitan democracy are based on the assumption that liberal democracy should underpin their progresses . But they neglect that liberal democracy , by definition , relies and is dependent upon the existence of a state and a ' demos ' which are simply non - existent . Not only that the do not see their identify shaped by the but the itself does not present itself as a state and hence can not possibly have the monopoly of legitimate violence , raise taxes directly or even make its decisions binding . The same can be true of a global centralised governing structure . Hence , the liberal democratic blueprint "" is inadequate because its compromise between liberalism and democracy is insufficient , and always likely to privilege economics given its view that government functions should be minimised "" . Supra - state democratisation ( as an open - ended process ) and not democracy as a static ideal seems to require a much more sophisticated and complex approach . < fnote > , Democracy in , < /fnote> , Democracy in , p. . < /fnote>4 . Conclusion This essay has tried to assess the extent to which the concept of cosmopolitan democracy applies to . The section of the essay described the as the most developed regional integration arrangement , which already displays a history of common development towards a liberal - cosmopolitan type of democracy . One can admit that the is the only instance where there has been an attempt ( though imperfect it may be ) to introduce democracy at a supra - state level though different theoretical accounts are divided in terms of which model of democracy is ( or should be ) developed by it . The part of the essay continues the description of cosmopolitan democracy inside the . Although the by definition can not be a cosmopolitan , as in global , type of democracy , it may nevertheless provide a lesson for future projects of global democratisation . integration has been facilitated by the fact all member states are ensured a voice in the decision making process . The has willingly surrendered sovereignty for the sake of co - operation and integration in order to solve transnational problems that the states alone can not solve . This surrender is rewarded . Not only are states and regions supported to develop in the global economy but also citizens are provided with authorities to which they can appeal . In a cosmopolitan fashion , individual rights in the are prior to state sovereignty . The social and political dimensions of the seem to bring politics closer to the citizens of , by conferring rights as well as duties upon them . Representation of the needs and values of citizens and regions ( although imperfect ) is a reality , as evidenced by the direct elections to , the workings of , and the activity of . Indeed , the has taken some steps towards this form of re - territorialization by searching for a identity and citizenship . However , as the section of the paper argues , both the construction and the cosmopolitan democracy project suffer from crucial flaws . Some of these flaws are common to both For instance , the concept of liberal democracy may not be the ' standard ' model of democratisation neither at the regional nor at the global level . Moreover , the communitarian critiques refer to both cosmopolitan and construction as artificial inventions that will never enjoy the same communal attachments as the nation - state . The as well as the cosmopolitan democracy project should focus not only on institutional changes but most of all to identity construction . Moreover , the observation that only strong elites usually encourage enhanced supra - state regulation as well as the accusation that supra - state democracy will always be in deficit applies to both the construction and the cosmopolitan democracy project . The paper concludes that even if the may be seen as a model of transnational ( cosmopolitan ) democracy , the model itself ( based on the hegemonic concept position of liberal democracy ) needs re - conceptualisation as it can not be just re - iterated as such at the supra - state level . The attempt to draw the map of or global democratisation following traditional liberal democratic patterns may have crucial flaws . Overall , the offers useful insights on the applicability of the cosmopolitan democracy project . But given the fact that even after of development , the model suffers from crucial democratic deficits , one can easily question the genuine possibility of the applicability of the cosmopolitan democracy project . Is it because the conceptual base of both projects , namely liberal democracy concept , can not be applied at a supra - state level ? Is it because people need more time to attach to another artificial creation , which is even larger than the state ? These questions may be answered in another research paper .","As a writer of short stories the author 's main objective is to keep the reader interested and to avoid any opportunities for tangent thoughts relating to themes or issues arising from the story . Therefore , the effects of his composition are always in the forefront of 's mind . The ' nouvelle ' is supposed to be read all in go and ensures this possibility using a number of techniques . The reminder we see in both ' Mateo Falcone ' and ' Tamango ' of 's attempt to control the reader is the use of a narrator ; the author is not telling the story . The stories are based on a few key events that only take place over a matter of . The use of a narrator is an important element in 's composition as it helps to control the reader by distancing them from the characters . This is significant as of the dangers of a short story is that the reader gets too concerned with characteristics and his attention can be diverted from the narrative . , can , in this way , stay completely objective - neither opinion nor judgement is cast and we , as a reader , are left to make up our own minds about the characters and their actions . example of this is the killing of Fortunato ; in any other story after such a horrific image of a father killing his son , one would expect some sort of moral judgement to be cast by the author . Instead simply ends : "" ( ) le ravin . ( ) vais l'enterrer . Il est mort en ; je lui ferai une messe . "" Another technique used by to control the reader and remain objective is his florid , impersonal style ; he uses ' on ' to enhance his calm objective storytelling - he also narrates casually : "" ne sais combien de temps "" . < fnote > Son of Mateo Falcone < /fnote> Mateo Falcone , pg < /fnote> Tamango , pg < /fnote > Another aid to control the reader is found in 's ability to change the pace of the story . "" le bout de la chaîne ... Le cadran était azuré ... la boîte nouvellement fourbie ... au soleil elle paraissait toute de feu ... La tentation était trop forte . "" Here , uses an increase of punctuation to slow down the reading . This is a technique of 's composition to make the reader take particular note of the description , in this case the awe feels for the watch offered to him . succeeds in portraying a trait of character here - namely 's greed - merely by changing the pace of his prose . The opposite effect is used also by to speed up and therefore intensify key , dramatic scenes : "" deux chefs se joignirent sur un des passages "" This time uses a repeated 's ' sound and little punctuation to help the story flow and provoke a quicker , more intense reading . changes tense from the past historic into the dramatic present : "" Il s'élança dans les bras de son adversaire , et lui saisit la main do n't il tenait son sabre . retenir son arme , l'autre de l'arracher . cette lutte furieuse , ils tombent tous les deux "" . This , again , speeds up the reader at a dramatic point in the narrative and makes the tale more immediate and exciting . < fnote > Mateo Falcone , pg < /fnote> Tamango , pg < /fnote> Tamango , pg < /fnote > Vivid , yet concise description is used to control the reader . This allows to force the reader into taking particular notes of key scenes : "" la montre oscillait , tournait , et quelquefois lui heurait le bout du nez . Enfin , peu à peu sa main droite s'éleva vers la montre "" . Here uses vivid description to ensure that the reader is aware of the importance of the watch - it is a symbol of 's betrayal and succeeds in making it visual . < fnote > Mateo Falcone , pg < /fnote > Mérimée does n't allow the reader to lose concentration at any point in the story . He does this by making it very difficult to anticipate what is coming next in the narrative . There are a number of twists in the story designed to shock the reader ; for example , although entitled there is actually very little reference to this man at all in the story . When we do see him he is perhaps somewhat different to what the reader may have expected ; it is surprising that a man who holds the virtue of loyalty so dear , would kill his own son . Indeed the whole relationship between father and son is surprising as a close father - son bond would perhaps have been anticipated , especially as the son and heir is so proud of his dad . The fact that himself , a crook and a cold - blooded killer , has any sort of moral code is unexpected , let alone any religious beliefs to the extent of making pray before being shot . , throughout the opening of the story is built up as a hero and to shoot his own son in cold blood comes as a shock . In ' Tamango ' a similar technique is used to achieve the same effect ; it is surprising that is rescued by the very slaves he had betrayed , and the ease in which he was captured before hand was an anti - climax . Again , at the end , we see a twist in that "" il mourut à l'hôpital d'une inflammation de poitrine . "" this is certainly not gratifying for the reader but does control him - ensuring kept concentration and no time for reflex ion on previous points . < fnote > Tamango , pg < /fnote > However , having said that does not aim to gratify the reader whilst reading the story , he perhaps does provoke contemplation afterwards . Thanks to the dramatic twists , vivid descriptions , objectivity and changes of pace in the narrative , the reader does not have time to think about issues arising from the story , characteristics , or to make a moral judgement . does succeed , however , in shocking the reader but this shock is delayed until the end of the story . uses irony too to add to the reader 's thoughts after the end of the narrative . 's name is such irony , as is the name of the ship ( l'esperence ) and . At the very end of ' Mateo Falcone ' we see that is to be replaced by "" Tiodoro Bianchi "" - ironically sharing his name with the corporal and his last being associated with white skin colour . things that stands against . < fnote > Tamango , pg < /fnote > Therefore , it is clear , after analysing the various techniques used by , that he does have in mind the effects of his composition at all times . He does above all attempt to control the reader to make the story more effective . Although not always gratifying during the narrative , provokes independent thoughts , arguments and judgements at the end of the book .",0 "< abstract> Abstract Patterning of the vertebrate limb involves the formation of axis , D - V , Pr - D and A - P to produce complete and correct morphology . Initially a limb bud is induced via Wnt and Fgf signalling , with fore- verses hindlimb identity proposed as specified by and Tbx4 respectively . The is positioned at the dorsoventral boundary as a consequence of R - fng expression , and through expression of Fgf4 and Fgf8 gives rise to the Pr - D patterning and outgrowth of the limb . Signalling from dorsally expressed and ventrally expressed En-1 in the ectoderm gives rise to D - V patterning of the limb . The appears to mediate A - P patterning of the digits via expression of , and interacts with the in reciprocal regulation and maintenance . Due to evolutionary conservation , the mouse and chick examples discussed here may be applied broadly to all vertebrates , with the possibility of homologous genes performing comparable functions . < /abstract>1 . Introduction Pattern formation is defined as the "" set of processes by which embryonic cells form ordered spatial arrangements of differentiated tissues . "" Patterning of the limb involves the formation of axes , the proximal - distal axis ( Pr - D ) from close to far from the body , the anterior - posterior ( A - P ) axis from thumb to little finger , and the dorsal - ventral axis ( D - V ) , from knuckle to palm . Correct patterning leads complete formation of the proximal stylopod , the intermediate zeugopod , and the distal autopod . < enote > Scott F. Gilbert Developmental Biology 7th Edition < /enote > The vertebrate limb is not essential to embryonic survival , so grafting experiments can be performed to understand its patterning . Classical experiments have shown that the limb does not develop when certain cells are removed , and that a limb will form when groups of cells are transplanted to an alternative location.1 These observations can be explained in terms of the limb field , seen in figure . < picture/>Classical experiments also identified several important signalling centres involved in the patterning of the vertebrate limb , seen in figure . If the is removed , distal limb development stops,1 , , so it seems the is vital to limb outgrowth , and Pr - D patterning . Transplantation of the ZPA to the anterior of another limb bud causes mirror - image digit duplications,1 - 3 suggesting its involvement in A - P patterning . When the ectoderm of the limb bud is rotated o with respect to the mesenchyme , distal elements are reversed,1 demonstrating a role in D - V patterning . This essay shall consider the how these signalling centres set up their corresponding axes and interact with each other to bring about the patterning of the vertebrate limb . < enote > Tickle The contribution of chicken embryology to the understanding of vertebrate limb development Mech Dev < /enote> Niswander , formation : Old models out on a limb 2003 Nat Rev Genetics 4:133 - 143 < /enote>2 . Formation of the Limb Bud The induction of the limb begins with formation of the limb bud , where lateral plate mesoderm ( ) proliferates to form a circular bulge . Fgf8 was implicated as a chick limb inducer . Fgf8 mRNA localises to the intermediate mesoderm ( ) at the level of the prospective forelimb and hindlimb territories , whilst being absent from the mesoderm of the prospective inter - limb territory , at stages in chicks . Chick limb bud induction occurs over stages theredore Fgf8 appears to be expressed at the right time , and in the right place to be a limb inducer . Fgf8 soaked beads induce a limb - like structure when inserted into the of the inter - limb region,5 further indicating a role in limb induction . Fgf8 expression in the appears to induce its own expression in the overlying ectoderm of the limb bud which becomes the , as seen in figure . < enote > Crossley et al . Roles for FGF8 in the induction , inititation and maintenance of chick limb development Cell - 136 < /enote>Fgf10 has also been shown to be important in limb induction . It is initially widely expressed in the segmental plate , and , but its expression is restricted to the at stage of chick development . Therefore Fgf10 is also present at the right time , in the right place . Fgf10 expressing cells can cause ectopic limb formation when implanted into the inter - limb region,6 and Fgf10 - / - mice show complete truncation of both fore- and hindlimbs , seen in figure . No Fgf8 expression was detected in the small limb buds suggesting Fgf10 is upstream of Fgf8 in limb bud induction . < enote > et al . Wnt signals control FGF - dependant limb initiation and induction in the chick embryo Cell - 900 < /enote> Sekine et al . Fgf10 is essential for limb and lung formation Nature < /enote>Together this produces a model where Fgf-8 from the restricts Fgf10 expression to the at the level of the prospective limbs , and then Fgf10 induces Fgf8 expression in the overlying ectoderm.6 However , limb bud initiation is seen in the Fgf10 - / - mutant mice , so it appears expression of upstream gene or genes are required earlier on in limb bud induction . < picture/>Expression of Wnt2b , belonging to the family of secreted factors , is found in the of the prospective forelimb at stage in chicks,6 seen in figure . When expressing cells are implanted into the inter - limb region , a limb bud is induced , and Fgf10 is expressed in the after , and Fgf8 induction occurs at around 20 hours.6 This suggests acts upstream of Fgf10 and Fgf8 in limb bud induction in the chick . is however not detected in the prospective hindlimb region , however , is expressed in the of the prospective hindlimb until stage in the chick , when Fgf10 expression becomes localised to the of the prospective hind - limb region.6 expressing cells can also induce an ectopic limb bud when implanted into the inter - limb region.6 This suggests and in the forelimb and hindlimb respectively , contribute to the restriction of Fgf10 expression in to the prospective limb regions . Some Wnt proteins , such as , have been shown to function via the activation of the intracellular mediator , which as part of a multiprotein complex , regulates transcription of target genes.6 Evidence in figure , strongly suggests that and signalling is mediated via -catenin activation in the fore- and hindlimb respectively . < picture/>As discussed above , it is proposed that Fgf10 induces Fgf8 expression in the overlying surface ectoderm , which becomes the Wnt3a expression has been shown to be an upstream regulator of Fgf8 expression in the chick , and appears to mediate its affects via activation of -catenin.6 Figure shows that antagonism of -catenin at stage does not affect Fgf10 expression , however the limbs that develop are truncated , as Fgf8 expression is down - regulated in the ectoderm , and there is disruption of formation . This indicates the induction of Fgf8 in the ectoderm by Fgf10 occurs via Wnt3a and is -catenin dependant . Figure summarises limb bud induction in a proposed model . < figure/>3 . Identity of Fore- and Hindlimbs < /heading > Tbx4 and Tbx5 are members of the T - box transcription factor family , and are specifically expressed in the hindlimb and forelimb respectively . & When a conditional Tbx5 allele is expressed in mice , forelimbs are completely absent , while hindlimbs are unaffected,9 seen in figure . This demonstrates is vital in early limb development , and illustrates specificity to the forelimb . In Fgf10 null mice , there is expression of Tbx4 and Tbx5 , and initiation of limb bud formation , suggesting these genes are upstream of Fgf10 . < enote et al . The T - box genes Tbx4 and regulate limb outgrowth and identity Nature 398:814 - 818 < /enote> Rallis et al . Tbx5 is required for forelimb bud formation and continued outgrowth 2002 Development < /enote> Takeuchi et al . Tbx5 and Tbx4 trigger limb bud formation through activation of signalling cascade Development 130:2729 - 2739 < /enote>Misexpression of dominant negative Tbx5 and induces limb - less phenotypes , and repression of genes , shown in figure , with a critical time period between stages and to induce the limb - less This suggests and function before the Wnt and Fgf signals . This is also supported by the fact that their expression is first detected in the prospective limb mesenchyme prior to overt limb outgrowth.9 < picture/>In chick embryos leg grafts expressing Tbx4 can develop into toe - like digits when placed into the wing,8 suggesting a role for in specification of the hindlimb . A recent study by et al10 provided significant evidence for the role of in specification of limb identity . When Tbx5 was misexpressed in the inter - limb region , a wing - like limb formed , and was expressed , and conversely with Tbx4 misexpression a leg - like limb formed , and was expressed.10 It seems therefore that Tbx4 and operate in the gap between the genes that specify the primary A - P axis and the network , in specification of limb identity and limb induction.10 < heading>4 . Induction of the Apical Ectodermal Ridge ( AER) The is situated at the dorsoventral limb boundary , and is vital for limb bud outgrowth . et found that chick Radical fringe ( R - fng ) , homologous to the fng gene , encodes a secreted signalling molecule , with expression as seen in figure expression of R - fng in the ventral side of the limb resulted in limb bud phenotypes lacking a defined , having a divided , having additional ventral or ventrally expanded AERs and having a lengthwise expansion of the anterior AER.11 This suggests that R - fng functions in the normal formation of the . < enote > Rodriguez - Esteban et al . Radical fringe position the apical ectodermal ridge at the dorsoventral boundary of the vertebrate limb 1997 Nature 386:360 - 366 < /enote>It appears that R - fng requires previous establishment of the D - V axis since its expression is dorsally restricted as seen in figure . Dorsal misexpression of ectodermal gene En-1 , results in severe truncations with AERs that are undefined , discontinuous AERs , and additional dorsal it is suggested that ventrally expressed En-1 in the ectoderm represses R - fng expression , restricting it to the dorsal ectoderm , creating a ' R - fng boundary ' and resulting in the formation of the at the dorsoventral boundary.11 As seen in figure , Fgf10 in the is proposed to induce expression of Fgf8 in the ectoderm via Wnt3a and -catenin . Wnt3a is detected before Fgf8 in the limb field ectoderm , and is up - regulated in cells near the dorsoventral boundary . Misexpression of Wnt3a induces ectopic expression of - specific genes , and application of Wnt3a - expressing cells to limbs with the removed induces Fgf8 expression.12 It therefore appears is involved in the formation of the and induces - specific genes . As shown in figure , signals via , which forms a complex with members of the / XTCF family to activate transcription of target member of this family , Lef1 , is strongly expressed in the , and misexpression of enhances Lef1 expression . It therefore appears Wnt3a requires / Lef1 signalling to induce its response . < enote > Kengaku et al . Distinct WNT pathways regulating the formatio and dorsoventral polarity in the chick limb bud 1998 Science < /enote>5 . Development of the Dorsal - Ventral ( D - V ) Axis The signals that regulate dorsal - ventral identity are derived from the ectoderm . & Wnt7a expression is present in the ectoderm at the level of the both the presumptive fore- and hindlimb in mice , and during the initial stages of limb bud outgrowth , expression is uniform throughout the dorsal limb ectoderm.13&14 It is therefore thought to be involved in determining the D - V axis . Wnt7a - / - mice show normal ventral structures in the limbs , however many dorsal - to - ventral transformations of mesenchyme cell fates are observed.13 This phenotype is more severe in distally,13 suggesting other factors are also involved in D - V patterning . Ventrally restricted expression of genes such as En-1 and Bmp-2 remains intact , so it seems the cell fate changes observed occur to the underlying dorsal , this demonstrates that is required in dorsal patterning of the limb . < enote , and signal required for normal polarity of D - V and A - P axes of mouse limb 1995 Nature - 353 < /enote> Riddle et al . Induction of the homeobox gene Lmx-1 by WNT7a establishes dorsoventral pattern in the vertebrate limb Cell 83:631 - 640 < /enote>Lmx1 , belonging to the homeobox gene family , is expressed in the dorsal mesoderm of the limb bud , seen in figure It is restricted to the mesoderm adjacent to the expressing ectoderm , in both the fore- and hind limb.14 Its timing of expression shows great similarity to that of in the ectoderm , and ventral misexpression of leads to ectopic expression of Lmx1 in the ventral limb mesoderm , seen in figure This suggests that dorsal expression of in the ectoderm induces dorsal expression of Lmx1 in the mesoderm , which gives the mesoderm dorsal identity . In the absence of surrounding ectoderm , dorsal Lmx1 expression is still detected proximally , suggesting continuous signalling from the ectoderm is not required to maintain Lmx1 expression in proximal limb mesenchyme.14 appears to induce Lmx1 expression via a independent pathway.12 We have seen that En-1 is expressed in the ventral ectoderm , and functions in positioning of the AER.11 En-1 is thought to be involved in specifying ventral cell fate , as misexpression of En-1 represses the expression of the dorsally restricted and Therefore it appears that correct spatial expression and interaction of and En-1 in the ectoderm are key to D - V patterning of the limb , although other genes are also likely to be involved . < heading>6 . Development of ( Pr - D ) Axis The progress zone is a region of proliferation of undifferentiated cells . Cartilage staining shows that the limb develops along the Pr - D axis , and outgrowth is thought to occur as in the progress zone ( ) model . This is where cells in the progress zone are maintained in a proliferative and undifferentiated state , and their fate is dependant upon the time spent in the . The longer the time spent in the , the more distal the cell fate . It is thought that the regulates outgrowth through maintaining the undifferentiated and proliferative state of cells in the . < enote > Niswander et al . FGF-4 replaces the apical ectodermal ridge and directs outgrowth and patterning of the limb Cell 75:579 - 587 < /enote> Mahmood et al . A role for FGF8 in the initiation and maintenance of vertebrate limb bud outgrowth Current Biology 5:797 - 806 < /enote > Application of Fgf4 soaked beads to chick limb buds with the removed results in stimulation of limb bud outgrowth and almost normal proximodistal pattern and limb length , although with some abnormalities in shape , compared to truncation in the controls.15 Simultaneous application of Fgf4 beads to the apical and posterior wing bud mesenchyme following removal , leads to virtually complete skeletal elements of the limb , with only some digit abnormalities seen in figure This suggests is involved in the stimulation of limb bud outgrowth , and for complete formation of the Pr - D axis Fgf4 may stimulate posterior mesenchyme cells to produce a signal which maintains the active progress zone.15 However , Fgf4 mRNA is restricted to the posterior part of the AER,16 and are thought to act over only short distances , so it seems other factors are likely to be involved in Pr - D development . < picture/>Fgf signals are transduced via Fgf receptors ( ) . Fgfr2 is expressed in the during limb bud initiation , and then concentrates to the surface ectoderm , and at lower levels in the adjacent mesenchyme.17 Its pattern of expression therefore overlaps the domains of Fgf10 and Fgf8 expression discussed in . et found that mice with a deletion of a domain of Fgfr2 , show failure of limb induction , with no staining for Fgf8 , and Fgf10 staining weaker than in the wild - type which gradually reduced and disappeared , in both fore- and hindlimbs.17 This suggests that Fgfr2 , which is present in limb bud as major isoforms , is involved in induction of Fgf8 by Fgf10 , and in turn the maintenance of Fgf10 by Fgf8 , and this reciprocal interaction is vital for limb bud formation and outgrowth.17 < enote > Xu et al . Fibroblast growth factor receptor ( FGFR2)-mediated reciprocal regulation loop between FGF8 and FGF10 is essential for limb induction 1998 Development 125:753 - 765 < /enote > Fgf8 expression induced in the ectoderm by the expression of Fgf10 , persists in the limb bud and is found to be restricted uniformly to cells of the , before the expression of forelimbs maintain limb bud growth after removal and incubation with Fgf8.16 This shows that along with Fgf4 , Fgf8 may also perform most of the functions of the when it is removed . Conditional inactivation of Fgf8 determined that it is only absolutely required in the anterior , as only anterior forelimb elements were absent . Fgf4 levels had increased , suggesting that the are co - regulated , and Fgf4 compensates for the loss of Fgf8 . Overall it appears that both Fgf4 and Fgf8 are vital for the correct outgrowth and Pr - D patterning of the vertebrate limb . < enote > Moon et al . FGF8 is involved for outgrowth and patterning of the limbs Nature Genetics 26:455 - 459 < /enote>7 . Development of ( A - P ) Axis Early experiments found that the A - P axis involved , as seen in figure . Riddle at isolated a hedgehog homolog , hedgehog ( Shh ) and via in situ hybridisation found that is expressed in the posterior regions of the fore- and hindlimb corresponding in both position and intensity to the polarising activity of the expression of was found to result in mirror - image digit duplications similar to those with an ectopic This suggests that the polarising activity of the is mediated by . expression in the anterior could induce mirror - image activation of gene expression , as occurred when the is transplanted.19 This implicates gene expression as a downstream target of Shh in limb A - P patterning . < enote > Riddle at al . Sonic hedgehog mediates the polarising activity of the ZPA 1993 75:1401 - 1416 < /enote>In situ hybridisation shows is expressed in the posterior of the chick forelimb , with position and intensity corresponding to the ZPA . It seems is involved in establishing the position of the forelimb . The expression of can be regulated in a dose - dependant response to retinoic acid ( ) , suggesting lies upstream of in specifying the position of the according to the primary axis.20 The loss of expression at stage in the chick appears to be as a result of inhibition from the and AER,20 seen in figure . is not expressed in the hindlimb , however , a more 5 ' Hox gene , with a more posterior boundary is predicted to perform a similar function in the hindlimb.20 < enote > Stratford et al . has a role in establishing early anterior - posterior polarity in chick forelimb but not hindlimb Development 124:4224 - 4234 < /enote>
Gli3 has been suggested as a target of signalling in A - P limb patterning . Shh - / - limbs have severe distal skeletal deficiencies , with zeugopod and autopod elements missing , fused or lacking identity . Gli3 - / - limbs exhibit severe polydactyly.21 - mice , develop virtually normal stylopod and zeugopod elements , however the autopod is polydactylous.21 This suggests the are required for constraining the polydactylous potential of the autopod and specifying digit identity . Since the Gli3 - / - and Shh - / - Gli3 - / - limbs are almost indistinguishable , this would suggest has no effect in the absence of Gli3 , and is therefore required for Shh to function in < enote > Litingtung et al . Shh and are dispensible for limb skeleton formation but regulate digit number and identity < /enote > Gli3 is a transcription factor thought to be present in the limb in transcriptional activator ( ) and repressor ( ) forms , with a proteolytic cleavage generating the repressor form.3,4,21 is proposed to inhibit this cleavage , therefore generating the activator form , and creating an A - P gradient of : Gli3R. 3,4,21 The expression of target genes then leads to the A - P patterning of digits . As reviewed by early patterning in the stylopod and zeugopod is thought to be a result of Gli3 expression in the anterior mesenchyme and expression in the posterior mesenchyme . The transcription factor is also thought to be required to activate expression in the . The requires a signal from the for establishment and maintenance of expression , and it appears that the requires the for maintenance of Fgf4 expression.15 This has been examined by looking at limb deformed ( ld ) mutants , which show normal activation of expression , but subsequent up - regulation does not occur.22 Grafts of expressing cells in the wild - type induce ectopic Fgf4 expression , however in the ld mutant this does not occur.22 Further evidence as seen in figure , has lead to a model for a proposed feedback loop . < enote > Zuniga et al . relay by antagonism controls the feedback loop in vertebrate limb buds Nature 401:598 - 602 < /enote> Khokha et al . is the antagonist required for maintenance of signals during limb patterning Nature Genetics 34:303 - 307 < /enote>
8 . Conclusions The D - V , Pr - D and A - P patterning systems are highly interlinked , with grey areas in understanding that may be clarified with future experimentation . The progress zone model of progressive Pr - D specification for example , has recently been challenged by an alternative model based on early specification of fates in the limb bud.3 Therefore it seems questions are still to be answered concerning when specification actually occurs . The chick and mice models discussed in the essay may be related to the limb patterning in other vertebrates , due to high levels of evolutionary conservation . Parallels have also often been drawn with . Overall the patterning of the vertebrate limb is produced by complex and interacting signalling cascades , which set up the axes that are essential in producing complete and correct morphology .","< abstract> Abstract Centromeres are essential to the accurate segregation of chromosomes during division . They are the site of cohesion of the sister chromatids and kinetochore formation for spindle attachment . is a defining feature in the organisation of centromeric chromatin , and I satellite DNA is also notably present . The centromeric nucleosomes have been found to contain a histone H3 replacement , This appears to be the foundation protein in the recruitment of other centromere - specific proteins that form the inner kinetochore . These proteins have an effect over the organisation of centromeric chromatin , and it is has been proposed that a spiral is formed , with CENP - A nucleosomes present on the poleward face , along with the associated kinetochore proteins . Many features of the organisation of centromeric chromatin however , remain unclear . < /abstract>1 . Introduction The centromere is the site found in every eukaryotic chromosome , which attaches to the division spindle during pro - metaphase . This is mediated by the kinetochore , a multi - protein structure that captures and helps to transport chromosomes.1 The centromere holds the sister chromatids together until anaphase , and is essential for the correct segregation of the chromosomes during mitotic and meiotic cell divisions . , , Errors in this process causes aneuploidy , and may have a considerable impact on the cell 's survival , as well as the organism as a whole.4 The importance of centromeres becomes most evident when considering such errors in human conditions such as 's syndrome , with trisomy of chromosome , and syndrome , a trisomy of chromosome . Centromeres allow accurate transmission of a cell 's genetic content,5 and their function is conserved throughout all mammals , and through eukaryotes as a whole . < enote > Lodishal . Molecular Cell Biology Fifth Edition : W.H. Freeman p413 p854 < /enote> K. H. A. Choo Domain Organisation at the Centromere and Neocentromere 2001 Developmental Cell 1:165 - 177 < /enote> H. S. Malik and begets complexity : the evolution of centromeres in Genetics and Development 12:711 - 718 < /enote> , , and the centromere : from foundation proteins to organization Trends in Cell Biology 14:359 - 368 < /enote> Pascal Bernard and become unstuck without heterochromatin Trends in Cell Biology 12:419 - 424 < /enote> and chromatin : what makes it unique ? 2005 Current Opinion in 15:1 - 8 < /enote > When considering the organisation of centromeric chromatin , it is important to consider the formation of the kinetochore , the site of attachment of spindle microtubules , mitotic checkpoint signalling and the generation of molecular force to drive the movements of the It consists of the inner kinetochore , which is composed of the centromeric chromatin and associated foundation proteins that remain throughout the cell cycle , and the outer kinetochore , which assembles after the condensation of whole chromosomes , and disassembles after the chromosomes have segregated.6 There have been foundation kinetochore proteins identified in mammals . CENP - A , hMis12 , CENP - C , CENP - H and CENP - I localise to a core domain of centromeric chromatin.4 CENP - B , is non - essential , and involved in heterochromatin formation.4 These proteins assemble co - dependently , and create structural domains for the function of the centromere.4 Histones H2A , H2B and are also technically foundation kinetochore proteins , however they are not centromere specific . CENP - A , CENP - B and CENP - C associate directly with the centromeric DNA . , , , CENP - I and are more recently discovered proteins.4 Whilst CENP - B is non - essential , the remaining proteins are found at all active centromeres , as well as neocentromeres , but not at inactive centromeres . Their deletion results in chromosomal missegregation.4 < enote , K.F. et al Human CENP - A contains a histone H3 related histone fold domain that is required for targeting to the centromere . 127:581 - 592 < /enote> Politi , V.al . CENP - C binds the -satellite DNA in vivo at specific centromere domains . < /enote > The organisation of the centromeric chromatin is therefore highly dependant upon the foundation kinetochore proteins . Another important aspect to consider is the cohesion of sister chromatids . This cohesion last until anaphase , when the sister chromatids separate and move toward the poles . Cohesion is mediated by the chromosomal complex cohesin , and proteolysis destroys it when it is no longer required . distinguishing feature of a centromere is the presence of heterochromatin , and it is thought that it is responsible for the recruitment of Centromeric chromatin is thought to be organised into domains that are responsible for increased chromosome scaffold / matrix attachment , sister chromatid cohesion , transcriptional silencing , hypoacetylation and differential DNA replication timing.2 There are several distinguishing features of the organisation of centromeric chromatin such as the presence of -satellite DNA , heterochromatin , CENP - A nucleosomes , and other centromeric specific proteins that will be discussed here . < heading>2 . Nucleotide Sequence and Size There is an absence of any conserved sequences within centromeres across species , despite centromeres fulfilling a universal role.2,6 This is also surprising since the kinetochore proteins assemble directly on to the DNA , which may be expected to rely on sequence specificity.4 However , centromeric DNA does follow conserved organisational themes , such as the presence of repetitive DNA.4 Long stretches of short tandem repetitive , or satellite DNA sequences , are commonly found in the centromeric and pericentric chromatin.6 It has been found that human centromeres consist of -satellite DNA , most notably satellite DNA , a tandemly repeated sequence with a ~171bp repeat unit . -I satellite DNA is enriched with a run of within this sequence is partially conserved in primates and mice , with the consensus A)A. This sequence relates to the CENP - B box , proposed for binding the CENP - B protein.3 This CENP - B box motif is found enriched in a subfamily of -satellite DNA in humans.4 Although the CENP - B box is not well preserved throughout all mammals , the CENP - B protein itself is . < enote > S. Henikoff Near the edge of a chromosome 's "" black hole "" Trends in 18:165 - 167 < /enote > The presence of tandem arrays of satellite DNA is an organisational theme , but the subunits are simply not conserved.4 Satellite sequences can display large differences , even between closely related species.6 The number of repeats and their association with other sequences differs from chromosome to another , even between the human chromosomes . Many chromosomes have their own specific centromeric DNA repeats , for example chromosome contains long arrays of  satellite , while chromosome contains arrays of  satellite flanked by other satellite sequences , and chromosome Y , contains  satellite flanked either side by other satellite sequences and new repeats not found in any other chromosomes . The determination of kinetochore formation , a key feature of centromeres , therefore appears to not be sequence dependant . Size of the centromere domain , also seems to have little relevance to centromeric There is a large variation in the range of centromeric size across all eukaryotes.3 The length of human centromeres alone vary from kb to over 4Mb.4 It is suggested that it is a higher - order structure of the chromatin that defines a centromere . For example , the secondary or structures formed through association with protein . < enote , and in Flies and Humans Developmental Cell - 330 < /enote> and The case for epigenetic effects on centromere identity and function Trends in - 496 < /enote>3 . Heterochromatin Centromeric chromatin has a higher order chromatin structure that is significantly different from the rest of chromatin and it is this that is proposed to mark the site at which a kinetochore is formed . There is observable conservation of this chromatin organisation , rather than DNA sequences . Centromeres contain a form of chromatin called heterochromatin , which is heavily staining , condensed , transcriptionally inactive and late replicating . It may be further defined as constitutive heterochromatin , due to its presence throughout the entire cell cycle . has several defining structural features . It is associated with a conserved protein , HP1.2 HP1 has been found to localise to pericentric heterochromatin , and is involved in the structural formation of heterochromatin.2 The amino terminals of the core histones in heterochromatin may be modified by acetylation , methylation , phosphorylation and ubiquitination and ADP - ribosylation at specific amino acid residues . heterochromatin , for example is specifically marked by the tri - methylation of histone H3 lysine and mono - methylation of histone H3 lysine , It is proposed that these modifications and their effects on nucleosome structure , may serve as recognition motifs for other proteins.13 < enote > Niall Dillon Heterochromatin structure and function 2004 Biology of the Cell 96:631 - 637 < /enote > The heterochromatic structure of centromeres is essential for the correct segregation of chromosomes during division . This has become clear as depleting heterochromatin components results in missegregation.4 The heterochromatin appears to recruit cohesin to the centromere , for the cohesion of sister chromatids . < enote > G. Cavalli Chromatin as a eukaryotic template of genetic information 14:269 - 278 < /enote> Pascal Bernard , , , Sylvie , , and Requirement of Science 294:2539 - 2542 < /enote>4 . Centromeric Nucleosomes Nucleosomes are the fundamental repeating unit of structure for chromatin folding . Histones H2A , H2B , H3 and H4 form a core octomer , which binds strongly to the DNA independent of nucleotide sequence . Centromeric nucleosomes however , contain a specialised centromeric histone H3 , and in humans this protein is This protein replaces histone H3 in the octomer to package DNA into nucleosomes.6 It is believed that this difference serves to identify the centromere for the protein components of the kinetochore and sister chromatid cohesion proteins.3,11 , This is supported by studies , which show that when CENP - A is disrupted , the kinetochore proteins are mislocalised . It has been suggested that it is the late replication of centromeric chromatin that leads to CENP - A incorporation , however there are other late replicating regions present within the chromosome that do not incorporate CENP - A.12 The significance of the discovery of CENP - A was to emphasise the suggestion that centromeric chromatin is unique because of its higher order structure , in this case more specifically its histone complement , rather than because of its primary DNA sequence.6 There is also evidence that suggests that CENP - A and histone H4 form sub - nucleosomal tetramers that are more compact and conformationally rigid than the equivalent H3 - H4 tetramers . This feature of centromeric nucleosomes may also play a role in maintaining centromere identity . Since the organisation of centromeric chromatin must be so that it can withstand the strength of the pull of microtubules , it has been suggested that the < enote , , , , and , G.H. Determining centromere identity : cyclical stories and forking paths Nat . Rev. . 2:584 - 596 < /enote> Howman EV , Fowler , , , , , disruption of centromeric chromatin organization in centromere protein ) null mice 2000 97:1148 - 53 < /enote> Black BE , , , , , determinants for generating centromeric chromatin 2004 Nature - 582 < /enote > CENP - A nucleosomes can with stand this force while the H3 variety cannot.6 There is much evidence to demonstrate the replacement of H3 for CENP - A in centromeric nucleosomes . Immunoprecipitation techniques have shown a significant depletion of histone H3 in the region where CENP - A is observed to bind maximally . Nucleosomes have also been reconstituted using CENP - A and the regular nucleosomal histones H2A , H2B and , and through the use of atomic force spectroscopy , ' beads on a string ' images have been observed , similar to those obtained when using the standard histones . Although the exact centromeric nucleosomal structure may not be clear , the interaction of CENP - A with H2A , H2B and is evident . It also remains unclear as to whether - A replaces all centromeric H3 . < enote , , Saffery R , , , , Choo KH A kb CENP - A binding domain and altered replication timing at a human neocentromere EMBO J < /enote> , Satoshi Ando , , , , , and centromere protein A ( CENP - A ) can replace histone H3 in nucleosome reconstitution in vitro 2000 97:7266 - 7271 < /enote > Histone - mediated nucleosome construction allows the formation of nm chromatin fibres that can be compacted into further higher order chromosomal structures . This normally involves interactions with non - histone proteins to form loops from a central protein scaffold . The -satellite DNA in centromeres however , is packaged closer to this scaffold.2 Both the centromeric and pericentric domains have been found to have enhanced scaffold / matrix attachment.4 , The proteins involved here may perhaps also provide a function in kinetochore assembly . < enote > Huseyin Sumer , , and A rapid method of genomic array analysis of scaffold / matrix attachment regions ( S / MARs ) identifies a - Mb region of enhanced scaffold / matrix attachment at a human neocentromere . < /enote>5 . Centromere - Specific Proteins Over 25 centromeric proteins have been identified , and these proteins are highly conserved in mammals . They have various roles in centromere assembly and modification , cohesion and separation , microtubule attachment , chromosome movement and checkpoint control.2 Most of the evidence suggests that there is a specific order to the recruitment and assembly of these kinetochore proteins . CENP - A , is the replacement of histone H3 , which is involved in the nucleosomes core as discussed above . It has been found that some regions of CENP - A and H3 are homologous , as may be expected from proteins that partially fulfil the same role . The non - homologous regions are presumed to be involved in centromere specific interactions . This protein binds directly to the DNA , and it appears that it is the foundation protein and recruits the other proteins , as they fail to localise correctly without it.6 < enote > Palmer DK , , , , of the centromere - specific protein CENP - A and demonstration that it is a distinctive histone 1991 Proc Natl Acad Sci 88:3734 - 3738 < /enote > There is a suggestion that centromere assembly and CENP - A synthesis are independent of each other . CENP - A can deposit in the absence of the replication process , however , it is synthesised much later.2 Models have been proposed in which CENP - A may be acquired in order to complete centromere assembly , or that histone H3 may temporarily be deposited before a CENP - A specific centromere assembly factor fills in the vacant nucleosomal sites or replaces H3 with CENP - A.2 Since the over production of - A results in its inclusion in euchromatin , and it is proposed that the opposite replacement mechanism may exist in the euchromatin to maintain H3 nucleosomes.6 The exact mechanisms involved here are still to be determined . CENP - B binds to a specific centromeric DNA sequence , the CENP - B box , which occurs as discussed previously . It promotes nucleosome positioning , however it is not absolutely required for centromere functioning . Its localisation is independent of CENP - A , and it is absent in centromeres without CENP - B boxes , so its role in the organisation of centromeric chromatin may therefore be questionable . It is thought however , that it may be involved in the formation of heterochromatin , rather than in centromeres themselves , and it is only because centromeres contain heterochromatin that it is present.4 CENP - C is found only at active centromeres , and disruption of this gene is lethal , with failure of the chromosomes to segregate . Like CENP - A and CENP - B this protein has been found to bind directly to the DNA , and in this case it is not sequence specific.6 CENP - C requires CENP - A to localise correctly , but CENP - A does not require CENP - C , suggesting that the kinetochore assembly involves the recruitment of CENP - C by CENP - A containing chromatin.23 < enote > Oegema K , Desai A , , , Hyman AA Functional analysis of kinetochore assembly in elegans 2001 J Cell Biol 2001 153:1209 - 1226 < /enote > CENP - D is GTP binding protein and is involved in chromosome condensation from a prophase chromosome to metaphase chromosome . CENP - E is kinesin like , and is responsible for chromosome movement and segregation . CENP - I is a protein that is not required for CENP - A localization.4 CENP - H is another protein not required for CENP - A localization.4 hMis12 is another centromeric protein found in humans , and homologues have been detected in other mammals.4 This protein localizes to the centromere independently of It does not affect CENP - A localization , but its depletion leads to the loss of CENP - I and CENP - H , as well as missegregation.4 < heading>6 . Neocentromeres < /heading > Neocentromeres provide important information towards the organisation of centromeric chromatin . These are found in humans . Neocentromeres are ' ectopic ' centromeres that occur at normally non - centromeric euchromatic chromatin.2 These neocentromeres may be transmitted through mitosis and meiosis in humans . There has been ~70 different human neocentromeres identified.6 These are regions that contain no  satellite DNA . However they are able to fulfil the role of a centromere and assemble a functional kinetochore . This again suggests a chromatin - based identification of centromeres , and no sequence specificity . When looking at the sequence organisation of neocentromeres , it has been recognised that it is AT rich , with a high density of LINEs , few SINEs and few genes.19 Not only do neocentromeres rule out the requirement of satellite DNA for centromeric function , but also the requirement for constitutive heterochromatin.6 Neocentromeres do however bind CENP - A , the centromeric replacement for histone H3 . It appears therefore that CENP - A is a key feature of centromere identity . < enote , , , , Pandya A , , , , of a fully functional human neocentromere through generations 1999 Am J Hum Genet < /enote> Amor , D.J. and , : role in human disease , evolution , and centromere study Am . . Genet . 71:695 - < /enote>7 . Building a 3D Model It appears that the centromeric chromatin has a domain structure , where a centromeric core is flanked by pericentric heterochromatin . It is in the core centromeric chromatin in which histone H3 is replaced by CENP - A , and it is consequently the site at which the kinetochore is located . The pericentric chromatin is associated with the formation of heterochromatin.4 The pericentric heterochromatin is proposed to provide a physical barrier between centromeres and the euchromatic chromosome arms . It may also have a role in suppressing meiotic recombination.4 The existence of these domains is supported by the fact that the chromatin immediately flanking the CENP - A chromatin , replicates at a different time to other non - CENP - A chromatin.11 Antibody staining , indirect immunofluorescence and deconvolution have begun to help build a picture the organization of centromeric chromatin . For example it has been observed that CENP - A and CENP - C co - localise on a metaphase chromosome , and that the CENP - A domain forms a cylindrical structure that covers the depth of the chromosome . The CENP - A domain is found parallel to the axis of the These proteins are localized at the inner plate of the metaphase kinetochore , and are present throughout the cell cycle . The imaging of these proteins can be seen in figure . < enote > Sugimoto , . Centromere / kinetochore localization of human centromere protein A ( CENP - A ) exogenously expressed as a fusion to green fluorescent protein Cell Struct . Funct . 25:253 - 261 < /enote>CENP - E has been found to only partially overlap , and lie external to , CENP - I and Mis12 positioning is yet to be determined , however there is evidence to suggest that they co - localise approximately with CENP - A and , , of < enote > Fukagawa , T.al . CENP - H , a constitutive centromere component , is required for centromere targeting of CENP - C in vertebrate cells EMBO J. 20:4603 - 4617 < /enote> CENP - B has been found to be localized throughout centromeric heterochromatin , beneath the kinetochore . This correlates well with the dependence of CENP - B on the presence of the CENP - B box in the -satellite DNA as previously discussed . < enote > Cooke , C.A.al . CENP - B : a major human centromere protein located beneath the kinetochore . < /enote > It appears that the centromere consists of interspersed blocks of CENP - A and H3 containing nucleosomes , which each form sub - domains.11 proposed arrangements of these domains can be seen in figure . When considering the linear arrangement of the centromeric chromatin , this would equate to a discontinuous arrangement of - A nucleosomes . Since the CENP - B and CENP - C proteins bind DNA , they would also be implicated in a linear domain structure . Since CENP - C co - localises with CENP - A , it is proposed that it would therefore also occupy discontinuous domains . CENP - B however , binds to CENP - B boxes and does not co - localise with CENP - A so may be found distributed across the CENP - A and the intervening H3 domains.4 The spiral and loop models in figure , orientate the CENP - A nucleosomes to be outward facing , and the H3 nucleosomes to be inward facing , thus presenting the centromeric specific nucleosomes outward , for kinetochore assembly.11 This order would act to distinguish it from the rest of the chromatin . < picture/>It has been found that the size of a CENP - A region in this model , may vary widely.11 In humans these regions may extend from kb in human centromeres.11 CENP - A antibodies have been show to stain , to of the -satellite DNA at human centromeres.11 Therefore not all -satellite DNA is involved in kinetochore assembly . As of yet it is not known what the exact proportions of CENP - A and H3 are , and if their number varies from block to block . There is evidence that suggests that the heterochromatic state of the CENP - A domain is diluted or absent.4 Histone modifications that normally occur in heterochromatin , such as methylation and hypoacetylation , can not occur to CENP - A as in H3 . The lack of heterochromatin is also suggested since centromeric chromatin has dimethylated lysine H3 , shown to bind less than trimethylated lysine H3 of pericentric heterochromatin.4 Gene transcription has also been demonstrated . It would appear therefore that the CENP - A domains are euchromatic , however there is conflicting evidence as to weather the intervening H3 domains are hetero- or euchromatic . However it has been proposed that some level of heterochromatin may be required for the cohesion domain.4 Other evidence appears to show that it may exist in a euchromatic state.4 The state of H3 chromatin therefore needs to be examined further . < enote > Saffery , R.al . Transcription within a functional human centromere 2003 Mol . Cell , 509 - 516 < /enote > Combining the available data and observations , has resulted in the proposal of a model of the organization of centromeric chromatin as seen in figure . In this proposal the centromeric chromatin coils , with increased scaffold attachment . The CENP - A nucleosomes align to become outward facing for interaction with the other foundation kinetochore proteins completing the kinetochore . The H3 domains are inward facing , and may serve a role in cohesion , combined with the flanking heterochromatin . < picture/>8 . Conclusion The organisation of centromeric chromatin in mammals is complex , and yet to be fully understood . There are many distinguishing features of centromeric chromatin including satellite DNA , heterochromatin , CENP - A nucleosomes , and other centromeric proteins which all contribute towards centromere structure . Their orientation in the organisation of centromeric chromatin is in most cases has still not been determined . However , data has gradually been provided to enable the formation of models such as that seen in figure , and with time perhaps such models can be adapted or confirmed .",1 "< abstract> Abstract This essay argues that imperialism was a crucial factor in the history of regional cooperation . Wrenching nations into modernity via economic development and industrialisation , imperialism left an indelible imprint on the region which remains to . The economic interdependency which emerged prior to was subsequently consolidated by the post - bellum foreign policy of in order to promote regional stability . From this , cooperation has developed around a core of economic and production networks . This core of functional interdependency still forms the concrete basis from which regionalism in is occurring . Despite a proliferation of potentially divisive issues that have abounded since , economic cooperation provides the impetus for cooperation concerning new and increasingly salient issues which are potentially dangerous conflict ridden . Beginning with locating imperialism in its historical context , this essay demonstrates that notwithstanding the political and military nature of expansion , the colonial project had a lasting economic legacy which pervaded the cold - war period and to some extent remains . In the final sections , attempts to institutionalise regional cooperation and the response of regionalism to challenges that are inherent in relations are assessed . < /abstract> I. Introduction imperialism was the precursor for economic regionalism based on modernisation and industrialisation in . With an analysis of the economic legacy of the empire and of contemporary regionalism it is possible to assess how useful regional bilateral and multilateral ties have become and whether the economic basis for a united region remains significant . Regional networks that crystallised during as a result of engaging the region have increasingly become strained by new issues in the era of globalisation . This assertion does not signify the impotency of functional and pragmatic economic interdependence but emphasises the need to accommodate the new and highly salient issues which pervade the epoch . Beginning with locating imperialism in its historical context , this essay will aim to demonstrate that despite the political and military nature of expansion , the colonial project had a lasting economic legacy which pervaded the cold - war period and is still prominent . In the final sections , attempts to institutionalise regional cooperation and the response of regionalism to challenges that are inherent in relations today will be assessed . < fnote > The term ' will be employed throughout this essay to imply a region including both the nations of northeast and southeast , ' , , and the members of ( ) ' . Nations to the north , south , west , or in the centre of , or supposedly ' ' nations with an interest in the region such as and , are not included in this definition of , , ' Constructing an "" "" Concept and : From EAEC to , , Vol.16 , ( ) , p.252 . When the latter , ' ' states are included in relation to the region , the term ' will be used . The implication of this distinction is that cross - Pacific issues which impact on and vice - versa are entering into the discussion . Finally , when other ' ' states are involved - those not regarded as part of ' or in the above distinction - the term ' ' will be used to denote the region in question , ' and , in and ( eds . ) Regionalism and World Order , : , , p.170 . These distinctions make no claim to authority and are mere analytical tools for the sake of convenience . < /fnote > There are rich and profound historical and political discourses concerning imperialism which help to conceive of it as a particular form of political and economic development rather than simply a militaristic , historical aberration . Unfortunately , this essay does not have the scope to include such a discussion at any great length . Moreover , when studying imperialism in particular - and relations in general - it is essential to remain aware of the need to ignore the tendency to impose Western - specific theoretical models if they do not apply . Again , such a discussion is beyond the scope of this essay , but hopefully it is implicit in the argument that follows . < fnote > , , ' Marxism and Expansionism : and the Theory of "" Petty Imperialism "" ' , , , ( ) , pp.1 - 30 , , ' , , , No.3/4 ( ) , p.334 , , Imperialism : , : , , and , , Basingstoke : Palgrave , 2001 < /fnote> David C. Kang , ' Getting Asia wrong : the need for new analytical frameworks ' , , , ( ) , pp.57 - 60 Having fired out a useful warning shot to international relations scholars interested in explaining ' ' , proceeds to challenge static realist concepts of international politics that often to do not fit well with the prevailing reality in the region which serves as a timely reminder of the complementary nature of political science theorising and area studies - style particularism . < /fnote> II . Imperialism in Historical and Political Context Hilary Conroy sets imperialism within the context of imperialism as a political phenomenon , referring to the theories of , , , , and , in order to explain how imperialism must be understood as a consequence of the political thought of an era in which the "" national interest [ was ] defined in terms of power "" . expansionism is no exception and it too must be explained vis - à - vis the contemporary political interpretation of the national interest . In this sense , the era in history can be regarded as the beginning of the modern concept of national security which defined the political agenda . It was at this time that the peninsula was referred to as a "" dagger pointed at the heart of "" . imperialism was conceptualised in realpolitik terms of national survival . In a desperate attempt to modernise , or else succumb to the Great Powers , the attainment of territory and wealth was assumed to be an urgent requirement . expansionist wars were wars ' waged in order to establish as an independent state ' . As the scholar stated , "" 's wars with and and its annexation of were all wars for the sake of 's independence and self - support "" . imperialism is best understood as an extraordinary fusion of the political and economic motivations to expand which permeated the era . < fnote > Conroy , ' , pp.335 - 7 < /fnote> Conroy , ' , pp.338 - 43 < /fnote> Hoston , ' Marxism and Japanese Expansionism ' , p.14 < /fnote> Hoston , ' Marxism and Japanese Expansionism ' , pp.1921 < /fnote> , Does Conquest Pay ? , , : , , p.99 < /fnote> III . Imperialism and its Economic Legacy At the height of expansion , immersed in the rhetoric of leading into modernity , elites recognised that in order to realise their goals they ' would need to have at [ their ] disposal ... the greater part of the region 's resources ' . The intensification of militarist expansion paved the way for conflict with , and . In , at the height of its hubris , officially announced the concept of ) . The was to have more than just connotations of economic interdependence - it was to be the basis of a political , social and cultural homogeneity extending across determined by supposedly ethnically superior elites . In order to fully realise these ambitions , the decided they would have to completely remove the powers from the region . Therefore , at they launched the infamous attack on at and nullified the naval threat in . At this point , the empire straddled a vast unchallenged territory , ' from to the mid - Pacific , from to the steppe ' . < fnote > , , : , , p.199 < /fnote> Beasley , The Rise of Modern Japan , pp.201 - 2 < /fnote> Beasley , The Rise of Modern Japan , pp.203 - 4 < /fnote > Rejecting the official dogma , which heralded notions of cultural , moral , political and economic philanthropy and ' ' prosperity , highlights the racial perspective of expansionism , which was inspired by modern Western born concepts of social combined with apparently ideals of "" proper place "" . What becomes clear through such accounts is that the peculiar fusion of ideas resulted in anything but an altruistic conceptualisation of modernising the region to compete with the West . Although the never achieved a homogenous , identity bound empire , since political conflict against communism raged to the north and clashes of religion and culture were widespread to the south , the barbaric subjugation imposed upon the region served concrete end - industrialisation and modernisation . The national interest hinged on ' the spoils of war ' . If expansion had not been primarily belligerent , war and oppression became regarded as pragmatic measures through which commercial success would breed political might . Wars were ' to be fought over rice , minerals , markets and farming land ' . Quite rightly , warns against forgetting that military atrocities and officially sanctioned oppression were ' monstrosities ' . Furthermore , issues such as slavery and the exploitation of "" comfort women "" still haunt the region 's history . However , it is important here to flush out from the dark history of imperialism the economic aspects which were very much intertwined with the political motivation to expand . The legacy of expansion is highly salient in the context of the region 's international relations . < fnote > John Dower , War Without Mercy : Race and Power in , ; and Faber , , pp.265 - 84 < /fnote> Beasley , The Rise of Modern Japan , pp.206 - 8 < /fnote> , The Nature and Origins of Imperialism : A Reinterpretation of The Great Crisis of 1873 , : Routledge , , p.171 < /fnote> Liberman , Does Conquest Pay ? pp.107 < /fnote > The Meiji regime implemented some longstanding economic reforms - the fusion of public and private initiatives in ' protected industries ' , and the creation of vast conglomerates , zaibatsu - which gave a unique perception of political and economic interests and remained influential throughout . , without ignoring 's warning , highlights the modernising influence of the extension of economic development across the region - although some fared better than others - ' ... [Taiwan 's ] GNP rose by ' . imperialism undoubtedly led to the modernisation and development of its colonial acquisitions . ' Commercial infrastructure was improved by the construction of railways , roads , telegraph networks , harbours , and warehouses , the standardization of currency and measures , and the availability of credit ' . Moreover , initiatives improved ' agricultural productivity ' , ' industrial development ' , and "" human resources "" , in which health , medial and educational provisions were made to raise the economic potential of the colonies . ' Rapid growth was necessary to 's quest for economic autarky ' . In this respect , the can be regarded as a regional economic "" blueprint "" . Cumings concurs , stating that ' the place to begin in comprehending the region 's economic dynamism is with the advent of imperialism ' . This expansionism was competitive , planned and mimicked the policy of the . The close knit and oppressive nature of the empire meant that it ' provided a model for state - directed development ' . exported industry and economic development to the region in order to consolidate an inward looking autarkic bloc which would feed the metropolis and assert 's status as a . However , by the end of the war imperialism had been crushed . Regional economic development , on the other hand , continued . < fnote > François Godement , , : Routledge , , pp.64 - 8 < /fnote> Dower , War Without Mercy , p.272 < /fnote> Bruce Cumings , ' The Origins and Development of the Northeast Asian Political Economy : Industrial Sectors , Product Cycles , and , , Vol.38 , , p.8 < /fnote> Cumings , ' The Origins and Development of the Northeast Asian Political Economy ' , Although Cumings asserts that imperialism was similar to the expansionist policies of states in , he asserts that by territorial expansion was ' anachronistic ' as it became viewed in the as ' outdated or immoral , or both ' . < /fnote> Cumings , ' The Origins and Development of the Northeast Asian Political Economy ' , . Cooperation It took until to devise their strategy for consolidating regional dominion . Occupation and a thorough dissemination of the war machine followed in order to satisfy the international community . was subsequently designed to restore ' economic prowess ' devoid of a military capability . This ' rollback ' was part of the policy of containment , to keep the region free of Communism and to keep open to Western economies . Hence , 's role in regional and international politics after was a design of post - bellum foreign policy . signed between and in signalled the end of international ' ignominy ' . Moreover , alliance with the world 's primary power and self - professed protagonist of democracy afforded the ' muscle [ that ] would inaugurate a new era in which trade issues came to dominate 's foreign relations ' . The nature of the cold war security arrangement in , and 's wartime image , forced into a ' passive and cautious ' foreign policy - which meant pursuing the national interest could be a commercial venture only - one which was wholly supported by the because regional stability was high on the agenda . was thus handed an almost carte blanche to undertake a vigorous national and regional economic reconstruction . As far as the was concerned during , the more powerful and its regional allies could become the better . With this , the underwrote security in order that all it resources were geared towards rapid reindustrialisation and market exploitation . ' policy makers recognized that 's colonies had provided of pre - war 's raw materials and absorbed 40 per cent of its exports . Restoration of these links ... would be critical to a economic recovery consistent with the attempt to isolate ' . In doing so , the afforded the region a ' rare breathing space ' ; under conditions of ' tariffs , overvalued exchange rates and other obstacles for foreign entry ' the region thrived and was propelled into an era of ' new export led industrialization in . This set the tone of economic relations in the region . < fnote > Cumings , ' The Origins and Development of the Northeast Asian Political Economy ' , pp.16 - 18 Cumings employs a remarkable anecdote here which cleverly links the economic aspects of imperialism and post - war foreign policy : ' an officer walked into a office in and introduced himself . A man in the office pointed to a map of and said "" There it is . We tried . See what you can do with it ! "" ' . < /fnote> Cumings , ' The Origins and Development of the Northeast Asian Political Economy ' , < /fnote> , and The World Since , : , , pp.164 - 5 < /fnote> Yung - Hwan Jo , ' Regional Cooperation in and 's Role ' , , , ( ) pp.784 - 5 < /fnote> Mark Selden , ' , , and , , in and , : and , Ithaca , NY : , , pp.306 - 10 < /fnote> Cumings , ' The Origins and Development of the Northeast Asian Political Economy ' , pp.20 - 26 < /fnote > In terms of the economic integration of during , ' ... provided both the engine ... and [ the ] influential model of economic development for the region as a whole ' . imperialism forcefully imposed a particular model on the region which resulted in ' consolidating the role of the state in domestic economic development ' . Moreover , the propping up of the regional economy , designed to support the growth of commerce , was symptomatic of the dispersion of corporations across . Industrialisation spread as these businesses sought newer and cheaper locations for production . 's successful fusion of politics and economics was such that ' aid and infrastructure packages ... effectively lock[ed ] host governments into symbiotic relationships with capital ' . became synonymous with rapid modernisation and ' accelerated industrial development ' . For Western liberal economies a certain disdain for this economic model invoked initiatives to prize the region open . However , regionalism remained a fundamental part of the national interest and its international relations , ' by , [ was an extension of 's highly relational political economy ' . This model has come under increasing pressure but it still remains a vitally important factor in terms of regionalism . < fnote > , ' The Political Economy of East Asia at a Time of Crisis ' , in and , Political Economy and the Changing Global Order ( 2nd Edition ) , : , 2000 , pp.352 - 9 < /fnote> , ' Regionalization Trumps Globalization : Production Networks in ' , in and , Political Economy and the Changing Global Order ( 2nd Edition ) , : , 2000 , pp.382 - 9 < /fnote > Even when the was forced to reconsider the massive post - war military deployment in the area in they remained committed to the stability of the region based on the economic vibrancy activity had brought . With the emergence of - consequential of conflict - and the boom experienced in ( NIEs ) regional economic relationships , particularly with , coaxed the communist giant into the global market and warmed relations with the West . Although the region remained a focal point of its foreign policy , the was satisfied that it could downscale its military presence and use political measures to assert its hegemony . Since , the region was subjected to ' 's geo - political shift ' , which centred on rapprochement . The so - called "" "" were designed to realign the regional agenda as tensions subsided and the need for a military presence eased . The focus of this policy was to reign in economic development which was occurring at a phenomenal and unchallenged rate . < fnote > Since , ' real GNP multiplied times in the NIEs , times in and times in and the countries ' , , ' , , and , in and , p.320 < /fnote> Selden , ' , , and , in and , pp.310 - 21 < /fnote> , , : Routledge , , < /fnote > The reaction to such challenges has always been distinguished by an effective tweaking , rather than a wholesale reappraisal , of the regional economic system . Consequently , in , regionalism was ' buzzing with a competitive energy ' that had marked 's own economic development throughout . Clearly , there have been periods of change and fluctuation - in the domestic economy , the regional economy and the international economy - but this form of economic interdependence has characterised the region for . The unique public - private linkages of economic policy extended overseas with the extension of investment into the region . This was facilitated by main factors : , the concerted effort made by economies to boost their faltering development by opening up to foreign investment ; , the move by the and other economies to protect against large scale export , forcing to look to the market ; and , , the , which forced a dramatic appreciation of the and culminated , not in reducing exports per se and reducing the massive trade deficit , but in forcing the to rethink their economic policy to encourage continued investment . < fnote > and , in 's Embrace : Building a Regional Production Alliance , : , , < /fnote> Hatch and , in 's , pp.15 - 17 < /fnote> Hatch and , in 's Embrace , < /fnote > Rather than simply relying on export oriented production , the encouraged a great boost in foreign direct investment in order to produce overseas and therefore reduce costs and regain profitability . Investment in the region was a consequence of a concerted strategy by manufacturers , ' to achieve economies of scale , scope , and networking by capitalising on the regions deepening division of labour ' . The impetus for this action was to create "" a single market from which to pursue a global corporate strategy "" . It is this which can be recognised as the ' peaceful ghost of . The significance of this ' alliance ' is that it serves the political and economic needs of both and the other countries in the region . For , not only does it [ help ] escape the potentially crushing impact of the high yen , but it reduces the size of the trade surplus directly attributable to , and thus reduces some of the international pressure the nation would otherwise face ' . For the rest of the region , it provides an element of stability in the face of a prying international community . This was a conscious process which had ' long been identified as critical to 's national security ' and it enabled to hurdle successive crises , in the - with the "" shocks "" and the Middle Eastern oil embargoes - and in the - with the affects of the dramatic appreciation of the . As 's ) stated , "" the globalization of economic activity has made it impossible to push ahead with economic development within the limited framework of a country defined by strict national boundaries "" . < fnote > Hatch and , in 's , < /fnote> Hatch and , in 's , p.115 < /fnote> Hatch and , in 's , pp.36 - 40 < /fnote> Hatch and , in 's Embrace , , pp.117 - 9 < /fnote > However , since there had been a transition in regionalism . distinct periods are now apparent : , ' from ... the period of the flying geese model and of "" open regionalism "" , or style consensual cooperation among governments ' ; and , , ' a period of instability in economic hierarchies and economic relations ' since which has been characterised , in simple terms , by a divergent contest between the ' - centred ' and ' greater ' centred regional production networks . Up to , according to and , remained as closed as possible to foreign investment yet championed "" open regionalism "" . This ' served as a convenient framework to coordinate some aspects of economic policy and to lower transaction costs faced by corporations ( as investors ) and financial institutions operating in other economies . Thus , the fit was perfect with the notion of acting as "" lead goose "" , maintaining its own economic model intact , while gradually incorporating what were ( mistakenly ) perceived as junior versions of its model into an community ' . Whilst continued to bankroll and provide the technology for regional development and prosperity , governments realised the benefits of loose political cooperation in order to achieve economic goals . Thus , ' APECs consensual and nonbinding pattern of policy cooperation suited perfectly ' . < fnote > and , ' The Decline of a - Led Model of the East Asian Economy ' , in T.J Pempel ( ed . ) , : , Ithaca : , 2005 , p.77 < /fnote> Macintyre and , ' The Decline of a Japan - Led Model ' , in Pempel ( ed . ) , , , and and , ' Beyond Product Cyles and Flying Geese : Regionalization , Hierarchy , and , , Vol.47 , , pp.183 - 99 . and accept that economic development was perhaps the most significant factor in stimulating the interdependence that characterised the region based on the perceived efficacy of the "" flying geese "" model , however , they concur that the model is far too static to explain regional economic development . < /fnote > After , however , ' the flying goose pattern [ had ] disintegrated , and the countries in were left to search for other models and definitions of their self - interest ' . Moreover , a downturn in the ' economic dynamism ' of the region in mirrored a downturn in the vibrancy of the economy ; particularly its investment capability was waning . The greater economic network , including and , was gradually beginning to outstrip 's ' technological and competitive superiority ' . This period , therefore , experienced what can be seen as the erosion of the principles upon which the previous conception of regionalism , the "" flying geese "" model , had been founded . A whole new economic region , more intricately networked , more specialised and more contested than ever before has emerged . proved impotent in the face of this increased complexity . In economic terms the emergence of signalled the demise of dominance , to some extent , and in non - economic terms it is of particular significance ' because of ... [its ] unresolved territorial disputes , the unresolved reunification issue , the [ apparent ] - sum - game approach of 's leaders to foreign and security policy , the perception of having to regain their country 's dignity and place in the world and the region , the huge perception gap between the élite 's self - perception of a peaceful and that of its neighbours , and 's past record of using military power to achieve political objectives ' . and are correct to raise concern about the traditional perception of led economic development providing the sole impetus for regionalism since . < fnote > Macintyre and , ' The Decline of a Japan - Led Model ' , in Pempel ( ed . ) , , < /fnote> Macintyre and , ' The Decline of a Japan - Led Model ' , in Pempel ( ed . ) , , < /fnote> Macintyre and , ' The Decline of a Japan - Led Model ' , in Pempel ( ed . ) , , pp.94 - 6 < /fnote> Reinhard Drifte , 's Foreign Policy for the Twenty First Century : From Economic Superpower to What Power ? : in association with , , , < /fnote> Drifte , 's Foreign Policy for the Twenty First Century , p.88 < /fnote> V. The Institutionalisation of Regional Cooperation In light of the changing nature of regionalism , and juxtapose ( ) forum with ( EAEC ) which highlights diverging trends that remain poignant in . , as an open forum devoted to economic liberalisation , came under challenge from the , a more narrowly defined bloc based on concepts of the ' Asian Way ' . formed in amid a proliferation of initiatives designed to institutionalise regional economic cooperation . Theoretically , it was underpinned by liberal institutionalist notions of relative gain driven international cooperation - was , therefore , seen as a means to pull the region together and assimilate it with the international political economy . , was built on the optimism of the remarkable economic achievements experienced in the region - for the international community , and in particular , it was necessary to break open these economies in order to remain competitive . Hence , was riddled with a political agenda , namely the ' spread ... the neo - liberal economic creed ' . < fnote > Richard and , ' Competing Conceptions of Economic Regionalism : APEC versus EAEC in , , Vol.2 , , < /fnote > Despite this , within , was regarded as essential in order to consolidate regionalism . However , as has commented , there are ' considerable weaknesses ... evident ... that limit its capacity to overcome collective action problems ' . has failed to either achieve the goals it was designed to achieve or to affect the behaviour and identity of the actors involved . The general consensus among scholars appears to be that has thus far failed to instil any profound adherence to the tenets of economic liberalism - economic , financial and technical cooperation initiatives remain mundane . However , the process is considered a prerequisite to ' deeper integration ' which has as yet failed to materialise . As a result , has argued that is a weak institution because it has not affected actor identities . < fnote > , : 's in , : , , p.195 < /fnote> , and , : , , < /fnote> The EAEC emerged in distinct opposition to as the anti - thesis of a perceived capitulation to Western economic dogma and globalisation . Furthermore , it was intended to reflect the ' political , historical and cultural dimensions ' of the region in contrast to and regionalism . It was assumed to be "" an independent voice "" . Under pinned by the investment capabilities of corporations , and , increasingly , ones , the region had experienced a surge in economic interdependence based on tightly knit production networks . The experience in the region , with imperialism and hegemony , marked out an ever more distinguishable politico - economic identity . For many , the time was ripe for an inward looking consolidation of this regionalism to promote social and cultural - ness . However , the EAEC never gained any ground . Governments in the opposed it and put pressure on its allies in the region , especially , to reject the proposal . The would have negated the advantages the regions economies reaped from global trade , alienating the in particular , and would have relied too heavily on finance - the latter provoked uneasy sentiments given 's history in the region . The was eventually swallowed up by . However , represents a security interest for , so in that sense , has not written off the potential of closer regional cooperation . Also , the rest of the region , imbued with a sense of antagonism towards the since , has not abandoned closer cooperation . < fnote > and Stubbs , ' Competing Conceptions of Economic Regionalism ' , pp.522 - 32 < /fnote> VI . Initiatives Economic integration still fuels the regionalism process even though its formal institutionalism has remained a benign phenomenon . Continuing the process that began with imperialism - and was actively pursued under hegemony during cross border networks still form the basis of regional interdependence . In particular , corporations provide ' goods and investment ' which is warmly received across the region provided that it ' contribute[s ] to national prosperity and the government does not use its economic leverage to impose specific policies ' . In this sense , the ambiguity of , which has led to its "" standstill "" , serves the interests of its largest members - the and - by promoting the status quo . For , the inherent flexibility of means that it can bend the rules and protect vital interests while putting pressure on other countries not to discriminate against its products . For the , any symbol of economic liberalism is useful , whilst an ineffective institution allows them to go beyond the forum and apply pressure to individual countries in bilateral negotiations . The profound and deep rooted economic networks consolidated by of economic interdependence based on the imperial design and its strategic role after still pervade the region and inhibit formal institutionalism . The lack of formal institutionalism in the region does not imply that the regionalism agenda is in jeopardy . The proliferation of ' transboundary ' economic and security issues as the process of globalisation abounds means that there is an increasing necessity for the countries of the region to cooperate in order to maintain national interests . To date , ' ad hoc , piecemeal negotiations ' have characterised the system of ' open regionalism ' and ' unilateral liberalization ' . < fnote > Keiichi Tsunekawa , ' Why So Many Maps There ? and Regional Cooperation ' , in T.J Pempel ( ed . ) , : , Ithaca : , 2005 , < /fnote> Tsunekawa , ' Why So Many Maps There ? ' pp.101 - 15 < /fnote > In light of this , the successful longevity of ( ) , as ' one of the most ... enduring regional associations of the contemporary period ' , holds some potential . believes that formed , not just as a result of historical interactions , but as a result of a common socially constructed spatial awareness in relation to "" outsiders "" . As an abstract , ' imagined ' concept rather than an empirical ' reality ' the idea of the region has served the purpose of actors both within and outside the region as it exists , not a closed or limited entity but as one which is open to changing circumstances . Up to the has also been influential in regionalism , particularly as a result of its relationship with - based on a common interest in military - security and open intra - regional as well as extra - regional trade as ' global exporters ' . 's importance to and vice - versa is determined by 's role as an ' investor , trader , aid donor and political actor ' which is reliant on the natural resources of nations . Economic cooperation and interdependence is seen as vital by both parties in order to maintain political stability . However , has failed to concretely develop formal economic or military - security institutions . Despite its apparent significance , bilateral trade links with individual countries prevailed as did reliance on external powers to resolve conflicts as a consequence of the adherence to mutual non - intervention norms within which had been enshrined in . < fnote > Philip Charier , ' 's , , , , , pp.313 - 5 < /fnote> Charier , ' 's Inheritance ' , < /fnote> Hook , ' and , in Gamble and Payne ( eds . ) Regionalism and World Order , pp.191 - 2 < /fnote> , ' and the region : leading from behind ' , in , and ( eds . ) in : Cooperation or Conflict ? , , : , , < /fnote> Wolf Mendl , 's : Regional Security and , : Routledge , , pp.100 - 7 < /fnote > The Financial Crisis , which was exacerbated by environmental concerns , such as the "" haze "" , and political conflict in occurring almost concomitantly , served to highlight the impotency of in practical matters . Although only the latter fell directly under the aegis of the framework , the inability to provide regional solutions to these problems was regarded as a failure on 's part . The impact of these crises on economies imbued the entire region with a sense of commonality which made the Plus ( ) initiative all the more welcomed . The realisation of the dependency on external actors in particular invoked a sense of vulnerability . , as the longest standing regional association , was seen as a useful body through which solutions could be reached ' . The emergence of economic , environmental and political crises all at once triggered a reappraisal of 's role as simply a security community founded on the principle of non - intervention . Rather than succumb to this inherent impotency , proved that it was not a ' static ' organisation and could ' grow beyond its limitations ' . As such , was conceived to expand and bring nations together in order to coordinate policy involving economic , political issues and non - traditional security concerns such as anti - drug enforcement . Moreover , cooperation has moved beyond government issues to embrace a ' broad range of commercial and social bodies ' . Although economic cooperation still forms the bulk of regional integration , the new recognition of the importance of political credibility should stand in good stead to tackle new issues which is of particular significance in the post-9/11 world . Environmental issues remain peripheral as do socio - cultural and education initiatives , but there presence on the agenda is indicative of a move toward a more pervasive regionalism . < fnote > Nick Thomas , ' From to an ? , , ( ) URL , pp.3 - 4 < /fnote> Thomas , ' From to an ? ' , pp.4 - 6 < /fnote> Thomas , ' From to an ? ' , pp.6 - 10 < /fnote> As security issues now transcend national borders there is a direct link between the previously distinct realms of the domestic and the international . The ' Pandora 's Box ' which sprung open after in has seen a proliferation of ' stateless ' security issues which can no longer be neatly divided between political , economic and environmental and strategic categories . , ' Conceptualising the Globalisation - Security Nexus in , Security Dialogue , , ( ) , pp.412 - 21 < /fnote> Thomas , ' From to an ? ' , pp.17 - 24 < /fnote > APT signals a recognition that ' the global norms that upheld the non - intervention principle have changed dramatically in , and that conflict resolution may necessitate ' preventative ' aspects , not just post - crisis management . The ambiguity of the contemporary world must be met with a flexible approach to regionalism and a desire to coordinate between governments , rather than static concepts of regional problems - there is a sense that this is occurring with the initiative . That said , ' should not be complacent ... [and ] should not delude itself into thinking that its identity can develop solely in regional terms ' . Previous attempts have met with crisis throughout the history of the region . The region - however defined - must not attempt to shut out the rest of the world in a ' reactive ' and closed response to issues of globalisation . Rather , regionalism should pursue an embracing response in order to harness the forces of the contemporary world to the benefit of the region . To do so , closer cooperation and collective bargaining will be the linchpin of the voice in the international community . has a great deal of potential and it is the source of much optimism in the region as a forum to overcome crisis . Perhaps the regionalism initiative and the current convergence towards a common identity hinges on the open and more transparent coordination of economic and political preferences to avoid the recurrence of recent crises which is supported by and . If this convergence remains then a common cultural and social identity may well crystallise . believe that , given a lack of common history and culture , the community should look toward regionalism based on a common present and look to coordinate in order to face the contemporary challenges of modernity and globalisation . This does not imply ruling out regionalism open to nations . < fnote > Thomas , ' From to an ? ' , pp.25 - 7 < /fnote> Yoichi Funabashi , ' , , , ( ) , , and , ' Regionalism and ' , , , , p.365 < /fnote> Philip Bowring , ' : Centripetal or Centrifugal ? ' , , ) URL , pp.1 - 8 < /fnote> Terada , ' Constructing an "" "" Concept ' , pp.270 - 4 < /fnote> Paul Evans , ' Between Regionalism and Regionalization : Policy Networks and , in T.J Pempel ( ed . ) , : , Ithaca : , 2005 , pp.205 - 9 < /fnote > Consequently , the initiative has become , ' the most ambitious and comprehensive of the governmental efforts to create an institutional framework to support regionalism ' . However , still faces the challenge of satisfying conflicting national interests in the practical sense and institutionalising a far from clear cut regional identity . There is a considerable disparity between and states , both in the practical sense of economic expertise and in the social and cultural sense . This lack of commonality is exacerbated by political issues . For instance , there is no interest from any individual government , or desire among the collective for any single state , to take the lead in advancing regionalism given the nature of previous attempts to do so . The role of the is also crucial - it is unlikely to favour any closed form of regionalism which takes the strategic economic and security agenda out of its hands . APT must proceed cautiously so as not to antagonise these areas of concern . However , despite the traditional perception of regionalism as a government led phenomenon , there is much to suggest that it is moving ahead in a less formal , less state centric basis . Epistemic communities and policy networks , as detailed by based on influential works by and , can evolve through the interaction of previously disparate individuals and groups that consequently forge a common sense of purpose and identity which provides not just optimism for , but a distinct basis from which to advance , regionalism . < fnote > Evans , ' Between Regionalism and Regionalization ' , p.200 < /fnote> François Godement 's assessment of the post-9/11 shift in foreign policy and its implications for the region is an authoritative account of this . Godement , ' Escaping the Merchant / Missionary Dilemma , pp.176 - 87 < /fnote> Evans , ' Between Regionalism and Regionalization ' , pp.200 - 1 < /fnote> Evans , ' Between Regionalism and Regionalization ' , pp.202 - 4 < /fnote > APT regionalism does not imply closed regionalism based on previous concepts of an identity which failed in the past . Contrary to Markus Hund 's assessment of as unrepresentative of identity , the argument here is that regional perceptions have changed which are now more conducive to an open form of regionalism as best represented by the association . Regional perceptions have changed as a result of globalisation , and in particular , the Financial Crisis . Clearly at this stage doubts about the commitment of members , particularly the northern , are an issue as it remains to be seen whether will bring about ' significant ... achievements ' . 's pessimistic conclusion that there appears to be a lack of will to achieve concrete goals may be overly pessimistic - the most significant thing about to date is the recognition and gradual acknowledgement of a common purpose . Clearly , only time will tell if it is successful or not . himself acknowledges that , ' regardless of 's internal divisions and uncertainties , its dynamic has nevertheless already had an impact on the political and economic landscape of . The point that ' the evolution of an exclusive identity seems to be a long way off ' is a mute one . points us back to standpoint whereby he asserts that international relations in the region may not fit well with purely Western interpretations . In this sense , traditional power relations might well evolve differently in than they did for example in , if at all . If this is the case then the rise of a powerful will be more beneficial than confrontational . < fnote > Markus Hund , ' Plus : Towards a New Age of Regionalism ? A 's Appraisal ' , , Vol.16 , ( ) , pp.403 - 6 < /fnote> Hund , ' ASEAN Plus ' , p.411 < /fnote> , ' , and Regionalism ' , , No.64 ( 2004 ) URL , < /fnote> VII . Conclusion In summary , imperialism must be seen as a crucial factor in the history of regional cooperation . Wrenching nations into modernity , via economic development and industrialisation , imperialism left an indelible imprint on the region . The economic interdependency which emerged prior to was subsequently consolidated by the post - bellum foreign policy of in order to promote regional stability . From this , cooperation has developed around a core of economic and production networks . This core of functional interdependency still forms the concrete basis from which regionalism in is occurring . This essay has attempted to demonstrate that despite a proliferation of potentially divisive issues that have abounded since , economic cooperation provides the impetus for cooperation concerning new and increasingly salient issues which are potentially conflict ridden .","This article describes an investigation into the self - assembly of R- and rodcoils to form helical ribbon like mirror image nanostructures . From searches using and Web of Knowledge no previous published work was found in this area . The authors had previously shown coil segments in dendron rodcoil molecules imparting solubility to high aspect ratio , self - assembling nanostructures but only for achiral and racemic coil segments as quote in the text . Therefore this manuscript can be considered an original piece of work . The article is concise and easy to follow even for those with minimal knowledge in this area , the scientific content and reasoning appears to be sound . In the introduction there is a paragraph introducing the main concepts and it is well presented following the guidelines set out by for submission . The article is clearly set out and conforms to the template required for communications to be published in . The diagrams used are relevant to illustrate points which appear in the text , they are clearly labelled and are referenced within the article . The article does not contain any experimental detail or supporting data however , as referenced at the end of the document , full experimental data is included in the supporting information and this is in enough detail to be able to recreate this work if necessary . This communication is generally well written however there are a few issues with inconsistencies in the format of certain parts and these few minor changes may need to be considered before publication . In the supporting information section its states that "" each was obtained in steps total , of which were described "" . To be able to reproduce this work all steps should have been described in total so that there would be enough information . An abbreviation is used , with out clarifying its meaning in the communication at any point however all other abbreviations used have been clarified when they are mentioned in the manuscript . In the supporting information there are inconsistencies in how to write weight percent , in full ( weight percent ) or abbreviated ( wt % ) . This manuscript could be suitable for a broad audience as is contains introductory information to the area rather than assuming the reader is knowledgeable . Most of the specialised terms are defined which again makes it suitable for a wider audience however , it seems like a more specific area rather than of general interested and may be better suited to a more specialised journal . < heading , , , , and Samunel , . Chem . Soc , , , 7992 - 7993 This article describes the formation of left and right handed helical ribbon like nanostructures from R- and S - dendron rodcoil ( DRC ) molecules . Previously the authors had developed these dendron rodcoil molecules and found that they self assemble to form ribbonlike nanostructures in organic solvents . The self assembly of this type is driven by the hydrogen bonding interactions of the dendritic sections and the π - π stacking interactions of the rodlike sections . It was also shown that the coil sections in these molecules related to the solubility to these self assembling nanostructures however this had only been investigated for achiral and racemic molecules . The synthesis of , S- and racemic molecules is describe briefly as full detail is found in , the synthesis is similar to that previously described by the authors . An indication of the self assembly of these molecules was by viewed by the increase in solution viscosity which then leads to gelation , this is due to the formation of the ribbonlike nanostructures and the interconnected network that forms . It was found that the gelation of these DRC molecules was solvent dependent , gelation occurred in acetonirile but not in tetrahydrofuran ( THF ) . In deuterated actenitrile aliphatic peaks were broadened whereas aromatic peaks were unresolved compared with THF where all peaks were well resolved . As previously described this is consistent with the ribbonlike formation of the DRC nanostructures . The handedness of the self assembled nanostructures was examined by Circular Dichroism ( CD ) spectroscopy . Gels were preformed and diffused in acetonitrile . Both R- and S - DRC molecules showed a change in the circular dichroism in the region of an absorption band , known as the effect , in the biphenyl group absorbance . This is due to exicton of the chromophore , showing the importance of the chiral coil sections on the handedness of the π - π stacking rod sections . As expected there is no exciton coupling when similar samples were prepared in THF therefore linking the importance of the chiral coil sections formed in the self assembly to the observed handedness . It was also shown that racemic DRC does not possess a CD spectra even though it has the ability to form a gel . The nanostructures of R- and S - DRC were observed by ( AFM ) and clearly show that they are mirror images of each other forming left and right handed helices repsectively . The of racemic DRC shows similar features with left and right handed helical ribbonlike structures where no flat ribbons occur . It was concluded that the observations described from the CD spectra and images of racemic DRC could indicate that R- and S - DRC self sort , through homochiral recognition during self assembly , into the observed R and S nanostructures .",0 "< heading > Introduction Despite Tsountas ' excavations in , major foreign excavation projects in and ' work in , has not received as much scholarly attention as it would seem fitting or indeed deserving . Exchange and specialised production , or craft specialisation as commonly known , have to some extent been emphasised as significant attributes thus projecting the into its rightful importance . This has been particularly so since exchange and craft specialisation have implications for the organisation of time and labour and consequently these have been associated with the beginnings of social differentiation . As has pointed out ( : , ) , the Neolithic should not be equated only with simple farming communities since there was long - distance trade and craft specialisation in obsidian , and textiles . Furthermore , ( : ) , in a social evolutionary mindset , has interpreted the increased standardisation of tools and the large amounts of obsidian in as indicators of "" stabilisation and improvement "" . When using primary material regarding the Neolithic , a number of limitations emerge in the definition of evidence per se . A certain amount of information from early excavations has been lost . For example , Petrakis ( : , ) regrets the disappearance of stone and bone finds from 's excavation at Ayioryitika in the with only 's notebooks remaining . In addition , there have been delays in the publication of final reports from major excavations ( e.g. , and , ) hindering further critical evaluation , while , as Souvatzi ( : ) remarks , no large - scale exposure of settlements is available anywhere in . The question that subsequently arises from these shortcomings is the validity of the evidence available in enabling one to account for and evaluate exchange and craft specialisation . This essay , therefore , will take a factual approach with the objective to assess critically the archaeological evidence available to date and associated interpretations . Thus , this essay does not only examine the type of evidence , but also how good this is for facilitating our understanding of exchange and craft specialisation . Exchange has traditionally been investigated using characterisation studies , which examine the distance from raw material sources and the geographical spread of a given type of artefact . While the current essay will draw from such analyses it should be noted , however , that these could still be failing to show that even for contemporaneous artefacts different exchange mechanisms may well be accountable for similar patterns of distribution . Craft specialisation bears numerous definitions , but in a general sense it has been linked to ( technical ) expertise that is not otherwise widely shared . This working definition will be used in the current essay to discuss artefacts made by ' specialists ' with the intention to be exchanged . Perlès ' ( : ) parameters for assessing both exchange and craft specialisation provide a comprehensive framework upon which I would like to draw for the purposes of structuring the factual content of this essay . The areas to be examined therefore are : a ) skill and complexity in production techniques ; b ) distribution of production centres ; c ) volume of output ; and d ) circulation of artefacts beyond the original production areas . Admittedly , there is a certain economical bias in this framework but the main reasons for adhering to it are simplicity and brevity . It should be noted that evidence relating to craft specialisation will be considered prior to discussing evidence for exchange . While it is highly plausible that specialised production and exchange also pertained to many perishable goods ( e.g. , wood , hides and tapestry ) and to artefacts which have not been analysed from this perspective ( e.g. , symbolic artefacts such as figurines , house models and miniature vases , see , : ) , this essay will focus on stone assemblages , ceramics and rare goods since these are the categories which have attracted predominantly most interest . The ensuing discussion examines almost exclusively ' artefacts ' , rather than any other classes of evidence such as settlement patterns or architecture which may also be informative of how social and economic relations were organised and how these impacted on exchange and craft specialisation . To encompass these as well in the discussion and do justice to a more comparative analysis is beyond the scope of the present essay . Furthermore , regarding "" Neolithic artefacts "" , the broad chronological divisions of Early Neolithic ( EN ) , ( ) , ( ) and ( FN ) will be used throughout . The term "" "" will not be rigidly defined geographically and reference will be made to both island and mainland sites . This essay aims to argue that although at instance there is strong evidence for craft specialisation and exchange , on closer inspection a number of irreconcilable ambiguities become apparent . These include some of the following : speculative interpretations , such as the itinerant knappers model ; the problematic archaeological visibility of export workshops ; the lack of specificity about exchange mechanisms , which consequently converts the term ' exchange ' into a generic rather than specifically applied ; and the considerable temporal and spatial variations encountered across the , which impede any broad generalisations , and await resolution from further research . Finally , as it will be concluded , despite these ambiguities the case for craft specialisation and exchange during the is not irretrievably weakened . On the contrary , these limitations necessitate a non - economic and non - technological deterministic appreciation of the social dynamics of Neolithic societies and in this context there is sufficiently good evidence for exchange and craft specialisation . < heading > Evidence from Stone Assemblages There appears to be largely a - sided treatment of stone assemblages as exemplified by , simply because no other lithics expert has looked at the evidence or raised alternative views . With regards to the skill and complexity in production techniques , stone tools in the EN and made from distant rather than local raw materials show considerable sophistication in production ( pressure or indirect percussion flaking ) and virtually no errors . These finds provide convincing evidence for specialised production ( , : , ; and , : ; , : ; Elster , : ) . However , one could question ' ( : ) interpretation of the technical and stylistic homogeneity in stone artefacts found all over as the result of a small number of specialists . This uniformity could have been underpinned by cultural or social norms eventually followed by an increase in the number of specialists . It is also possible that future research challenges the extent of this alleged uniformity . Perlès further asserts that there was considerable know - how in maritime travel to to procure obsidian which was beyond the capabilities of EN and MN Thessalian farmers at a time when the were not settled yet ( , : - 145 ; and , : ; , : ) . Besides , raw material sources were exploited using specific skills such as quarrying for honey - flints ( and Vitelli , : ) . Both of these points and the associated model of specialist itinerant knappers acting as suppliers of lithics to many different places ( Perlès and Vitelli , : ) may be seen as tentative scenarios rather than conclusive evidence . How credible is ' model when in the absence of social hierarchies ( Perlès , : ) a few individuals , in addition to their agricultural duties , had such a wide range of capabilities and responsibilities ( travel , procurement , preparation of modules , further travel , knapping and distribution ) ? Moreover , as argued below , the archaeological invisibility of intermediate workshops and the lack of precision about the exact exchange strategies challenge the viability of just rigidly defined model of specialised supply . In the and there was a considerable fall in the level of craftsmanship indicating a process of "" de - specialisation "" and evidence of direct procurement of obsidian which is found in raw form in southern sites ( , : , - 402 ; and , : ) . This contrast between the earlier and later highlights the absence of an evolutionary trend or cumulative effect entailing increased craft specialisation and associated exchange . Regarding the distribution of production centres , the observation that stone artefacts reached various villages in the EN and as partially or fully developed tools ( flint blades or obsidian cores ) and not as raw material has logically given rise to arguments about a few localised production centres near the raw material sources ( , : , - 137 ; and , : ) . Although the operation of such specialised centres remains a possibility , their archaeological visibility appears to be problematic . The EN site of on an islet in the Northern Sporades yielded large amounts of obsidian which could suggest that served as an intermediary site and exported obsidian to . ( : ) though reinterpreted the alleged obsidian workshop identified by at as the in situ debris from just one core . If the ceramic affinities identified by ( : ) are correct , then could have maintained contacts not only with but also with and the coast and it would be too simplistic to assume that the islet acted solely as a stop for travelling technologists or suppliers . Although obsidian reached the various settlements in different states of completeness in the and ( ) has continued to support the operation of workshops citing an alleged workshop at , near . However , of the early accounts of the excavation mentions the recovery of large roughed - out cores ( Renfew and , : ) but does not interpret it as a workshop . Moreover , it would appear environmentally deterministic to equate any raw material sources with localised workshops . is a small islet in the with natural obsidian . However , in the settlement at , there was no evidence of mining or knapping the obsidian although there were obsidian tools . This hints at some possible ad - hoc collection of obsidian by incoming travellers rather than systematic or organised exploration ( , : - 259 ) . It is also interesting to note that the intensified sea - faring in the did not result in more specialised exploitation or export in the case of . Concerning the volume of output , the even distribution of obsidian and honey - flints across different EN and settlements has been interpreted as a stable production of stone artefacts sustained by part - time specialists ( , : ; and , : ; , : ) . However , it is possible that is generalising across a large geographical area whereas future research could reveal more inter - site variability . Regarding the circulation of lithics beyond the original production centres , from the EN there is clear evidence of long - distance circulation of obsidian and flint tools , andesite millstones , polished celts and chisels ( Demoule and Perlès , : ) . Since exotic raw materials such as obsidian , flint and jasper all came from different sources , which were also located far away from each other , they are more likely to have been acquired through exchange rather than direct procurement ( , : ; , : ) . Although this argument at instance appears convincing , one can not rule out direct procurement as it is difficult , even for obsidian , to be specific about the exact exchange mechanisms . Renfew ( : ) has suggested that obsidian was exchanged from village to another ( i.e. , down - the - line trade ) , whereas , as already mentioned , formulated the model of itinerant knappers . Both suggestions can be seen as attempts to address what Torrence ( : , ) calls the surprising absence of research in obsidian exchange mechanisms despite the extensive obsidian characterisation studies . Similarly , although it can be accepted that the colonisation of the in the meant increased sea - faring to , with the settlements possibly playing a role in obsidian acquisition and supply to outsiders ( Demoule and Perlès , : ; , : - 158 ) , one can not be precisely accurate about the exact trade , exchange or procurement strategies and the extent to which these were organised by specialists . It is quite possible that obsidian has received too much academic attention although it has neither been the most prominent artefact material nor an exclusive indicator of long - distance contacts . Elster ( : - 173 ) , in analysing the stone assemblages of EN Achilleion in , notes that the quantity and size of obsidian tools were relatively small . Torrence ( : ) stresses that obsidian procurement throughout the was coupled with other activities ( e.g. , fishing ) so that the labour and time investment in obsidian acquisition was not directly proportional to the distance from sources . In in obsidian played just a minimal role in the flaked stone assemblage but the inhabitants of did engage in long - distance procurement or exchange as demonstrated by the honey - brown flints which were derived from ( , : ) . It would also seem necessary to accommodate for flexible and varied exchange modalities . As and ( ) argue , different settlements in relied heavily on local stone sources in contrast to sites in , such as , where long - distance exchange co - existed with considerable reliance on local stone sources . < heading > Evidence from Ceramics With respect to the skill and complexity of techniques in pottery production , there was only limited technological know - how in the EN . Due to the low number of different shapes , the small size of vessels , the simple building technology , the low firing temperature and the resulting crude and coarse wares in sites such as Sesklo , Achilleion and Franchthi ( , : , ; , : - 114 ; and , : ; , : - 60 ) , it has been argued rather convincingly that there were no full - time specialist potters ( and Vitelli , : ) . There have been suggestions though that EN potters had restricted knowledge of plants and clays and of recipes similar to those used by shamans . The underlying link between magic and fire control in pottery production has been seen in conjunction with the alleged ritual use of early pottery to strengthen the argument for specialised know - how ( Vitelli , : - 62 ; and , : - 103 ; Björk ) . It appears though , that the ritual function of EN vessels has been over - emphasised in order to strengthen the case for specialised production . Kotsakis ( : ) questions whether the absence of EN cooking pots as attested at Sesklo , Achilleion and Franchthi is a ubiquitous phenomenon in . Furthermore , Yiouni ( : ) concluded that EN pots from were capable of withstanding cooking and firing stress . The variety in fabrics , innovation , elegance , well - finished surfaces , difficult shapes and individualised decoration of vessels strongly suggests sophisticated local specialisation in production . However , the underlying complex techniques remained relatively uniform , at least in the ( , : ; Vitelli , : ) . The increased complexity in decoration and variation in styles and building / firing techniques of pottery signifies specialised production not only on the basis of technical skill but also due to considerable time investment ( Demoule and Perlès , : ) . In both instances it would appear that specialised production was socially more important in terms of style rather than technology . This could be taken to indicate that craft specialisation was not supply - driven ( i.e. , by the specialist potters ) but demand - driven according to the needs of Neolithic communities . As and ( : ) emphasise , craft specialisation was underpinned by social and cultural choice rather than technical prerequisites . The has yielded coarse wares and extensive variation in shapes supporting the argument for a large number of non - specialist potters ( Vitelli , : ) . Therefore , the strong case for specialised production in the and may be seen as non - teleological but somehow being reversed in the . With reference to the distribution of pottery production centres , as it emerges from chemical and mineralogical analyses , pottery production throughout the was village - based ( , : ) exploiting local clays without this necessarily implying the production of a single pottery style per village . The various stylistic groups of fine - decorated pottery in consisting of a number of clay compositions indicate multiple production centres for one style ( Schneider et al , : ) . As far as the volume of output is concerned , there have been different estimates . ( : ) suggested that or pots were made at EN Franchthi . For EN Nea Nikomedia though , Yiouni ( : - 185 ) has estimated that pots were produced . However , Yiouni herself admits that the estimate for the length of occupation ( ) was based on comparing the stratigraphic depth to deposits in rather than basing it on direct evidence . In any case , the annual output does not appear to inform of an export industry in pottery . Regarding the circulation of pottery beyond the original production areas , although the EN homogeneity in pottery has been interpreted as a reflection of open networks of relations without strict boundaries , there was very limited regional and almost no long - distance exchange in ceramics ( , : , ; , : ) . However , ( : ) warns that the apparent similarity in EN pottery may be due to the lack of detailed excavation reports which could eventually inform of more inter - site stylistic variation . In other words , pottery homogeneity should not be taken as evidence for the lack of circulation , at least not without caution . Furthermore , Tomkins and Day ( 2001 : ) have examined EN pottery from Knossos in Crete using macroscopic analysis , petrography and scanning electron microscopy . The largest amount of pottery is indeed of local provenance but there is also pottery originating from north - central Crete and pottery whose provenance is unknown and could be off - island . Their findings show convincingly that local production can not be taken for granted and that even the technically inferior EN vessels were exchanged over considerable distances . Demoule and ( : ) argue further that in the there was still limited exchange of pottery . Consistent with this argument Petrakis ( : - 79 ) claims to have singled out a distinctive MN Ayioryitika assemblage ( Urfirnis vessels with pedant triangles as decoration ) which supports the notion of a single production centre at Ayioryitika intended exclusively for local consumption . Although this may well have been the case , given the relatively small output from site , archaeologically it may be very difficult to recover such a sherd beyond Ayioryitika . Furthermore , if the regional and inter - regional pottery styles are to be taken as reflections of social interaction , exogamy and conflict - resolution strategies ( Demoule and Perlès , : ) , then it is reasonable to assume that the integrative social function of pottery involved at least a small amount of pots changing hands . For the , although there is evidence that some kinds of pottery , such as the grey - on - grey ware in were circulated widely , it becomes increasingly problematic to distinguish between production and export from single or multiple centres ( , : ; and , : ; et al , : ) . There is evidence that high quality painted pottery was exchanged between the neighbouring sites of Sesklo and Dimini ( Kotsakis , : ) and this shows the importance of exchange at local level ; a fact that is easily overseen as archaeologists are often fascinated by long - distance links . Following the chemical analysis of sherds from on , pottery - production was found to be local , exploiting nearby clays and ochre , but sherd was identified as an import from ( , : , - 284 ) . Again , this evidence would support regional rather than long - distance exchange of pottery . Within the context of increased sea - faring and the formation of large pottery stylistic regions ( Demoule and Perlès , : - 399 ) , there is again little evidence of pottery playing a role in long - distance exchange networks . Apart from a single imported scoop at , there are no other imports and furthermore there is minimal stylistic similarity in ceramics between , Euboea and Attica and no influence of wares on mainland groups ( , : ) . < heading > Evidence from Rare Goods A wide range of artefacts can be classified as ' prestige items ' including stone vases , marble pins and stamp seals ( , : - 223 ) . The ensuing account focuses exclusively on shell ornaments and metal artefacts ( copper , gold and silver ) . With reference to skill and complexity of techniques , it remains unclear whether the manufacture of shell artefacts required specialist skills . Perlès ( : ) has emphasised dexterity and patience while ( : ) has shown through replication experiments that low skill was involved in the production of EN cockle shell beads at . For , however , ( 2003a : ) has argued for skilled production of ornaments . One can not attribute all metal objects appearing primarily in the and to specialist metalworkers . Native copper was collected and hammered like stone which implies that early metallurgy was not technologically revolutionary ( , : , ) . At there have been small and simple artefacts such as pins , awls and beads which entailed simple shaping techniques and cold working ( Renfew and , : - 305 ) . Even copper jewellery , beads , bracelets and pins were hammered and smoothed by burnishing as stone jewellery would have been produced ( Zachos , 1996b : ) . However , bulk metal artefacts , such as axes from southern , do appear to involve more complex production techniques ( , : ; , : ) which could probably indicate craft specialisation . Overall , however , the contrast and variety of technical investment noted between northern and southern make it difficult to generalise about a coherent specialised metal ' industry ' in the Neolithic Aegean . As far as the distribution of production centres is concerned , at ( : ; : , ) has argued for an EN export workshop par excellence based on the paucity of finished cockle - shell beads , the manufacturing debris and the of small chert micro - points . Although ( : ) drawing from ethnographic analogies has re - interpreted the manufacturing debris as a dump deposit , one would be inclined to agree with Perlès because the chert tools stratigraphically and functionally related to the cockle - shell beads . The whole settlement of has been seen as a specialised production centre . For ( : , ) the very construction of the enclosures served to demarcate space and organise the different workshops . Influenced by historical materialism , ( : - 90 ) envisioned an organised mass production system whereby élites supervised and controlled the production activities . Halstead ( : - 608 ) has challenged an earlier interpretation of craft specialisation of ornaments and has suggested that the uneven concentration of finished artefacts was the result of ritual deposition involving deliberate breakage and burning by socially differentiated households . By comparing these finds with additional sites exhibiting ornaments one may conclude that Hourmouziadis ' and 's scenarios of social differentiation are rather speculative . At the and metal artefacts showed a non - restrictive distribution whereas the presence of damaged and burnt shell ornaments can be seen as a wider practice occurring at many more sites ( , : , ) . It therefore appears reasonable to agree with ( : - 200 ) who emphasises that the area at yielded tools appropriate for shell ornament manufacture , houses with manufacturing debris were abandoned , and the burning at pertained to whole structures rather than just to shell artefacts . While the uneven excavation at may have biased our existing understanding of artefact scatter , it would appear that Dimini played an important role in the production and exchange network whereby craft specialisation occurred at community level ( Andreou et al , : ; Kotsakis , : ) . Although there must have been separate production areas for metalworking , there does not appear to be clear archaeological evidence for such workshops . At , there have been sherds with copper deposits informing the presence of crucible melting for casting but there have been neither moulds , ingots or slag that could hint at large - scale metal production nor conclusive evidence for a furnace installation to withstand high temperatures ( and , : , - 307 , ) . As far as the output of rare goods is concerned , the fact that revealed the largest quantity of shell bracelets and amulets in the could be the result of wet and dry sieving employed at excavation ( , : ) rather than convincing evidence of an export industry . The contemporaneous and closely located site of in Thrace yielded worked remains and no Spondylus beads ( , : ) indicating that there was not a imperative to organise shell production for export . The rarity of metal finds clearly suggests a very low production output ( Demoule and Perlès , : ) . Regarding the circulation of shell and metal artefacts these would appear to circulate in only small quantities over long distances ( Perlès and Vitelli , : ) . The fact that artefacts produced in the reached central ( , : ) must not lead to generalisations about other kinds of rare goods . Rare goods could not have easily changed hands since their rarity made them extremely valuable and as a consequence one is less likely to justify ' circulation ' than ' exchange ' . However , it becomes difficult to be in a position to specify the exact exchange mechanisms in operation . Although the similarity of the gold strip found at cave on to the culture seems to indicate connections between the and the ( Demoule and Perlès , : ; and , : ) , it remains unclear how such unique ' exotica ' came to be acquired ( , : ) and whether these signified an intentional exchange in information between distant places as ( : - 7 ) asserts . There are many uncertainties associated with the notion of circulation of metal either as raw material or as finished objects . , the nature of the evidence is problematic due to the possibility of recycling , the often questionable archaeological context of metal finds and the possible long history of circulation prior to deposition ( , : , , ) . , it is not always clear whether local or non local sources were exploited . For ( : ) there is no conclusive evidence about the extent of exploitation of metal sources despite the presence of sherds at the Siphnos mine and smelting debris at . Renfrew and ( : , ) also seem to favour the exploitation of local copper sources for although earlier scholars have identified multiple origins for the copper ( the , the , Lavrion , and ) . < heading > Conclusions < /heading > The above discussion demonstrates that the evidence for craft specialisation and exchange varies significantly according to the phase in question and the category of artefact examined . The following points could be summarised at this stage : Although there is strong evidence for skilful knappers , at least in the EN and , the contested operation of specialised workshops at , and make it questionable whether supply and exchange were indeed specialised activities . The elaborate and pottery does appear to reflect specialised manufacture . As the analysis of EN pottery at Knossos revealed , more pottery was exchanged than was originally thought . Although the skill involved in the production of shell ornaments and metal artefacts varied , there are some good indications to date of specialised shell workshops at and Dimini . In contrast to lithics and pottery , the exchange of rare goods would appear to be more directly linked to specialised production . While seems to find long distance circulation of lithics and rare goods and some regional circulation of pottery , it is difficult to specify the exact exchange mechanisms for all artefact categories . Perlès has generalised somewhat eagerly about the function of stone tools , pottery and rare goods and has argued for ' utilitarian ' , ' social ' and ' prestige ' exchange systems respectively ( Perlès : - 144 , ) . , it remains questionable whether artefacts can be given a fixed functional characterisation . For example , even the highly elaborate pottery , which circulated regionally and could have been important in rituals , was used ' casually ' as testified by its association with domestic contexts and its abundant and undifferentiated distribution within : - 105 , , ) . , it is not clear how the function of artefacts could have related to entire exchange systems since artefacts may have been produced to be exchanged because of their ' exotic ' quality in different settings ( e.g. , was valued differently in central ) . , ' distinct exchange networks appear to be generalisations over a large geographical area and during an extended period of time . Clearly , the evidence does not reflect directly a single or simple system of exchange for all kinds of artefacts ( Demoule and Perlès , : ) but even more so it does not appear to reflect only the systems of exchange accounted by scholars so far . Overall , there seems to be reasonable absence of good evidence for the parameters ' volume of output ' and ' production centres ' . This not only hints the inappropriateness of such ' capitalist ' terminology , but would seem to highlight the fact that craft specialisation and exchange were embedded in the wider nexus of Neolithic village life and were not separate , uniquely important economical or technical practices . Here , one could agree with ( : ) who emphasises that seasonal craft specialisation and exchange were driven by cultural choice rather than economic self - sufficiency and were instrumental in sustaining social relations ( reciprocity , interdependency , kinship and family ties etc . ) . In addition , however , one could also envisage less rigidly demarcated production activities as the following example demonstrates . Although ( : - 110 , ) argues that area at Dimini shows features of functional differentiation ( concentration of incised pottery , tools and shell debris ) , she interprets this area as a multi - functional and flexible space ( for making pottery , tools and shell ornaments ) rather than a workshop for type of artefact . Furthermore , it has been argued that craft specialisation and exchange were not cumulative or teleological processes and therefore these may not be placed within the context of social evolution progressing towards complexity . While the increased visibility of prestige items in the and and the possibility of attached specialists ( i.e. , craftspeople producing exclusively for an outsider authority ) could relate to the appearance of some kind of hierarchies ( Kotsakis , : ; , : ) , these fact do not constitute evidence of a causal link between specialised production and exchange and social differentiation . In other words , the and hierarchies , if there were any at all , may have been the result of wider social and cultural currents to which craft specialisation and exchange adhered and had to adapt . For most of the , one would be inclined to agree largely with ( : ) who , in the absence of any evidence for hierarchies , stresses the salience of seasonal and horizontal differentiation of social and economic roles . This not only signifies that the production of lithics , pottery and prestige items were part - time activities , but could also imply that there was a wider range of specialist roles ( e.g. , farmers , pastoralists , fishermen , priests ) . Moreover , the fact that these "" heterarchical "" and complementary roles ( , : ) were organised and sustained in the Neolithic , lies at the centre of the complex social dynamics of communities . Similarly , Souvatzi ( : - 165 , ) , with reference to , emphasises that the complex social relations pertaining to the production and circulation of various artefacts do not constitute evidence for social inequality but could inform of social integration and cohesion . Under this light , if craft specialisation and exchange played an important role in holding the Neolithic societies together , then the observed stability and longevity of the Neolithic village ( Demoule and Perlès , : ) may in itself serve as the strongest class of evidence for craft specialisation and exchange . Then , there would be no need to follow ' model of itinerant knappers as specialist suppliers or 's suggestion of potters - shamans as specialist producers in order to strengthen the case for exchange and craft specialisation respectively . Thus , the existing evidence in the archaeological record , including even the various ambiguities associated with it , such as the questionable visibility of lithics production centres , when appreciated more holistically in the context of a ' successful ' mode of village life , constitutes , in my opinion at least , sufficiently good evidence for considerable specialisation in the production and exchange of artefacts in .","< heading > INTRODUCTION Human resource planning is of crucial significance to an organization for formulating and implementing strategy for achieving its goals . For , it is being seen that organisations are trying to match the characteristics of their people with their business strategies ( and , ) . Considering that employees play the most pivotal part in making a business successful , when expansion or growth is aimed at as a part of business strategy the personality traits , skills , perspectives , ability , values and knowledge of employees become crucial . Therein comes a need to adopt a strategic approach to , in particular the recruitment and selection process . This piece of coursework tries to explore strategic issues associated with the recruitment & selection process within personnel management . It will look what constitutes a strategic approach to human resource management in general by discussing various available models of aligning HR strategy with the business strategy . Next , it will throw light on the many different policies and practices used for recruitment and selection in organisations , distinguishing between strategic and non - strategic approaches . Finally , the circumstances that lead an organisation to adopt a strategic approach towards recruitment and selection shall be explained . < heading > TERMINOLOGY Recruitment and Selection Recruitment and selection is not just a single stage but a process ( and , ) wherein an organization tries to attract a pool of qualified candidates who would be suitable for a job vacancy created in an organization either due to an employee leaving the job or due to expansion of the organization . Sometimes , the organization fills the vacancy from its own pool of employees , but most of the time the organization seeks employees externally . ( and , ) Organizations market or ' sell ' their jobs so that they are able to attract sufficient candidates for the position created in their organization ( et al . , ) . Out of the large number of potential candidates a small number are short - listed or interviewed for the potential position . The best possible candidate is made the offer of that position . This process ends only when the candidate has accepted the offer made to him by the organization . Recruitment and selection are not different from each other but are intertwined . However , they can be differentiated saying that recruitment involves finding or attracting candidates for a particular job whereas selection consists forecasting or estimating which candidate will prove to be most valuable to the organization in the present and in the long - term . ( and , ) < heading > NEED OF AN HR STRATEGY Gratton ( ) talks how various organizations create business strategies independent of the human resource department . The article says that usually business strategies are "" handed down "" to HR professionals for mere implementation . This , according to her , happens due to lack of representation of the HR function at the level , which does not create initial integration . This - way process can also be attributed to the thinking that members of the HR function have restricted business awareness and they are fit only for a "" clerk of works "" operation rather than an "" architect "" role . ( Tyson and Fell , quoted in ) . This behaviour leads to lack of functional synergy while creating "" strategic imperatives "" and the "" implementation process "" , leaving the HR function to develop systems oblivious of the business objectives . In this way the HR function can not achieve , create or sustain the continuity by which initiatives build upon each other . Instead these initiatives "" bump along "" the bottom , losing "" momentum from to another . "" ( , ) . In order to give HR strategy a "" grounded frame of reference "" it is important for it to be aligned with the business strategy . A strategic approach takes into account the organisational goals and objectives . Its main aim is to align various key elements of HRM like recruitment and selection so that they function in tandem with other functions to achieve organisational goals . < heading > MATCHING STRATEGY AND HRM Aligning business strategy to HRM is a well - researched area and there are a number of descriptions , definitions and models explaining how HRM policies - in particular those related to functions like recruitment and selection , training and development etc . should ' fit ' a particular management style or strategic orientation ( Legge 2005 ) . According to ( ) , "" an integrated strategic approach through which organizations attempt to achieve the policy goals of flexibility , quality and commitment through the appropriate use of various types of systems such as recruitment , selection , appraisal , training , development , pay and communication . "" constitutes strategic approach to HRM . The fit model of HR strategy ( , ) talks in terms of external and internal fits , whereby an external fit recognizes the need to "" employ and deploy labour "" ( , Hall and , ) against future needs while internal fit supports people policies which are "" mutually reinforcing "" ( , Hall and , 2005:216 ) and are applied consistently . and in1984 developed another widely used fit approach of matching HR strategy to business strategies . Here , they used a contingent / open approach and categorized organizations into strategic types : Defender , Prospector , and Reactor . They defined ' defender ' to have a narrow but stable product line an d having a functional structure so there HRM strategy would be to build human resources . Also , ' defenders ' involve themselves in extensive skills training programmes because of their narrow product lines . In contrast the ' prospectors ' are more adventurous insofar these organisations seek new products and market opportunities to do business in . So they employ sophisticated recruitment techniques and less training , emphasis being on acquiring skills . Similarly , ' analysers ' who operate in both stable and dynamic environments need the right allocation for their human resources . i.e. which ones should be put in the stable market environment and which ones in the dynamic ones . and developed guidelines for proactive human resources management systems that tap an organizations full complement of human capability whilst supporting the formulation of new business strategies . Based on their work ( ) developed a more exhaustive model to demonstrate the linkage between business strategy and HR practices by developing "" buy strategy "" and "" make strategy "" wherein organisations who are ' defenders ' use the ' make strategy ' to develop their resources and ' prospectors ' use ' buy strategy ' to acquire human resources . and ( ) further linked HR practices to the competitive strategies described by in . They described how 's strategies of , Quality enhancement and Cost reduction could be achieved by linking them with various human resource practices like Job definition and specialization , reward , appraisal and performance management etc . Thus , for example while innovation requires high creative talent in the organisation , hence jobs require close interaction and coordination among individuals whereas ; cost reduction would require repetitive and predictable job behaviours . While deciding the human resource practices are to be linked with business strategies , organizations generally choose from "" human resource practice menu "" ( and ) that concern different aspects of human resource management . The policies , practices and strategic issues of of these aspects that is recruitment and selection would be discussed in the next section . < heading The issues to be taken into consideration as far as strategic recruitment and selection are concerned can be understood well when we take an organisation in question . Recruitment and selection of human resources certainly have a very important impact on how well an organisation can successfully materialize its business strategy . Also , at this stage organisations face an important question of whether it should develop its existing employees in such a way so as to fulfil its vacancy requirements or should it try to acquire or hire human resource from outside the organisation . In order to build a sound staffing policy organisations develop guidelines around these major challenges ( and , ) . < heading > Acquiring Human Resources Organisations usually take help of the strategic approaches to recruitment and selection , namely traditional approach , staffing as strategy implementation and staffing as strategy formation , to develop employees for successful implementation of their business strategies . ( Snow and Snell quoted in and Borman , ) < heading > Traditional approach The traditional approach to recruitment and selection gave very little or no importance to business strategies . It downplayed the link between staffing decisions and an organisation 's business strategy . The aim was to find a person who could fit the job perfectly and to recruit people who could perform the best in the given job . The use of this approach was also seen extensively during , where cognitive ability tests were used by the armies of , and wherein soldiers employed were simply placed in a job where they were best suited without taking into consideration the strategies formulated by the army . This was a very successful practice and became extremely popular among organisations other than the army in a short span of time . While this approach may have benefited organisations in several ways but it is considered non - strategic because it completely ignores business strategy . A business strategy has to be taken out from the contextual position it was placed in traditionally and put in a prominent place . The following strategies of staffing as strategy implementation and staffing as strategy formulation were developed thereafter and emphasize towards recruiting and selecting within a strategic framework . < heading > Staffing as strategy implementation < /heading > To be successful , an organisation is forced to take a strategic approach to recruitment and selection especially in the long term as following the traditional approach is not practical in the present scenario with the heightened competition . This approach sees strategy as fixed and employees as a variable aspect . This approach focuses on the fact that every business has a business strategy , which remains fixed . Employees have to be recruited and selected based on how well they will be able to perform their jobs in order to be successfully able to implement the fixed business strategy . In such an approach , the policy of business must be to design a recruitment and selection process that will be successful in fishing out employees who suit the organisation so as to materialise its business strategy profitably . This model can be easily applied into a real organisation situation . , the organisation should develop an organisational strategy . Then it should find the organisational skills , as well as abilities and knowledge required in order to implement its business strategy . Finally , it should recruit and select only those candidates who are fit in the desired criteria .For example , if an organisation has to survive competition in the market , its strategy will be to make sure that its products are low - cost , better quality , and innovative in comparison to its competitors . Now , for it to achieve this , the organisation should employ people who have a broad outlook , well aware of the markets and quick learners . When an organisation organises training programmes , industrial visits etc . it expects its employees to be enthusiastic and grasp things the recruitment and selection policy aims at staffing candidates who are academically sound and are willing to experiment . This approach can be termed as strategic and can be successfully implemented in the context of the organisation . < heading > Staffing as strategy formation In a competitive environment , an organisation constantly faces a number of threats from its competitors . Also , any business provides varying opportunities that need to be exploited at the earliest in order for an organisation to flourish . To completely utilise its human resources , organisations use this approach wherein the capabilities of candidates to be recruited are considered . The primary concern here is to match the qualities of candidates with the business strategy of the organisation . This approach sees employees as a variable aspect . Also , another major difference here is that strategy is also seen as a variable aspect unlike the previous approach . ( , ) The business policy here is to recruit employees based on their personal qualities and traits like knowledge , skills , abilities and other characteristics . ( ) . Hiring on a "" value - added "" ( and , : ) basis will enrich the organisation 's human resource pool hence , making it easier to implement not just a single business strategy but , a wide range of business strategies . This approach can be pretty well understood taking the example of sports . When an athlete is selected for a team , no specific criteria are set about his / her qualities or characteristics . When a pool of potential athletes having the best KSAOs are found , strategies are made based on all their characteristics . The inference that can be drawn from this is that though an organisation can recruit candidates with a wide range of it is not possible to foretell what business strategy will be formulated with a particular set of . Another important policy within this approach for an organisation is to give equal priority to staffing decisions alongwith decisions like allocation and acquisition of funds . Finally , the organisation should make human resource an important part of all its policy decisions making sure that when a strategy for business is formulated , it is not too rigid . When employees are hired in an organisation , the organisation should be flexible enough to be able to make them a part of the organisation so that they adjust to its environment in the shortest time and contribute towards its success . For example in ( Garvin,1993 ) , manufacturers of medical equipments , contribution of the top management is only to give expansive guidelines to its employees on market strategies . Thereafter employees , starting at the lowest level and within every section division formulate their own strategies . < heading Internally To develop employees within the organisation , they employ another strategic approach that makes use of recruitment and selection as a pure development strategy ( and , : ) or the "" make "" strategy . This is a slow process and undertaking this strategy organisations have to make sure that employees are eager to learn and willing to develop the required that will enable them to become an asset to the organisation . By applying a pure staffing strategy ( and , : ) or the "" buy "" approach the organisational policy changes to hiring those people who are qualified and experienced in such a way that they successfully start yielding profitable results for the organisation as soon as they join it . This policy is generally undertaken by organisations that face a lot of competition in the market owning to which their recruitment and selection strategy hires people who mesh well into the organisation as soon as they arrive . While the "" make "" approach is best suited for jobs that require employees to be less dynamic , the "" buy "" approach needs people to be extremely dynamic as employees in this case have critical jobs in the organisation . The most suitable approach would be a proper blend of both the strategies so that an organisation can benefit dually . < heading > CIRCUMSTANCES FOR STRATEGIC RECRUITMENT & SELECTION Management Style Management style is a method by which employees are managed based on a set of policies , procedures and principles that guide the intentions and outcomes of the organisation as a whole . This is simply based on what people claim to do and what they actually do , also at the same time what is experienced or felt . ( ) ( Class notes ) , talks about different management styles , and how for each style a strategic approach could be taken towards recruiting the right people . < heading > Traditional Style When a traditional management style is followed within an organisation , it becomes important to take a strategic approach to recruitment and selection because management discourages any union activity and very little importance is given to individualism or collectivism . While recruiting , the management considers the past records of employees for involvement in union activity in previous employments . < heading > Sophisticated Human relations For an organisation following sophisticated human relations , the policy is to make sure that their employees do not become a part of a union . Since these organisations encourage individualism and discourage collectivist or union activity , hence , its strategy includes paying high rates of salaries , promoting employees , giving rewards based on merits , having an easily accessible communication network , etc . so that employees do not feel the need to be part of a union . < heading > Consultative management < /heading > The recruitment and selection strategy followed when the consultative management style is applied is to employ people with good past records in terms of union and management relations . The management also makes its employees a part of important strategic issues and encourages suggestions . Here , both individualism and collectivism are seen to be at full bloom . < heading management < /heading > Constitutional management style is quite like traditional management style insofar collectivism is quite high whereas individualism is not . Not only collective agreements but also their administration is given importance . Here the management strategy is to emphasise the preponderance of its power and control in order to restrict extensive union activity . < heading > Opportunistic approach The opportunistic approach is the most practical approach wherein organisations recognise that employees need to be a part of trade unions and this fact can not be changed . The management also realises that newfangled employee relation strategies and techniques will not last in the long run , hence aim at negotiation and consultation . The same organisation may have different practices or approaches at different stages in the hierarchy . < heading > Personnel Management Role Applying Storey 's HR practice model , it can be said that a strategic approach is most likely for ' changemakers ' and ' advisers ' as compared to ' handmaidens ' and ' regulators ' . It can also be said that , the extent to which an HR practitioner can affect recruitment and selection practice depends directly on their knowledge , reliability , etc . ( , in class notes ) . In , HRM models suggested that for the successful implementation of HR policies in practice it was extremely important for a function to take on a strategic and business role more in line with Tyson 's ' architect ' model . It was recognised that the need for the roles of ' clerk of works ' ( an administrative function organizing pay , etc . for employees , and acting as a welfare function related with a paternalistic style of basic management ) together with ' contracts manager ' ( personnel management function providing legal , bureaucratic , etc . services ) would decline . ( Tyson and Fell , Tyson ) , professor of , describes how the role of a ' change agent ' and a ' strategic partner ' are strategic in nature . For the role of ' change agent ' , the HR role is to facilitate change occurring in organisations due to varying business conditions like globalisation . This is done implementing efficient and flexible systems throughout the various departments in an organisation . For a ' strategic partner ' role , HR ensures that its policies and practices are in sync with the organisational strategy . A capacity to accomplish that strategy is developed and implementation time is minimised . Also , management is provided with valuable and current information essential for strategic planning ( e.g. turnover trends , recruiting and hiring statistics , etc . ) . ( auxillium.com/about.shtml ) < heading > Type of Organisation When employing people for ( ) , a strategic approach to the recruitment and selection is taken to make sure that highly enthusiastic candidates and those apt for the job are selected . A very high level of employee involvement is expected . Working in self - managed teams , etc . is encouraged to enhance employee decision - making power . ( et al . , ) The other type of organisation , specially used by auto firms use values of teamwork , peer control , non- specialized career paths etc . within jobs . Thus , they employ a selection system whereby people with interest in work variety and organisational commitment are employed . < heading > CONCLUSION HR policies within an organisation need to fit with each other in order to make sure that the organisational strategies are successfully implemented . Recruitment and selection strategies have strong links with HR planning and employment conditions . If there is a lack of fit , enthusiastic individuals will not be provided proper training and development facilities and successful team players will not be utilised to the fullest . Hence , for recruitment & selection policies to fit together productively for an organisation , advance planning needs to be carried out to attract a resourceful pool of candidates . ( and , ) Finally , it can be said that each organisation must make its recruitment and selection process quite dynamic and strategic as 's business attributes - such as shortened product life cycles , sophisticated technologies , shifting customer demands etc . ( et al . , ) not only demands the selection of the best candidates , but of those candidates who fit in an organisation 's overall objectives .",0 "describes dramatic monologue as ' the flagship genre of poetry ' , which provided ' a medium for multiple forms of cultural critique ' . In , the capacity of this form to highlight social and political problems was facilitated by both male and female poets , including , and among others . These writers used their poetry to display concern for the dominance of men over women in the workforce and the home , as well as to discuss the injustice of class divisions . The dramatic monologue is a particularly effective method of cultural critique because it firmly detaches the poet from the narrator of a poem . This allows the poet to speak authentically through the voice of the oppressed or oppressor who is personally affected or affects these cultural problems . reminds us that Victorian poets were often ' liberal thinkers and activists as well as writers ' , who wrote with an aim to promote cultural awareness and remove injustices from society . For example , at 's was published in the anti - slavery in , contributing to the and abolition debate in offence of slavery ( , "" "" , p. ) . While the reader is compelled to sympathise with the illegitimate child voiced in 's dramatic monologue , , invites us to judge the narrator of his poem , 's Lover , by offering a psychological insight into the mind of a man who is guilty of domestic violence . Although dramatic monologue provides poets with an opportunity to elude their gender , there is certainly a pattern which attaches female speakers with female poets and male with male . 's criticisms of his male narrator in My Last Duchess exemplify that writers do not necessarily voice an example of their gender in order to defend these examples or remove themselves from sympathies with the other sex . However , women writers were keen to extend a single female voice to speak for a plurality of oppressed women who have also been victims of patriarchal society . For example , describes how 's A ' reached across the iron boundaries of respectability , money , and class to declare sisterhood with sexually disgraced women ' in an attempt to relieve tensions of her gender in . < fnote > E. Warwick Slinn , "" "" , A Companion to Victorian Poetry , ed . by . ( ; : , ) , p. . < /fnote> , "" , "" , , vol . , no . , ed . by . ( Morgantown : , Spring 2000 ) , p. . < /fnote> , Women of Letters in , ( Bloomington : , ) , p. . < /fnote > In this dramatic monologue , defends disreputable women from society 's stereotypical presentation of prostitutes by highlighting flaws within society that lead ordinary women to such a degrading occupation . observes that ' showed up not only the economic and moral oppression of women , but the poverty of the transformative ideology ' . 's narrator , , displays society 's disillusion with the marriage ideal , which confines women to the mundane , domestic sphere , monogamy and dependence on men for economic and moral welfare . Eulalie claims that she does not at all envy married women , who she prefers to address as ' Dianas under lock and key ' , suggesting her resentment for the entrapment of women in the home . did not see this confinement as totally negative , but uncommonly viewed it as critical ' in fostering female self - respect ' and re - establishing ' a balance of power between husband and wife ' . While Eulalie can not perceive this balance , she can identify with women who thrive in the domestic realm since her diary informs her that she was once a ' budding colourless young rose of home ' ( 8) with ' no wishes , no cares ' and ' no hopes ' ( 21 ) . While she goes on to admit that her domestic days were ' better days ' ( ) , she relates this experience to being a child , rather than a woman ; to someone who is growing up , not someone who has grown up only to achieve this simple life . It becomes clear that does not reject domesticity , but desires to firmly detach herself from its associations . She questions the justice in perceiving that a woman is only as good as she is good to her husband ( ) , pities women who wear ' no kisses but their husband 's upon lips ' ( ) and the girl who ' not in the woman 's true place , the wife 's place ' ( ) is not able to pilot her own life . For , it is not natural to become a wife or a mother since she hates men and believes that her occupation has not designed her as the role model she needs to be in order to bring up a child . Sutphin sees her rejection of motherhood as the poem 's most controversial statement : < fnote > , "" , and : A and Victorian Discourses on Prostitution and Women 's Sexuality "" , , vol . , no . , ed . by . ( Morgantown : , ) , p.525 . < /fnote> Augusta Webster , A in The Broadview Anthology of Victorian Poetry and Poetic Theory , ed . by . ( Toronto : Broadview , ) pp . , line no . . < /fnote> Henrietta Twycross - Martin , "" ? in , Women in ( : Palgrave , ) , p. . < /fnote> That motherhood is inadequate as a solution to any of the problems raised in the poem is perhaps 's most powerful departure from even the more enlightened discourse of her contemporaries . ( Sutphin , "" Human Tigresses "" , p. 526) In a society where motherhood was synonymous with being a woman , completely divorces herself from society 's expectations of womanhood , implying that these designs need to undergo drastic change before they can satisfy this social group . displays her ambivalence towards the morality of prostitution through the use of techniques which are specifically applicable to the dramatic monologue . In reading this form of poetry , the reader should be aware that it ' creates speakers who are less concerned with truth than they are with "" trying to impress it on the outside world "" ' . Therefore , the reader must acknowledge that the speaker has designed this poem with an intention to defend disreputable women and , therefore , is advised to be reluctant to rely upon 's honesty . directs the reader to dishonest words when the speaker claims that she is modest , which is immediately contradicted with a confession that she flouts herself . The speaker realises her inconsistency and hesitantly stutters , ' but yet , but yet ' ( ) , indicating her eagerness to defend herself and continue to engage her audience . interjects irony into her poem when decides that , since her personal thoughts will not meet judgement , there is no need to worry about being a hypocrite ( ) . This logic could lead her to liberate her voice from untruth since there 's no one to judge her or , contrastingly , from truth as there 's no one to disprove her lies . This ambiguity is skilfully placed in the text to remain in our minds while the speaker argues that her trade is relatively moral to that of a lawyer or a journalist . This technique allows to distance herself from these culturally damning perceptions as they can be excused as opinions which , like the speaker , she does not truly believe . This idea becomes more probable when considered in conjunction with 's suggestion that , while women writers were keen to defend disreputable women , ' they were not immune to the idea that prostitutes were irrevocably "" diseased "" "" , p. ) . may be keen to identify society 's restrictions upon women as the root of this culture and suggest that the prostitute was once the ordinary woman framed by social pressures , but she is certainly reluctant to display prostitution as a decent way of living . In many ways , highlighting its degrading weight on women would assist her argument in support of social change . < fnote > , in Modern Literary Tradition ( : , ) , p. . < /fnote > does not hesitate to criticise men throughout this poem by reminding the reader that their immorality allows the speaker to continue her immoral trade by creating demand for prostitution . Eulalie does not feel that her occupation is particularly harmful because the only people she affects are wives and she does not take anything off these ' poor fools ' that is worth keeping ( ) . She strengthens her argument by establishing herself as an experienced figure to judge men as she can ' perceive there are more men than one ' , unlike blinded , monogamous women ( ) . Eulalie challenges society 's perception of men by removing any illusion that her clientele are ' simple ' and the victims of her predatory advances ( ) . To the contrary , they ' have their favourite sinnings planned / to do them civilly and sensibly ' ( ) . The speaker insists that she attracts supposedly civil , sensible and educated men who society would regard as honourable . locates weaknesses in a society which can not correctly separate the moral from the immoral , and places the prostitute and her client in opposing categories based upon gender . deposits prostitutes in a band of women who ' appear to have perceived their labour as a necessary , if often grim , strategy which would enable them to earn much - needed money ' . In expressing a poorly - educated , single woman , with only a neglectful brother to boast as family connections , attaches 's circumstances to financial insecurity . While the speaker is concerned for the goodness of her soul , her immediate concern is the survival of her body and she is therefore required to prioritise money over morals . She explains that , while her brother 's university education was funded , her rights to education were neglected but she ' saw never aught to murmur at ' ( ) in this system . She believes that '' Twas no one 's fault ' ( ) that her parents chose to invest money into the education of their son as they were sensible to perceive that this would lead him to a respectable occupation , unlike a woman . Eulalie regards 's attempts to elevate women to the level of men through education as pretence of ' teaching them / what no one ever cares that they should know ' ( ) . She argues that offering women education is simply an outward display of efforts , with no serious intent on valuing their ability in the workforce . The narrator elevates herself above the common prostitute because she has a home ' all velvet and marqueterie and pastilles ' ( 71 ) rather than exhibiting herself ' at infamous corners ' ( ) . She becomes accustomed to these luxuries , admitting that the refuge did not suit her because it reduced her lifestyle from ' pampering to half - famishing ' ( ) . At this point in the poem , the reader realises that , though does not enjoy the dirtiness and loneliness of the prostitute lifestyle , she can not give up the luxuries that it has afforded her . It becomes clear that , while prostitution is not necessary to preserve her life , it is necessary to afford her lifestyle and , with her poor education and skills , an alternative occupation that maintains her wealth does not exist for her . < fnote > , Women in ( : Palgrave , ) , p. . < /fnote > Christina Rossetti 's similarly defends a disgraced class of people by voicing , an illegitimate child who is interminably stained with the personal and social shame of her ignoble birth . She blames her father who ' wrought ' upon the ' foolish youth ' ( ) of her mother . There is certainly some suggestion that the mother was a victim of physical and sexual abuse , suggested by the dynamic force of the father 's actions and the emphasis on the mother 's youth . In conjunction with these implications , she perceives her mother as a victim , like herself , who suffers a greater burden than that passed down to her : ' A lifelong lie for truth ' ( ) . As well as defending the shames brought on women by the immoral conduct of men , describes the ill treatment endures by society in order to provoke pity from the audience and encourage them to reshape their opinions of these innocent children . Without the skills or authority to voice their own unhappiness , enters the mind of a defenceless child in protection of her interests . < fnote > Christina Rossetti , , ed . by . ( Toronto : Broadview , ) , pp . - 866 , line no . . < /fnote > When is removed from her biological mother , introduces the total antithesis of the young girl in the form of a generous , ' jewelled ' and ' grand ' lady ( ) , who does not allow her superior class and respectability to interfere in nurturing like a daughter . In the child 's idolisation of her Lady , displays admiration for a woman who is able to overlook external class divisions in search for the child 's internal morality . While designs a role model for society in this woman , she contrasts her modesty with that of her visitors , who , for all their nobility , can not conceal their contempt of . The child narrates that ' the women speak and stare / And mean to be so civil ' ( - 5 ) and highlights the excessive pride of those ' who sit as struck with blindness ' as if she was n't there ( ) . By rejecting and sneering at her existence , tolerates their torment until she is ' almost ready ' ( ) to wish death upon herself . While she begins to feel like she belongs to her Lady , indicated by her eagerness to define herself as ' almost child ' to this figure , this progress is undone by her contemptuous guests , which signals how her happiness is completely dependent on society 's acceptance of her . While often facilitates the freedom of the dramatic monologue 's unrestricted structure to develop a conversational tone , chooses to regulate her verse using iambic trimeter . The nursery - rhyme echoes of the iambic rhythm successfully connect the verse with children , assisting in authentically immersing herself in a young mind . Unlike 's Eulalie , this voice is not vulnerable to judgement from the reader as its youth suggests innocence that is yet to be corrupted by skills in deceit . My Last Duchess voices a historical figure , the Duke of Ferrara , who was suspected of poisoning his bride , in . The poet traces back to an event in history to display a contemporary problem in . reports that ' historical work on the subject of sexual violence within the home suggests that it was a relatively common feature of domestic life ' . While this is highly problematic in a society which sought to create a sanctuary for women in the domestic setting , portrays ' the dynamics of the home as deeply painful for both men and women ... in the struggle for sexual dominance between husbands and wives ' ( Gregory , "" "" , p. ) . An example of female dominance can be seen in 's which voices the unhappiness of a man who justifiably suspects his wife of infidelity . However , these roles are completely reversed in My Last Duchess , where the jealous and untrusting can not control his suspicions , leading him to cruelly assert control over his wife through murder . Spoken by the Duke , shapes possible psychological motives behind such an attack and the reader becomes more educated about the speaker than his , in discordance with the poem 's title . The reader is encouraged to judge the morality of the as this form of poetry ironically allows the reader to understand ' more than the speaker understands ' ( , "" "" , p. ) . speaks through the voice of the Duke to reveal his flawed character to the reader . The reader builds an awareness of the power of the speaker 's imagination to shape immorality in his wife , while , blinded by his jealousy and pride , the narrator remains completely ignorant of these details . < fnote > Thomas J. Collins et al . , ed . by . ( Toronto : Broadview , ) , p. . < /fnote> Melissa Valiska Gregory , "" and : Domestic Violence and the Dramatic Monologue "" , , vol . , no . ( Morgantown : , ) , p. . < /fnote > The opening line immediately indicates The Duke of Ferrara as a possessive and unaffectionate collector of wives . The use of the demonstrative pronoun , ' That 's ' , perfectly demonstrates his impersonal attachment to his ' last ' Duchess in a sequence of unfortunate wives . He prefers to speak indirectly about his spouse through her painting , rather than the lady herself , and avoids the familiarity of naming her personally throughout this monologue , suggesting his scornful rejection of her . In describing his wife 's treatment of him and other men , he fails to convince the reader that , regardless of punishment by death , her behaviour deserved to be punished at all . He suggests that she practiced flirtatious behaviour with other men as ' her looks went everywhere ' ( ) , but he better implies his damaged pride that she did n't spend her days looking up to him . He expresses that she thanked men for gifts ' somehow - I know not how ' ( ) , but unintentionally displays his irrationality in using only his imagination as evidence of his wife 's offences . He snobbishly can not tolerate that she reduced his ' gift of a name ' to ' anybody 's gift ' ( ) , revealing his arrogance and excessive pride in his noble birth . described 's eagerness to judge men as comparable with ' a messenger from heaven , sent to teach the highest of all lessons to rashly - judging men ' . The certainly does n't escape 's criticisms as the reader is invited to judge him while he enjoys unfairly judging his late wife . < fnote > , My Last Duchess in ed . by . ( Toronto : Broadview , ) , pp . - 10 , line no . . < /fnote> R. W. Buchanan , Review of Ring and the Book in Melissa Valiska Gregory , "" and : Domestic Violence and the Dramatic Monologue "" , , vol . , no . ( Morgantown : , ) , p. . < /fnote > Following revelations of weaknesses in his character , he goes on to explain that his wife was completely ignorant of his dissatisfaction with her behaviour as she received no warning from him . He places what he should have said in speech marks throughout the poem , yet these words remain a mere unperformed rehearsal of his intentions , as he was too cowardly to verbally address marital problems with his wife . Browning implies that he never spoke of them through fear that he would fail in managing her and exercises his new freedoms now she ' stands ' ( 4 ) there in a stationary form as a manageable painting . In a description of their final engagement together , the confesses that he only gave commands immediately before ' all smiles stopped together ' ( 46 ) . While his frustration with her treatment of other men discarded his authority in their relationship , she is reduced to the role of the passive by his imperatives and violent termination of her life . heavily criticises the merciless nature of a man who rashly punished his wife , not only without evidence of her convictions , but without delivering a warning of his dissatisfaction . In 's A , we imagine that writes or speaks her monologue in isolation without a present auditor , causing her to develop an argument in anticipation of objections from her absent , imagined judge . However , imagines an engagement between the and the father of his next bride where the presents his last Duchess in the form of a threat to her successor . Browning indicates the presence of the auditor by using the formal address , ' Sir ' and the use of the person pronoun . While the auditor in dramatic monologue is ' constituted more by the speaker 's perceptions than by any separate reality ' ( , "" "" , p. ) , there is only a single indication that the father managed to insert any speech into the conversation . This can be found in the 's response ' Nay , we 'll go / Together down , sir ' ( ) near the end of their acquaintance , implying that the has been questioned . Gregory perceives the parallels between the ' rhetorically violent ' speaker who forces his speech upon the listener and the dominance of domestic violence ( , "" "" , p. ) . The Duke displays modesty only once throughout his speech , when he ironically claims to lack skill in this very area . The reader is aware of the strength of his rhetoric , placing him closer to his flawed character with pretended modesty . While the use of the dramatic monologue to criticise society is common to both male and female writers , their genders often decide that of the speaker they decide to voice . Therefore , female writers commonly voice the oppressor , and male , the oppressed . The task of women writers is particularly remarkable because they place prostitutes and illegitimate children , not only as the subject , but the narrators of the poem , which was a brave practice in this hostile society . For example , uses the prostitute , Jenny as the subject of his poem of the same name , but does not attribute her with a voice or active role in the poem . Men and women are united in their concern for oppressed gender , but women writers discuss issues indirectly in defence of themselves and their interests . The dramatic monologue requires the writer to adopt different techniques and styles to authenticate themselves as the speaker of the poem and they are keen to design dramatic monologue as a political statement by encompassing a plurality of voices in a single voice . While often fails to solve moral problems in his dramatic monologue , women writers provide society with answers in ambitious hope to inspire social change .","< heading > INTRODUCTION Following group consultation with ( item in the appendix ) , this report will further analyse the organisation by evaluation of components , and consideration of analyses and 3 of SSM Mode 1 . The group process will also be considered . < heading > CRITICAL REVIEW - SSM Mode 1 Components Acknowledging the limitations of , developed SSM that would operate as a tool to solve more ill - structured organisational problems . Figure outlines the basis of SSM Mode 1 . < figure/>Mingers and ( ) suggested that the strengths of are backed by empirical support , and and ( ) argued that is better able to deal with and solve problems than other systems based techniques although an approach involves considerable involvement at the beginning and later stages . The stages are explained with references to where appropriate , below . < heading>1 . The problem situation : unstructured This occurs when someone inside or outside organisation recognises a situation that can be resolved e.g. through improvement or through utilising the advantages of a potential opportunity . < heading>2 . Problem situation expressed Rich Picture Building ( RPB ) is creating an illustration of an organisation that includes information flow , relationships , actors in the organisation and any blockages . A rich picture of has been included as item in the appendix . Problem expression allows an organisation to be viewed in new ways but more specifically rich pictures are useful in that they present current conflicts visually and thus further aid understanding of these conflicts . They also clearly show how each department communicates and the creative nature of the illustrations encourages all ideas regarding an organisation , to be expressed . Also , a depiction of the current situation is useful in furthering the understanding of how an organisation operates . The rich picture was important in showing the communication breakdowns and the conflict areas with particular relationships e.g. between the District Manager and . However , rich pictures are limited as they only describe the present situation . There are several difficulties in conducting exercises for example bias in thinking of the problem solver and nervousness on the part of the parties involved in providing information about the situation . Other methods for expressing the problems may also be considered such as brainstorming , cognitive mapping ( Eden et al ) and strategic assumption surfacing and testing ( and ) . < heading>3 . Root definition of relevant systems Production of a rich picture allows inferences for transformations from which a full system is identified by considering the influences ( Transformations ) and the it 's taken from . More specifically "" A system to do X , by means Y , in order to achieve Z "" but a root definition is n't a model of the real world problem situation . The root definition of furthered the understanding of the real world problem situation . The root definition is also useful in making explicit each of the elements and gives the basis on which a conceptual model is based . is an acronym for the following < list > C : Customer - people affected by the system , beneficiaries or victimsA : Actor - people participating in the systemT : Transformation - the core of the root definitionW : worldviewO : Ownership - the person with the authority to decide on the future of the systemE : Environment - the wider system4 . Conceptual Models This is a model of the transformation required to progress to output taking input as the starting point . It is surrounded by a system boundary described by the world view ( ) and is occupied by people affected by and who influence the transformation . A conceptual model has value as it measures the success of a transformation by asking key questions of efficacy , efficiency and effectiveness . Specifically for , the construction of a conceptual model , also aided in the understanding of how the information systems that we had recommended for implementation would work . The conceptual model also shows the user how the system sits within a boundary . The major limitation is that it is theoretical and not a tangible understanding of the real world . Some stages in the conceptual model do not currently exist e.g. they are planned stages . Thus a comparison must be made with the real world to keep the model in context . < heading>5 . Comparison with This consists of comparing what the conceptual model describes and what actually occurs , how it is done and how well this is done . Real world comparison is important to realise what tasks are being performed well so that an organisation can exploit their strengths , but also what is n't being done currently so that the current situation can be improved upon . Comments and recommendations are also useful for future implementations and how new IS systems can help the organisation e.g. Accounting Information Systems ( ) to better manage budgets . < heading>6 . Changes : systematically desirable ; culturally feasible This stage sees a review of critical success factors ( the tasks that must be achieved for an organisation to complete its primary objective ) and their accompanying performance measures . The stage of review is important as it helps produce recommendations that can improve the problem situation . There are changes that may occur ; changes in structure , procedure and attitude . It is a commonly held belief that changing the latter is the most difficult . An important feature of is that there is a strong emphasis on goal driven change . < heading>7 . Action to improve the problem situation These are recommendations based on the previous components of , which may affect the system or some actions within the system . Essentially the recommendations must give changes that are feasible and affordable to the organisation . The value of recommendations is that they are the output of the process , and give an organisation a vision of where they can go and how they can improve performance . < heading > ANALYSIS 2 - Roles , Norms and Values Social Systems Analysis or Analysis 2 has developed from work by ( ) and further by and Casar ( ) . < heading > Roles A role is a social position recognised as significant by people in the problem situation . Roles may be defined institutionally e.g. a teacher or behaviourally e.g. a good citizen . In both the Director and the District Manager occupy roles of information receivers and gatherers reporting to head office and respectively . Thus recognition of this role in the organisation led to recommendations to implement systems to aid the information flow so that people occupying these roles could perform their jobs more effectively e.g. greater forecasting and analysis of sales data through systems . < heading > Norms Norms are the expected behaviour associated with a particular role , behaviour resulting from social influence . Norms exist in at the higher levels of the hierarchy e.g. to conform to business practices whereas at the lower levels of the hierarchy ( shop level ) the norm is to behave in a charitable fashion , acting as a volunteer . Another norm existing is a culture of informal communication channels . Acknowledging this is important in delivering methods to improve communication between divisions e.g. between and the District Manager . < heading > Values Values are essentially how the performance of someone in a role is judged e.g. the standards set for the role . Important are the beliefs about the performance by the role holder . Values held in are a clear sense of purpose ( helping those who are impoverished ) but also an intrinsic reward for volunteer workers ( a sense of doing good ) . The top of the organisation has a greater business focus than the bottom which is charity service focused . The importance of establishing the values held in an organisation is that values define an organisational culture , which can focus individuals toward the primary objective of the organisation . In the case of , this is to improve the lives of the impoverished and the exploited . Analysis 2 guided constructions of recommendations as discovering roles within an organisation can aid the implementation of systems to improve how individuals perform their roles . Similarly establishing the value held by an organisation , focuses the recommendations to maintaining these values , thus achieving the primary objectives . Analysis 2 is useful assuming that the social state it leads to is never complete or stable . Clarifying roles is a useful way of generating ideas and understanding the rich mix of human relationships that are found in any organisation . < heading > ANALYSIS 3 - Politics and Power < /heading > Also regarded as , considers the politics and power that exists in an organisation . ( ) said that any human situation will have a political dimension . < heading > Politics Politics can be considered in a context as a process where differing interests reach accommodation , a convergence of opinion . Further , politics generates , modifies and dissolves accommodations through dispositions of power . From an organisational perspective Politics can be seen as the activities undertaken by an individual to obtain their personal preferences , ( ) . Kotter ( ) and ( ) also suggested that unwillingness to perform effectively the required political tasks in an organisation was a main reason for management failure . < heading > Power Power is considered to exhibit commodities through authority , charisma and reputation . For example , in , the Director has referent power over the Regional Administrator ; the Director has authority to influence the behaviour of the Regional Administrator . Work by ( ) discussed the dispositions of power ; what are the commodities through which power is expressed , how are the commodities obtained and what are the mechanisms that allow these commodities to be retained and then passed on ? Weber ( ) also defined power as possessing the ability to get others to do what you want them to do . Politics and power exists in all organisations from schools to multi businesses . In specifically it was clear that politics existed between and the District Manager . The District Manager felt there was little support received from the Regional Administrator and as a result was less than forthcoming with sales data that the she needed to perform her role effectively . The Director felt her role was inhibited by restrictions on trading and the restrictions of national targets , a use of power exerted by . However , although power and politics are exhibited at different levels of the organisation the recommendations made to are more concerned with improving the availability and flow of information , and the communications in the organisation . < heading > THE GROUP PROCESS < /heading > The main benefit of group work was the syndication of different views and individuals knowledge . It was also beneficial having students studying and Management Science as we were able to combine knowledge of IT and IS , with more specific business skills such as report writing and organisational analysis . As a group we assigned individuals to the different tasks for interviewing the individuals and then to work on particular sections of the assignment . We worked hard and the assignment was brought together and submitted on time . Important lessons were learnt : regular clear communication within the group , all members attended meetings , knowing what was required before and after meetings and creating a dynamic where all members felt at ease to contribute was all important . Away from the group , effective use of email and phone communication was vital . We also learned that we worked better in a group session when it was purely a case of syndication of work rather than commenting on the work . We squandered time trying to complete each stage of the assignment as a group . 's team roles framework ( ) shows that our members displayed characteristics of these roles . Initially I occupied the role of a co - ordinator and then at the end a completer . Other members with greater IS experience took on the role of specialist , while individual was good at averting friction and calming the waters , thus the role of a teamworker . A rich picture of the group process is attached which illustrates what we did well and poorly as a group . faces indicate where time was note used efficiently , and crossed sword indicate conflict .",0 "< heading > I've heard plant polyphenols are receiving much interest regarding their health properties . Which should we be looking at ? < /heading > Since ancient times , plants have been used for medicinal purposes . It is only in recent investigations that the nature of the benefits they offer , in promoting good health and prevention against disease , are being realised . Plant polyphenols cover a wide range of compounds found in the plant kingdom . They are split up into a number of sub - groups . Most of the research that has been conducted thus far has been on groups , phenolic acids and flavonoids . There is a particularly high occurrence of flavanoids in foods , over 8000 are known to exist ( and this number is growing ) . The flavonoids that have received the most interest include catechin , quercetin , kaempferol and taxifolin . These are also found in fruits ; as well as red wine , tea , chocolate , herbs , spices and vegetables ( onion , broccoli ) . The phenolic acids that are often the most abundant in plants include caffeic acid and gallic acid . These have been found in foods such as fruits ( blackcurrants and blueberries ) . Currently there is a lack of research that has been conducted on the effects of supplementation of plant polyphenols in foods . It is also currently viewed that polyphenols can not be exclusively related to health benefits . Other components in the complex of compounds in the plant will directly contribute to or enhance the effects of polyphenols . So health benefits are more likely to be gained from a food containing the actual plant substance rather than a supplementation of just the phenolic compound . < heading > Is there evidence to link the consumption of these plant polyphenols with a beneficial effect on human health ? < /heading > One of the links made between the consumption of plant polyphenols and a beneficial effect on human health has been termed the ' Paradox . ' The population of are well - known for drinking red wine on frequent occasions , which is rich in polyphenols , but have a relatively low risk of coronary heart disease ( ) . There are other aspects of the diet and lifestyle which can be related to this low risk of , but research into this inverse relationship has highlighted the potential for plant polyphenols to have beneficial influence on health . There is growing evidence from studies to suggest that regular consumption of polyphenol - rich foods is inversely associated with the progression of diseases such as cardiovascular disease , neurodegenerative diseases ( Parkinson 's and Alzheimer 's ) , strokes , bowel disease and cancers . As the dietary intake of polyphenols is increased the progression of these diseases is inhibited . Although there is significant evidence that these diseases are in part caused by excessive oxidative damage , and that polyphenols can suppress this action , it has not yet been proved that this is the primary cause of the diseases . Therefore it is considered that plant polyphenols may have cardioprotective effects and other similar health benefits . < heading > How do these compounds work in the body ? < /heading > Within the normal functionality of the body oxidative stress is caused by the presence of reactive oxygen species , called free radicals . These species exist as by - products of the body 's metabolism , as a result of exposure to environmental influences and as part of the ageing process . They are molecules with an odd number of electrons which are highly reactive as they seek to pair up with another free electron . Free radicals therefore have the potential to cause oxidative damage to the body 's DNA , cells and tissues . Dietary antioxidants , such as plant polyphenols work in a similar way to antioxidants in foods , by preventing oxidation . In this case they are thought to have the ability to prevent the formation of free radicals or indeed ' mop them up . ' stress is an underlying factor in health and disease . A balance between oxidants and antioxidants is involved in maintaining health . Altering this balance in favour of oxidants may result in responses which lead to disease . Similarly , epidemiological studies have shown that an increased antioxidant status within the body is associated with a reduced risk of several diseases . < heading > What amount should be added to a product and is there anything known about their bioavailability ? < /heading > The diversity of polyphenols in the diet has posed challenges when measuring their bioavailability . Their absorption is complex as it is dependent on numerous transporters and enzymes within the body . It is also not known how other dietary constituents may affect their absorption . There is indirect evidence to suggest that polyphenols are absorbed through the gut barrier . This was identified through the association that after the consumption of polyphenol - rich foods an increase in the level of antioxidants in the blood occurred . The chemical structure of polyphenols is also a factor that will determine their rate and extent of absorbtion . It would be appropriate to add a similar amount to a product as what is known to have beneficial antioxidant effects . This value can range from g of food . < heading > What kind of product would you go for ? < /heading > As there is a lack of research into the supplementation of these types of antioxidants and their bioavailability , at this stage , it would be most appropriate to develop a product naturally high in plant polyphenols . This could include fruits such as blueberries , blackberries ; vegetables such as onions , broccoli ; spices such as cinnamon , cloves ; or a cocoa based product .","The risk of microbiological contamination in posting smoked salmon by mail was evaluated using the computer programme for ' predictive microbiology . ' The micoorganism of concern , which is able to multiply in certain favourable conditions , in this food is . The level of concern , at which there is risk to the consumer , for this microorganism is cfu / g. Assuming that the initial contamination level is cfu / g , if the salmon contains ( w / w ) ; has a mean value of ; and is stored at C the shelf life will be . This is because it will take for to multiply to the level of concern , ( cfu / g ) . If the salmon is posted in a simple lined cardboard box the level of contamination will be unacceptable . This is because the Listeria Monocytogenes will multiply to cfu / g before the end of the first day . When the customer receives the package of fish it will already be unsuitable for consumption . If these conditions were suitable for posting the fish ; prior to dispatch the standards for should be set at a level not greater than 1 cfu / g. If the time taken to make a delivery is and the storage conditions between a delivery being received and the fish being consumed is at C the following conditions would be adequate to ensure an acceptable level of Listeria Monocytogenes:- < table/>To carry out the set of conditions , the must be lowered . This can be done by placing the fish in an acidic solution . Lemon juice may be used to lower and may also enhance sensory characteristics . In performing the set of recommendations the salt concentration must be increased . This could be done by simply placing the fish in a solution of sodium chloride . In the rd set of recommendations the temperature of the fish needs to be reduced and this can be done by placing the fish in a cooling bag . For the customer to be assured that correct conditions have been maintained during transit it would be important to conduct quality assurance tests on a regular basis . packing the salmon is not appropriate because it provides an environment with a lack of oxygen which will favour the multiplication of . Another potentially harmful microorganism , , can form spores which release toxic substances , in conditions of low oxygen . In order to assure a safe product to the consumer it would also be more appropriate to pack the salmon in a controlled or modified atmosphere with higher levels of oxygen . The risks of poisoning from the recommendations above ( for ensuring an acceptable level of ) are as follows:- < table/ > ! - The computer programme was unable to calculate these values because they were outside the model 's limits . But because at an initial population of /g the risk is it can be assumed that at an initial level of spore / g there will also be . * - These values had to be amended from the initial recommendations set for to fit with the limits of the computer programme . If the st set of conditions were adopted the time taken to reach the maximum probability of /g of spores existing would be . This is higher than the time which the salmon will actually be subjected to these conditions , which is . Similarly , if the and set of conditions were used the time taken to reach the maximum probability of /g of spores existing would be and respectively . Therefore these conditions are also acceptable for preventing the growth of spores in the salmon , over during transit .",1 "With people using computers more and more each day , inevitably more data from each person is being created electronically . Information such as emails , internet phone calls , photographs etc . The aim of ( M4L ) is to ' help people manage and use their digital memories across their entire lifetime'1 . Amassing this collected electronic data as memories . With this idea comes a change in the way we perceive memories , there are many thoughts and permutations of what a memory is , from memories being the recollection of past events to learning skills and facts and keeping them ' at the back of your mind ' for later use . In terms of computation we consider the recollection of past events to be pictures or videos of an event which happened , and learning skills to be using a computer to store information in an easily viewable format so that it can be recalled later . In terms of M4L , the aim is to combine all these ' memories ' into an easily searchable base . So what could this mean for us in terms of how we use a computer to not only find out facts ( e.g. from the internet ) but also securely share our ' memories ' with selected others or maybe with everyone whilst also feeling reassured that this information would not get into the wrong hands . The evolution of the internet has meant that it is estimated that ( ) of households in the will have access to the internet . This is an increase of households ( ) since , and ( ) over the last year.2 This is just focusing on the people with access to the internet in their homes not considering the free access now available at schools and libraries . When looking at the whole world it is considered that ' by most nations had some form of connection ' and ' Internet penetration as a percentage of population is in and in ( Internet World Statistics).4This evolution has lead to an amazing change in the way we run our everyday lives , from shopping to communicating to even sharing or printing our digital photos . Such websites as photobox and gallery have allowed us to store our pictures online and create albums which we can allow selected others or general people to view . When the internet became a household commodity , chat rooms and instant messaging allowed people to communicate in ways we have never seen before . The use of such interface websites such as and facebook has let people from other sides of the world remain in contact . On these websites there has been a development from the simple profile of a person in a chat room to a whole page dedicated to the user and a place to store their thoughts , opinions and ' memories ' . At most now we can add a few pictures and albums to our facebook or page and allow selected people , our ' friends ' to view them . This service would not attract so many people if we felt the images we stored on our pages were available to everyone . Many people use these services to plan meetings and events and would be less keen on using the service if this information was available to anyone . With memories for life could this be developed into a secure interface which allows us to store all our ' memories ' of a lifetime as well as be able to instantly search and share this memories according to what they related to ? There are obviously many angles in which a service of the sort memories for life is talking about could be taken from . People will obviously be storing extremely large amounts of data about themselves over a lifetime . An example given by and Others 3 explores the image of ' someone with a camera strapped to his or her head for ( ) , that is something of the order of terabytes of storage required or 60 GB iPod ' . At 's prices that would cost us each of £ , which to be fair over a lifetime seems a fairly reasonable amount , or at least a feasible amount , but what would be do with this amount of information and would we notice if of our lives were forgotten ? Would that also mean that someone with that amount of data on themselves stored somewhere would n't notice if any of the data disappeared ? If not today would we ever notice , the process in our brains of forgetting things has not yet been fully explored by neuroscientists or is fully understood . Forgetting is also described by as ' a form of mental housekeeping that usefully gets rid of information that is out of date , unlikely to be required or traumatic . With a picture now of what sort of information people are likely to store on themselves and how they want to use the data e.g. to store , search and share , what are the main security and privacy issues that are possible for such a system . There are several potential security and privacy risks involved in a project such as memories for life such as : < list > The sharing and subsequent revoking of privileges of memories given to a person or company including how to know who you are given such privileges to ( e.g. the easy blurring of identity over the internet).The risk of information , data and ' memories ' being stolen or taken from our computer or electronic storage device without our prior knowledge or consent . The moral issue of who has the right to such ' memories ' which in some way could help the police towards a person 's criminal conviction , or subsequently the hold of knowledge to have the opposite effect. The primary risk is the sharing of this information to people we trust and then how do we revoke this trust if we wanted to . Is there some way we could track what was done with our ' memories ' . I think it is reasonable to say that tracking our data is something that is not possible at the moment but could be something which could be developed . Another way would be to monitor and restrict what someone would be able to do with our data , ( e.g. view , save a copy or edit ) For example you could give a friend who you holidayed with ' free rights ' to all the pictures containing both of you or just them . This is something which would be developed by facial recognition in photos and films . These ' free rights ' could be allowing someone to have their own versions of these pictures and effectively class these as their own memories . With face recognition constantly being improved and with the coupling of new way so classifying data ( such as semantics ) the procedure of naming and classifying pictures and data could be an automated process . However this would need to be improved greatly before it would be of use to the public . Another issue which would have to be improved or a trust would have to be agreed upon was who would have access to the memories someone has given to someone else . For example , gives access to her holiday pictures to Mr Y , If Mr Y subsequently allowed to see these would he be breaking the trust gave to him . Even with the evolution of passwords and security there are currently no concrete ways of absolutely knowing who is on the other end of a chat or email , as well as who has signed into someone 's account . This sort of issue could be partially solved using identity recognition such as finger print and retina scanners as well as facial recognition ; however this extreme of identity recognition may only be used in the work place or other situations where security is a top priority . However for everyday use , this type to identity recognition seems a bit extreme , and the use of passwords and usernames maybe enough to distinguish users , and if it were combined with such a interface service as ' facebook ' or ' mySpace ' could alleviate peoples worries over who exactly they were sharing their ' memories ' with . Another example of a security issue when sharing our ' memories ' would be revoking these rights . As with the example of the 's summary of a couple divorcing , who would retain the rights to the ' memories ' of the marriage ? During a marriage it would probably be formality to share all the ' memories ' of the marriage or even create a shared ' memory store ' . If the marriage were to break up would it be possible to split the ' memories ' as part of the divorce settlement ? The fundamental idea behind these problems is the one of classification of memories , to be able to automatically name or categorise our ' memories ' . method which is in the pipeline is the idea of semantics and semantic web . ' The Semantic Web is a project to create a universal medium for information exchange by putting documents with computer - processable meaning ( semantics ) on the World Wide Web , through the use of standards , markup languages and related processing tools . '5 With these types of documents we will be able to make web searches much more efficient which could be extended to the search of our ' memories ' as well as easier classification of memories and thus simpler distribution of these ' memories ' to our friends and loved ones . Another significant security risk which we are targeting is the hacking of someone 's computer and the stealing of data . With the development of online banking , security over the internet has obviously had to be improved . Encoding and secure servers are now used to transfer information over the internet without the fear of others stealing that information , as well as internet security to control the information downloaded onto our computer . Some sort of ' memory ' security would be needed to stop hackers retrieving our information . The idea of someone being able to get pictures off our computer may seem as little trivial to some . However with ' memories ' now classified from everything from internet phone calls to emails the theft of this sort of information especially to businesses could have tremendous impact . Someone 's ' memories ' would obviously include data from their career , so the issue would come up of intelligent data . E.g. the recall of all data related to a company once an employee 's contract was terminated . At the moment many companies apply an ' Intellectual Property ' clause which basically protects the company against an ex employees using data which they were privy to during there term as an employee . This clause would probably need to be added to with the widespread use of such ' memory ' storage to protect companies against the use of data which a person considers to be their own memories of the company . With the previous example of a person wearing a camera for their entire life , would this images need to be erased or given to the company , if they included information such as employee salaries and contracts from personnel in resources or accounts information for personnel in the finance department . The general process of gathering a case against an alleged offender include a process of gathering statements from witnesses , victims , alleged offenders and sometimes even from employers / family members to generate a profile of the person on trial , as well as recording if available . Then follows this evidence put forward in front of a judge / jury who will ultimately decide whether they agree beyond reasonable doubt that the alleged offender committed the crime and thus how they should be punished . It is often in these situations that people know exactly what happened during the incident , the victim and the alleged offender , so often it is person word against another 's , one who is the victim of such a crime and the other who could have committed the crime . That is why in many situations the statements of these people alone will not convince anyone beyond reasonable doubt . This is where M4L could prove to someone that this crime was either committed or it was not . For example : a man is found dead in a park there are suspects both of which claim to have an alibi which is backed up my others . Would the police be able to quickly and easily access the suspects M4L account in order to build a profile of them , which could include incriminating data . Would the police have to go to court in order to obtain from the suspects their login i d and password or could they use their power to go directly to the M4L company and access the suspects account from their . Would the police also have immediate access to the victims M4L account ? And if they do , they would obviously have to go straight to the company to gain access , as the whole process of a username and password system would be to keep everything private and not allow others access to it . This moral issue may lead to changes in the law regarding such services which hold such great amounts of data on a person . My main aim in this essay is to discover how the world would need to evolve , from internet security and encryption , to the laws we live by in order to cope with such a powerful collection of data on a person 's life . and others suggests types of M4L projects : < list>'SuperMe . A body of data that is an electronic enhancement of my memory , data that can be invoked to amplify events that I actually remember ( e.g. photographs , slides , diary entries)Deposit . A data repository of items that is meaningful to me . . A data declaration by me for the consumption of others . . Somewhat like , but not necessarily ( entirely ) under my control . ( E.g. a doctor 's medical record of . A body of data associated with different , through connected , people such as corporate memory . ' An issue which is not related directed to security and privacy of our memories is the development of our minds and brains and therefore the development of our digital memories . I think it is also important to consider the continual upgrade of software and hardware we see in the computing world . Like cars there will always be a big , faster , better version just around the corner , and we have to plan these developments in order for previous data not to be lost . The security and privacy issue here that I can see deals with the loss of data , not to other people but just into the ethos , data which could be discovered later . These issues could become more important in the corporate world , it is generally taken as policy that old computers are destroyed even after they have been formatted and completely wiped to stop the risk of data reconstruction . The above separate out the security issues outlined . Obviously this data could still be hacked into , but with is spread out and with the allowance of a part which can be seen by others you could focus the security on the SuperMe and Deposit items . The part would obviously be visible to people we know but could also be stretched temporarily to potential employers so they could get a better idea of the person . This Part could also be used in criminal cases or by doctors to get a better idea and understanding of the person . . These improved are an integral part of the development of M4L and should be evolving as the technology to make such a service possible evolves","< heading > Business of international publishing : BookSurge 's acquisition by Amazon References1 . BookSurge rides wave , article from "" Printing World "" , by , th 2005 BookSurge has shown rapid expansion in , doubling unit sales Its growth strategy is aggressive , aiming to have a global distribution and production network Strengths are technology , expertise and partnerships < heading>2 . BookSurge and ebrary ® Join Forces to Offer Expanded Delivery Services for Digital Content , press release from the website ( URL ) , th 2005 Joint venture initially focused on the library market Partners are compatible both in mission and values Integration of BookSurge 's technology , and distribution network , with ebrary 's content and software < heading>3 . ? Shake Up Industry , article from "" "" , by with , th 2005 Acquiring BookSurge , can attempt exclusive publishing in response to business pressure Sound business logic based on low unit profit / high volume combination Opportunity for to compete with existing POD publishers , thanks to its strong marketing < heading>4 . , and "" Chump Change "" , article from and culture , from the trenches - website ( URL ) , by , th > could offer a complete publishing solution to authors , alternative to traditional ones If it successfully supports the affirmation of a single format , will profit from ebooks ' long - awaited sensation Prices might fall , but as a new middleman will profit < heading > Reasons for choosing the referenced articles The articles give an overview of what BookSurge 's mission and strategy were in , point at why decided to acquire them , present hypotheses on what the medium - long term consequences of the operation might be , which seem confirmed by the latest developments of . In all , they also reflect a time of change for publishing : innovative entrants , new products being developed , affirmed players entering new markets , and - of course - acquisitions . < heading > Bibliography ( numbers continue from references ) < /heading>5 . The Long Tail , article from "" Wired "" ( URL ) , by , 6 . Employee Surveys : , but as Well , press release from "" Business Wire "" ( URL ) , . How to , CD , or DVD on : Micro - niche , long - tail publishing , article from blog on "" cool tools "" ( URL ) , . Bullish on , article from "" "" , by staff , . New blood at , article from "" The "" , by , 10 . buys print on - demand book producer BookSurge for single sales , article from "" Printing World "" , by , . buys print specialist , article from "" The "" , by , th 2005 . With BookSurge Buy , article from "" "" , 13 . , article from "" Business Wire "" ( URL ) , 14 . Customers ' satisfaction with e - retailing goes up again , article from "" Internet Retailer "" ( URL ) , . and , article from "" "" ( URL ) , by , 16 . All press releases from the BookSurge main website ( URL ) . Up the , article from "" The Author "" , by , . Expands , news segment from website ( URL ) , . Click , download , publish , article from The website ( URL ) , by , . Keeping books alive using on - demand printing , article from "" Pira International - Profit through printing "" , by , > Comment Terms of the acquisition News of the acquisition was downplayed by the companies involved , with spokesmen expressing generic enthusiasm , but details remaining undisclosed ( perhaps because , a publicly listed company , has to maintain confidentiality with all commercially sensitive information ) . The only information given was BookSurge would keep "" its name , complete staff , and headquarters in . "" At the time of the acquisition , had been profitably selling its books through 's website for . This probably contributed to the non - applicability of some of 's ' Is ' , namely Information asymmetry and Investment options , which could have made a less risky alliance preferable to an acquisition . ( As concerns the other ' Is ' : Infeasibility was n't an issue , since there were no legal barriers to the acquisition of an company for , nor anti - trust regulations etc . The vertical integration resulting from the operation , finally , posed no problems of Indigestibility : according to the few details we have , BookSurge was not requested to alter much , and obviously had the capacity to absorb the incoming structure ) . At about the same time of the acquisition , - already offering over e - books - also bought e - book software company . Clearly , the e - retailer 's strategy was to enter the promising and e - book markets , exploiting synergies between the two 4 . At from the acquisition , is considered a key player in self - publishing , currently booming in , which relies equally on technology , visibility and distribution systems . The e - book business is growing , but not at the rates enthusiasts expected . < heading > Shared vision and values BookSurge is an innovative and aggressive company , like most has acquired since . itself is technologically innovative , and always expanding into new businesses . Both companies are , have worldwide local subsidies , and pursue a global strategy aiming to make their products available in the whole world in the same way . Both are successful thanks to the implementation of the "" long tail "" business model 5 through internet , and to consistent customer care . 's mission is "" to print any book in any language and in any geography within or less "" , which is perfectly compatible with as "" 's most customer - centric company : a place where people can find anything they might want to buy online "" . Focusing on range for the end - buyer , neither makes a point out of editing the offer . Authors self - publishing with do n't receive a personalised service ( which , I found out talking to people from , is an important competitive advantage of independent publishers ) . < heading > Strategy Apart from being structurally and culturally compatible , by joining forces and have created for themselves profitable opportunities they would not have had on their own . This obviously is the strongest motive behind the operation . BookSurge already had been involved in operations , such as the ebrary joint - venture , with the objective of exploiting another company 's networks . The acquisition allows BookSurge to increase market leverage and visibility ( of 's main weaknesses ) in a sector particularly exposed to new entrants and rivalry , and to reach higher innovation capability . Both companies become able to develop new products for a new market they are fostering ( i.e. , buyers of out - of - print books , self - publishers , teachers who need to print their own personalised textbooks , etc . ) . While BookSurge and ebrary wanted to be the missing link between publishers and librarians , , acquiring BookSurge , might become the shortest link between authors and readers . Although would have the money to invest , the brand recognition , and customer satisfaction , to command premium price on its innovative products , its strategy has been reasonably relying on sales volume instead , , to create a revenue based synergy with BookSurge . This is a good strategy , since consumers expect , accept , and make a success of , products deriving from new technologies when they are available for "" chump change "" . is able to sustain such a strategy because of the sheer size of its customer base , and also because it has effectively become a "" new middleman "" for the publishing industry , taking of the retail price , . Traditional publishers are not immediately threatened by this : is not competing for their signed authors , but mostly offering an opportunity to those who would have had to resort to POD anyway ; in a few cases , authors have in fact moved away from self - publishing once they proved to be successful enough ; by acquiring , 's goal was to offer its clients "" an ever - expanding selection of titles that are not available through other channels "" , starting with out - of - print titles . For , becoming an company has meant routing most competitors : these are the players who suffered the most from the acquisition ( though and remain the leaders , ) . < heading > Diversification , competition , and globalisation Amazon is trying to position itself as a technical company , and investing steeply in new promising businesses . This has hindered its profitability ( operating margin was in , to the level of traditional booksellers , concerning both employees and shareholders . Although the acquisition was a successful operation , it is part of a strategy that was forced to undertake because of the innovativeness and great rivalry in the industry . Most of the major players of publishing are similarly moving to riskier boxes of the matrix , usually diversifying into different links of the value chain . While its ( downplayed ) objective was probably "" diversification "" , might end up in "" product development "" , depending on how successful the new products and services it provides through BookSurge are in attracting different customers from those who already bought through the e - retailer . The fact that technological innovation ( which typically is fast and unpredictable ) , and globalisation ( with the long tail of readers suddenly gaining great power in the market , and internet exposing all companies to world - wide competition ) , have a strong influence on the publishing industry at the moment , makes this a particularly "" exciting time "" , but also a time of "" rising business pressure "" . < heading > Social , ethical and cultural aspect of international publishing : The value of books References1 . Newsagents make the headlines , article from "" The "" , by , nd 2005 In , books lead the "" cultural "" sector while other media decline , growing in publishers contest coupling book and newspaper sales In , "" allegati "" publishing is extremely successful - to the point it threatens pocket books < heading>2 . city , one book : how city reading campaigns are spreading across the , article from The website ( URL ) , th 20063 . PA may sue , article from "" The "" , by , rd 2006 The will probably sue Google soon , for scanning language titles under agreement with At there will be a roundtable on digital libraries , with reps from Google and consortium , and the president of In , book sale growth has dropped to in < heading>4 . Release a book into the wild and hope there 's a catch , article from website ( URL ) , by , th 2006 The members of worldwide club leave books in public places , then track their movements via the website up with minimum expense , it has become a profitable business thanks to the success of its original , "" wacky "" , underlying idea One of the ways the website makes money is by selling advertising and click - through links to booksellers < heading > Reasons for choosing the referenced articles The chosen articles are originally about completely different subjects , but I saw them in relation to the topic of the value of books . I think it is interesting to see how this issue arises in different contexts , muting into a different form but constantly recurring , probably because the book is intrinsically dual in nature as a commercial and cultural product . In this light , the articles give some insight about what would be considered "" appropriate "" to market books and foster sales in different countries , or targeting specific segments of the market . < heading > Bibliography ( numbers continue from references ) < /heading>5 . Up the , article from "" The Author "" , by , Summer 2005 6 . Copyright and Open Access - contradictory or complementary ? , article from "" "" , by , , vol . , issue . The Bookmarket 2005 , report from the AIE - Associazione Italiana Editori - website ( URL ) . College signs environmental pledge , article from "" website ( URL ) , by media relations staff , . Bookcrossing media kit , downloadable .pdf file from the website ( URL ) , . idea per promuovere la lettura . A patto di non essere troppo scolastici , ( Good idea to promote reading . If you can avoid being too scholastic ) , interview of , from the IULM website ( URL ) , by , . Libri allegati ai giornali : un esempio per gli editori , ( Books attached to newspapers : an example for publishers ) , article from the IULM website ( URL ) , by , 12 . book publishing trends , article from "" Industries Graphiques "" , 2005 Comment Introduction Books have always been made accessible at no cost , on a regular basis , in parallel to sales . Since ancient times , libraries were considered valuable with no relation to economic logics : they represented the culture of a certain time and place , made available to people of the present or of the future . This stems from the unique nature of the book as both a commercial and a cultural product , which can be evaluated according to independent criteria brought together only in the market , in the consumers ' decision to pay a certain price for both the ink on paper and the ideas in print . When deciding on the pricing , distribution , and promotion of books , marketers should be aware of the irresolvable culture - commerce debate , and of on what side does their target readership stand . Libraries are only the traditional alternative to buying a book : new models emerge , bending the market 's logics , and succeed depending on the readers ' inclinations . < heading>""Allegati "" publishing Google print The is obviously more defensive of the tradition and culture of books than the : it will probably soon act against Google for scanning titles , although putting content online has improved sales in similar situations . Apart from the reaction of the publishers in different countries , international marketers must consider how readers view the opportunity of checking books online , and possibly downloading them ( legally or not ) . Book - buyers will typically split into categories , according to technological skills and ethics about books . The proportion of those categories will reflect the country 's general attitudes in the culture - commerce debate : who thinks it would be distasteful to steal a book , more than any other anonymous commodity ? Who thinks books are worth paying ? < table/> Bookcrossing""An innovative attempt to make ' the whole world a library ' "" 9 , according to founders and fans , bookcrossing encourages book reading and buying ( many members buy copies so they have one to keep ) , and therefore is beneficial for sales . Some authors complain the system robs them of royalties ( which they 'd receive for sales of new books , or library lending rights in some countries ) , but most approve of this model , which strips books of their economic value and celebrates them as purely cultural objects . At least in theory , and in the small scale of a niche phenomenon , bookcrossing actually carries economic potential : like used - book stores and libraries , it 's a relatively painless "" entry level "" for experimenting with titles peer - recommendation gives obscure authors the chance to gain visibility the website links through to booksellers ' websites . Bookcrossers are a compact globalised segment of the market , efficiently reachable through the website which is the base of their community . They are book - lovers and heavy buyers , representing a goldmine for international publishers willing to target people agreeing that any money spent on books is nothing compared to their cultural value . < heading > Reading campaigns Other initiatives based on books having cultural value , but which also promote sales , are reading campaigns in the and ( amidst a plethora of events such as and book prizes ) . The ideological affinity with the bookcrossing community is proved by the latter 's perfectly integrated involvement at times ( bookcrossers distribute copies of the selected title for the campaign and track them online . Books distributed free , or discounted , within these initiatives do n't risk the devaluation feared by the about "" allegati "" , because the campaign has a recognised cultural meaning . Less - known titles are pushed into the market , and selected - book campaign titles are granted a revival . Publishers obtain priceless promotion by participating in a community activity , which intelligently stresses reading instead of buying . In other words , their marketers are brilliantly using the perceived cultural value of books in order to reach their economic objectives .",0 "It has long been recognised that the ever expanding human population , and the destructive way in which we utilize the planet 's resources are having a negative impact on wildlife across the globe . Of great concern is the destruction of the world 's tropical forests . This is of particular relevance to non - human primates , as of all primate species are restricted to tropical forest habitats . It has been demonstrated that human population growth is linked to global deforestation and that ' human population pressure is the best predictor of tropical deforestation rates ' . However , there are non - anthropogenic factors that influence non - human primate distribution and abundance , and these natural species characteristics are important too . This essay will therefore focus on natural determinants of primate distribution on a global scale . It will examine both patterns of distribution and the processes that may be responsible for those patterns . < fnote > Cowlishaw and , 2000 , pp . < /fnote > Primates are largely restricted to , Sub - Saharan Africa , and ( Fleagle , ) . Geographical ranges of primate species tend to show a lognormal distribution ; in other words , more species have small ranges than large ranges . and Dunbar ( 2000 ) classify a species as rare when their distribution falls . This follows ( ) who defines a species as rare in relation to the rest of its taxonomic group . In this way rarity is defined as a relative property . This might be instructive as it could illuminate processes operating at different spatial scales . Similarly , . ( ) , explain that methods , which aid identification of species that may be at risk , are vital conservation strategies and that assessing relative rarity is one of those methods . Rare species tend to be concentrated on islands and within equatorial regions . and Dunbar ( 2000 ) point out that in of the major primate groups are most species rare . These are the tarsiers of and the lemurs of ( groups largely restricted to islands ) . The tendency for species near to the equator to have small ranges will be discussed later , in relation to ' 's rule ' . It is also worth noting that the terms ' rarity ' and ' endemic ' are not always corresponding characteristics . Although islands tend to have endemic species , there are also country and regional endemics , and these species are not always rare . For example , the common marmoset ( jacchus ) has a relatively large distribution , but yet it is only found in ( ) . attempted a comprehensive guide to the status of all known primates , looking at factors such as distribution , abundance , and ecological flexibility / specialisation . highlights the relationship between island species and restricted geographic ranges . Of the species that she identified as having a tiny range ( smaller than ) , of these species were island forms . Islands that contain primate species are often those islands that were , until relatively recently , joined to the mainland . For example , in , the islands of , Java , and , which were connected up until , accommodate primate species , whereas , which has been isolated for much longer , does not . 's rule ( as explained by and Dunbar , ) examines whether there is a relationship between species range size and proximity to the equator . In general , species range size increases with latitude . 's rule is a common pattern for terrestrial taxa and for primates . However , interestingly , primates only obey this rule consistently when they exist south of the equator . and ( ) examined the relationship between distribution and latitude in primates in some detail . They conclude that geographical ranges of primates are actually correlated with their ' exposure to climatic variation ' and that the relationship between range and latitude , described by 's rule , is not an inevitable outcome of the relationship between range and climate . In short , and acknowledge that primate range size increases with latitude north of the equator , but it increases with the seasonality of rainfall both north and south of the equator . < fnote > , , < /fnote > Range size is also affected by a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic factors . Intrinsic factors include body size and ecological flexibility . Extrinsic factors include interspecific interactions and dispersal ability - often limited by constraints such as geographical barriers . Over a period of time , habitats can be subject to modification . For primates , and indeed other species , this may mean the modification of a habitat from suitable to unsuitable . Specialised species may be particularly at risk , because of their lack of ability to adapt . Species that exploit a variety of resources are likely to be both more abundant and more widespread . Dunbar and ( ) highlight the genus as having a particularly broad ranging distribution . Their range stretches from the mountains of to the temperate forests of . The macaque is the only non - human primate found in and the macaque is the most northern primate , adapted for life in harsh , snowy . Macaques spend time both in the trees and on the ground and have an omnivorous diet . In contrast , a species like the gelada baboon ( gelada ) is highly specialised . Their diet is restricted to the highlands of and they can not cope with grasses growing below approximately as they are too fibrous . Ecological specialisation may also indicate the gradual decline in density towards the borders of distribution . Another potentially important intrinsic factor is body size , and the possible link between body size and distribution can be illustrated in ways . The is that larger taxa may have higher energy requirements and therefore have populations with low densities and wide distributions . However , this fails to explain the correlation with climatic variability . Many studies show that species have larger distributions where rainfall is more seasonal . This supports the possible link between body size and distribution , niche breadth . In simple terms , this refers to the idea that larger primates have greater ranges because they tend to be ecological generalists . In addition , larger species may be able to cope better with fluctuations with regard to food availability . The factor explaining the apparent link between body size and distribution supposes that body size is not the causal factor at all , but rather that it is an indirect measure of another life history trait . possible example is reproductive rates ( and Dunbar , ) . The most important constraint on possible expansion is barriers . Island taxa are particularly affected here ; they can not extend their range because an impassable barrier , the ocean , surrounds them . However , there are other types of barriers . Major river systems , for example , may affect the dispersal ability of some species . However , the effectiveness of a river as a barrier depends on its geographical location , its size and its flow . Rivers may particularly affect small and/or forest - dwelling species . Ayres and ( ) confirm that ' rivers play an important role in constraining the dispersal of primates ' . They also found that body weight is positively correlated with geographical range size and that larger primates in the have fewer subspecies relative to their range size than smaller primates . They explain that this is because the larger species are better able to cross rivers and other environmental barriers . ( ) concludes from his study of primates in that the dense network of large river systems plays an important part in the distribution patterns of guenons . < fnote , , p535 < /fnote > Examples of other types of barriers include the topography of the land and changes in vegetation . As mentioned previously , most primates are limited to tropical forests and therefore boundaries between forest and savannah form particularly important barriers . Whatever the type of barrier , it normally forms the edge of a taxon 's range , thus restricting it and limiting its distribution . Barriers either limit the spread of a species from its evolutionary centre of origin , or split a species range , eventually causing allopatric speciation to occur . Another potentially important extrinsic factor is interspecific interactions . In fact , very little is known about the ways in which interspecific competition might affect primate distribution . However , and Dunbar ( 2000 ) identify ways in which this dynamic may be significant in some cases . These are : smaller primates being excluded from food resources by larger primates , closely related taxa with similar ecological requirements competing for the same resource , and the presence of predators and parasites . et ( ) discuss geographical distribution in relation to mammalian species and explain that species ranges are not only likely to be affected by parasites , but moreover by parasites that they share with other species . They suggest that species with broad ranges displace species with narrow ranges when a parasite common to both has a varying impact on the species and conclude that ' the effects of parasites may be greatest in areas of high density and small range sizes ' . < fnote > Pagel , et al . , , p813 < /fnote > As and Dunbar ( 2000 ) explain , both range ( distribution ) and abundance ( population density ) are good indicators of the health of a species . These factors are interlinked because if a species has both a restricted range and low population numbers , then we are likely to refer to that species as rare and possibly vulnerable to extinction . Geographic distribution and population abundance are good indicators of global population size and therefore global extinction risk . In terms of an actual casual link between distribution and abundance , the relationship has been described as triangular rather than strictly linear . In simple terms , while species that have large ranges often also occur at low densities , species with small geographical ranges occur at both high and low densities . This essay has attempted to show that there are a number of broad - scale , biogeographical patterns in relation to primate distribution . Eeley and ( ) examine these patterns in the continents of and and confirm that they are consistent for both continents . In summary , species range size appears to increase with latitude , although this may be linked to climatic variability ( particularly in , see above ) ; ecological generalists tend to have broader ranges than specialists and larger species tend to be widespread , although small species can have small or large ranges . More primates have small ranges than large ranges and most primates are forest dwelling . Small range size is associated with forest biome , and the few species that inhabit savannah or woodland habitats tend to be more widespread . Primates of and follow different general patterns , and are dominated by island effects . As illustrated by ( ) , many island primates have restricted ranges . Island primates have impassable boundaries and consequent limited opportunities for dispersal . The somewhat weak correlation between abundance and distribution , and the fact that the majority of primates occupy small ranges clearly has implications for conservation . Pagel et al ( ) show that a relatively small environmental change may affect and threaten a relatively large number of species . As explained , primates are associated with tropical forests and this is a habitat that is under severe pressure from activities such as logging , agriculture and plantations , mining , and hunting . Moreover , forest cover is linked with species richness and endemic species . 's ( ) comprehensive and ambitious study shows that both anthropogenic and natural characteristics influence the status of primate populations . refers to natural characteristics as ultimate causes , which include density , habitat , body size and original geographic range . She refers to anthropogenic factors as proximate causes . In the absence of human action , proximate factors would include spontaneous events such as climate change . However , human activities are now overshadowing natural processes , and thus refers solely to habitat alteration and human predation in relation to proximate factors . Both proximate and ultimate factors work together in a precarious balancing act that tips species toward either survival or extinction . This essay has attempted to outline patterns of distribution and to discuss the processes that are responsible for these patterns . It is essential that we understand these patterns and processes , because , as explains , geographical range is the most important ultimate cause of the status of primate populations . Moreover , other ultimate causes identified by are degree of ecological specialisation , abundance and body size , factors that interact in various ways with range size . This essay has demonstrated that highly specialised species tend towards restricted ranges so that habitat alteration and/or predation can rapidly tip the balance towards extinction . Larger primates face similar risks , because although they may have relatively larger ranges they often also occur at low densities . What is clear is that distribution and abundance are complex and important issues , which need to be carefully assessed in the development of conservation strategies , aimed at saving primate species at risk .","< figure/>Semillon 's home is in of , including , but more particularly , the regions of Graves and Sauternes , where it is the most widely planted white grape . Semillon produces small clusters of medium sized fruit , which when fully mature produce lively , dry white wine . These are most commonly blended with and often a little , to produce a wine that is less dry and acidic , with more richness and complexity , than itself can achieve . As well as dry wine , produces excellent sweet wines , made from the same blend , grown in , Barsac or . is extremely susceptible to a fungal rot called cinarea or noble rot , which is disastrous if it attacks unripe or damaged grapes . However , when it attacks ripe , healthy white grapes , the fungus , which grows on the surface of the grape , makes microscopic holes in the skin , allowing water to evaporate , concentrating the natural sugars . This enables small yields of extremely concentrated juice that produces sweet wines . ( , ) : The Graves appellation , located just outside the town of , produces white wine , which generally fresh , fruity and dry , with hints of fig and melon . The appellation of "" Graves supérieurs "" is strictly reserved to sweet white wines . The growing region is ha , with land production being for white wine and a total of bottles of wine produced . is famous for sweet dessert wines , which are often golden , with delicate hints of honey , dried pineapple and nut , and a roasted note appearing with age . The growing region is ha , producing bottles . South west - Monbazillac : Located , in the Dordogne valley , south of , , produces sweet viscous white wine with flavours of honey , vanilla , apricot and orange . The growing region is ha , producing bottles . ( Terroir-france.com , ) Outside , is grown in , and . In of , produces some of 's most interesting white wines , with grapes picked early at low potential alcohol and unoaked , to give acidic white wines that mature to develop character ( , ) . The essential property of a quality wine - producing area is to permit growth and favourable maturation of grapes . The word , terroir encompasses the interaction of the vine with the geology and geography of the vineyard , including elements such as the soil , slope and localised climate ( , ) . Maturation of grapes is affected by light , heat and water availability . Photosynthesis is optimum at a sun radiance of E / m 2 / s ; a reduction in photosynthetic activity can result in a nutrient deficiency . In the absence of clouds , sun radiance is greater than 2500 E / m 2 / s , but on cloudy days it varies from E / m / s. Temperature affects budding and flowering , as well as grape growth and maturation . During growth , the optimum temperature is oC , any higher is unfavourable to cellular multiplication . Optimum vine temperature during maturation is oC , any higher and sugar accumulates in other parts of the vine , to the detriment of the grapes . Grape development below 10 oC for most varieties is very difficult . Temperature also strongly influences biochemical mechanisms such as malic acid degradation , the composition of grape phenolic compounds and development of aromatic substances . A satisfactory water supply is necessary for both growth and maturation , however most quality wines are produced in regions where rainfall does not exceed . Excess water supply retards maturation and modifies grape chemical composition ; in it gives a strong grassy note . Heavy rains near maturity can cause berries to burst due to rapid water absorption across the grape skin . In , where the climate is temperate , the moment at which the best or worst climatic conditions occur has a greater influence on grape quality than absolute temperature or total rainfall . ( , ) The soil , directly affects the development of the root system and consequently the vine water and mineral supplies . Being a natrophic plant , the vine accumulates little sodium , providing a level of resistance in salty soils . The table below indicates approximate ranges of nutrients needed by grapevines ( , ): < table/>The soil in the Graves appellation is mainly gravel , limiting the growth of other vegetation , however the roots of the vines are able to seek out the lenses of clay , silt and dirty sand , that are interbedded and hold moisture and mineral nutrients , key to the successful growth of vines such as Semillon . Water drains rapidly through gravel and coarse sand , but the lenticular stratum within the mound slows the downward movement of water , storing it in pores for later use . This is critical to the conservation of water , in an area were irrigation is not permitted ( , ) . Rootstock , plant density , trellising methods , vine management and disease also affect maturation , and therefore quality . is notably vulnerable to bunch rot and fanleaf degeneration . ( Jackson , ) A maximum sugar concentration without loss of berry weight indicates the completion of maturation . In , must have g of sugar per litre , below which , the wine has a vegetal aroma , and an optimum acidity at time of harvest of / l ; correlates to ideal maturity . The best terroirs for making aromatic dry white wines allow slow and complete maturation . In a climate , which is too cold , maturation is not sufficient ; in a climate , which is too warm , the increase in sugar concentration may result in premature harvest , before other grape constituents are fully mature . The personality of dry white wine is due to varietal expression and its particular aromatic profile , resulting from a given terroir . When producing sweet wines , must obtain potential alcohol and have a pH of less than 3.2 before any fungal development . The development of noble rot requires a particular climate , ideally with morning fogs to assure fungal growth , followed by warm sunshine to concentrate the grapes for relatively long period of . In vineyards , this corresponds to the establishment of a high - pressure ridge extending the anticyclone from the Azores to the north - east ( , ) . In , benefited from , producing wines with great potential ( ) .",0 "< heading > Introduction This paper addresses of the fundamental objections to Moral Realism ( ) . The argument runs that moral judgements do not cohere with practicality requirement of morality and picture of beliefs and desires . The part of the essay explains the nature of the problem and a possible solution , as argued for by in his book Moral Problem . An important role in this plays his analysis of normative reasons . The part of the essay evaluates Smith 's solution in reference to 's and 's papers . They try to challenge Smith in various ways . I consider , in my opinion most influential , counter - arguments . These arguments challenge 's analysis of normative reasons ; in particular , it seems to ignore a fundamental level of human cognition . Moreover , they question the connection between moral judgements and motivation he defends and the definition of ' full rationality ' , which he provides . If Smith succeeds in making a link between moral facts and beliefs about normative reasons , and showing that normative reasons and rationality can be beyond reasonable doubt shown to affect how people are motivated to act , we can say that it possible to be a naturalist moral realist without denying that there is a connection between moral judgements and motivation . < heading > Moral Realism To begin with , the paper explains naturalist moral realism . It has in essence main premises . , realism believes that there are moral facts . These facts are natural facts . They are determined by circumstances and observable by science . Finally , moral judgements are beliefs about these facts . < quote > P1 There are moral facts . P2 These facts are natural facts . P3 Moral judgements are beliefs that are true when they are accurate to the moral facts. , David ' Belief , , and Motivation : 's "" , No . . Pg . < /fnote > Thus aim at objectivity , objective in the sense that ' it is possible to converge in our moral views . "" Moralizing in normative ethics has to determine what the objective moral facts are ; it supplies us with normative reasons about what morality requires us to do . Moral judgements are based on our beliefs about what we have reason to do . < fnote > Smith , 1991 : ' Realism ' , chapter of ( ed . ) , A Companion to Ethics . . Pg . < /fnote > At this point , it is necessary to make a distinction between beliefs and desires . According to , beliefs represent the world and can be subject to rational criticism . Desires , on the other hand , are about ' how the world is to be ' and can not be assessed in terms of truth and falsehood . Discoveries about the nature of the world , i.e. beliefs about natural facts , have no effect on what we desire . Therefore Hume claims that desires and beliefs are independent existences . < fnote > Ibid , Pg . < /fnote> P4 Desires and beliefs have independent existence. Another feature of moral judgements we need to take into account is that moral judgements also have an influence on our actions , i.e. the practical implications of our moral judgements . It is a conceptual truth that if an agent judges an action to be right , he is also motivated to act accordingly . According to Hume , a motivation requires things : a desire to act and a means - ends belief . An agent is motivated to act in a certain way if he desires to act in that way and believes that the action in mind is a means to his desire . It follows that when an agent believes that an action A is right , he also desires to A. < quote > P5 If an agent A judges A 's B - ing to be right , he would also be motivated to B - ing . P6 An agent is motivated to do a particular action B , if and only if he desires to B and believes that the action A is a means to his desire to B. P7 It is a conceptual truth that if an agent A believes that A 's B - ing to be right , he also desires to A. However , the problem of becomes clear once we consider both objectivity and practicality of moral judgements together with Hume 's picture of desires and beliefs . Since the rightness of an action is determined by beliefs about the world , the moral judgement is also essentially just a belief . The problem is that while we might believe that a certain act is right , it is not clear how this belief about the natural facts is supposed to guarantee a desire ergo motivate us to act accordingly . "" The picture [ in P4 ] therefore appears to imply that a belief that one would be right to do a given thing could not guarantee motivation , even if we hold "" other things equal "" , since nothing guarantees that the belief is accompanied by an appropriately related desire . "" Objectivity and practicality of moral judgements seem to be inconsistent in as the former fails to make sense of the latter . < fnote > , David ' Belief , , and Motivation : 's "" , Pg . < /fnote> Smith 's solution < /heading > Now that the nature of the problem of has be explained we can set on to answer the question , whether it is possible to be a naturalist moral realist without denying that there is a connection between moral judgements and motivation , i.e. whether there is any solution to the conflict between objectivity and practicality . It has to be noted that is right to assert that practicality of moral judgements is not always the case . An agent does not always have to have the desire to act , even if he recognizes the rightness of the action . For example , clinically depressed or otherwise apathetic individuals can sincerely judge an action right and yet entirely fail to be motivated . Thus a modification of seems to be in order . < quote > P7 ' If an agent A believes that A 's B - ing to be right , were he fully rational , he also desires to A. "" aims to solve the problem without denying any of the propositions [ , P4 , P7 ' ] by developing a rationalism that is consistent with doctrine . "" An analysis of normative reasons is the base for Smith 's solution to the problem . "" The core of the idea is that facts about our normative reasons for action - that is , facts about what is desirable for us to do - are facts about what we would desire ourselves to do if we were perfectly placed to give ourselves advice . "" In other words , normative judgements tell us what a perfectly rational copy of ourselves would do in the given circumstances . "" What we have normative reason to do is what we would desire that we do if we were fully rational . "" In this sense , they are normative as they tell us what is required to do . < fnote > Ibid , Pg . < /fnote> Smith , Michael 1997 ' In Defense of "" The Moral Problem "" : A Reply to Brink , , and , Vol . , Pg . < /fnote> Smith , : The Moral Problem , Pg . < /fnote> P8 A has a normative reason to B if and only if a fully rational version of A , would want the A to B and B - ing is an act of the substantive kind. In Smith 's analysis , normative reasons are also practical as they cause agents to hold corresponding desires . "" Normative reasons are practical in the sense that someone who believes that she has a normative reason to act in a certain way in certain circumstances will have a motivating reason to act in that way in those circumstances , "" other things being equal . The core of idea is that if A believes that A has a normative reason to B , if A were fully rational he would desire to B. A desires B in virtue of A 's believing that he has a normative reason to B. < fnote > Smith , 1997 : ' In Defense of "" The Moral Problem "" : A Reply to Brink , , and , Vol . , Pg . < /fnote > Psychological coherence of agents is the basis for another way to understand this connection between normative judgements and desires . "" Beliefs about normative reasons , when combined with an agent 's tendency to have a coherent psychology , can thus cause agents to have matching desires . "" In Smith 's account , normative reasons cause and therefore explain rational desires , as having beliefs about reasons makes it rational to have corresponding desires . < quote > P9 It is conceptually true that if A believed he has a normative reason to B , were he rational , he would desire to B. This account of normative reasons also seems to be in accordance with theory about desires and beliefs . Also the theory does not state any constraints on having the desires , i.e. whether they can be held in virtue of normative beliefs . Therefore , practicality of normative reasons coheres with . The last part of 's solution is in connecting moral judgements with normative reasons . Given that the function moral facts is "" to provide us with objective reasons for acting , "" i.e. to tell us how we are required to act , moral facts can be analyzed into beliefs about normative reasons . Thus "" whenever someone believes that an act is morally required , what they believe is that there is a normative reason to perform that act , "" and facts about moral requirement are facts about normative reason . For example , if I believe that it is right to uphold my promises , I have a normative reason to uphold them . < fnote > Ibid , Pg . < /fnote> Smith , Michael 1997 ' In Defense of "" The Moral Problem "" : A Reply to Brink , , and , Vol . , Pg . < /fnote> P10 A 's right if and only if A has a normative reason to B. To put it all together "" since our beliefs about normative reasons give rise to corresponding motivations , at least absent practical irrationality , it follows that if moral facts can be analyzed in terms of facts about normative reasons then our belief about what we are morally required to do must also give rise to corresponding motivations , at least absent practical irrationality . "" This solution accommodates also as normative reasons are both objective , practical and cohere with the picture . It seems that Smith 's solution to the problem is valid . < fnote > Ibid , Pg . < /fnote>""If there exists any normative reason at all then , under conditions of full rationality , we would all converge in the desires we have as regards what is to be done in certain highly specific circumstances . "" Ibid , Pg . < /fnote> Criticism of Smith 's solution The part of this paper addresses the counter arguments to 's solution and evaluates Smith 's solution . way to challenge the picture Smith has drawn is to refute , i.e. the idea that "" what we have normative reason to do is what we would desire that we do if we were fully rational . "" The problem with this is that it is not clear whether the normative reason is a pro - tanto ( contributing ) reason or an overall ( overriding ) reason , i.e. whether it only applies to overriding reasons or also to pro tanto ones . For example , I can have a pro - tanto reason to keep my promise and meet my friend . If I , on the way to the meeting , see a drowning man , I will have a stronger normative reason to save him rather than keep my promise to . This shows that it is fully rational agent can have a pro tanto normative reason , which overrides a different one . One might understand , as "" a claim only about overriding reasons and that it says nothing about reasons that are overridden . "" However , Smith 's aim is supposed to explain what moral reasons are . To do this needs to say more about pro - tanto level of cognition in relation to desire . In particular , Smith 's solution needs to specify in what sense of rationality I am rationally required to desire what I believe about my pro - tanto normative reason . < fnote > Smith , The Moral Problem , Pg . < /fnote> Reasons which need to be weighted against each other in order to get the overall reason which tell us which particular action to choose . < /fnote> Copp , David ' Belief , , and Motivation : 's "" . < /fnote > One can further argue that the analysis of normative reasons in P8 completely fails to make sense of the pro tanto level of cognition . In a given situation an agent can have a pro tanto reason to do A , but if A is overridden by a stronger pro tanto reason to B ; it would not longer make sense for a fully rational copy of the agent to want him to desire to A. Given the definition of a normative reason in P8 , the defeated reason to A ceases to be a reason at all . Yet we can say that we still have pro tanto reason to A. Thus , we can see that Smith solution fails to capture the pro tanto level of cognition about moral requirements . There is also a problem with ' . P7 assumes that moral requirements are authoritative but argues that moral requirements can well conflict with other requirements of rationality , e.g. prudence , and non - moral requirements can override moral requirements . He has drawn an example of principled amoralist who is indifferent to moral requirements but not because of "" a psychological interference with normal process by which results of practical deliberation affect an agent 's motivational set , "" but because of principles he accepts . Thus , he need not regard morality as having authority over other requirements of rationality and yet be fully rational . Even if we make sense of what our moral requirements are , they can just play the role of pro tanto reasons . While it still does not refute the idea of the principle that normative reasons carry motivational power , it does pose problems to Smith 's formulation and to the idea that moral judgements need to have motivational power . "" Whereas the motivational efficacy of moral judgement reflects that many regard moral requirement as authoritative , the principled amoralist shows us that this assumption is open to challenge "" < fnote > If an agent A believes that A 's B - ing to be right , were he fully rational , he also desires to A. < /fnote> Amoralist is someone who recognizes moral requirements yet remains indifferent . < /fnote> Brink , ' Moral Motivation ' Ethics , Vol . , Pg . < /fnote>""To judge that an action of course is morally required is to judge that we would desire to act that way if we were fully rational , where the act in question ' is an act of substantive kind . ' "" , David ' Belief , , and Motivation : 's "" . < /fnote> For example , when an agent understands morality as a product of a given society or culture and it is hard for him to see why it has to be authoritative . < /fnote> Brink , ' Moral Motivation ' Ethics , Vol . , No . . , Pg . < /fnote > Moreover , there is a problem with P8 and the definition of ' fully rational ' . It is necessary for Smith 's theory to work that he specifies what it means . Smith 's ideas come to mind . On the one hand , in order to have a normative reason an agent has to be fully rational , which is a "" state that we are in when we are immune from reason criticism . "" In particular , fully rational agent 's set of desires has to be "" maximally informed and coherent and unified . "" One should note that this account of full rationality is naturalistic . On the other hand , for an agent to be practically rational , i.e. so that his normative reasons guide his desires , he has to be a "" good and strong - willed person . "" While this is not necessarily , what Smith means by fully rational it is clear that he considers these features essential for an agent to make moral judgements , which conform with argument . This account is non - naturalistic . < fnote > Smith , Michael 1997 ' In Defense of "" The Moral Problem "" : A Reply to Brink , , and , Vol . , No . , Pg . < /fnote> Ibid , Pg . < /fnote> Copp , David ' Belief , , and Motivation : 's "" , Pg . < /fnote > The problem becomes clear once we take a closer look at both of these definitions . If Smith specifies full rationality in naturalistic way , it is not clear whether "" by seeing what we would desire in a possible world in which we had a maximally informed and coherent and unified set of evaluative beliefs , "" we get a morally right set of desires . Smith 's definition is vulnerable to an Open question argument . In practice , one can argue that it makes sense to ask whether a Smith naturalistically defined ' fully rational ' set of desires is a morally good set of desires . Full rationality need not equal rightness . The problem with the non - naturalistic account is that it transfers Smith 's into a covert non - naturalism theory . If Smith wants to find a solution to , he can not rely on non - naturalist moral realism . Consequently , Smith is wrong to rely on a non - naturalist definition in his solution to the problem . < fnote > Smith , Michael 1997 ' In Defense of "" The Moral Problem "" : A Reply to Brink , , and , Vol . , Pg . < /fnote> Conclusion The nature of the problem is defined by the inconsistence of the theories . If we keep the picture of desires and beliefs , then moral objectivity , as defined by , is inconsistent with practicality of moral judgements . It seems that in order to be naturalist moral realist we have to deny that there is a connection between moral judgements and motivation . Smith also recognizes the problem . His way out of this is a more sophisticated form of , which keeps both objectivity and practicality of moral judgements but avoids the trap of picture . He makes a very intricate connection between desires and beliefs , which coheres with Hume . The essence of his solution lies in an analysis of normative reasons and connecting moral facts with normative reasons . The resulting normative moral reasons seem to have motivational power required and are objective . While Smith analysis of normative reasons seems to be coherent , there are various objections to the solution . , his it is not complete as he fails to specify how pro tanto normative reasons fit into the picture , in particular , their connection with desires . In addition , the way they cohere with the full rationality criterion . Yet these challenges need not refute Smith 's solution , as they just require further explanation . Another problem is the motivational power of normative moral reasons . 's principled amoralist challenges to authority of moral requirements and shows that "" a rational moral agent may believe she is morally required to do something without being motivated to do it . "" Authority of moral requirements is at least an open question . This objection effectively challenges the practicality of moral judgements . If it succeeds then there is no need for Smith 's solution in the place . < fnote > , David ' Belief , , and Motivation : 's "" , Pg . < /fnote > The decisive problem of , which Smith fails to solve , is the definition of rightness . Smith tries to avoid the issue by claiming that fully rational set of desires would also be necessarily right . This is not obvious and more needs to be said . accounts of full rationality , which I found in his work , can be considered . However , the naturalistic one does not avoid the Open question argument and the non - naturalist one is not a viable option for . Smith needs to find a way around these challenges if his solution is to provide a plausible connection between moral judgements and motivation .","< heading > Introduction This paper assesses the explanatory value of the dependency theory and asks whether a theory looking at relations of dependency explain the severe inequalities in world economy . While as Special report on suggests there is a level of contention regarding how to measure and assess inequality , there is a clear divide between the rich developed and poor developing countries in terms of distribution of global wealth characterized by severe poverty in . ( Surin in Balaam 2006 ) The paper provides a synopsis of the argument associated with the dependency theory mainly based on the paper by , addressing dependency relations as a source of the inequalities . The dependency relations are illustrated in a critical analysis of key structures of international economy , namely trade , capital and technology . < fnote > Special report : , The Economist , < /fnote > Following is a discussion of how plausible the explanation is when confronted with developments in world economy . It is argued that dependency theory fails to explain a number of developments and makes wrong predictions in several cases . It would seem that the theory is a partial explanation of existing inequalities at best . A theory which limits the relevant causes to international level only does so at the cost of its explanatory value . < heading > Dependency theory explained < /heading > This section provides an account of the dependency theory by exploring how relations of dependency in key global economic structures lead to inequalities in the world economy . The dependency theory introduces an interpretation of relations in international economy characterised by dependency which makes economy of country "" conditioned by the development and expansion of another country to which the former is subjected to . "" ( ) This leads to the idea that underdevelopment in a country is a direct consequence of expansion or development in other country on which the former depends on . Proponents of dependency theory see structures and processes of world economy as having inbuilt biases leading to relations of dependency which directly cause the underdevelopment in the world . The inequality can be explained in terms of dependency relations in trade , finance and technology . "" This system is a dependent one because it reproduces a productive system whose development is limited by those world relations which necessarily lead to development of only certain economic sectors , to trade under unequal conditions with international capital under unequal conditions , to the imposition of super - exploitation of domestic labour force with a view to dividing economic surplus this generated between internal and external forces of domination . "" ( ) of the arguments behind dependency theory is based on account of the international trade with trade dependency relations leading to underdevelopment . "" Trade relations are based on monopolistic control of the market which leads to transfer of surplus generated in dependent countries to the dominant countries . "" ( ) In particular , developing countries have been forced to become mainly exporters of raw materials and primary goods , unable to compete with developing states in manufactured industrial products where developed states hold a comparative advantage , which has been further enhanced by the international trade regime bias in favour of developed states . Developing countries are disproportionately affected by the tariff barriers . While Uruguay round of negotiations achieved substantial reduction of tariffs it has been more advantageous to the industrial countries as tariffs remain high on textiles , leather and agricultural commodities . ( Woods ) The relative openness of the global market in manufactured goods undermines the ability of LDCs to develop their own higher value added industries with manufactured goods and thus have to rely on imports . Moreover , prices of the commodities and primary goods have been decreasing on the global market which has a negative impact on balance of payments of developing countries fur undermining their ability to develop . The unequal trade relations thus leaves developing countries dependent on developed countries , where the unfavourable terms of trade undermine LDCs prospects for development . Dependency theory identifies financial dependency of LDCs as a further factor leading to global inequalities . "" The financial relations are , from the view point of the dominant countries , based on loans and export of capital , which permit them to receive interest and profits thus their domestic surplus and strengthening their control over the economies of the other countries . "" ( : ) As developing countries open their financial markets and integrate in the world economy , foreign capital is able to control their economic resources and rather than following developmental strategy it follows particular financial interests . This leads to both the transfer of profits and interest and loss of control over its productive resources . Consequently , reliance on foreign capital brings the risks associated with dependency . Technological dependency relation also plays an important role in the theory 's explanation of inequalities . In particular , industrial development in the periphery is taken to be ' strongly conditioned by the technological monopoly exercised by imperialist centres . '(Dos Santos : ) The global regime on technology transfer is more beneficial for the developed countries as it protects their interests and leaves developing nations dependent on their monopoly as it is too costly for them to develop the needed technology independently . International regime on patent rights severely limits the technology transfer and dominant states only deposit obsolete technologies in the dependent states generating a system of inherent industrial backwardness and dependency . This leaves LDCs relying on developing countries for new technologies as major "" technological innovations and gains in productivity largely occurred in the developed countries and the LDCs found themselves lagging and unable to compete in areas of new product development and production . "" ( , : ) Technological dependency leaves LDCs unable to move up the production and technology ladder and thus contributes to their underdevelopment . < heading > Evaluation of the theory < /heading > One of the implications of the dependency theory is that countries which decide not to integrate in the world economy are better off than those who fully liberalize and open their economies . The extent to which this has been true can be judged when looking at relative success of countries which export - oriented growth and import - substituting industrialization strategies . "" Export - oriented growth is willing to risk dependency to gain benefits of development . Import - substituting industrialization , on the other hand , views international market forces as threat and attempts to achieve development with less risk of dependency . "" ( Balaam 2006 : ) While countries in have followed the latter , the countries which became to be known as "" tigers "" ( , , , ) and "" Little dragons "" ( , , the and ) have tried use the opportunities offered by the global market . The approach was supposed to reduce its dependence on foreign capital , technology and markets by promoting home - grown industries , but in the end increased the foreign debt as deepening of import substitution required borrowing from abroad . Once the countries were unable to service the loans as their exports declined , devastating debt crises followed . Countries like and which adopted the strategy overall experienced less growth , less stability and possibly greater inequality . ( Balaam 2006 ) The approach relied on strong state guidance of economy , supporting manufactured export oriented industries and attracting foreign capital to finance the development . Contrary to prediction of the dependency theory , countries which started as poor and underdeveloped have utilized foreign capital and trade to promote growth without experiencing underdevelopment . presents the dependency theory with a paradox . It is both more integrated in world capitalism than the poor market economies and more developed . ( : ) Export oriented growth strategy results were very strong in terms of success in creating income and growth . These developments undermine the dependency theory in ways . , dependency theory would suggest that countries which avoid the risks of dependence are more successful than developing states which liberalize and integrate their economies into the global system . However , in have clearly outperformed the countries which experienced greater level of inequalities . , the success of in achieving economic growth and eliminating national inequalities by relying on trade and capital relations with developed countries goes contrary to what would be expected by . A development not predicted by the theory are the deteriorating prices of manufactured goods . While the theory only talks about the volatility of commodities and primary goods , with an increase of global competition the prices of manufactured goods have also decreased making it cheaper of developing countries to import . Thus the trade exchange of developing countries does not necessarily have to be negative based on imports from the developed countries . A major factor which affected the balance of payments balance has been the volatile and increasing prices of oil rather than imports of manufactured goods . A particular related issue when addressing a question about dependency theory is the development of the gap between and . While World bank report talks about a positive net flow from developed to developing countries , ) has suggested that once and are excluded majority of the countries are actually not getting closer to economic development levels attained by the . Broad ( 1996 ) has argued that contrary to report , majority of LDCs have not been part of the narrowing gap phenomenon envisaged in the report . "" The bottom line is that countries have been doing well for , while the vast majority of the is either slipping backwards , stagnating , or growing slower than the . "" ( Broad 1996 : ) It seems that it does come down to how we measure inequality . If developing countries GDP growth is taken as the primary sign then Broads point seems to be valid however this seems to ignore that majority of developing world 's population is concentrated in the key emerging markets countries . As and are catching up so does the majority of world 's population get richer and more equal . As previously suggested it does come down to how we measure inequality , but concentrating on the sheer number of countries and ignoring the extent of and success seems to ignore an important aspect of worlds economy . Moreover , as the major success in the developing world has followed the liberal rather than dependency strategy , both countries [ and ] have consciously chosen to seize the opportunities afforded by the global economy , through both trade and foreign investment , the development of decreasing global gap makes the dependency argument less convincing . < fnote > Special report : , The Economist , < /fnote> Special report : , The Economist , < /fnote > The dependency theory does account for negative effects of integration into global financial markets and opening of domestic economy of developing countries to foreign capital . A number of economic crisis have resulted from the globalization of financial structures and opening of economies to foreign investment . This has had a particularly severe negative effect on the developing world . As suggested by , foreign capital , particularly the short term investments follow financial interests and thus not interested in a countries development . These investments have been highly volatile and unstable . The collapse of the peso in led to the flight of in short term funds from that country in just . ( Broad : ) As countries have relied on these investments to finance their development strategies , they have suffered serious negative effects when these funds have been withdrawn when a crisis emerged . A particular case is the financial crisis in which was partly caused by dependence on foreign capital . "" Although some analysts have argued that the crisis was caused by unwise state intervention in the economy , others argued that rapid adoption of consensus policies especially free capital markets was more to blame . "" ( Surin in Balaam 2006 : ) In this sense , this case supports the dependency case as integrating into the global financial structure by opening and liberalising the financial markets in countries did not take into account the level of development of financial institutions in the countries and made it more susceptible to financial crisis . Dependency on foreign capital has incurred considerable damage on the local economies . However , liberals have blamed the crisis on a number of different domestic factors and generally bad government policies . In this case , concepts like corny capitalism all help to explain the distortions of the market system which inevitably undermined the global market and led to the crisis . ( Gilpin 2000 : - 2 ) Still , it seems that the dependency on foreign capital and premature liberalisation of the financial markets were major causes of the crisis . Surin suggests that many states have become increasingly reliant on foreign investments , especially portfolio investments which he views as producing the ' structural conditions ' , which brought about the financial crisis which began in in . ( Surin ) < fnote > URL , 13th < /fnote > Another implication of the dependency theory is that developing countries which do not integrate in the global economy are better off than the poor integrated ones . In particular , if the developing countries which integrated go down the vicious circle of underdevelopment , then surely developing countries which do not integrate experience greater level of growth as their economic surplus is not transferred to the developed countries and they do n't suffer from unequal trade relations . However , that would be an odd conclusion , given that sub - Saharan 's economies are so comparatively isolated from the rest of the world economy and yet they experienced the lowest levels of GDP growth with some of them being negative . During , gross national product ( GNP ) per capita increased only by an average of in the and in sub - Saharan Africa , it declined by . ( Broad 1996 : 8) If an explanation of underdevelopment relies purely on the global economy to provide causes for it and thus limits the explanation to make an account in terms of factors on the international , it fails to account for lack of development in countries which are not integrated or are have tried to avoid the dependency relations risks . Given the examples of success of countries which have integrated , e.g. and , the point could be taken even further and it could be argued that suffers not from globalisation , but from lack of it . The dependency theory explanation of inequalities fails to account for underdevelopment where the international level of explanation is not present and thus at best only provides a partial explanation in a limited number of cases of underdevelopment . < fnote > Special report : , The Economist , < /fnote> Special report : , The Economist , < /fnote> Conclusion: The dependency theory introduces an interpretation of relations in international economy characterised by dependency which conditions development of country on another and thus explains inequality with the concept of underdevelopment . The global regimes on trade , finance and technology transfers have a bias which favours developed countries over developing ones and leads to underdevelopment in the latter . This explanation however leads to a number of implications which are not confirmed by developments in world economy . Failures of the Import - substituting industrialization strategy and an immense success of export - oriented growth which relies on foreign trade and capital for development goes contrary to dependency argument . Moreover , as both prices of manufactured goods as well as the prices of commodities have been decreasing , the unequal trade exchange is not as convincing as it fails to predict this . Also the theory fails to account for the least developed countries in region as these are not integrated into the international economy . The argument is further undermined by the decreasing gap between . Still , dependency theory does account for the negative effects of unstable global finance and investment on the developing countries . However , this does not lead to development in the developed countries as the investors also loose in a financial crisis . It seems that the theory can only provide a partial explanation of inequalities in global economy at best . By concentrating on the global level as a source of explanation it ignores the effect of domestic level on prospects of development . Global economy offers opportunities and risks where dependency theory only tries to account for the risks and even then overestimates their potential and effect .",1 "< abstract > Since , there have been different bills that have attempted to ban the use of hunting with hounds in the . The final bill was rejected times before the use of the Parliamentary act was used to ban hunting . Since the ban , it is believed that the ban is a target against the rural communities that participate in the activity . It is claimed that hunting with dogs is the least cruel method for culling foxes , but comes with criticism from which have evidence that a dog bite does n't always initially target the neck of foxes and hares , and the constant pursuit of deer does n't correlate to natural behaviour . A study on the numbers of foxes during the foot and mouth outbreak proposes the idea that hunting with dogs is n't an adequate way to regulate numbers of foxes . Deer hunting with dogs only accounts for of culling needed . Also , hare and mink hunting make an insignificant impact on the number of the species . Therefore the ban on hunting with dogs can have suitable justification that animal welfare is seriously compromised , and not a conspiracy against the class divisions . < /abstract> Introduction of the ban The Hunting Act ( 2004 ) was put into practice on the th of . This Act came with criticism , especially from the pro - hunting groups because the current Labour government had to evoke in order for the bill to be passed through . statement on the programme ' Question Time ' in that , "" hunting will be banned before the next election "" ( supportfoxhunting.co.uk , ) showed the desperation that the party was in order for a complete ban on hunting . Many pro - hunters believe that using was the last attempt that the Labour party could use in for the bill to pass before the general election . < quote>""With the world in the state it is in ... people will not understand Labour 's warped priorities and their fixation with the issue of banning hunting with hounds . "" , Shadow Environment , Food and Rural Affairs minister ( 2004) Class and its definitions Mentioned in ( ) as "" a system that divides members of a society into sets based on social or economic status "" , and was traditionally perceived as high earning members that were powerful and affluent ( ' upper class ' ) , and those members that were less economically well - off ( the ' working class ' ) . As a stereotypical judgement , upper class members were usually wealthy landowners that tended to vote Conservative . Whereas the working - class are perceived to work within towns and cities with a low income . Labour 's coalition of the working class and progressive middle - class allies ( Galloway , ) , has stood as a party with the views of the working class , winning support for the party 's MPs in the majority of the 's towns and cities in the and 2001 general elections ( Figure ) . This has caused a division by the wealth of person , the political views they hold , and also whether they live in an urban or rural environment . It can therefore be assumed that the repetition of anti - hunting bills brought forward to the government may be an attack on the rural after once common working - class sports such as cock - fighting , dog - fighting , bull and bear - baiting were banned in under the power of the then Tory ( which are now modern - day Conservatives ) , and the Whig ( now modern day Liberal ) parties(number-10.gov.uk , ) However , it was then , and can still be believed that fox hunting , although enjoyed by the wealthy , was a form of countryside management . The different attitudes to fox hunting between urban and rural dwellers can be summarised in . < table/>From the above table , it is clear that the views of fox hunting differ between the urban and rural populations . This may be due to media influence , because many people that live in towns and cities have never seen or been on a hunt . < heading > Hunting with dogs versus Shooting Hunting with dogs is claimed to be the best method for culling foxes . This is because the most common method for culling wild animals is by the use of shooting the animal from a distance . The riflemen must be highly accurate in order to successfully kill the animal without causing a prolonged pain response in the animal . Shooting an animal inaccurately can seriously cause pain to the animal . Shooting from a distance also allows the animal to have a high chance of escaping with an injury , unlike hunting with dogs , which specifically targets a single animal and will constantly pursue it . "" However , this concern is currently not applied to other species of animals during open shooting season , or the irregular shooting of animals or birds by farmers "" ( Wheeler 2000 ) . It is claimed that the dogs hunting the animal will not cause injury prior to the main neck bite : < heading>'Instant Killing of Fox by Leading Hound'""The kill occurs as a swift , almost instantaneous , procedure made possible by the considerable power weight advantage the hound has over the fox "" ( Thomas and Allen 2000) Hunting with dogs does n't always attack the animal with a powerful bite to the neck after a chase , as many pro - hunting groups tend to believe . ( ) obtained the carcasses of out of foxes killed during individual hunts ( the carcass was not presented to the by the Hunt ) . of the carcasses were shot after being dug out by terriermen when the ' fox went to ground ' . The post mortem of of these carcasses showed the presence of past bullet wounds- supporting the idea that shooting animals is n't the best/ most effective method of controlling numbers of foxes with the minimum amount of stress or pain to the animal . other fox carcasses that were killed , were by hounds above ground , and were examined to find "" little tissue damage in the head , neck and shoulder region "" ( Figure ) . Therefore these foxes could n't have been killed by a swift kill to the neck as stated by and . concluded that these deaths occurred from "" probable ... trauma to the abdomen , hindquarters or chest ... by repeated dog bite "" . The carcasses examined with no factures to the cervical vertebrae that were presented to the inquiry may have been a coincidence , but information presented to for the same result re - occurring was both supported and opposed . Jones et al , 2000 , own studies on post mortems show that the main cause of death was a bite wound over the chest region , and severe breakages of the spinal cord may have resulted from the fox being shaken by the foxhound . As there was no debris , or frothing in the trachea , has stated that the kill , although not on the neck , still killed the foxes instantly ( most likely due to the shear size difference between the fox- , and foxhound ) < picture/> Chase of foxes and deer The fox is classified as a top predator in the . Therefore , being chased may not be part of its natural behaviour and may cause stress to the animal . Also , state that of foxes that are chased by dogs are shot after the fox has ' gone to ground'- therefore it does n't seem necessary to chase them , and just shoot them in the place , without the need of a chase . Huntsmen agree that a fox being chased is n't part of its natural routine , but foxes have evolved to be able to travel long distances , to enable them to catch and find their prey . Deer and hares are characteristic of prey species , in that the "" whole anatomy of the species with its muscle mass concentrated at the top of long slender limbs and the bipedal feet is a conformation clearly evolved for flight and speed "" ( Thomas , ) , and therefore the animal can travel great distances with the same type of stress levels induced similar to those which occurred in horses and humans which had exercised intensively ( and , as cited in et ) . However , when worked with for , they both concluded that deer experience heighten activity levels when being chased , greater than deer would experience when being chased by wolves in other countries . Hunting with dogs often targets those animals which are weak or old , especially in the case for deer hunting ( with dogs ) . This selection , in a way , stops those that are weak and old , suffering over from its illness . With foxes , it is often for hounds to catch foxes that are diseased ( most likely due to mange ) . If disease is allowed to spread , it could infect domesticated animals or decrease the population of the hunted animal , especially if a ban where to be put into place ( Eddy , ) . This targeting of the weak and old allows a good way of regulating the numbers of wild animals that would otherwise increase in numbers and harm the effectiveness and economy of farmed animals . < heading > Regulation of fox numbers in England It is speculation that numbers of animals will increase if a complete ban on hunting with animals . In the case for regulating foxes , it is estimated that there are adult foxes in and produce cubs ( , as cited in et al . , ) . Therefore , a mortality ( ) each year needs to occur to stop the numbers of these animals from increasing in population . However , ( as cited in White et al . 2000 ) calculates that foxes are killed directly from fox hunts and et al . , ( ) estimate that foxes are killed . Therefore , hunting has never been a huge part in the culling of foxes , and the main killing method is due to motor incidents ( , , calculates are killed from traffic ) , and environmental factors ( e.g. starvation ) . et al . , ( ) studied the numbers of foxes before and after the in , by calculating faecal density in sites located throughout and . The report concluded that the numbers of foxes did n't increase during a nationwide ban on hunting with dogs ( and other types of culling methods to a certain extent ) . The report also found no association between any reduction in hunting pressure that was observed , and the change in fox density . If this report is to be taken into account , it can not be valid to justify that hunting with dogs is a good regulatory method . also reports that hunting with hounds does n't regulate other wild mammal species . It is believed that deer hunting with hounds only accounts for of the number of deer needed to be culled to maintain a stable population . Although the numbers of hares and mink populations have n't been statistically measured , et al . believe hunting these animals make an insignificant impact in regions that they are hunted , due to the constant reproductions of the animals . < heading > Price per kill Averaging out over and across all foxhunts , each fox killed costs £ at it by region , the cost per fox killed varies from in hunts that participate in , but for each fox that is killed in hunts in . This is an un - economical cost to culling in the , and this evidence , together with collections and memorabilia that is available , reflects to a certain extent that hunting with dogs can be seen as an unnecessary recreational activity . The high cost is n't as high for the farmers who want foxes removed from their land . As et al . quote "" The major advantage to farmers and landowners from the hunt is that it operates without any additional expense on their part , unless they choose to hunt themselves "" , is one of the main reasons why farmers choose to allow hunting- because the price for pest control is free . If the farmers do not want culling of wild animals on their land , it has been estimated that non - culling approaches may cost per fox killed . For example , , as cited in , ) calculated that the price to erect a fence that would prevent large animals , such as deer and foxes , to enter onto agricultural property would cost in the region of £ per metre of fence , with an extra 14pence per metre for maintenance . A fence would also stop the general movement of wild animals across the countryside , and with animals such as deer that move to graze , fencing them off might cause them to starve- therefore bringing in another welfare dispute . < heading > Conclusion The suggestion that the ban on hunting with dogs is entirely due to class , than animal welfare seem implausible . The ban is / will affect the rural population , mainly because they are mainly the ' class ' that participate in the activity . However , I believe it is right that the rural community should be incensed by the ban . There was little , or no scientific evidence given to The Burn 's Report that a ban on hunting with dogs would result in an increase in wild mammal populations , only speculation from both sides of the debate . As ( ) states : < quote>""The best way to test these predictions would be ... a temporary , medium - term ban in random areas ... and with careful planning , it would provide a firmer scientific basis for legislation than existing evidence"" I believe that this statement is right , but from what evidence is presented in this report , I would agree that the affect on class is a result on a ban , and not the cause . Wild mammals do need to be regulated- especially the over - populated deer in the south - west - but modern - day hunting with dogs has been waived from regulation of animals into a cruel sporting activity .","< heading > Introduction; Sensory profiling is a very useful technique and is one of the most in depth sensory evolution techniques that is commonly used . It involves a panel of people who will discuss the attributes of a specific sample , and the quality of these may then be evaluated . Sensory profiling , unlike other methods , allows the panel to determine what they actually believe the attributes to be , and then go on to score ( and rank ) the samples under these specific attributes . In this instance , sensory profiling was used to assess the attributes of brands of milk chocolate . A panel of individuals was used to assess each of the attributes with repeats . To quickly summarise the approach , each panel member tasted the unbranded chocolate samples and each individual came up with their own attributes to describe the samples ( this included attributes under the headings ; aroma , mouth feel , flavour and after effect ) . The panel then came together as one , to discuss the attributes determined and a full list of attributes was defined for the sample set . The chocolate samples were then tasted again , and scored using the attributes previously defined . < heading > A brief summary of the method is described above . To go into a little more detail , milk chocolate samples were tasted , these were ; < list Dairy MilkGalaxyWaitrose MilkAsda Milk Each oh these chocolates was assessed using a profiling technique which , would normally involve steps ; assessor training , development of vocabulary , quantitative assessment of attributes and analysis of results . In the development of the vocabulary section , each of the panel members went away and described the sensory attributes of the chocolate samples in their own words . The class ( sensory panel ) then reassembled , and discussed all the attributes that had been raised and a consensus was reached as to whether the attributes brought up could be used for the samples . In this case , consensus was reached on attributes which could be used to describe each of the chocolates . It may be , for example , that different panel members have used different words to describe the same attributes and clarification such as this can be resolved during the development of vocabulary . Once the attributes that were to be assessed had been finalised , the panel again went away and tasted the chocolates . This time , however , each attribute was scored using a line scale ( it is also important to note that the scoring of attributes was done in duplicate with a 30minute interval between sets ) . The line scale allows the panellist to score each of the attributes from ' zero ' to ' maximum ' . Analysis of variance ( ANOVA ) was then used to show any statistical differences between the attributes of the samples . < heading The table below shows the mean score by attributes for each of the chocolates tasted by the sensory panel . < table/>This data has also been represented graphically ( where significant by sample ) in chart which may be found attached at the end of this document . The significance of the results has been highlighted with the * , * * and * * * star methodology where * * * represents results in which most confidence can be placed . looking at the significance ( by assessors ) for the various attributes , it can be seen that , all but are significant at , with many being significant at and . From this , we can state that there is a clear difference in the assessor 's opinions of the various attributes . The reasons for this variation can be numerous , and will certainly included factors such as this is the time that this panel has been assembled together . With this said , however , looking at the significance ( by samples ) column , it can be seen that of the attributes were found to be statistically significant . The significance of variation by sample , type takes into account the variation by assessors so these attributes can be said to be significantly different across the samples ( this is the data plotted in chart one ) . Taking a quick overview of chart one , it can be seen that the 's and Galaxy milk chocolate score similarly in the attributes - this is particularly true with respect to the after effects attributes . It can also be seen that in attributes such as ' sweet ' ( both after effect and flavour ) and other attributes such as flavour : ' creamy ' and after effects : ' mouth coating ' , the Waitrose chocolate scores significantly less than any of the other . In these areas too , the other chocolates score very similar levels . In all the attributes , when looking at all chocolate samples , there is good distribution along the scale . Looking at the Galaxy chocolate , it can be seen that it scores the most extreme in many of the attributes . It is reassuring that in both after effects and flavour where the scores most ' sweet ' it also scores least ' bitter ' ( this is true for both attributes ) . The Galaxy also has the least ' hard bite ' and is the ' smoothest ' and ' fastest melting ' in terms of mouth feel . As previously mentioned , the 's chocolate scores very similarly in many of the attributes to the , however , they are less extreme in their rating . This is with the exception of ' cocoa ' aroma where 's scores the highest and Galaxy , the lowest . The Waitrose chocolate is the most consistent for scoring across all attributes . It can be seen that for the majority of the attributes it score ( on the scale of ) . In some cases such as the after effect of ' drying ' this positions the chocolate between the other samples . However , in the majority of cases the other chocolates are generally perceived to have much more ( or less ) of any of the given attribute . The chocolate can often be seen to fall between the outliers of at extreme with the Waitrose at the other . This is with the exception of the ' mouth coating ' and ' drying ' after effect attributes where the chocolate gains this highest score . The profiling method used for the purpose of this practical is fairly robust in terms of the data that has been produced . This was achieved by the way in which the profiling technique was conducted . , each panellist sampled each of the chocolates on separate occasions . This allows comparisons to be made between the sets and to ensure that on both occasions the attributes were rated at similar levels . The samples were also presented in a random order to each of the panellist and this eliminates any effects which may be gained when trying sample followed by another . The samples were also randomly numbered and any markings on the chocolate had been removed . This again ensures no favouritism is given to a specific sample .",0 "The term ' seclusion ' , meaning to ' remove from sight , or contact with others ' should be approached with care when arguing this topic of women . makes this point in his article suggesting a "" tendency to confuse separation and seclusion . "" He also suggests that even though men and women have their different and separate ' spheres ' in the household , this does not necessarily mean that women are ' secluded ' from men or vice versa . With this in mind is it too dogmatic to purely state that women and men were merely separated because they had to under social dictation ? Could it be argued that their difference in roles in the household formed a ' team ' rather than a separation or even seclusion ? Another factor to consider when looking at this topic is which class of women are being looked at ; "" much depends on precisely which women we are talking about ; daughters , sisters , or wives ; rich or poor , free or unfree women "" considering these factors it is very hard to generalise to the whole of the female race in , in terms of being secluded . However , by looking at evidence of this time we can learn what the majority of women may have experienced . < fnote > , ' Seclusion , separation and the status of women in classical ' , and Rome 36 ( ) - 15 pg . < /fnote> Joint Association of Classical Teachers , The World of Athens ( ) pg . < /fnote > Women were expected to be inside the house and men outside . It is argued by scholars that "" men are associated with commerce and politics , the market place , café , fields ... the women with the home . "" ( ) Men would be in charge of harvesting crops in the fields , involved in most public affairs and particularly matters of the state . ( Polis ) Women were expected to stay inside the house and organise the food brought in from the harvest . They would also be in charge of supervising the slaves inside the house and responsible for sending out slaves to the fields . In addition to this , women would be in charge of the accounts of the household and the general activities of the family . Primary evidence shows 's oeconomicus declaring that the gods arranged the "" household to the woman and the outdoors a mans "" Even with this ' separation ' of the sexes in the household , it could just be that men 's roles were simply ' outside ' for such activities as the harvest , because they were physically stronger and arguably more capable of agriculture work . This in turn would leave the women to remain ' inside ' , as someone needs to organise the household . This then could be seen as separation rather than an intention to seclude . < fnote > Xenophon , On , Oeconomicus , , Fourth Century B.C. < /fnote > Further to this , women were not expected to leave the house unless for a valid reason . states "" husbands find them [ their wives ] out of the house and want to know what they have been doing . The husbands know that they go out , but they should not be found to have been out . "" This coincides with the Ancient Athenian feeling that women should not attract attention to themselves , especially from men . argument to this could be that men might not have liked their wives being seen and gossiped about . Women were not supposed to be talked about in society , whether good or bad . In Xenophon 's Oeconomicus , challenges his wife for wearing makeup claiming it 's deceptive . When considering this evidence it must be remembered that this is a fictional piece of writing . Additionally , Xenophon believed girls should be trained on how to be wives before old . Although it shows a biased opinion , it does not mean that it only belonged to man and so this evidence can be useful to historians . , as well as finding his wife 's makeup deceiving , could also find her act suspicion for an affair . This is seen with Euphiletus in , O n . "" ... how I had had the idea that my wife 's face was rouged . All these things rushed into my mind , and I was filled with suspicion "" It could be argued that although makeup was probably allowed , it did , like the above passage , create suspicion and fear of adultery when married . This fear of adultery , which can be seen in many different extracts , was because it posed so many problems . If a married woman were found guilty of adultery , the legitimacy of her children would be questioned ; whether they belonged to the husband and also whether they were true citizens of the ' polis ' . She would in turn be divorced and humiliated by society . For these reasons we can expect that men would want to make sure their wives were faithful , and so they got suspicious at makeup and if she would talk to another man . Women , especially those married , would not be well spoken of if found conversing with another man other than their husband . details "" insulting a woman by saying she seizes passers - by out of the street , or that she answers the door herself , or that she talks with men , is equivalent to ' this house is a brothel ' "" So with this in mind it would be understandable in to be suspicious of a ' well off ' woman talking to a man on the street . As well as in public , women would not be allowed to talk to a visiting male in her home . "" It was a common thing for a man to invite a friend to dinner , at which his wife would not be present "" . However , Euripides ' Medea , shows talking in public to the king , Aegeus and neither of them seem phased . < fnote > Bourdieu , , pg in : , ' Seclusion , separation and the status of women in classical ' , and pg . . < /fnote> Lysias , On , ( ) < /fnote> A.W. Gomme , ' The position of women ' in Essays in history and pg . . < /fnote> Euripides , , translated by ( penguin 2002 ) pg . - 71 < /fnote > It could be argued that the secrecy of married upper class women and withdrawing them from the male population was considered appropriate . However due to errands and coincidences this did not always happen . Due to this , it is questionable that some women may have had to talk to men in public at some times as they could not escape it , but it would have been frowned upon . This point can also be seen in , as Aegeus does not enter the house , nor does offer , as this would be seen socially unacceptable . From the majority of this evidence it is very clear that married upper class women were physically ' separated ' from other men . And in addition to this separation it can be argued that married ' well off ' women were secluded from the male population , to maintain their honour , children 's legitimacy , and for what can be seen as the main reason , preventing adultery . When looking at the other social classes of women in , there is a different story . The richer women , would send out slaves to carry out the work outside of the house so she would not have to . This was not the case for the poorer women , as they obviously could not afford to have slaves . "" women participated in a wide range of activities which regularly took them out of their houses . This included working in the fields . "" It can be see that not all women were confined to their house and ' separated ' from society or men . It could be argued that it was only richer women that could afford to send slaves to go out that were secluded , avoiding the possibility of adultery . < fnote > , ' Seclusion , separation and the status of women in classical ' , and Rome 36 ( ) pg . < /fnote > One role in society where women were very important was religion . They were priestesses in different cults and had a large role allotted in ritual . The most well known of these public festivals was the festival of the harvest ; the , in which only women would organise and celebrate . The festival celebrated the new harvests and fertility , which was considered a ' womanly ' aspect in society . Other festivals included the and the Plynteria , in which women would either wash or make a new cloak for the statue of . This part of society arguably does not seclude women ; they were considered ' purer ' than men and were seen as the middle person between the gods and man . Religious festivals often coincided with theatrical performances . There is dispute among scholars whether women were permitted into the theatre ; as some views in were that women would be too frightened or that it was too much of a public place . However , The world of says that male or female foreigners were allowed to attend the courts , theatres and festivals once they had paid a tax . Even with this evidence , it is still not accurate to say that all women went to the theatre as no known evidence shows freeborn citizen women going to the theatre . By looking at the previous evidence of citizen women and their prohibited relations with men , it can be suggested that it may have been unacceptable for most citizen women to attend the theatre . They would be in a very public place and around many men . Without knowing exact evidence it is impossible to make a rigid argument on women attending the theatre . However , it is likely to assume that they would not be permitted to the theatre . The mass of male influence and the constant anxiety of female dishonour and corruption were on many husbands ' minds causing them to ' seclude ' to maintain their reputations . < fnote > Joint Association of Classical teachers , , ( ) pg . < /fnote> Joint Association of Classical teachers , , ( ) pg . < /fnote > As stated earlier , political aspects of were in the male ' sphere ' of society . This is seen as women could not defend themselves in court , and had to have a male do it for her . This can be seen in a speech extract where a woman 's son is defending her right as a citizen in a court because she is not permitted to be present As well as a citizen women , poorer non citizen women were not allowed to be there either . The courtroom speech accuses a courtesan , , of not being a true freeborn citizen because of her sexual activities . Further to this point , in the speech accusing , her name is mentioned on numerous occasions . This is not the case in the other trial mentioned above , ( Isaeus 8) as the citizen woman being defended is not named , arguably to maintain her honour and respectability as a freeborn citizen . < fnote > Isaeus 8 . , , Fourth Century B.C < /fnote> Apollodorus , Against Neaera , , , Fourth Century B.C < /fnote > Women were also not allowed to vote and were not allowed to sit on juries . Again , this physical separation calls in to question whether it leads automatically to seclusion . In this case , it is possible that this physical division was created purely as an attempt to keep women at home , and nothing to do with secluding them from politics . There is enough evidence however , to suggest that there could be a factor of seclusion from the male populous rather than politics . The male orientated area of government could be a dangerous place to have a ' vulnerable ' woman to be ' corrupted ' , as the importance of citizenship was so relevant to the ancient . < fnote > Lysias , Eratosthenes , ( 7 ) < /fnote > To conclude , when arguing this question , there are many factors to consider . To label all women as either being secluded in is too much of a dogmatic statement . there were different social classes , each describing different accounts of women 's lives in . women were working in the fields and out of the home and the richer could afford to stay home . , men have written all evidence that historians have and so understanding an woman 's life from a woman is near impossible . It can be argued that freeborn women were secluded from male interaction . Furthermore , the poorer women would work outside their home and would be most likely in the presence of others , including men , and so arguably were not secluded as much as the upper class . This is obvious as most of the male orientated spheres of society such as , politics , juries , and the theatre were deprived of female presence . argument is that it was due to the protection over the women 's respectability . Another is that the women were being blocked out of society ; but I believe this to be untrue as they were heavily involved in religious festivals that would have been public and seen by the majority of the city . Instead , I believe that women were secluded to an extent of being kept away from the male populous ; as there was major anxiety of ' corruption ' of a mans wife . Additionally , I do not believe that women were purposely secluded from society , because of their involvement in religious rituals .","Blaise Pascal died in , leaving his most famous work , ' ' unfinished . It was a large collection of notes and drafts to be originally titled ' Apology for the Christian Religion ' . Published after 's death , ' ' was written to convert the religious opinions of agnostic intellectuals , and offers a new way of thinking with regards to the religion . The section concerning his wager is small in relation to the rest of the drafts , and is organised as a dialogue between and an interlocutor , 's disbelieving friend . The is a bet that one must take , in order to decide if you should believe in God , and uses pragmatic reasons to convince those taking the bet that to believe in God would be more beneficial . Before arrived at the Wager theory , he considered a priori arguments for the existence of God - the ' proof ' that results from a concept , with no need for evidence from real life experiences . Pascal came to the conclusion that a priori arguments were too far from human reasoning to make any sort of real impact , and act only to prove that God exists , ignoring all other aspects of . Such a theory ( deism ) is as abhorrent to the religion as atheism . A large proportion of ' ' was dedicated to the evidence shown in the bible - , and believed that both the fulfilment of prophesises and the occurrence of miracles performed by Christ were good ways of convincing agnostics of the creeds of . He pointed out , however , that a posteriori evidence ( evidence following experience or through using the ) was just not strong enough to make somebody want to follow the religion . Pascal then suggested the . It regards the pragmatic reasons for believing , and that to believe in God would be greatly beneficial , such as lifetime happiness and the promise of salvation . The Wager must be taken , one has no choice - a decision must be made . You can either decide that God exists , or than he does not . It is the possible outcome of this choice that should persuade those taking the bet as to which option they should choose . If you decide that you believe God exists , the consequence of accepting the bet and committing oneself to a lifestyle will be an eternal life of happiness . If he does not exist , then you will have lost nothing , as you will have already enjoyed a happy , pure life . If you decide that God does not exist , you will be passing up on the chance of an infinitely happy life , to gain only the finite rewards of an lifestyle . Such a choice would be highly irrational - according to one can not chose a finite gain over a possible infinite gain . He stated , ' if you win , you win everything , and if you lose you lose nothing ' . When considering if the is a good argument for believing that God exists , one must consider both the positive and negative aspects , and then decide if in reality , the intellectual agnostics for whom it was intended would actually use this theory to change their religious outlook . If used this argument to prove that God exists , the substantial gain they would receive are the benefits of a lifestyle , for example being a member of a , a wider community , and feeling that there is a supreme and all knowledgeable being that loves you . These are all highly desirable . If following morals and values , and committing oneself to a pious life , the believer would also be free on sinning and vice , and have a pure mind . Added to the substantial gain , one would also be living with the expectation of an eternal life in heaven with God after this life on . If such an expectation was then fulfilled , then surely salvation is the ultimate reward one could receive . The wager is a good way of showing the agnostic what is on offer , but in its nature is highly persuasive , for example dissuading those taking the bet by describing the disbeliever 's life as full of ' tainted pleasures ' and ' emptiness ' , and describing the believer as ' honest , humble , grateful , a doer of good works , a good friend , sincere and true ' . The Wager is open to many objections which reduce its credibility as a good argument for the existence of God . Pascal describes how those choosing that God exists should act as a true believer , and to attend Mass and Holy Communion and in turn , this will ' tame you ' . highly apparent objection that surfaces here is the concept of deception : the all knowing God would be able to tell that the supposed was practising the religion with the intention and desire to gain infinite rewards . Can one wholeheartedly believe in anything if you only doing so for personal gain ? The belief would be marred by the desire to achieve a reward . Pascal argues that by being around other , you will eventually believe without considering the practical aspects . In my opinion this is unrealistic and would only make the argument work indirectly , and even if the believer forgot their original intentions , the all knowing God would still know why they were in Church in the instance . If the had been used to convince someone to follow , then their love of God and Christ is conditional , rather than unconditional , pure love . They would be holding their faith on the promise of rewards . In the eyes of the such a motive would be considered immoral . However it is God himself who said ' I will promise you salvation if ... ' Is God promising something on the condition that you behave in a certain way ? If this is true , then is simply providing a wager in the same way that God Himself has done . A objection to the is that to believe in God for a bet is juvenile and does not reflect the seriousness of the matter . Should the outcome of a bet , or what is in fact a game of win or lose decide on what you believe , and in turn shape the way you live your life ? It seems frivolous to make a decision about immortality , perhaps the most important decision there is to make , using a wager . In the same way that God might not approve of a believing in Him for personal gain , he would surely not approve of using a bet to believe in His existence . A clear problem that is associated with the is the idea that 's decision theory can not be used for his religion alone ( Catholicism ) . In fact , it does nothing to prove anything about Catholicism in particular , or even the generic . All that the wager aims to do is make the betting agnostic favour theism over atheism . So can the Wager be applied to any religions ' gods , or worse can you create a God , and ask someone to believe in it with the promise of personal gain ? This is the strongest objection to 's Wager - it does nothing to prove the existence of the God , and thus it could be applied to , for example , , or the god e.t.c . Such a flaw would highly reduce the likelihood of an agnostic using it to believe that the God exists . The already presumes an understanding of what God is , ' since having neither parts nor limits he bears no relation to us ' , and the whole theory presupposes that He is infinite and omnipotent . The outcome of the is that He will grant the believer eternal life , but how does any living being know that God can do this ? How do we know his powers ? Pascal himself said that the alone is not strong enough to prove His existence , and in my opinion , it can not also be considered strong enough to prove the power that God has . The does not provide evidence for the existence of God , and is based upon the assumption that he already exists . This is also shown in a priori theories such as , where bases his argument on the premise that God is ' that than which nothing greater can be thought ' . How can Pascal 's Wager , which itself is based on the idea of God 's existence and power , be used to prove that He exists ? In conclusion , I do not believe that 's Wager is a good argument for proving that God exists . The simply aims to prove that it would be beneficial for the agnostic to live a lifestyle , and so reap the rewards - the substantial or finite rewards of living a moral , religious life and the infinite reward of salvation . It does not aim to convert atheists , merely curious agnostics , and I believe that this shows the argument 's lack of strength . I doubt the would convince anyone of God 's existence , and when published in it was very highly criticised as its shows no form of intellectual reasoning . It is based upon the notion that to believe is advantageous , but what if those taking the bet would prefer to choose that God does not exist ? It is not as irrational as Pascal states to choose a concrete , definite gain over what is a possible gain ; in fact it seems more rational to choose something that is certain over something that is not . The is a good way of convincing those who are searching for personal gain , but perhaps not for those who are searching the truth about God .",0 "< heading > Introduction Abstract The Sony Ericsson S710a Mobile Telephone , part of the S700 family , is part of new generation of mobile phones , equipped to the latest standards , to be launched in and markets , including . Featuring a Megapixel digital camera , Bluetooth wireless interface , and a memory expansion slot ( with which a Sony Memory Stick duo can be used to increase available system memory for storage ) . The telephone features a large , high - resolution colour screen and main memory . A full specification of the unit can be found on the Sony Ericsson web page referenced at the end of this report [ 1 ] . < /abstract> Project Brief & Overview For the new Ericsson S710a , part of the launch of the new handset is the design and development of software for the product . such piece of software to be produced is an ' Appointment Module ' designed to work in connection with the card , address book , and other functionality already present in the phone 's bundled software . desire that this appointment module should allow users to enter appointments into a calendar interface , stored in the handset , which will hold corresponding contact details of involved parties with the appointments , in order that when an appointment is due , each person concerned with the appointment may be issued a text message reminder automatically by the software . This report is concerned with how the requirements of were met with the design of such an appointment module , codenamed "" "" for the duration of this project . Several stages in its design were undertaken sequentially in order to produce a well - designed and appropriate solution : < list > Analysis of the structure of the handset 's software , inputs , outputs and interactions through the use of modelling techniques ( Modelling Language ) to produce a series of diagrams to visualise the structure of the telephone and it 's interaction with the proposed application . These can be found in of the report . Design of an appropriate system in an object - oriented programming language- with justified design choices to be found in section of the report . Conclusions and recommendations for further development , along with associated information , in section 4. Design of the system in UML Introduction The design of an appropriate solution to the problem presented by the client , , requires the use of an object - oriented approach to coding a suitable application . Use of an OO language allows for better interaction between the separate modules of the phone , greater flexibility , easier debugging , and an is ideally suited to the problem presented . The need to store multiple appointments in a calendar , with associated contacts , already lends itself to an object - oriented design - with individual and Contacts form base classes themselves- each contact or appointment has a certain number of properties , or ' attributes ' , such as Name , Date or , which are standard for every instance of a contact or appointment , but which multiple instances may be required with different properties in those attributes , for example , different contacts . These classes can be accurately modelled in an object - oriented language , but before this can be done , it is important to lay the foundations of this modelling by designing the system in Unified ( ) . The following pages contain diagrams that attempt to model the proposed system in - ( i ) A Use Case diagram that illustrates the interaction of the user and components of the phone handset to perform different actions or ' use - cases ' ; ( ii ) a Class Diagram that expresses the design of the system in terms of individual classes to be implemented and their interactions with eachother ; and ( iii ) Interaction Diagrams consisting of a Sequence and Collaboration diagram to represent the communication between classes as modelled in ( ii ) . Java 2 Standard Edition ( J2SE ) was selected as the programming language in which to implement the system . It was selected for the following reasons : It is a true object - oriented language ideally suited to building a appointment system with distinct types and properties , that can be modelled as classes and attributes ; The native support of on the Sony Ericsson S710a platform ( implemented in the form of ) . < heading > Use Case Diagram The following diagram represents the stage in a well - planned design- that of Use - Case . The diagram represents the interactions of the user(s ) ( in this case , only one , that of the Phone User ) represented as an Actor to the left of the diagram , with the mobile handset as a whole . Each oval symbolises a ' use - case ' , that is , a possible action that the user of the phone may take , or functionality they may use , or the interactions between constituent elements of the handset in terms of functionality used by each part . Each of the key actions that can be taken by the user are represented to the left . These actions interact with each other using functionality provided by the handset - which in turn makes use of the functionality of the card which stores data , and handles communication with the mobile network . Note that the auxiliary functionality denoted with * represents functions such as MP3 playback , calculator , games which are , though valid use cases , not relevant to the design of the application . < figure/> Class Diagrams The phase of the development of the application is to express the design of the module in terms of classes and attributes , and their relationships , using a class diagram . The class diagram shows each user - defined class as a separate rectangle on the diagram . The name of each class is stated in the top box , the middle box gives the names of the attributes associated with that class , and the bottom box gives the methods available in that class . < figure/>The attributes given with each class represent the data that will be stored as variables or constants for each class - for example , in the Contact class , information about a contact 's name , telephone number and email address need to be kept - as such , distinct attributes are defined to store each of these values . Each attribute is suffixed with the data type , defining the type of information that can be stored by that attribute - only are used in the design for the system - String ( which can hold a row of alphanumeric characters ) and Date ( which holds a Gregorian calendar date ) , though supports a number of other data types . The bottom box gives the methods associate with the class - these are the functions , calls or procedures that trigger an action within the system , interacting with other classes to produce an output as a result of user action or background processes . Each attribute and method is given a visibility definition - this determines how a method or attribute can be accessed outside of its own class or package . The visibility types are public , private and protected , and they are denoted on the diagram by- a coloured brick for a public method or attribute , and a coloured brick with a padlock for a private method or attribute . No protected methods or attributes are defined in this project . Public visibility specifies that a method or attribute can be used or altered by an associated class , whereas private visibility specifies that an attribute or method 's features can only be used by the class to which it belongs . The relationships between classes are shown on the diagram by the arrows been objects - the description of the relationship is given in the diagram 's annotations- for instance , class will be used to define a vector or array to hold contact records . Multiplicity is defined through the numbering at each end of the lines - so in the case of the Contact class , or more contacts can be held , but there must only ever be one Address Book holding those or more contacts in existence at any given time . The diamond arrowheads on these relationships show the type of aggregation between classes . A black diamond head shows that the classes are linked by a composition aggregation - that is , a linked class is a part of the whole of the class with which it is linked , and will cease to exist should the class it is linked to be deleted - so , for instance , can not exist outside of . A white diamond illustrates shared aggregation - whereby a class can exist separately and numerous instances could exist for each instance of the class it is linked to . So in the case of Contact - Appointment class relationships , individual can exist without being a part of an appointment , and an appointment can concern a number of different contacts , such as a meeting with a group of colleagues . < heading > Interaction Diagrams Sequence Diagrams The following demonstrate how the objects defined in the system interact , in turn , to produce desired functionality . Diagrams for major functionality , adding and editing appointments , are presented below . Given in the top left of the diagram is the Actor representing the user of the phone . Alongside this are the major objects that the system will interact with to produce the functionality the diagram is illustrating . Starting from the left - hand side , each arrow , numbered and labelled ( beginning with Add Appointment - the user function triggering the sequence ) represents a sychronous call to the object with which the arrowhead touches- that is , a single - threaded procedure executed within the system . It waits for the results of its actions and return calls to pass messages back through the system . < figure/>The arrows to the far right of the diagram ( alighned with the Appointment object ) which return on themselves represent self - delegation calls , whereby a particular object will utilise functionality within itself to accomplish a task ( for example , making sure required fields such as are not left blank ) . The dotted lines represent return calls , passing messages back through the system , culminating , in the case of the Add Appointment functionality , in the user being informed whether their appointment details were entered successfully or not . Return calls , given by the dotted lines , represent a return from an earlier message sent through the sytem , so in the case of the Edit Appointment sequence , return call confirms whether an appointment 's changes where sucessfully applied in order to provide the user feedback . < figure/> Collaboration Diagrams The type of interaction diagram to be employed in the desing of the system in is a Collaboration Diagram . These are generated in conjunction with sequence diagrams to identify the objects in the system which play a role in interaction and to lay them out to visualise that interaction . < figure/>Each object is displayed as a rectangle , as in the diagram . The flow of information is indicated by the arrows , with events numbered and annotated . Self - delegations are represented by the semicircles , indicating the flow of information within the object itself . < heading > Prototype Design Decisions Following the design and graphical modelling of the system using techniques , the system was implemented in using the open - source integrated development environment [ ] . A justification for the major design decisions can be found listed here , and sample code to accompany the text can be found in below . In accordance with the class diagram in figure . , classes were designed to represent the objects Contact , Address Book , Appointment , and . Each of these classes specified the attribute and methods specific to the operation of that object . Vectors were to be implemented as part of the and classes , to hold the ' records ' defined in classes . Java SE 's built - in class and associated methods could be used to implement the calendar , and the scheduling of reminders . A JFrame class was added to provision for the building of the graphical user interface for , to add , remove and edit appointments . < heading > Sample Code For the sake of brevity , a full unit listing of the source code for the project has been omitted from this report . However , a full electronic version of all source files , in .java format for source classes and .jar bytecode compiled format can be found attached to this document . < heading > Conclusions and Recommendations Conclusion Designing , developing , coding and testing the prototype appointment module for the Sony Ericsson S710a proved to be a difficult prospect initially- the key to success was in the breaking down of the large project ( as described in the initial overview ) into smaller , more manageable section . The project lent itself ideally to object - oriented design , and the analysis of the project using techniques to model each part of the larger system into separate classes , with associated member attributes , contributed greatly to simplifying the design and making its development easier and more logical . Assumptions were made about the scenario and the system . , it was assumed that only a single telephone number ( presumably mobile , for the the purpose of sending SMS reminders ) would be stored for each contact . It was also assumed a set period of time before an appointment would define when an SMS reminder would be send - an extension would be allowing a user - defined time period . Further extensions to the system primarily concerns moving from a prototype , which we currently have , to a - version which can be deployed on the S710a mobile telephone 's java platform . This will require the code to be ported to ( ) , upon which the java support on the mobile platform is founded . The virtual machine is a cut - down version of the platform used to develop for a personal computer , and as such features a far more limited variety of built - in classes and functions .","Burial practises have been at the forefront of archaeological discussion for . The idea of using burial practices to examine the social relations of the past was long thought to be straight forward ; a wealthy grave indicates a chiefdom or stratified society . However , due to the changing ideas presented by recent theories we have now come to look at the evidence in a more open minded way . I will look at how burial is examined ; along with ideas about social complexity and to what extent grave goods affect our understanding of status . Historical sources and ethnography will also be used in examining the archaeology . Many early theories such as that of reduced societies to merely a few categories of complexity , such as band , tribe and state . This often meant huge generalisations were made and whole periods of time were put under one heading . This ignored the inevitable fluctuations and also meant complexity was being directly associated with inequality ( Pearson , P . p72 ) . argued that within a site each grave should be examined individually to determine its particular symbolism to prevent these sweeping generalisations ( , P p73 ) . The idea of ' Redundancy ' was examined by Tainter as a way of further measuring social complexity . He was interested in looking at structural differentiation in status and measuring the overall degree of organisation by looking at the energy expenditure of the graves . He decided to look at vertical differentiation as he considered this less ambiguous . Vertical differentiation being aspects not available to everyone , which would indicate a hierarchical society . The number of these ranked levels that he encountered would indicate the degree of structural differentiation . However his results were in the form of numbers which by many was perceived as reductionist . It also required an abundance of complete information which is unavailable at most sites due to preservation ( p75 ) . The argument of energy expenditure signifying social stratification is useful as it allows you to recognise social rank from a wide amount of mortuary data so it can be used in a variety of cases when , for example , there is poor preservation or few grave goods . Like at where the relative size of the stone monuments was used to distinguish statuses which were known ethnographically , despite the burials not being well preserved ( Chapman p29 ) . However , all cultures use different material expressions so it is not always clear what is higher status as this will change through regions and through time . Further , through time there are often many fluctuations , as demonstrated later by 's examination of and the Iroquois . The way in which burials have often been perceived is that the dead would be buried according to their social standing in life . Goodenough developed a ' Role Theory ' which looked at all the different identities that a social persona might have , for instance a woman might be a mother , wife , leader and so on . Any of these identities might be symbolised in the grave by either material or non - material means ( , P p73 ) . However , it has since been argued that social practise create a persons identity and they do n't just act out their roles without question ( p84 ) . We must remember that the dead are buried by the living , and so what we are seeing may be their perception of the deceased . suggested that the decisions made by the living about the social identity presented in death would be determined by the rights and duties of the relationships between the deceased and the living , so what we see could be skewed . Binford further thought that the differences in the treatment of the dead will be dependant on the size of the social sphere affected and involved in the rite . So in small societies the loss will feel greater as it would affect more people ( Chapman , p30 ) Also , in larger more unequal societies the funerals of ' important ' people will be bigger as more people will feel emotionally involved , for example Princess . We must also be careful to distinguish between ascribed status in societies and achieved status , as these both present different ways of life . Achieved status being associated with egalitarian societies and ascribed with that of a hierarchy determined by birth . Although sociologists claim this is more important in contemporary societies than past ones ( , P p74 ) . In my opinion this may be more consciously important to us but it would still have had an active effect on your way of life in the past as in one society you can increase your status through your own talents regardless of your birth , but in the other you are much more confined . Social aspirations are frequently pursued in death . For instance , someone who was not of high status during their lifetime could save a lot of their wealth in order to have a rich funeral . We can see this in the burial practices of , and also of . ( Cannon , A ) . 's paper outlines why we can not rely on the degree of ostentation displayed in burial rites to indicate the status of the deceased due to cyclical change in display . Those of high status would have elaborate funerary rites , which would be used to display their status and set them apart from the ' commoners ' . However , this ostentation would then begin to be emulated by those of a lower class , which would in turn force the wealthy to begin a period of restraint . This cycle would continue in order for those higher classes to keep the distinction of their status . He demonstrates this through his case studies : In white marble was a popular choice for grave monuments , the church then deemed this inappropriate as is was "" foreign "" and clashed with the church material . However , this was only actually prohibited when the marble became available to the entire social spectrum . The fact that the highest status members of society were the to begin elaboration does not imply that they were the to feel grief . This display was a thing of fashion and of changing social attitudes . The useful thing about the case studies is that we have historical evidence for the time period and know that there was no change in social structure . This means the fluctuations in mortuary behaviour can not be linked to this but must be seen as a change in attitude . Therefore this model could theoretically be applied to many cultures where mortuary display is a means of competition . The study of the shows a similar pattern but within a completely different culture . They too showed a cyclical tradition of ostentation and restraint . This culture showed burial elaboration in terms of material expressions from through to the protohistoric period . Here we see evidence to support the idea that the poor would save up their wealth in order to ensure a rich burial . This is in the form of early ethnohistoric descriptions . These reports outline the problems of the poor facing lifelong deprivation in order to secure this elaborate funerary display , as illustrated by the missionary Brebeuf : < quote>"" ... only the rich lose nothing ... the poor bring and leave there whatever they have most valuable , and suffer much ... Everyone makes it a point of honour . "" The periods of restraint within this cyclical display of ostentation have been perceived by some as a lack of concern for the dead . However , current ethnographies of the Iroquois show that mortuary display is very much an important aspect of life ; however , human nature generally dictates that no matter what your religious inclination or the current social fashions in mortuary display , your concern for the deceased is not going to be affected . These fluctuations mean that we must be cautious when using mortuary expressions to define status and a degree of knowledge about the fashion at the time is often necessary . It also demonstrates social control by the elite , so this model could not be applied in egalitarian societies , where we should not find any vertical differentiation anyway . Grave goods have always been seen as an important aspect in the study of mortuary behaviour . and looked at prestige goods in terms of . They assumed gold as a high status metal which would therefore only be included in those graves of the highest status members of society . These were generally associated with carts , drinking equipment and other luxury goods . It was their theory that to have these goods shows control of the major trade routes and control of these items filtering down to other levels of society . However , there is no such evidence of this filtering down effect and it has also been suggested that items such as drinking equipment would not be that high status after all . They would instead be used for local drinking and be involved in local feasts which would characterise control held be those with political power linked to dispersing hospitality , not the control of trade routes ( , P p79 ) . Although surely this political control would entail some kind of control over the trade routes in order to get the money to achieve the ability to disperse hospitality . Another study of metals representing status was carried out by . reduced the values of each artefact to the weight of each metal . These weights were proportional to the value of the metal . This showed that male graves had more gold and bronze than those of females , indicating inequalities between men and women ; it also showed inequality within the sexes . He further deduced that a higher density of graves presented a higher level of inequality and so a denser population created greater social complexity . Yet unclear area of his theory is that there is no distinction as to whether gold represents a chief or a sacred person / deity ( , P p79 ) . This could present problems as a religious society that assigns more power to sacred people is different to that of a society with chiefs who have perhaps achieved that power through securing political control or that of the trade routes . This prestige goods idea was also applied by at the Chalcolithic site of . At this site was a central cluster of tombs thought to be ' prestige tombs ' due to their inclusion of ivory and copper objects , jet and amber beads and other luxury goods . argues that since there were other tombs without these artefacts , this represents a heirarchical society , as opposed to the egalitarian society presented by and . It is further thought that this society became further stratified with hereditary leadership in . This is due to the high status goods beginning to cross cut graves of differing age and sex ( p78 ) . There are also rich burials of children , a sign generally assigned to societies with ascribed status since they have no way of acquiring wealth themselves . Labour investment can be a useful way to distinguish the value of goods . For example , goods acquired through trade would probably be of a higher value than local goods which were easier to come by . Also goods which would have had a lot of time and effort put into them would be worth more , such as female headdresses . This theory was put forward by who found that generally female goods were worth more than male , which either indicates that women were of higher status or , more commonly thought , that they were dressed in the wealth of their male relatives ( , p78 ) . However , the idea of dress showing status has more recently been thought misleading . For example , increased use of beads among the was seen as increased elaboration , but suggests that it was political resistance to stop the ' whites ' getting them ( Pearson P , p85 ) . The idea of women wearing the wealth of men is also seen in 's study of the mortuary variability of tribes ( ) . studied groups , the Pawnee , and to look principally at the co - associations of the grave goods and their occurrence in individual graves . In the graves over of the goods found were in male and adult graves . There was also a distinguishable level of structure : More sociotechnic goods found in male than female , and adults had more native implements and trade goods than sub adults . The discovery of the usually male associated beads found in a few female graves indicated that both women and men could hold positions of power . However , the lack of rank symbols specifically for females indicates that there may have been no clear institution of power for them and that in general the men held the power . Trade was seen through distribution of goods in graves as male dominated , which may be the reason that they apparently held more power then females . At the Pawnee site discovered graves . He found that inhumation was the normative burial type . The only thing differentiating the adults from sub - adults was the grave width and depth , as with the burials , and may just result from adults being generally larger in size than sub - adults . Adults generally had a greater variety of goods including the more valuable trade goods . There were no specific restrictions on sub - adults ; they just had significantly fewer goods . There was one main burial area which had segregated areas containing a spectrum of age , sex and wealth groups so it is likely that they represent some sort of horizontal social distribution such as lineage groups . Both these sites indicate a greater variety of goods and therefore power attributed to the males . Both the Pawnee and the had instances of disarticulated burials . The Pawnee burials are probably due to the time or location of the death as if they died in the winter then they may have had to wait until the ground was sufficiently thawed to perform the burial , similarly if the person died far from the settlement then they may have had to be carried back which could have caused the body to be damaged . These reasons are more likely than rank distinctions since there were no other differentiations in terms of goods . There are also graves of an unusual orientation which contain no grave goods . theory is that they are the graves of social deviants but is a child and they are both in the community burial area so it would seem more likely that they are simply buried that way due to unusual circumstances of death . The burials are of adolescent males with disarticulated bones which are in good condition . Both males had grave goods . It appears that these are the result of the well known Plains practice of dismembering war victims . All these examples seem to indicate that disarticulated graves or those of non - normative orientation are due to special circumstances of death , although with examples it is not conclusive . A more recent perspective on grave goods is that they are not just elements of the deceased 's identity but also the culmination of actions by the mourners to express their relationship with the deceased ( , P p85 ) . They symbolise their idea of the identity of the deceased . If this is the case then status is defined by a series of cultural practices which are subject to our manipulation , which is likely to be affected by our own ideology . Some grave goods were probably gifts . This is seen clearly in many barrows where there are swords and other tools which , under analysis , turn out to be unused and so probably made specifically for that occasion . The site of Borum Eshoj in not only demonstrates this practice but also that of the poor wanting to emulate the rich . At this tree trunk burial a sword scabbard was found but inside it was a dagger ; someone wanted the burial to look more high status than it was . Grave goods may also be misleading since there is evidence from ethnography that in many cultures the possessions of the deceased are burnt with their body , such as the in ( Pearson P p85 ) . Also , heirlooms may either be passed along , or if there are no successors then buried . This would present anomalies within the analysis of goods in relation to wealth . We must also take into account the fact that not all the aspects that go into the funerary rite will be visible in the archaeological record . Only some aspects of the rite will create a physical change in the disposal unit . Then , once buried it is subject to post - depositional effects . Further , it is likely that not all of the evidence will be excavated and so what we are finally presented with is a very small amount of the whole evidence . Taphonomic conditions vary from site to site , for example acidic soils will not preserve bone well and so any investigation of diet may be impossible or skewed . Erosion processes may also have caused sites to be altered with artefacts becoming lost which again presents a biased case . Medieval practices of burial have a clearer social stratigraphy . This was a time of strict religious control and burials were predominantly in graveyards attached to churches . There was a clear distinction between where Lay people and priests were buried . There was then a further distinction between statuses . The high altar was the most prestigious point of the church and this was where the priests would aspire to be buried near . The closer you were to this , the higher status you were . Even out in the graveyards there was distinction . This is clearly demonstrated in excavations which have shown one side having neatly arranged burials and the other having layer upon layer of burials which are much less organised . This shows clear distinctions of wealth and status with the rich being accorded more ' respectful ' burials in ' holier ' sections , despite everyone being supposedly equal under God . Orientation of graves is a constant throughout , with the heads pointing to the west . We know from historical documents that this is so when Jesus comes from the east the dead will rise to see him coming . The fact that this is constant supports the idea that fluctuations in grave elaboration are due to changing attitudes as religious aspects remain constant . Bodies are also always on their backs with their arms wither crossed across their chests or by their sides . There are anomalies which present examples of social outcasts . For example many burials are assumed to be criminals or even accused vampires due to their prone burials and evidence of violent deaths . These bodies are not accorded any of the usual respect . From looking at medieval burials we can see clear distinctions of status ; however it does help that we have the literature to back up our findings . The occurrence of social relations is often evident in burial practices ; however these are subject to the fashions of , which differ from place to place . It is therefore pointless to make generalisations about a particular time period since changes will occur regionally and fluctuations are likely . Grave goods can often give a good indication of wealth but again there are conditions which compromise this evidence and when looking at vast numbers of similar graves other factors will have to be taken into account . It is possible for archaeologists to determine social relations from burial practices , but the extent and certainty of this is often dependant on the time period in question , the conditions of burial and extent of the excavation .",0 "< heading > Introduction We all know that water masses in the ocean are thought to be transferred by the wind . However , there are actually ways that water is transferred in the ocean , one is by wind driven currents , the other is by wave driven currents which depend on the nonlinear interaction of waves with water parcels . Understanding the relationship between these currents is important for understanding the movement of water masses in the oceans . The average effect of the wave driven current is defined as drift . Stokes drift is a subtle but effective operation which can be just as important to the total drift of a water mass as that of the wind driven component . < heading > The theory Lets consider parcel motion is limited in just the x direction ( for simplicity ) . The water parcel is advected by a velocity field , u , so the x - coordinate of the parcel satisfies : FORMULA ( 1 ) We know that the velocity field has components , a constant wind driven part and a wave driven part which is periodic in space and time : FORMULA where FORMULA ( ) FORMULA FORMULA The differential equation above , ( 1 ) , is different to ordinary differential equations as the right hand side is a function of x as well as t. We therefore need to evolve the solution ) explicitly forward in time over step . Therefore this gives us : FORMULA ( ) Then by substituting in equation ( ) we can come to a more useful differential equation . FORMULA ( 4 ) This equation gives us a foundation for exploring different aspects of Stokes drift and an opportunity to see how its characteristics depend on parameters such as wave amplitude . This equation represents the total drift as a function of time . We can write a computer program that solves this equation for a parcel that is released when ) equals and then continues to solve the equation for varying values of ) and t , to show how the x - coordinate varies as a function of time . Appendix 1 shows the program code for this particular operation and the resultant graph below , ( graph ) , shows the total drift over time t ( ) . The x axis signifies time and the y axis represents the total drift . < figure/>As we can see from this graph , the total or actual drift varies in a periodic motion with time , with the ' wave ' type quality originating from the wave driven component of equation ( 4).This is a superposition of both components and now we shall compare the actual drift of the parcel to the drift due to the wind driven part u alone . < figure/>If we were to set the wave driven component to we should arrive at a linear relationship with drift and time . This is to be expected as we are removing the wave driven component which is periodic in both space and time . To compare the actual drift of the parcel to the drift due to the wind driven part alone we need to modify our original program and plot the relationships on the same graph . In Appendix 2 I have set u ( i.e. the wave driven component ) and this has given me the straight line depicted in Graph 2 ( green one ) . I have also plotted the result from Graph 1 onto the same set of axis so I can compare the . As you can see there is only slight deviance from the linear relationship and increases only slightly over time . However , the deviance is enough to show that the wave driven component is an important factor in the total drift and that the movement of water is not totally governed by the wind . < figure/>The next step is to set c , the phase speed , to and repeat the experiment for varying amplitude of the wave field u . The result is represented in the above graph ( Graph 3 ) . This graph represents the drift varying with the amplitude of the wave field u . u is on the x axis and varies . Notice that the graph is linear up to the point where u equals . This shows that beyond this point the total drift is mainly responsible by the wind driven component of the drift i.e. u becomes negligible for a certain amount of time . It would be unreasonable to plot different values of u against time because we are interested in how the drift varies with amplitude at each value of t. This hereby is my justification of rewriting my original program so that the graph represents axes of amplitude and total drift . The details of this modification plus a brief explanation can be found in Appendix 3 . We have been told that for small amplitudes u of the wave field an approximate theory for Stokes drift exists . It states that the total drift of the parcel relative to the drift due to the wind field u is approximately equal to , FORMULA ( 5 ) so that it varies with the squared amplitude of the wave field . To show this we can again modify our original program to fit in with our new equation ( ) . We are now varying u squared with total drift to show this approximate theory for Stokes drift exists for small amplitudes of u 1 i.e. u is less than 1 . To observe this relationship our program should yield a linear correlation between total drift and the square of the amplitude . < figure/ > FORMULA The x axis on the above graph is the square of the amplitude and the y axis is the total drift . This graph therefore proves that for small amplitudes of the wave field , equation ( ) holds up and proves that this approximate theory for Stokes drift exists . This can be supplemented further by computing another graph of u and total drift using equation . This time the relationship should resemble a curve very similar to a parabola but only in the positive quadrant as both total drift and amplitude are kept positive . < figure/>The x axis represents the amplitude and the y axis represents the total drift . < heading > Conclusion < /heading > This report shows that these wave driven components have just as much influence on the movement of water masses as the wind driven components . The model has shown that the actual drift of a wave is made up of components , each yielding different graphical forms when separated i.e. the wind driven component is linear whereas the wave driven is periodic . It has also shown that the wave driven component is limited up to the point where the amplitude is . This could be because of the periodic nature of the component but it shows that there is some threshold amplitude of the wave component where its effect becomes irrelevant and the actual drift is determined by the wind alone . The model has finally shown that for small amplitudes of u an approximate theory for Stokes drift exists . This approximation is important because we have already seen the consequences of when the amplitude of the wave driven component equals because its effect becomes negligible . Therefore this approximation for when the amplitude is small is important to the total drift of the parcels because without this , the wave driven component would not contribute at all and it would seem as if the wind driven component was the only variable important in the movement of water masses in the ocean .","is aged eight and in middle childhood , between early childhood and early adolescence ( ) , a time when children are generally motivated to learn ( ) , becoming more independent , increasing in competence and developing ongoing friendships ( 2005:313 ) . This essay will focus on 's occupational performance , environment and life stage , and links will be made between these and theories which could explain them . divorce , blended families and parenting style will be examined , followed by 's educational chances , as school is central in middle childhood . Then her learning , personality and cognitive development , and finally friendships , will be explored . has experienced her parent 's divorce and is now in a blended family . The definition of this is ' a household including children born to several families , such as the biological children from the spouses ' previous marriages and the biological children of the new couple ' ( 2005:326 ) . Many children experience stress through their parent 's divorce , but it can remove them from conflict and many survive the process relatively well ( ) . 's mum , and therefore , seems happier now . How children cope with a new family structure depends partly on age , gender and whether their mother or father has formed the new family ( 1999:583 ) . Girls can feel stepfathers are threatening their relationship with their mother and feel neglected ( cited in ) ( et al cited in ) . age upwards have more difficulty adjusting to a new family structure than younger children ( Shaffer 1999:583 ) . Baumrind 's parenting styles may explain 's mother and stepfather 's approach . These styles are permissive , authoritarian and authoritative . Within them she explored characteristics , ' warmth or nurturance , maturity demands , the clarity and consistency of rules and communication between parent and child ' . ' The permissive parenting style is high in nurturance and low in maturity demands , control and communication , the authoritarian style is high in control and maturity demands , but low in nurturance and communication and the authoritative style is high in ( Baumrind cited in ) . An authoritative parenting style appears most positive for children . Parents set limits , but are supportive and responsive to a child 's needs ( Baumrind cited in Bee ) . It appears is adjusting to her mother 's divorce and remarriage . Her stepfather and her mother seem to have adopted an authoritative approach . They give her time , usually explain their decisions and give support . Their authoritative style may be helping reduce any disturbed behaviours might develop and helping her psychologically adjust , despite her new family structure ( Bee ) . The new family structure means the family now live in a crowded house and can not afford to move . This , the fact that 's mother can not afford to buy her a new dress , and her mother and stepfather 's manual unskilled jobs , could mean that the family are lower working class . This is characterised by work in unskilled or semi - skilled jobs , for which little training is needed . Most of the jobs are lower paid and less secure than skilled occupations ' ( 1997:254 ) . Generally , educational achievement rises with family income so could be viewed as disadvantaged in this respect , with education cost , poorer housing conditions and cultural factors all contributing , but she is currently working hard at school and doing well . Some sociologists have sited parental interest as a factor , with middle class parents , in some cases showing more interest in their children 's education than working class parents ( et al 1998:294 - 295 ) . Perhaps this does not apply to 's mother and stepfather due to the authoritative parenting style they have that was mentioned earlier , although there are small indications that they are not showing full interest . 's mother tells her she can take her project to show her granny another day and her stepfather wo n't help her cook the healthy meal . Perhaps 's strong learning motivation within her life stage is overriding cultural factors that might educationally disadvantage her . , ( SLT ) could explain elements of her learning process . This emphasises human 's cognitive abilities , which allow them to process environmental information , assisting their learning and development . Acknowledgement is made of children 's improved cognitive learning capacities as they get older , but SLT would reject the idea that 's learning reflects her life stage of middle childhood and insist she will learn things based on people around her and her experiences . The theory emphasises that humans consider what the future outcome of their actions will be , being affected more by what their expectations are , than by consequences they have experienced . Averil believes if she works on her healthy eating project now , the reward of becoming a chef will come later . She may get small rewards and punishments on her way , such as praise from her teacher and less time with friends , but she is considering long - term rewards . SLT also emphasises observational learning , ( modelling ) , which is learning from watching others ( termed models ) . Averil could be modelling , for example people say she looks like her mum . This could mean in looks , but could also mean she is observing and learning from her mother . Also she wants to be as good as her stepsister on the beam so she is practising hard ( cited in - 37 ) . Whilst SLT does not support a life stage approach to children 's learning it does highlight how maturing and gaining experience in middle childhood , allows children to understand themselves more and become more reflective , competent and articulate ( cited in ) . Averil can tell her family her feelings , for example she disagrees with her stepfather about not cooking the healthy meal at home . It is apparent then that SLT has implications for children 's learning and sense of self and personality . Moving on to examine personality , proposed psychosocial stages of identity development , identifying a particular social task at each stage . is in the industry versus inferiority stage . School is a major influence with the child being expected to show competence in educational tasks . If they can not , a sense of inferiority results . As in all his stages , emphasised balance . The child needs enough success to feel competent , but there should not be too much emphasis on this or the child may become a ' workaholic ' . has come through the trust versus mistrust , autonomy versus shame and doubt and initiative versus guilt stages . It appears she has developed a sense of trust in the world around her , a sense of autonomy and independence and a sense of initiative . Within her current stage she is developing skills and feeling confident in her abilities . Although she is n't as good as on the beam , she is not feeling discouraged and is striving to improve . In school , she is feeling more competent , is proud of her project , and wants to show it to her granny ( Bee ) . Examining 's cognitive development , Piaget would have placed her in the concrete operational stage , of his cognitive development stages . Concrete operational thought includes logical principles that children begin understanding and applying in concrete situations whilst thinking more systematically , objectively and scientifically ( Berger 2005 : ) . The of the principles appears to grasp is reversibility , meaning she uses imagination to perform a reversible mental action on real objects ( Santrock : ) . She knows if she practises on the beam she will get better , and if she does n't she will get worse . The principle she understands is classification , which involves classifying things into groups and thinking about their relationships ( ) . Averil classifies healthy food within the category of food in general . Concrete operational children also lose the egocentric thinking of younger children , developing understanding that others may feel differently to them , for example Averil accepts she must share her room with her stepsisters as her mum and stepfather can not afford a bigger house ( ) . However Piaget 's theory does not explain how 's social interactions influence her cognitive development . Her teacher has enthused her regarding the school healthy eating project and she wants help from her stepfather with cooking a meal . Her stepsister and her mother are also big influences . The main theme of 's sociocultural theory is that ' cognitive growth occurs in a sociocultural context and evolves out of the child 's social interactions ' . Culture and social experiences influence how and what we think . For example , perhaps has always had negative feelings about smoking , passed on from significant people in her life , and her favourite meals may be fast food because that is what she has always been given by adults and all her peers eat it . Both and Piaget 's theories have application to 's cognitive development as she is developing specific cognitive abilities relevant to her life stage , whilst being influenced by her social and cultural environment ( 2003:184 - 188 ) . support is important in 's life stage . As children are less egocentric they care more about what friends think , and need them as equals . Close friends are extremely important ( 317 - 318 ) . Shared interests are the main reason for middle childhood friendships , with children defining their friendships based on common activities , not common values . This fits closely with concrete operational thinking . has made friends at her gym who share her interest . In this essay , there has been an exploration of 's occupational performance , life stage , environment and some theories that might explain aspects of these . appears to be in a generally supportive family and this has helped her survive the traumas of her parent 's divorce and her new family situation . In this life stage , school , social interaction and peers are important . wants to learn from others , including her mother and stepsister and wants to develop the bond with her new stepfather . She is thinking more logically and developing a sense of self . No one theory alone can explain 's life , but there are aspects of many , which apply .",0 "< heading > Introduction As part of the module we are required to create an ( ) based recursive least squares program ( using a template which has already been provided ) to identify and work on a model . The General definition of a dynamical system is accepted as the following : FORMULA with input signal { u(t ) } , output signal as { y(t ) } and where v(t ) is some disturbance . ( q -1 ) is the backward shift operator , In other words ( q -1 ) y(t ) = y ( t-1 ) . FORMULA Equation ( 1 ) can be expressed as a linear regression FORMULA where , FORMULA Hence the simplest model can be written as FORMULA Without going into too much detail the formulae involved here in order to make the Recursive Least Square algorithm work can be summarized in equations below where our objective is to get the estimated value of θ(from now on referred to as θhat ) . < fnote > θhat(n ) = ( ) ) < /fnote > FORMULA The algorithm can be modified for tracking time varying parameters . approach is the algorithm with a forgetting factor . In this a term λ called forgetting factor is introduced to ( ) . and is usually or near that value . This means that as n increases , the measurements obtained previously are discounted . Older data has less effect on the coefficient estimation and hence forgotten . Hence ( 9 ) is modified so that FORMULA < heading a test system using recursive least squares ( ARX) In our given case we have to modify crib.m in such as way that it works as a recursive least square program . As required by our Assignment instructions we have to choose a stable order system as our model . In other words < fnote > Most of the working of the file is mentioned in the section . NB : I have not employed the use of either loadass.m or dord.m as my crib.m does everything that is required . < /fnote > FORMULA Here FORMULA A suitable stable order model utilized for this purpose is FORMULA < heading > step input FORMULA What we have noticed in this case is that the recursive least squares program is predicting nearly the correct coefficients , the final value of the estimate it gets in the allowed iterations is : FORMULA This usually starts to converge close to the true value around after iterations . But after further experimentation at iterations FORMULA and does n't change after that . < figure/>Fig a1 . shows a step input < figure/>fig a.2 shows y and yhat . < heading > sampled sin wave as input FORMULA < figure/>As we can observe from fig that this iterates times and roughly begins to settle ( i.e. coefficients ) after cycles . But after iterations a = -1.5350 a 2=0.8598 b = b , Although much better than the previous input is still not exactly equal to  . < figure/>
Random input FORMULA < figure/>Observations after iterations are taken and a = -1.5342 a 2=0.8587 b = b . Which are not poor estimates of the system . In addition to that these are the best estimates of b 1 & b so far . < figure/>
Step Input with noise added to output FORMULA as we see in this case that the solution never converges to any solution and gives erratic answers . value of varies greatly and the last observation made is . which is totally inconsistent to any readings previously made . < figure/>
Sin wave as input with noise added to output FORMULA Again this gives highly inaccurate results , which do not even come close to the true values of the coefficients . The last recorded observation is FORMULA < figure/>
Random input with noise added to output FORMULA last observation made FORMULA < figure/>
Step input with forgetting factor Including a forgetting factor and observing its effect . When comparing this to step input without forgetting factor there are hardly any changes as lambda is too close to being and hence does n't produce really different plots . < figure/>
had λ been not as close to then the responses would have been starkly different . so far all models we have done have only n a = n b=2 . < heading of the system parameters for the master of a head controlled telerobot This part relates to a hear operated master / slave telerobot . We are provided with sets of data each with step responses ( from a step input ) with different conditions of K d in the controller . The input in the following cases will be u=60*ones(size(y ) ) . There are sets of data sets we have been provided on which we have to do tests each and comment on the results . In addition to plotting the coefficients and y and yhat , we are also required to plot a z transform and find the location of the a coefficients on a unit circle . If they ( ' a ' coefficients ) all lie in the circle the given model is stable . There are a total of experiments in this part each for the different sets of data . They specify dimensions of θ with figures the plotting the coefficients , the showing both y and yhat and the showing a z - transform and finding locations of the final poles of ' a ' coefficients . < fnote > These diagrams may show that y and yhat are exactly the same due to restrictions in the printing process but rest assured that these are different if viewed in matlab when zoomed or when viewing corresponding elements of the vector . < /fnote> Working with xp30d07.dat < /heading > Experimental run on the x axis where the proportional gain was set to and derivative gain was set to FORMULA In this case n a = n b = and the last observed value of θ we get is FORMULA < figure/>
FORMULA In this case n a = b = and the last observed value of θ we get is FORMULA < figure/>
FORMULA In this case n a = n b = and the last observed value of θ we get is FORMULA < figure/>
FORMULA In this case n a = n b = and the last observed value of θ we get is FORMULA < figure/>
It is concluded that All models are stable , some more than the other ( although commenting on their degrees of stability is beyond the scope of this report ) . ii ) The best model to predict this particular mechanical system is the one having least deviation between the measured and the predicted value of the output . In other words y - yhat should be minimum . Which in this experiment is the model θ = [ a a 2 a 3 b 1 b b 3 ] .This is done by subtracting both vectors and finding an average for all values . < heading > Working with < /heading > Experimental run on the x axis where the proportional gain was set to and derivative gain was set to FORMULA In this case n a = n b = and the last observed value of θ we get is FORMULA < figure/>
FORMULA In this case n a = b = and the last observed value of θ we get is FORMULA < figure/>
FORMULA In this case n a = n b = and the last observed value of θ we get is FORMULA < figure/>
FORMULA In this case n a = n b = and the last observed value of θ we get is FORMULA < figure/>
It is concluded that i)All models are stable , some more than the other ( although commenting on their degrees of stability is beyond the scope of this report ) . ii ) The best model to predict this particular mechanical system is the one having least deviation between the measured and the predicted value of the output . In other words y - yhat should be minimum . Which in this experiment is the model θ = [ a a 2 a 3 a 4 b 1 b b 3 ] .This is done by subtracting both vectors and finding an average for all values . Although θ = [ a a 2 a 3 b 1 b b ] is quiet close to the best model in this case . < heading the basic algorithm to either include instrument variable or a moving average noise model based on , or both . Illustrate these by comparing results with those obtained in B. From equation ( ) FORMULA In other words if the disturbance is described as a moving average of a white noise sequence e(t ) . FORMULA Then the resultant model is FORMULA also known as ARMAX model ( AutoRegressive Moving Average and variable ) < fnote > Please note that all equations discussed in chapter change with a C quantity added to them . Hence FORMULA < /fnote > The model which I am going to demonstrate here ( for the sake of simplicity and to keep in check the length of this report ) is the one where n a = n c=1 . Reasons for this being that these give the best way to compare the different approaches we have covered .Hence our model can be summarized as FORMULA FORMULA The last observed value of θ we get is [ -1.3286 0.0802 0.0000 0.0034 0.0111 -0.4698 ] which is very interesting as the values of ' b 's quite closely matches to xp30d07 with θ = [ a a 2 a 3 b 1 b b ] but not the values of ' a 's . Hence the only value of c we get here is -0.4698 . Not only does ARMAX add an moving average error term it also further reduced the difference between y and yhat ( from the corresponding based model)in this case and is therefore a better model for prediction . This is also stable as all the values of a lie in the unit circle . < figure/>
FORMULA The last observed value of θ we get is [ -1.2965 -0.1792 0.4905 0.0056 0.0090 -0.2233 ] which is very interesting as the values of ' b 's quite closely matches to with θ = [ a a 2 a 3 b 1 b b ] but not the values of ' a 's . Hence the only value of c we get here is -0.2233 . Not only does ARMAX add an moving average error term it also further reduced the difference between y and yhat ( from the corresponding based model)in this case and is therefore a better model for prediction . This is also stable as all the values of a lie in the unit circle . < figure/>
","< heading > Referral information Source of referral and a summary of key information48 old gentleman admitted on for an elective day - case angiogram due to a history of palpitations and feeling ' not - quite - right ' . < heading > History All relevant information gathered from the patient about the presenting illness , co - existing problems , current treatment , significant past medical history and the social and family background . The patient 's view of the nature of the problem and their expectations for treatment . < /heading> Presenting complaint: Palpitations and a general feeling of being ' not quite right ' . < heading > History of presenting complaint: The palpitations started and occurred early morning , soon after getting up . The palpitations were felt in the left upper sternal area and lasted for to a minute . During these episodes , the patient is distressed because he is aware of what he described as feeling like someone is drilling into his chest . There is a preceding feeling of faintness , but there is no associated chest pain or dyspnoea with these episodes and they occur during exercise and at rest . The patient has been able to associate excessive alcohol as a trigger for these episodes . These palpitations had started to become more frequent until the patient went to the hospital due to feelings of dreadfulness , he could not explain these further apart from stating he had felt tired all the time just prior to this episode . This visit to the hospital triggered further investigations , which included a , and echocardiogram both of which did not show any evidence of an arrhythmia . However , the patient then did an exercise tolerance test , which had to be stopped at stage II due to superventricular tachycardia . < heading > Past medical history: Previous investigations revealed Mr has hypercholestrolaemia and hypertension No previous history of an , , diabetes , , asthma or epilepsy The patient does suffer from certain food and stress - induced migraines Appendectomy at < heading > Family history: Father had 2 MI 's at , still alive Brother died at from an suffers from migraines < heading > Drug history and allergies: NKDA Aspirin 75 mg OD - anti - plateletSimvastatin 20 mg OD - HMG - CoA inhibitorBisoprolol mg OD - β blockerRamipril mg > Mr is a material scientist . He is separated from his wife and has a partner who lives in . He has daughter who lives in . The patient until recently has been very active and goes hill - walking regularly . In the recent past Mr consumed upwards of units of alcohol a week , recently this has been cut down to units a week . He is an ex - smoker who stopped and has a pack - year history due to smoking cigars a day from the age of < heading > Systems review: A systems review revealed nothing of note . < heading > Analysis of history The most likely single cause of the presentation , other possible causes and reasons for these choices . The findings to be looked for on physical examination to help decide the cause. Hyperthyroidism can cause palpitations , however , this cause would have been already identified in earlier admissions if this was the cause . Anaemia can cause ventricular ectopics , again this would have already been identified . Psychological element ; Mr stated that he does suffer from stress and this can cause palpitations and could be exacerbating the current situation . imbalance ( low serum or Mg+ ) can cause ventricular tachycardia and needs to be looked at further . There is no recent history of vomiting or diarrhoea , which makes this diagnosis less likely . Excess caffeine / alcohol can cause either or junctional tachycardias / ventricular ectopics / alcoholic cardiomyopathy . The reported alcohol intake by Mr and reported trigger of excess alcohol the preceding evening , would indicate that alcohol could be a cause for this presentation . Dilated cardiomyopathy can cause tachycardia , ventricular ectopic beats and . Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia ( ARVD ) - A rare form of cardiomyopathy , which can cause ventricular tachycardia and can be the presenting feature . Diagnosis of ARVD can often be difficult and the diagnosis is based on investigations including , echo , myocardial biopsy and the gold standard investigation an MRI scan [ 1 ] . < heading > Physical examination Highlight the findings most relevant to your clinical problem solving by underlining them A slim man who was sitting comfortably on the bed No evidence of clubbing , peripheral cyanosis , splinter haemorrhages , xanthomata , palmar erythema or dupuytren 's contracture on his hands . Pulse = bpm and irregularly irregular , 122/70 , RR = , O sats = on air , apyrexial No evidence of jaundice , anaemia , central cyanosis , oedema or lymphadenopathy was not raised On examination of the chest there were spider naevi evident superior to the nipples , nothing else of note . < heading > Palpation : < /heading > No left or right parasternal heaves or palpable thrills . The apex beat was located in the th . < heading > Auscultation: Heart sound I + II heard with no added sounds - vesicular breathing evident in all areas with no added sounds . Abdominal examination - the abdomen was soft and non - tender on soft and deep palpation . There was no evidence of masses , organomegaly or ascites . On auscultation there were bowel sounds present in all quadrants . Neurological - no abnormalities found on gross examination . < heading > Analysis of history and examination Reasons for your choice of the cause of the patient 's problem(s ) and any other cause that still needs to be considered at this stage There was no evidence of hyperthyroidism , anaemia or dehydration on examination , which makes hyperthyroidsim , anaemia , and low or Mg+ less likely as the primary cause of the episodes of . However , these conditions could exacerbate the primary cause and , , FBC and electrolyte levels need to be checked on routine blood tests . Excess caffeine / alcohol can cause either or junctional tachycardias / ventricular ectopics / alcoholic cardiomyopathy . The reported alcohol intake by Mr and the admission that these events occur after a heavy night , still indicate that alcohol could be the primary cause for this presentation . Dilated cardiomyopathy can cause tachycardia , ventricular ectopic beats and , an echocardiogram will be able to assess the likelihood of this diagnosis . ARVD can not be ruled out at this stage as diagnosis is based on investigations not on clinical examination of the patient . < heading > Formulation of the patient 's problem(s ) Encapsulate this in physical , psychological and social terms ( the triple diagnosis) The patient was quite an anxious man who has had a history of alcohol abuse , which was probably higher than he stated . His partner , who was present during the history , intimated that the estimate of units per week was a conservative one . This history of alcohol abuse and recent need to cut down his alcohol intake will be impacting on him socially , psychologically and physically , if the reason for his presentation is due to alcohol . The episodes of severe palpitations that he has been experiencing has been upsetting to him and he has stated that he is an anxious man and these episodes of uncontrollable palpitations will be increasing his anxiety levels , which in turn could increase the number of episodes he experiences . This vicious cycle and general feeling of not being in control of his body will have a global impact on his lifestyle . < heading > Management Use the framework of RAPRIOP to structure your proposed management . to the guidelines to the writing of portfolio cases for the details of the issues to be addressed under each heading. Investigations24 hour tape ( ) : < /heading rhythm throughout the recording , average HR bpm . Very frequent unifocal ventricular ectopics seen in isolation and occasional couplets and triplets . Frequently sustained episodes of ventricular bigeminy and occasional episodes of trigeminy . < heading results : < /heading > Good left and right ventricular function with no significant valvular or structural abnormalities detected . ectopics in ratio of < heading > ETT ( ) : < /heading > ST changes - ST depression upsloping . Exercised for min 51 sec ( stage ) of the Bruce protocol . Some light - headedness , no chest pain , no . Terminated because of ventricular tachycardia . Recovered fully in recovery period . < heading > Bloods ( ) : < /heading> FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA < /list> Reassurance and explanation Each test that Mr had was explained to him in full as to what the test involves and the reason for the test . After each investigation , the results were explained to him . The results of the were explained immediately after the test and before the angiogram . Possible reasons for the episodes of as well as why the angiogram was being carried out were explained . Mr knew the angiogram was to highlight any underlying coronary artery disease , which could be stented that would explain the episodes of . Especially with the strong positive family history , past history of smoking , high cholesterol / triglycerides and hypertension . < heading > Prescription / medical intervention Mr is already on the medications recommended to reduce ischaemic coronary episodes . Additional anti - arrhythmic drugs might be necessary if the episodes of continue . An implantable cardioverter defibrillator might be indicated if further episodes of are difficult to manage medically . < heading > Observation Mr was observed and monitored on an while on pre- and post- angiogram to ensure no further episodes of occurred . < heading > Referral and team working The referral involved , Consultant cardiologist and team , cardiac investigations technicians , radiograghers , specialist nurses , HCAs , pharmacist , GP < heading > Advice and prevention Mr was told that the most likely reason for his episodes of palpitations were due to his excess alcohol consumption . He was strongly advised to cut down with the intention of stopping . This measure would stop any further alcoholic cardiomyopathy and progression of the problem . He was told to seek advice / help from his GP if he experienced further episodes . < heading > Outcome A description of the progress of the patient as far as possible . This should include consideration of further issues to be resolved . Where appropriate you should contact by telephone patients who have been discharged home . The prognosis of the patient will very much depend on how well he is able to curb his drinking habits . The management is one of watching and waiting with appropriate advice to the patient if a further episode occurs . If these episodes do not diminish with reduced alcohol intake then further medical or surgical management may need to be considered in the guise of anti - arrhythmic drugs or an implantable cardioverter defibrillator . < heading > Evidence based care and issues for research A brief consideration of the evidence base required for the diagnosis and management of the patient 's problem(s ) study has shown that patients with alcoholic cardiomyopathy , who abstain from alcohol , or control their drinking to g of ethanol per day ( standard drinks ) , improved their cardiac function [ ] . Individuals with mild manifestations of cardiac dysfunction who stop all alcohol consumption can markedly improve their prognosis and even return to normal cardiac function [ ] . However , caution has to be made with withdrawal of alcohol as atrial arrhythmias have been shown to occur during the early ethanol withdrawal phase in patients without other clinical evidence of heart disease [ 7 ] . There are few papers in the literature regarding the diagnosis and management of due to alcoholic cardiomyopathy . It Mr does not stop having these episodes of ectopics and with his abstention from alcohol , then other possible causes need to be investigated . An interesting recent paper on the use of radiofrequency catheter ablation for a tachycardiomyopathy on a female , described the successful treatment on a phenomenon that is rarely diagnosed . This female presented with an incessant supraventricular tachycardia , which was not reversible with electrical cardioversion . Echocardiogram showed a severe LV systolic and diastolic dysfunction . After ablation her left ventricular function returned to normal . This case shows that early treatment for tachycardiomyopathy - considered the most frequently unrecognised curable cause of heart failure - can prevent irreversible structural cardiac damage [ ] . < heading > Commentary A commentary on issues of epidemiology , psycho - social , health care delivery , ethical issues or disability relevant to the patient and/or problem tachycardia is associated with underlying coronary , ischaemic , or hypertension , as well as , cardiomyopathies ( dilated , hypertrophic , restrictive ) [ ] . The underlying mechanism is thought to be enhanced automaticity , leading to re - entry circuit as in other tachycardias . In there is a group of ischaemic or electrically non - homogeneous cells . Excessive alcohol consumption is one of the commonest causes of dilated cardiomyopathy in the Western world . Myocardial damage may arise by basic mechanisms : < list > Direct toxic effects of alcoholNutritional deficiencies , particularly thiamine deficiencyToxic effects of additives ( e.g. cobalt ) in alcoholic alcohol consumption can halt the progression of the disease and in some cases can improve ventricular function [ ] . Medical management of is most commonly with amiodarone or ß blockers . < heading > Impact on your learning Describe what you have learnt from this case , differential diagnosis , subsequent investigations and management of tachyarrhythmias . The impact of alcohol on the myocardium . Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia . Witnessing the wiring up of a monitor , watching an echocardiogram and .",0 "Breast cancer is the most common form of cancer found in women ; it is on the increase and is therefore a serious concern . The lifetime risk of developing breast cancer is for women and 1:1000 for men . Tumors mainly develop in ductal endothelial cells ( ) but can also develop in lobular epithelium ( ) . But what causes breast cancer and what are the underlying molecular mechanisms that lead to a tumor ? Cancer is a collection of diseases with the common features of uncontrolled cell growth followed by metastasis to surrounding tissues . It is this metastasis of the cancer to sensitive areas , such as the lymph nodes , that makes breast cancer lethal , as a tumor in the breast is not lethal in itself . Other areas breast cancers can metastasise to include the bone marrow and locally to other areas of the breast . The formation of a cancer is not triggered by any single event ; cancers are the result of an accumulation of errors in vital regulatory pathways . ( It is thought that between 4 and 7 pathways have to be disrupted for a cancer to develop in humans . ) Gene changes play a major role in disruption of cell signaling pathways and fall into groups ; inherited and sporadic . Inherited gene changes leading to breast cancer account for of all breast cancer cases . However , it is important to note that expressing an inherited defective gene will not cause a tumor to develop in itself , but people with these mutated genes will have an increased susceptibility to developing cancer in their breast tissue . The main mutated genes that are inherited through the germline are BRCA , BRCA and p53 . They are all tumor suppressor genes . Mutated forms of the BRCA gene ( BReast CAncer 1 ) are found in of the familial breast cancer cases and of early onset breast cancer cases . Women who possess mutated alleles of BRCA have a possibility of developing breast cancer , compared to in women with wild - type BRCA ( 1 ) . It is located in the "" q "" arm of chromosome and the protein product is amino acids in length . Under normal circumstance this protein that BRCA codes for is an accessory protein for Rad51 ( ) . Rad51 is of homologes of protein , its function , which is dependent on , involves the repair of replication forks accidentally damaged during of the cell cycle . The removal of the Rad51 protein results in cell death whereas the removal or disruption of BRCA leads to the accumulation of DNA damage . There are positions along the BRCA gene that are known to have mutated ( ) . It is clear to see that any of these mutations , which affect the efficiency of BRCA , can lead to the development of breast cancer . Another important gene that is commonly mutated in breast cancer is BRCA 2 ( found on the "" q "" arm of chromosome ) . This is another tumor suppressor gene the protein product of which functions in much the same way as BRCA 1 , ensuring the DNA repair protein Rad51 functions properly . Mutations in BRCA account for almost as much inherited susceptibility to early onset breast cancer as mutations in BRCA . A gene involved in breast cancer is the p53 gene . This is another tumor suppressor gene and is found to be mutated in of all cancer cases . It is found in all cells in the body and has main roles ; controlling the cell cycle , triggering apoptosis and ensuring genetic stability . A cell with either a mutated form of p53 , or with the p53 protein absent altogether , will grow uncontrollably . Wild type p53 is activated when there is damage to the DNA of a cell . The effect p53 has on the cell depends on its current position in the cell cycle . If the DNA damage is detected during the G1 phase then p53 prevents further progress until the DNA has been repaired . If the DNA damage is detected during the G2 phase then p53 triggers apoptosis ( programmed cell death ) ( ) . P53 exert this effect on the cell cycle in an indirect way . It binds to damaged DNA , through a non - sequence specific binding site , which activates the p53 . A binding domain on the protein then binds to a pallindromic base pair sequence on the DNA that activates either cell cycle inhibitors or repair proteins . important genes that are regulated by p53 in this way ( i.e. who have this base pair sequence in their promoter region ) are p21 and GADD45 . p21 is a cdk protein ( cyclin dependent kinase ) that inhibits the cell cycle and is a DNA repair protein ( ) . It is easy to see , therefore , that loss of p53 function in a cell gives it a growth advantage over other cells . Mutations in p53 , as well as the genes , encourage cancers by inhibiting DNA repair and by allowing cells with mutated DNA to proliferate . These are major problems but , as has been mentioned , will not alone cause a cancer to grow . People without these genetic mutations will be just as vulnerable to carcinogens and mutagens as people with these mutations , but will be far more able to repair the damage these carcinogens are capable of doing , and therefore be at much less risk of developing breast cancer . Sporadic gene changes account for the remaining of breast cancer cases and include changes in the receptor family ( epidermal growth factor ) , changes in the oestrogen receptor ( ) and changes in the cyclin D gene . The cyclin D gene has been found to be amplified in of breast cancer cases ( ) . The relevance of this protein in breast cancer comes from the role cyclin D plays in regulation of the cell cycle . D phosphorylates the protein Rb . is a tumor suppressor gene , the protein product of which regulates whether a cell should enter the cell division cycle or not , ( i.e. it inhibits entry of a cell into the S phase ) . This inhibition is relieved by phosphorylation of Rb , a reaction undertaken by cyclin D ( other kinases are also able to phosphorylate ) ( ) . Mutations in the receptor can promote cancer by being inappropriately active , this means certain cells are receiving a signal to grow and proliferate even when they are not required . This results in inappropriate DNA replication , cell growth and cell division ( ) . It has also been found that of breast cancers express high levels of the Her2 protein , a tyrosine kinase receptor similar to the receptor , which plays a part in the normal development of the mammary epithelium ( ) . The oestrogen receptor plays a major role in breast cancer as most breast cancers are oestrogen dependent ( ER+ ) . This means that the cancerous cells rely on oestrogen to grow and proliferate . Therefore changes in the oestrogen receptor ( ) , and chemicals that mimic oestrogen ( oestrogenic chemicals ) , are a concern . If oestrogenic chemicals , such as parabens and polychlorinated biphenyls , find their way into the adipose tissue of the breast then they may have the effect of stimulating cells to grow and proliferate at a faster rate . These oestrogenic chemicals therefore have the ability to promote the growth of cells in a tumor . Due to the majority of breast tumors being ER+ most of the treatments available aim to either block the oestrogen receptor or to reduce the concentration of oestrogen in or around the cancerous cells . A group of drugs used , called anti - oestrogens , act as oestrogen antagonists , and include drugs such as and ( binds to the ERα and disrupts its function . It does not completely inhibit the and is therefore considered a partial anti - oestrogen ( ) . A group of drugs that are widely used are the aromatase inhibitors ( AIs ) . These drugs aim to reduce the concentration of oestrogen in cancerous cells . Their mechanism involves the blocking of the aromatase enzyme that is responsible for converting androgens to oestrogens . AIs are traditionally used to treat breast cancer in premenopausal women , as oestrogen activity is restricted to the breast and ovaries during this time , but trials are currently underway to investigate the effectiveness of using AIs on postmenopausal women . AIs are not prescribed to postmenopausal women due to the wide distribution of oestrogen throughout the body during this time . , a relatively new anti - cancer drug , works by binding to a growth factor receptor , reducing the stimulus for the cancer cells to proliferate ( 8) . These treatments are effective , but only if the tumor remains oestrogen dependent . Most breast tumors develop oestrogen resistance though , making endocrine treatment useless and therefore relying on the more traditional methods , such as radiotherapy and possibly surgery . So it can be seen that for a tumor to develop in breast tissue there has to be a series of errors , involving damage to DNA , damage to genes controlling aspects of the cell ( such as DNA repair and replication ) and an increased stimulus for cells to proliferate . These errors can culminate in a tumor that has the ability to metastasise to other areas of the body with possibly lethal consequences . Therefore , oestrogenic chemicals in our environment , which have the potential to encourage the growth of breast tumors , need to be identified and assessed for the potential threat they present .","< heading > Introduction < /heading > This project is focussed on the construction of a small mobile robot which will use ultrasonic sensors in order to navigate around a test environment . The robot will be designed using through hole and surface mount soldering , which will allow all of the components to be added to the board . The construction of the chassis will be made from aluminium . This will support the motors and the circuit board . The robot will be programmed using MPLAB and . NET 2003 C Compiler . The hex file of code that will be created will be sent via a serial cable to a PIC16F87 on the circuit board . The will send pulses to the motors to control their speeds . This method of data transmission is known as or . Once complete the robot will be able to navigate its way around both stationary and moving obstacles . The robot could then be modified in some ways to make it more efficient . < heading > Analysis2.1 The power connectors and J2 are connected to the battery via the power switch . The power connectors are arranged in parallel rather than series so that the same amount of power is dissipated through the circuit board and also the motors . If the power connectors were arranged in series then the majority of power would have been used in operating the motors and not enough would remain to power the rest of the board . < heading>2.2 The capacitors and are used to smooth out the D.C voltage that is being fed into the circuit from the pp3 battery . By smoothing out the voltage , chips on the circuit board will be able to deduce between high and low states from the amount of voltage that flows through as opposed to a constant flow of high and low variations from not filtering the input voltage . < heading>2.3 Capacitors C9 and are used in connection with the power supply smoothing capacitor to further filter out any frequencies that could cause any obscurities in determining whether a input on the PIC16F87 's input pin is either high or low . By adding more filtering , there are less possibilities of errors . < heading>2.4 A signal is an abbreviation for . The signal is created by switching the D.C voltage on a off at rapid intervals . This is converted to a square wave formation which alternates between fully on and off . The duration of the pulse where the D.C voltage is fully on is called the duty cycle . Since the pulses occur at relatively high frequencies , depending on what percentage of the pulse(s ) are high , can be used to determine the speed of a motor . For instance , if the duty cycle was then the motor connected to the circuit would run at ¾ of its maximum speed . < heading>2.5 To select a suitable frequency for the robots motors , it is necessary to deduce what the maximum frequency they can operate at before they are damaged . With most motors like the ones used in the robot this is about 20kHz . The next factor to consider is the noise motors produce . Ideally , the motors would operate beyond the range of human hearing so that no ' buzzing ' is heard . The assumption can therefore be made that the motors should operate at above 15kHz ( This frequency is approximately the highest frequency that humans can hear ) By taking an average , anywhere within the range of would be an appropriate frequency for the robot . < heading>2.6 Theories postulate around ideal situations . In an ideal situation , there would be no friction or air resistance to act as an opposing force to the robot . If this was the case then the rotation speed would be proportional to the voltage across the motor . Due to friction , there will always be some error in this assumption . < heading>2.7
2.8 FORMULA Therefore : FORMULA This is the current through the resistor which is the same as the current through the L.E.D. So the current through the is also 0.0138A < heading > Results3.1 Robot Construction The construction of the robot consisted of main stages . Surface mount soldering on the circuit board , ( which is now a legal requirement due to intoxicating compounds inside solder ) through hole soldering for the connector pins , test pins and sensors ; last of all the construction of the chassis which would house the board . The construction took overall , and on the whole was relatively straight forward . There were a few minor problems that were encountered during the board construction . The problem was solved by using a hot soldering iron and a large magnifying glass to detach a bridge that had formed on of the IC 's on the board . There was only other fault with the board which was discovered . This was due to soldering a broken ultrasonic sensor onto the raised pins that were an improvisation of the original design . This problem was not discovered until the test program was loaded onto the robot . The construction of the chassis was relatively simple and there were no problems in its manufacture . Instead of using a rear wheel , a base plate was mounted at the rear of the robot and attached to this was a castor ball assembly . This was chosen to allow for smoother running on the test surface . < heading>3.2 Robot Testing After manufacturing the robot from the schematics and components given , a bootloader was put onto the and when the robot was switched on , it should flash its red L.E.D. This was the case , so a test program was put on it in order to check the functionality of the motors . The program was successful however during this process ; the ultrasonic sensors were tested by reading the values that were outputted to the console window . The results showed a value of for of the sonars at a wide range of distances , therefore it was concluded that the sonar was damaged . After replacing the sonar , the test program was a complete success , allowing the robot to be programmed . < heading>3.3 Robot Programming Now that the robot was running the test program successfully from the command prompt , the next task was to program the robot using the C language , then converting the user file into a hex file so that it could be sent via a serial cable to the PIC16F87 on the robot . The code that was designed set parameters for different distances for each of the sonar sensors after determining their range . The distances allowed the robot to move around its environment at different speeds according to how close or how far away an obstacle was . After altering the parameters from medium and far to distance , the robot functioned efficiently . The only problem with the code used was that the robot turned away from obstacles at a greater distance than intended . This is a feature that will be modified in due time to improve the robots efficiency as an autonomous vehicle . < Modifications Now that the robot was adhering to a program that was stored on its , slight modifications were made to its design in order to make it more efficient . , the serial connector that was originally detachable was now secured in place by nuts and bolts . In connection with this , a serial cable was made from some cable and twisted together using a vice and a drill chuck , before soldering the connectors on the end . The cable allowed for a better connection between and the robot . The other modification that was made was to use a castor ball assembly instead of a normal wheel that was given , to improve the overall manoeuvrability of the robot . < heading>3.5 Evaluation When the robot is activated , it pings its sonars twice per . The robot drives forward until the sensors are in a m range of an obstacle . When this is the case , the robot changes direction . The robot also flashes its red once a while it is in operation . If an obstacle lies in the robots path , then it will turn around and pings its sonars again until it finds a clearer path to follow . < heading > Conclusions Sonar is still in widespread use as a ranging method on autonomous vehicles . It is an effective method to use as the robot successfully managed to navigate its way around many obstacles . The sonar sensors were positioned in such a way that would allocate a widespread field of ' vision ' . The only problem with the layout of the sensors was that there was a blind spot in the middle where the receiver was . This in turn caused the robot to ignore small obstacles , for instance chair legs and drive into them as they were not detected . To solve this problem , the circuit could be redesigned to allocate a transmitter in the middle of the robot . Also having receiver would greatly improve the accuracy of the robot . or is a good method of designing a robot as opposed to through hole soldering because it saves space , which is useful for designing compact circuit boards on more advanced robots . In the case of the robot that was designed for this report , it is still an improvement to through hole soldering as the overall size of the robot and resources used can be greatly reduced .",0 "is the study of language in the real world - how it is really used by individuals and throughout society . Linguists find conclusions about language use by studying examples of it , by collecting evidence and analysing it . way of doing this is by searching ' concordance lines ' , which provide multiple examples of words or phrases in their context in a particular corpus . Critical Discourse Analysis allows the linguist to study the relationship between linguistic choices and effects ( ) , and enable one to see the way language is manipulated in order to persuade . Both these areas of will be investigated , and should provide interesting results . < heading One The field of corpus linguistics concerns words or phrases in their context . One can find the ways in which a word or phrase is used by searching corpora - vast banks of language data that relate to how words are used in reality . The phrase ' set in ' is not in itself negative , nor does it create negative connotations . However in its context , it is clear that it is used by writers to relate to undesirable things , for example , ' panic set it ' . This claim was proven by searching the on - line concordance lines from ' The ' newspaper from . Out of the uses where ' set in ' is used as a verb and particle , it was found that have negative prosody - the phrase collocates with words with unpleasant connotations . For example : abstract nouns such as ' panic ' , ' recession ' , ' complacency ' , ' tiredness ' , ' disappointment ' and ' blues ' are used in terms of what has ' set in ' . The nouns which have ' set in ' in this particular corpus are ' infection ' and ' rot ' , both considered highly undesirable . The remaining example is , ' But from the 's a reaction set in ' . This does not indicate whether or not the phrase has a negative prosody as not enough information is shown in the concordance line - a possible problem in this field . Although it would not be grammatically wrong to place a word such as ' joy ' with ' set in ' , but using the corpus it is clear that in reality it tends to be used with words with negative implications . By using a different type of corpus , the previous conclusion about the negative prosody of the phrase ' set in ' was confirmed : The fictional corpus of the language used in ' Sherlock Holmes Stories ' provided results of ' set in ' . The phrase collocates with ' sharp frost ' and ' equinoctial gales ' , both undesirable types of weather . When considering the phrase ' resulting in ' , the words that follow tend to have negative company . Grammatically , it does not have to be used in such a way , so I searched ' The ' newspaper corpus to find its uses and prove if this claim is correct . The concordance lines shown in the corpus support this claim to an extent : for example , ' persistent headache ' ; ' drastic re - think ' ; ' bookings ' ( concerning football players ) ; ' excess body fat ' ; ' loss of ' and ' money not being invested ' . The remaining examples have neither negative nor positive prosody , they keep neutral company . The corpus has allowed me to investigate my theory and prove that ' resulting in ' is in fact generally used in phrases with negative connotations . < heading Two According to ( ) , ' language can be used to tell the truth ... yet it can also be used to distort facts ' . In , this ' distortion ' is known as persuasive language : the careful selection of vocabulary and grammar by the writer , to create a version of reality that the reader will accept as true . , one can observe this interpersonal function of language , revealing the linguistic techniques used . The text I have chosen to discuss is an article from a tabloid newspaper ' dated , entitled ( see appendix ) . The article concerns and its financial failures , and the writer is trying to persuade the reader using language that the agency should be shut down . Negative emotive language or ' loaded lexis ' such as the attributive adjectives ' shambolic ' , ' inglorious ' and ' disaster prone ' , and the abstract nouns ' incompetence ' , ' torment ' and the past tense verb ' scrapped ' all act to reinforce the writer 's opinion that the is in a state of disorder and their employees are incompetent . Their drama attracts the reader 's attention , helping to further convince them of the writer 's view . Within the relatively short piece of text , the writer includes examples of reported speech . All of the interviewees draw on the negative features of the , and no space is dedicated to an opposing idea , such as a worker who might have defended the agency . For example , the Prime Minister states , ' "" I think the problem is a fundamental one "" ' , and , a mother who has faced difficulties with the said , ' "" The has caused more problems than it ever solved "" ' . This in itself is another linguistic choice made by the writer : if no alternative opinion is offered , then the ideas expressed are more likely to be believed . In addition to particular lexical choices , the writer has also used grammar techniques to persuade the reader to feel a certain way about the . Modal verbs such as ' may ' and ' could ' are used to create a sense of uncertainty , and so the writer can make assumptions without actually saying that they are true . This technique allows the writer to present what are , in reality his or her ideas as facts , thus persuading the reader that their opinion on the subject is the true version . The writer also places blame on the by using active verbs , such as ' the has caused ... ' , and ' announces its failing ... ' . By emphasising the agency as the ' thing ' doing the action , the writer attracts the readers ' attention to the concept that it the agency that is at fault . Statistics are used to support the claims made by the writer . A table is included in the article , highlighting mistakes made by the agency in date order , such as : Backlog of cases hits ' . By including data like this , and ignoring any possible positive data , the writer uses statistics and figures , ( however selected they may be ) to prove their point and persuade the reader that the agency is failing and should be shut down . In , it is important to study language that is used in the world . The field itself is the relation of knowledge about language to decision making in the real world . For example , if one uses , you can examine a particular word or phrase as it is actually used , and use the results of the investigation to make further decisions about language . It is through that linguists find answers about the language itself . The studying of the newspaper article , ' CSA RIP ' provided results that show how the writer adapted language to make the reader feel a certain way . Such findings will in turn help to develop knowledge about information and persuasion in language . These cases of the application of to language in the real world are fine examples of its importance in a society where linguistic interaction is vital .","The speech we use every day is determined and influenced by certain social variables . of these variables are class and gender . It has been suggested by that individually , these social variables affect the way we use language in terms of grammar , vocabulary and pronunciation . In this essay I will discuss the effects of these variables and also consider whether or not they are linked in shaping the way we speak . ( ) states that , ' One of the chief forms of sociolinguistic identity derives from the way in which people are organized into hierarchically ordered social groups , or classes . ' The fact that we have different societies and lifestyles is reflected in the way we use language . one must understand what class is - a social or power variable that can be calculated using : the occupation of the family 's breadwinner ; the education of the respondent ; and the family income . These class boundaries are however not clear - cut and their fluid nature makes ascertaining results from specific social groups somewhat challenging . ( 2000:24 ) states that social barriers and social distance cause differences in linguistic choices in the same way as geographical distance . The ' social stratification ' or hierarchical ordering in society has resulted in ' social - class dialects ' . 's results from The Model of regional and social variation ( ; in Trudgill , ) suggest that there is a direct correlation between social class and regional background ( see Appendix One ) . The higher up the social scale you go , speakers are more likely to use Standard . Conversely , the lower you move down the social scale , there is a greater chance that the speakers will use a regional or non - standard dialect . These results are mirrored with regards to accent - the higher up the social scale , speakers of the same class are likely to sound the same ( specifically the overtly prestigious non - regional accent ) . The lower down the social scale , the less similar the speakers of the same class tend to sound ( they might use more regional accents such as or Cockney ) . The effect of social class on use of vocabulary was studied by in ( Holmes , 2001:136 ) . The phrases , ' U ' usage and ' usage ( where the ' U ' refers to upper class ) are used to distinguish between the vocabularies used by different social classes . A list was compiled of words considered ' U ' such as - napkin , supper , sitting room . These are words that mostly only members of higher social classes would use . These were compared to ' words such as - serviette , tea , lounge which tend to be used by members of lower social classes . In produced . Labov set out to prove that the use of a specific social dialect was not random but indeed socially stratified . In this instance he studied the pronunciation of the post - vocalic [ r ] in the words , "" floor "" which was repeated twice by shop assistants in stores , ' ' ( a high status store where it is presumed that high class shop assistants are employed to serve high class customers ) , ' 's ' ( a store considered middle class ) , and ' 's ' ( a store selling cheaper items ) . The results displayed clear social stratification of [ r ] pronunciation ( Holmes , ) ( see Appendix Two ) . The higher the status of the store , the increase in the use of the [ r ] - its use is seen as prestigious in , and the lower the status of the store , the less it was used by shop assistants . This experiment highlighted the link between social status and pronunciation of language . Another phonological experiment was conducted to analyse the percentage of [ h]-dropping between social classes in and Norwich by in ( Holmes , 2001:138 ) . The results proposed the idea that the higher the social class , the less the percentage of [ h]-dropping . Speakers from the Upper Middle class in dropped of [ h]s ) compared to speakers from lower social classes who dropped of [ h]s . The way we use language everyday is influenced by our gender . To what degree men and women speak differently is the cause of many studies . there is the ' sex - exclusive ' theory - where men and women seem to speak different languages . there is the ' sex - preferential ' theory - where men and women speak the same language , but differently . Or one might question the whole concept of gender as a social variable and conclude that the debate has been totally exaggerated ( Lecture handout notes ' Language and Gender 1 : The sociolinguistic approach ' ) . In considering the ' sex - exclusive ' idea , it is clear by observing language use in society today that men and women are in fact using the same language . However in some parts of the world , female and male members of the same community literally speak different languages . A village near the consists of men who use the language ' Tuyuka ' and women who speak ' Desano ' ( Holmes , ) . This is an extreme example of speech affected by gender ( men and women marry into different tribes who have their own language ) and it is more likely that in other societies men and women use the same language , but they have different features and forms - the ' sex - preferential ' theory . The key question to ask when researching gender as a social variable of speech is , ' do males and females differ in their use of standard and non - standard speech ? ' Trudgill ( ) states that , ' women on average use forms which more closely approach those of the standard variety or the prestige accent than those used by men ' . Many sociolinguistic studies have been conducted - whilst taking into account the social variables of social class , ethnic group and age - in order to answer the above key question . such study was carried out in Norwich by in to ascertain the percentage use of the non - RP - in ' variable at the end of words such as ' walki ng ' . He concluded that in all social classes , women use the higher prestige form ' ing ' rather than the non - RP ' - in ' . In particular the highest gender difference is in the class where of females used the form compared to of males . The sociolinguist ( ) carried out a case study in Reading to find out if one 's gender was linked with their social network and use of the vernacular . From conducting an ethnographic study of single sex social groups over a period of time , found that females socialise in more closely knit groups than males , and in both cases the closer the group , the more frequent the use of non - standard forms ( see Appendix Three ) . Cheshire compiled a table entitled ' Gender differences in non - standard features of Reading speech ' where the results show that in out of examples of the non - standard forms ; males use them more than females . Interestingly the non - standard , ' come ' was used at all times by the males . When considering the characteristics of women 's language in comparison to men 's , the sociolinguist ( ) provided a ' Deficiency Theory ' - a list of linguistic features that she claimed were part of a ' woman 's language ' and made it more tentative , hesitant and indirect . Some of these were : the use of lexical hedges or fillers ; tag questions ; empty adjectives ; hypercorrect grammar ; ' superpolite ' forms ; euphemisms ; and avoidance of strong swear words . claims that the key differences between women 's and men 's language are the use of hedges which may act to mitigate the effect of an utterance and boosters which emphasise the effect of an utterance ( reflecting the speaker 's fear that the listener does not understand ) . However these features might in actual fact be the language of an unconfident speaker of either sex . decided that both this theory and the methods used to get to it were unsatisfactory ( Holmes , ; in , ) and challenged 's speculations about tag questions in particular . found that they are multi - functional in their use , ( they are not just used to convey uncertainty but also convey certainty , to boost or mitigate the force of an utterance ) and more importantly that they may be used more frequently by women but men actually use them more to express uncertainty ( see Appendix Four ) . When deciding upon whether or not the social variables of social class and gender are linked , the diagram shown in 's Notes on ' Language and Gender 1 : The sociolinguistic approach ' can be used as it shows patterns of social stratification which are directly correlated with gender stratification . The graph ( see ) shows a general pattern from a number of sociolinguistic studies and clearly shows that the higher the social class , the higher the percentage use of prestige forms and the lower the social class , the lower the use of prestige forms . These parallel lines are also paralleled with the gender variable - in each class women tend to use more prestige forms than men in the same social class , but interestingly not more than men in a higher social class . So there is a link between linguistic choices and the gender of the speaker , but the use of certain variants is also dependant on the social class of the speaker . ( ) which was discussed earlier shows more precise results concerning the link between social class and gender differences . The results graph concludes that the higher the social class , the greater the use of prestige variants . Within each class the women use more prestige forms than men , but never any more or less than the class above or below them respectively . Arguably , the graph shows that class membership is more a deciding factor than gender , but it also depicts a definite link between the variables . In conclusion , by analysing the results of many different types of sociolinguistic surveys it is clear that the social variables of class and gender do affect the way people use language in society everyday . The general conclusion about language and class suggests that the higher up the social scale one is , the more likely it is that one will use prestige forms . However increased social mobility means that people without a good education ( one of the definitions determining 's social class ) can move up the social ladder and yet maintain their perhaps non - standard idiolects , thus providing an anomaly to the general rule . A speaker 's gender acts as a factor influencing the way we speak ; with suggesting that men use less standard forms than women . However in society today genders are not as clear - cut as they were previously and so theory ( ) that , ' If [ a female ] refuses to talk like a lady , she is ridiculed and subjected to criticism as unfeminine ' might not be as relevant in society nowadays . A speaker 's linguistic choices are never solely determined by variable and it is apparent that gender and social class ( along with age , ethic origin and other variables ) are intrinsically linked in affecting the way speakers use language in society .",1 "< heading > Introduction The white - throated capuchin monkey , capucinus , is of species of new world monkeys belonging to the genus ( fig1 ) . The word capuchin is a word taken from ' cappucino , ' meaning hooded one , a reference to the markings on the monkeys ' head which resemble the cloaks worn by the order of capuchin monks ( Flannery/2004 ) . The species is perhaps one of the most well known of primates due to its unfortunate status until recently as the preferred choice of monkey for organ grinders and street entertainers ( ) . They are the most typically monkey - like of all the ceboids and according to ( ) , ' certainly are a climax of ceboids evolution ' . Their high level of cognitive ability has earned them the title the ' the chimpanzees of the new world . ' As ( ) state , enlargement of the neocortex in is so extreme that when allometrically corrected for body size , they have a neocortex that is comparable to that of a chimpanzee . Only the great apes , dolphins , and humans have a greater degree of encephalization and complex patterning of cerebral fissures than capuchins ( Marino et al/1994 ) Studies of both wild and captives indicate that capuchins show the highest degree of manual prehension among new world primates and exhibit advanced tool use more often then any other species of monkey ( Garber/1996 ) . Indeed , only white fronted capuchins , chimpanzees and orang - utans have been observed to use tools in their natural habitats . Additionally , capuchins have frequently been observed using rocks to break open palm nuts and oyster shells and study site at field , white - throated capuchins have been observed to use twigs to probe holes in trees whilst foraging ( Garber/1996 ; own observations ) . There is also substantial evidence indicating that capuchins use several species of plants in behaviour indicative of self - medication ( et al/2003 ; Baker/1996 ) . The superficial similarities between capuchin and great ape behaviours are considered significantly important that has devoted the entire contents of supplement to a comparison of the and chimpanzees , both common , troglodytes and bonobo , paniscus ( / vol . ( ) . < heading > Phylogeny & Evolution All new world primates including capuchins are grouped together under the infraorder and the super family although the are essentially synonymous since is the only living super family ( fig1 ) . studies have shown platyrrhines to be monophyletic group and to share a common basal ancestor with both humans and primates . The groups are estimated to have last shared a common ancestor at at the end of the ( et al/1998 ; Strier/2003 ) . Their presence in the new world is interpreted as the result of a single dispersal event , and since by this time and had already drifted as far apart from each other as they are it is proposed that they reached by rafting or island hopping in some way ( Fleagle/1999 ; Strier/2003 ) . Upon arrival the ancestor of all extant platyrrhines underwent a process of adaptive radiation that has resulted in the present primate diversity . The similarities in morphology between and primates occurred via a process of parallel evolution as a result of exposure to similar environmental and ecological conditions . However , in contrast to monkeys , capuchins , like most primates evolved prehensile tails due to the exclusively arboreal nature of their lifestyle and have well developed olfactory senses which they use for communication ( Strier/2003 ) . < figure/> Habitat and Distribution White - throated capuchins are distributed throughout from and in the north , to western and in the south . They are found in and Secondary evergreen rainforest , mangroves and deciduous dry forests from sea level to m ( Rowe/1996 ) ( ) . Their distribution over a large range of different habitats has led them to be behaviourally adapted to a variety of environments and food resources . As will be discussed below , they are generalist feeders and represent the closest approximation to an omnivore amongst the New World primates ( Perry et al/2003 ) . It has been suggested that their distribution over such a large and varied habitat area has played a major in the development of high levels of cognitive ability ( Perry et al/2003 ) . They generally prefer to move in middle to upper canopy level where most of their food resources are to be found . < picture/> As with all primates , the morphology of capuchins is inseparably intertwined with the environment and behaviour of its phylogenetic ancestor ( Fleagle/1999 ) . Consequently , the species are of medium size , lightly built , slender and long limbed ( Fig 3 ) , all of which means they are perfectly adapted to moving quickly in their present ecological niche . For example , in the rainforest canopy most of the resources upon which they feed ; insects , flower buds and fruits , are often to be found on thin terminal branches of trees . Thus they have evolved to be small and light enough to exploit these resources ( ) . Conversely , mantled howler monkeys , Alouatta palliata , with whom they often share the same forest environment , are large and weighty animals . They feed primarily upon leaves away from terminal branches and thus this adaptation is represented in their morphology . Sexual dimorphism is characteristic and as table illustrates , males are generally larger and heavier than females . This is due to a number of factors , for instance it is adult males over of age who protect the multi - male multi - female society from predators and defend the territory ( et al/1987 ) . Another characteristic of this sexual dimorphism is the size as canines as indicated by figures and 5 , which are larger in males ( Strier/2003 ) . < picture/>
Capuchins , like all Platyrrhines , have rounded nostrils which are oriented towards their ears , while the noses of members of , or primates , have narrow nostrils that face downwards . This characteristic is the result of phylogenetic ancestry and is clearly visible in figure ( Chimpanzoo/2004 ) ( fig ) . White - throated capuchins have a white to yellowish throat , head and shoulders . The back and prehensile tail are black and the hair on the crown forms a v - shape . Infants are born with a grey face and ears but by they have developed adult markings ( Rowe/1996 ) . There is no distinction in terms of markings between males and females and the only other visible characteristics which enable a distinction to be made is the presence of testicles for adult males and an elongated clitoris for females ( Fleagle/1999 ) . < picture/>Other notable characteristics include a semi - prehensile tail which is frequently used to lower the body down from branch to another ( although they do not hang of it for long periods of time ) and for balance in locomotion . It is very large and muscular , comprising of the adult 's body weight . In addition , capuchins have digits on each hand with an opposable thumb ( polex ) and toe ( hallux ) which allow for superb manual prehension . The finger tips are capped with nails unlike the claws of prosimians , and have soft pads or dermatoglyphs ( fingerprints ) , combined with meissners corpuscles allowing for increased tactile sensitivity . As with all primates the eyes are close together and face forward in the skull ( fig6 ) to provide stereoscopic vision , and the magnum foramen is underneath the skull allowing for quadrupedal locomotion ( Kinzey/1997 ; Strier/2003 ) . The diet of white - throated capuchins has also influenced their morphology . For example their dentition is typically representative of frugivourous primates with broad incisors and low rounded molar cusps combined with long small intestines to process the fruit . In addition , the enamel layer is particularly thick allowing them to feed on nuts with hard shells However , the dental formula of ; incisors , canine , pre - molars and molars in of the jaw is phylogenetically characteristic of all Platyrrhines ( Strier/2003 ) . < picture/> Locomotion & Behaviour White - throated capuchins are arboreal quadrupeds that spend of their time either foraging or moving between foraging sites , often jumping gaps between trees of ( Robinson/1987 ; Rowe/1996 ) . As phylogeny affects body size , limb length and construction it also directly affects the type of locomotion used . For instance , the locomotion of capucinus has undergone extensive selective pressures during the animal 's evolutionary history . Thus quadrupedal running and jumping is the form of locomotion best suited to the ecological niche they inhabit ( Strier/2003 ) . Although they are habitually arboreal they do come to the ground occasionally to search for insects and to drink ( ) . In addition , there is evidence to suggest that some capuchins living in fragmented forest , where the risk of predation is lower , spend a good percentage ( ) of their time in terrestrially foraging ( own notes ) . It is suggested that such behaviour indicates the animals has learned that the risk of predation is reduced ( Perry et al/2003 ) . < picture/> Diet and Behaviour Capuchin feeding behaviour and diet is influenced by factors ; those of the past , including genetically defined species characteristics , such as ancestral morphology , combined with local traditions in resource exploitation and those of the present . Present influences are external environmental variables which encompass the relative abundance , quality , distribution of and competition for particular resources at sites and the seasonal fluctuation in their availability ( / lecture notes ) . In terms of species characteristics capuchins have evolved to be largely frugivourous - insectivores , for example they have excellent trichromatic colour vision and olfactory abilities which aid them in foraging for both fruits and insects ( Robinson/1987 ; ) . The typical ratios of foods eaten are as follows : ripe fruits ( over 95 types ) ; leaves , berries , nuts , seeds , shoots , buds and flowers ; animal matter , largely insect prey ( Rowe/1996 ) . The nature of their diet means that capuchins are often beneficial to the health of the forest as pollinators of some plants and seed dispersers of others ( Rowe/1996 ) . Indeed argues that the morphological traits , feeding strategies and behaviour of arboreal frugivourous primates , such as capuchins , are the result of a long history of co - evolution with angiosperms ( Strier/2003 ) . However , not all capucinus groups share the same diet , for example white - throated capuchins living apart have been shown to have completely different diets despite having access to the same resources . Thus the importance of local traditions in diets within groups of primates should not be underestimated as they have direct consequences for the species behavioural ecology ( Strier/2003 ) . < picture/>Furthermore , as their range includes such diverse habitats , white - throated capuchins have evolved to be a highly adaptable , opportunistic and generalist feeder which enables them to shape their behaviour in relation to environmental variables ( Perry et al/2003 ) . For instance , should the need arise they may become 100 % frugivourous or insectivorous for short periods of time ( Kinzey/1997 ) , and at certain coastal sites in and they are known to eat crabs and to crack open oyster shells with rocks to feed on the contents ( ) . In addition , they also incorporate within their diet small quantities of invertebrates including birds , squirrels , baby coatimundis , and eggs ( Rowe/1996 ; Robinson/1987 ) ( . The majority of observations have been recorded at , and it is interesting to note that unlike chimpanzees , such deliberate active predation of coati pups and squirrels by capucinus occurs mostly during when fruit and insects are less abundant ( Rose/1997 ) . Thus predation by primates , such as white - throated capuchins , seems to be a part of the behavioural repertories of intelligent , opportunistic foragers and does not infer the complex social role it plays for chimpanzees ( Strier/2003 ; Rose/1997 ) . The species is known to crack open palm nut shells using stone hammers , however , even though at many sites the same nuts , and in the case of coastal areas oysters , are available to all groups of monkeys only certain populations engage in such behaviour and it seems likely that at least in this respect their diet is influenced by local traditions of resource exploitation ( ; et al/2003 ) . White - throated capuchins are described as a ' manipulative ' or ' extractive forager ' due to the nature of its feeding behaviour , which involves physically investigating hollows in trees and destructive foraging in vegetation ( Garber/1996 ) . As stated , the food sources eaten most frequently are ripe fruits and insects and it appears that their behaviour whilst exploiting such resources is the one which provides each individual with the optimum amount of food combined with the lowest levels of intra - group competition . In contrast to brown capuchins ( apella ) , capucinus habitually feeds mainly on large fruiting trees such as fig with canopies up to in diameter . Here an individual does not need to fight for its share and subsequently group sizes can be larger in capucinus with less intra - group aggression during feeding ( Janson/1986 ) . Whilst feeding on insects , a scramble competition / non - defendable resource , the troop spreads out and animals forage individually , often at large distances from others , whilst constantly moving forwards through the canopy . Each animal emits a regular high pitched call in order to maintain its distance from other animals and avoid competition . Foraging for insects constitutes a far greater portion of the capuchins budget than does foraging for fruits as insects scattered throughout the canopy ( Robinson/1987 ) . This illustrates the importance of insects as a protein source within their diets and helps to explain both the need for individual foraging and the huge distances travelled in search of food ( ) . Therefore , it is clearly evident that the number of large fruit bearing trees and density and abundance of insects directly influences both the population size and range of the species . < table/>White - throated capuchins live in multi - male multi female polygynandrous groups whereby there is little hierarchy evident determining access to females . Consequently as all the males are likely to be fathers of some of the group 's infants , the social structure and cooperation seen in group defence is high ( Janson/1986 ; Fragazy/1997 ) . For example , when attacked by a predator , in this instance a tayra , all adult males were observed to immediately responded to the alarm calls of the group by collectively mobbing the potential threat ( own notes ) . Furthermore , the high levels of co - operation amongst individual males also results in them being able to defend more efficiently clumped food resources and drive away considerably larger monkeys ( Janson/1986 ) . Another consequence of such polygynandrous sexual behaviour is that adult males will frequently tolerate the presence of juveniles often sharing forming affiliative bonds and sharing food , on occasion an adult male was observed to allow a juvenile animal to physically remove food from his mouth ( Robinson/1986 ; own notes ) ( ) . of monkeys are matrilineally philopatric in that during adolescence it is males who must disperse from their natal groups . Consequently troops consist of mostly related females and their offspring and unrelated males ( Robinson/1986 ) . The species is territorial and marks its territory by urinating upon its hands and then rubbing their feet and fur , however it is only males who defend the territory ( Perry et al/2003 ; Rowe/1996 ) . White - throated capuchins are highly social and the vast majority of rest periods are spent in allogrooming . Mothers frequently groom their infants and it has been observed that as well as reinforcing social bonds grooming also serves to < table/>recapitulate dominance hierarchies . Indeed , as states dominant individuals are usually involved in a disproportionately high percentage of grooming bouts and often receive far more grooming than they give ( ) . The species has also been observed to engage in and generate ' original ' games which they play amongst themselves , it has been suggested that such games are site dependent and represent evidence of social traditions within capuchin society ( Perry et al/2003 ) . As table illustrates females usually give birth to a single infant during . The alpha male relies upon coalitionary support from the females to protect his status within the group ( Strier/2003 ) . White - throated capuchins are precocial and secondarily altricial animals in that although infants are relatively well developed at birth they are not very mobile and must cling to there mothers and rely heavily on extended postnatal development and maternal investment to grow their relatively large adult brain sizes ( Strier/2003 ) . The feeding behaviour and reproductive strategy employed by white - throated capuchins provides numerous benefits for the survival of the group as a whole in that tensions are reduced and greater security is achieved from potential predators . < heading > Conservation Status Although they are hunted in and for meat , white - throated capuchins are in no immediate danger and are categorized under , low risk category ( Chimpanzoo/2004 ) . However , it is not direct persecution that represents a problem for capucinus ; the fragmentation of their natural forest habitat represents a far more significant threat . Males must leave their natal group in late adolescence and join a neighbouring group of monkeys ; if they are prevented to do so the future survival of genetically diverse groups may be put placed in jeopardy .","In the study of there are major theories that attempt to account for sapiens and thus in turn their relationship to the Neanderthals . These conflicting ideologies are commonly known as the ' Multiregionalist model ' and the ' Out of Africa 2 Model . ' Supporters of the former model believe a hominid , namely erectus , left some time in the past one to two million years and colonized and . This hominid subsequently gave rise to all modern human populations , simultaneously in multiple regions , through a process of in situ evolution . With constant gene flow between the populations ensuring that only one species , ours , was the result of this evolution . If there theory is correct then Neanderthals are the direct descendents of these ' true humans ' and subsequently we are the direct descendents of Neanderthals , and thus very closely related to them . Therefore , it is not surprising that he should be able to , ' see a in his shaving mirror ' . If however , they are wrong and Neanderthals are not related to ourselves then a major piece of the model is missing . Thus , the question as to whether Neanderthals are related to us is of fundamental importance to our understanding of origins . In stark contrast to the hypothesis , there is the belief held by researchers such as and that Neanderthals represent a separate species of humans , . They argue as illustrates that , "" There is no convincing evidence in the region ( ) for intermixing of Neanderthals and modern human morphologies - and if H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens were indeed separate species as the anatomical distinction between them so strongly suggest , they could not have interbred successfully , certainly not over the long term . "" ( Tattersall/1995 ) Thus they argue that we are not at all closely related to , but that on the contrary by an influx of anatomically modern H. sapiens into had replaced the existing populations of Neanderthals . This is what is known as the ' out of two ' theory , further discussion of which will be returned to later ( Stringer/1996 ) ( Tattersall/1995 ) . of the chief proponents of the view that Neanderthals are our direct ancestors is the well known supporter , . Based upon the evolutionary theories of , it would be logical to assume that evidence of transitional forms between Neanderthals and modern humans should be found on the continent that transition took place ( Darwin/1998 ) . argues that this is indeed the case . At in for example , he states that , "" The specimens outlined the similarities of and the populations following them . "" ( Wolpoff/1997 ) In addition , he states that when remains found at in are compared to earlier central there are a number of anatomical features present that appear to show transition in progress . Indeed , as illustrates , these late Neanderthals do generally have a smaller thinner and less projecting supraorbital torus ( brow ridge ) , less receding foreheads , smaller and less prognathous faces , mandibles that showed some evidence of chin development and perhaps somewhat smaller anterior teeth . All of which seems to provide evidence that as he states , "" They may have been evolving toward early modern central . "" ( Klein/1999 ) argues that that this was indeed the case and that the later showed a continuation of this pattern . However , emphasizes that although early modern people did have more rugged features resembling the late finds , "" In overall morphological pattern however , both cranially and post - cranially they are unmistakably modern , with no true features . "" ( Klein/1999 ) In addition , stringer believes that the remains found from are too fragmentary , incomplete , and seemingly rather late to make a convincing case for any transitional relationship between Neanderthals and early modern humans ( Stringer/1993 ) . Indeed , the discovery of a highly typical skeleton from in western is also cited by many researchers as evidence that Neanderthals can not be closely related in an ancestral sense . From a variety of evidence including archaeological associations , stratigraphy , pollen analysis , and direct thermoluminescence dating of associated burnt flint the skeletal remains are reliably dated to years ( Mellars/1996 ) . These dates would mean , as illustrates , skeleton is hardly years earlier than discoveries of several specimens of typical ( i.e. Homo sapiens sapiens ) skeletons found in at such sites as in ( Mellars/1996 ) . Therefore he states that , "" Advocates of the population replacement theory hypothesis would argue that in this situation there was simply not enough time for typically populations to have evolved into fully ' modern ' populations , within the time span available . "" ( Cunliffe/1997 ) In a number of genetic studies have been undertaken using mitochondrial DNA to try and determine the origin of modern H. sapiens and more recently whether or not we are related in any way to Neanderthals . The most famous of these studies is commonly known as the ' mitochondrial eve ' theory . A comparison of the number mutations in mtDNA from populations with those from , , and ones was then undertaken . It revealed , as states , that populations had more diverse types of mtDNA than any of the other modern populations , suggesting that they have had more time to develop such mutations . The other populations seemed to show far fewer mutations and thus must have had a much younger date of differentiation from each other . The dates for the emergence of H. sapiens in have been given at . As illustrates the oldest fossil evidence for modern humans in is , with the oldest outside being from specimens at Skhul and Qafzeh in . Thus as he states , "" ... we have evidence of a genetic migration from the centre "" ( Stringer/1993 ) argues that the results from this study are invalid and inaccurate as "" ... the computer program used in the analysis was not applied correctly . "" and that "" ... no statistical analysis shows that variations in is greater than other population . "" ( Wolpoff/1997 ) However , if accurate , the results of the mtDNA studies seem to prove that Neanderthals could not possibly be ancestral to modern humans and thus not closely related . Recent mtDNA studies provide more compelling evidence of our lack of close relation . Researchers succeeded in sequencing mtDNA from the original specimen of , which they then compared with human mtDNA lineages . Their results showed that amongst themselves , human mtDNA lineages differed by or - 3.1 substitutions , whereas the difference between humans and the sequence was or - 2.2 . This they claim indicates that divergence from their ancestor occurred to 690,000 years ago , compared with to 150,000 years for the common mtDNA ancestor of modern humans . Thus , they highlight , "" ... there was roughly a period of half a million years of independent evolution between and the line leading to modern humans . "" ( Stringer/1997 ) However , many researchers believe that although there is no close genetic relationship between ourselves and Neanderthals there is a high probability that we are related to the extent that we share a common ancestor in the form of , with Neanderthals diverging from this ancestor at than modern humans . This seems to imply that H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens are in fact different species of humans ( Stringer/1997 ) ( Tattersall/1995 ) ( Klein/1999 ) In response to these findings proponents of the theory argue that if Neanderthals were a mere sub - species of human they could still have interbred and hybridized and thus still play some part in our evolution ( Tattarsall/1995 ) . Indeed , as and stringer emphasize , "" With respect to the contentious issue of whether and anatomically early humans exchanged genes , these new ( mtDNA ) results diminish , but do not rule out the possibility . "" They take this stand , as they explain , because although there is no evidence for an exchange of mtDNA , this does not rule out the possibility of the exchange of nuclear DNA ( Stringer/1997 ) . Therefore are we related to Neanderthals via a period of hybridization ? There is certainly evidence , as indicates , in the form of skeletal and ancient tool assemblages that a significant period of overlapped occurred between the population in . From this he estimates that for a period of co - existed in , which of course would provide an opportunity for interaction and hybridization . For example , cites the example of the gene that causes cystic fibrosis . He contends as this gene is most common in being uncommon in and virtually unknown in . Thus he states that as the gene is estimated to have emerged in ( before the earliest evidence of modern humans in the region ) and conversely it must have originated in , which he argues would , "" ... Show them to be the ancestors of modern humans . "" However , other researchers argue that the gene must have passed originated in modern human populations living in at this time ( Wolpoff/1997 ) . Another case for possible hybridization arose in with the discovery of a child 's skeleton at , in . The skeleton dated to , has been claimed to show mixed - modern features . As illustrates it is described as , "" ... combining a modern - looking lower jaw and teeth with the robust , cold - adapted body shape characteristic of . "" ( Stringer/2002 ) He argues that as the climate of was significantly colder at this time , the find represents nothing more than unexpected evidence of modern humans adapting physically to cold conditions before of . Furthermore , he argues that if the child is verified as a hybrid ( and of course the logical course of action would be to compare its mtDNA with that of a modern sample ) it would only tell us that interbreeding did occur in area , not how common such events were and to what extent genes penetrated the populations . Nor would it disprove the theory that and humans represent different species , as Neanderthals , "" ... would have been very close genetically to H. sapiens , and many mammals do hybridize , e.g. , lions and tigers , or dogs and wolves . "" The real question he contends would be whether high levels of gene flow occurred between the populations , and perhaps even merged , would result in being classified as a cousin or sibling or other close relation . However , he disputes ( as do many other researchers mentioned ) the possibility of this by stating , "" The fossil record and recent DNA studies still support the view that Neanderthals were not our ancestors in any biologically meaningful sense of the word . ""(Sringer/2002 ) In addition to this , a very recent publication by , and seem to provide further evidence that Neanderthals are not closely related to us . The study concerns as they say the study of the mandibular ramus ( the coronoid process , the condylar process , and the ' depth of the ' notch between them ) . They concluded , through careful comparisons of the mandibular ramus of each jaw bone investigated that ; "" Neanderthals ( both and Middle Eastern ) , differ more from H. sapiens ( early specimens such as , Skhul , and , as well as contemporary human populations from as far apart as and ) that the latter differs from Homo erectus . "" ( , , Geffen/2002 ) They explain that as the morphology of the mandibular process is the result of a highly specialised evolutionary process , the reversal of which ( like any reversal of an evolutionary adaption ) is highly unlikely . Therefore they conclude that , "" ... Neanderthals do not play a role in our evolutionary ancestry , through either ' regional continuity ' or any other form of agagenetic progression . "" ( , , ) Prior to the development of DNA testing , a thorough investigation of morphology was the only possible way to examine there relationship to modern humans . It is know generally acknowledged from fossil remains that the term refers to a morphologically distinct population of humans , occupying a geographical range that stretched from and in the far west to as far east as , and from in the far south to as far north as ( Conroy/1997 ) . They were successful in this homeland for , with the last remaining evidence of there existence presently dated from tool assemblages found at Zafarraya in to BP ( Tattersall/1995 ) Various studies of their unique morphology were undertaken including examination of differences in limb length between the Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans . The most notable being one completed by in . He stated through the use of ' Allen 's ' and ' 's ' rules , which dictate that body extremities of mammals and humans will tend to be relatively shorter in cold conditions , whilst conversely body weight tends to be relatively larger in cold conditions ( Stringer/1993 ) . When these rules are applied to the Neanderthals it is clear that they conform perfectly , whilst neither ancient nor modern populations of humans do . Thus he concluded that had evolved to suit their environment , and evidently it was unlikely that they could be evolved into modern humans as they would have undoubtedly passed on these highly advantages body attributes necessary to withstand the intense cold of , to their successors . ( Stringer/1993 ) In addition , as indicates , studies undertaken by researchers such on specific characteristics unique to Neanderthals ( in this case Skull morphology ) , have shown them to anatomically distinct from the anatomically modern humans that arrived in later on . He contends that , "" pointed out that since modern humans share none of the distinctive and specialized Neanderthals traits , its highly unlikely that 's the Neanderthals were our ancestors ( Tattersall/1995 ) . However , although it appears Neanderthals are not biologically closely related to us , believes that they may have been related in other ways . For instance he argues that the old view of Neanderthals as being slow dim - witted and lacking in culture and social organization may need to be revised . He states , for example that , "" ... the prevailing view that Neanderthals did not exploit marine resources "" is inaccurate because "" ... our excavations in show that over at their varied diet included baked mussels , seal and dolphin that must have been collected at least a kilometre away . "" ( Stringer/2002 ) It is also apparent , as many researchers now believe that the discovery of bone , ( the bone responsible for connecting throat muscles used in sound production ) appears to indicate that they possessed a form of rather sophisticated vocal communication ( Tattersall/1995 ) . Thus , as stringer states , "" ... some of their behaviour seems very familiar , and show us that , even if the Neanderthals were not our ancestors , ours was not the only path that led to humanity . ""(Stringer/2002 ) Nevertheless , it appears highly unlikely , as stringer states , that we are related in biologically significant way to , with the noted exception that we appear to share with them an ancient common ancestor . Even then this does not constitute a close relationship as previously mentioned , they appear to have diverged from this ancestor at a far earlier point in prehistory than modern humans , and thus it is logical to conclude that Neanderthals may be seen as an extinct side branch on the path of human evolution ; A separate species namely that of , consisting nonetheless of significantly modern human populations ( Tattersall/1995 ) . Consequently , unless the mtDNA evidence proves to be inaccurate , the testing methods used in the mandibular ramus comparisons flawed , or some other fossil evidence emerges it seems highly probable that we are not significantly closely related to Neanderthals .",1 "< heading : < /heading > Initially the plan for the part of the project was to complete the design totally then begin implementation , iterating the analysis , design and implementation as required . Having completed an initial analysis for part of the project , we felt it would be preferable to do a rough design then to begin the basic implementation , effectively running design and implementation in parallel but with design a few steps ahead . The critical path analysis can be seen below . The analyses , designs and implementations are constantly iterated in parallel throughout the project , but both paths ( and ) are equal in length . < figure/>We felt that our initial staff estimates would have given us a very large design team for the size of task , possibly over - complicating the design process , and we were keen to begin the implementation as quickly as possible as we were aware it was the largest task which was likely to take the most time . This meant that we had to redistribute effort and people accordingly . The initial staff plan was given in part of the project and the final revised version can be seen below . < table/>We iterated the analysis and design as implementation progressed , with team members swapping between roles as they became free . For example , had been heavily involved with analysis in part of the project so was allocated tasks in the stages of implementation then , when these were completed , was able to swap to iterating the analysis documents . We aimed to make the work distribution as fair as possible , while aiming for optimal use of each team member 's time - this included making use of their existing skills , such as using those who had been most involved with analysis in part one to iterate the analysis in part . The initial effort and schedule estimates were included in part of the project and the final revised version can be seen below , split and activities . < table/> Source Code Control : < /heading > For the majority of the project ( i.e. until integration testing began ) , our source code was split into basic parts - the code and the rest of the code - which were stored physically separately by different group members . During integration testing , all the code was copied into a new area which was used as the central repository . : As group member ( ) worked on the code , source code control was relatively simple . He stored the code on his computer , keeping regular backups and creating new code versions when significant code alterations were required , so that he could revert to earlier versions if the modifications did not work correctly . He made sure he notified the other team members if he wanted to make changes to how the interfaced with the rest of the program . Beyond that ( i.e. alterations to how the functioned ) however , he simply kept track of the changes himself as the rest of the team did not need to know how it worked , only what interface it would present to the rest of the program . < heading > Remaining Code : < /heading > The chief implementer - put in charge of looking after the central code repository and ensuring that all stored program versions were consistent . All code which was not directly related to the was stored in a password protected folder in his public area on the machines . All team members were notified of the password so that they could view the code as required . Whenever team members created new code modules or altered existing ones , they either informed or placed the new / altered files in the repository with a different file name , so that previous versions were not overwritten and lost . made sure each group member was aware of such additions and alterations so that everyone was aware which version they should be working from . < heading > Installing , Compiling and Executing : < /heading > In order to compile the code initially , the code controller ensured that all relevant files were part of the race package and placed them all in a single race folder . He then navigated to this folder at a command prompt and typed "" javac * .java "" to compile all the files within the folder and so create the required .class files . The original code files were then copied to another folder ( code ) to separate the compiled from the uncompiled code . These two folders ( race and code ) were then put together in a zipped folder . In order to install the program , the user simply needs to copy the zipped folder to the area they wish to install it in , then unzip folder there . The program will then be installed in this location and can be run by navigating to the folder at a command prompt and typing "" java race . Report < filename > "" for the command line version or "" java race . "" for the graphical version .","< heading>1 . ( a ) How would you classify carbon steels which are readily identified with their compositions as well as properties ? What are hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels ? < /heading > Carbon steels are iron based metals , containing carbon , small amounts of manganese and silicon , and traces of other elements . Carbon steels can be specified by their chemical composition , mechanical properties , method of deoxidation or thermal treatment . Carbon steels are often classified by the relative amounts of carbon content which is found in their composition . The following table indicates the percentage range of carbon content found in steels , and their subsequent classification . < table/>The carbon content present in plain carbon steels , along with the heat treatment that is performed on the steel during manufacture largely dictates the mechanical properties which are found . When carbon steel is cooled , after heat treatment for example , it undergoes a number of phase changes , depending on the carbon content . The equilibrium phases which form between are shown diagrammatically by the iron - carbon phase diagram ( see appendix A ) . Since the carbon steels in question do not contain carbon , the phase diagram can be shown as follows : < figure/>For varying carbon contents , the phase diagram indicates the composition of steels at certain temperatures . The phase diagram of figure also shows the point . The eutectoid point describes the phase transformation of solid into other solids . In the case of the system , this lies at Carbon , at 723C. At this point , the phase begins to form Pearlite , a phase microstructure of Ferrite and Cementite . If a carbon steel alloy is of composition greater than carbon , it is termed hypereutectoid steel . Conversely , if an alloy is of composition carbon , it is described as hypoeutectoid steel . < heading>1 . ( b ) With the aid of Fe - C equilibrium diagram , briefly discuss the development of microstructure , as they are cooled from for the following carbon steel composition:0.35 wt% C0.80 wt% C1.35 wt% C0.35 wt% C With reference to the iron - carbon phase diagram in appendix A , at 870C , a carbon steel exists as a hypoeutectoid steel , composed of homogenous crystals of austenite solid solution , see figure below : < picture/>On cooling , to the upper critical temperature , austenite begins to transform into ferrite . The ferrite begins to form at the grain boundaries ( Figure ) , until the eutectoid line is reached , at the lower critical temperature ( Figure ) . At this point , the austenite transforms fully into alternating layers of ferrite and pearlite ( Figure ) . < picture/>0.80 wt% C At carbon , the alloy is composed entirely of the austenite phase , as in figure above . Upon cooling , there are no changes in composition until the eutectoid temperature ( ) is reached , where the austenite transforms by eutectoid reaction , into a pearlitic structure , consisting of alternating layers of ferrite and cementite . The appearance of which is shown below in figure : < picture/>The eutectoid reaction that takes place is described by the following expression . The carbon is redistributed in the reaction by diffusion : FORMULA < heading>1.35 wt% carbon steel exists in a hypereutectoid state . At a temperature of 870C , it also consists entirely of austenite ( Figure ) . Upon cooling however , the austenite enters the cementite phase , at which point cementite begins to grow at the grain boundaries ( Figure ) . This cementite is known as pro - eutectoid cementite , forming before the eutectoid reaction . As the temperature is lowered further , all the remaining austenite is transformed into pearlite , and hence the resulting microstructure consists of pearlite and pro - eutectoid cementite ( Figure . < picture/>1 . ( c ) What significance does cooling rate have on a wt% composition cooled from ? < /heading > In figures 3 through 5 , the austenite phase is shown in its transformation to a pearlitic structure . As the cooling rate increases , the gaps between the pearlitic structure shown in figure become narrower , as there is a grain size reduction . Since the microstructure is affected by the cooling rate , the associated mechanical properties can also be affected by increasing or decreasing the cooling rate . A reduction in grain size caused by increased cooling rate results in an increased strength and hardness . If the cooling rate is increased to an extent where the carbon is unable to diffuse from the austenite , rather than forming pearlite , the austenite transforms into a body - centred lattice with the un - diffused carbon residing in interstitial solid solution . This constituent is known as Martensite , and is very hard and very brittle . is produced for its hardness by quenching heated steel , into water or oil . However , this increased hardness comes at the expense of ductility . By cooling the carbon steel at a lower rate , the pearlitic structure which forms will be of a much coarser texture , caused by a small amount of undercooling , before nucleation and growth occurs . < heading > Identify and discuss the most common microstructural features that you may observe in brasses with a composition of Zn , when cooled to room temperature . < /heading > The most common composition for a brass , is that containing zinc , and is termed metal . It is reasonably corrosion resistant and can be machined . With reference to the Copper - Zinc phase diagram ( see appendix B ) , the molten metal begins to solidify at approximately 900C. Upon cooling through the solidification period , the alloy consists of homogenous phase ( Figure ) , until at approximately 770C , the alloy enters into a dual phase field . At this point , the phase begins to precipitate ( Figure ) , particularly at the weaker , more unstable grain triple points , shown below in figure . < picture/>As the alloy is cooled further , to approximately 400C , the beta phase transforms into a ' phase . This phase is identical except at this temperature the crystals are more ordered . At room temperature , the microstructure of alloy appears as shown in figure . < picture/>The grinding process performed on the alloy produces the characteristic "" "" , termed mechanical twins . This twinning is a characteristic of the Copper - Zinc alloy . Figure shows some areas of dark spots , these inclusions are cause by acid attacking the stress concentrated regions , and is caused during the etching process . < heading > Identify and discuss the microstructural features of a modified eutectic alloy and what effects these would have on its properties . Identify some of the practical applications of alloys . < /heading > A simple alloy usually has very poor mechanical properties due to the phase occurring in coarse flaky grains . To produce an alloy with more useful mechanical properties , the alloy is commonly modified by adding a small amount of sodium ( ) . The resultant changes from coarse grains to smaller fibres . The modified silicon helps reduce crack propagation , preventing fracture . Alloys containing are suitable for the manufacture of sand and die castings , and less commonly , can be used for welding . Typically , modified eutectic alloys display somewhat higher tensile properties and improved ductility . Improved performance in casting is also characterised by improved flow and resistance to elevated - temperature cracking . During cooling , the molten alloy transforms at approximately 600C , a Liquid + phase begins to form . The primary alpha phase begins to form in heaps , and the observed growth is termed Dendritic growth , and appears as shown in figure . as the alloy reaches the eutectic point and beyond , the liquid phase fully transforms to give an + phase as shown in figure . < picture/> Phase diagrams provide quantitative information . You are provided with photographs of the microstructure of a medium carbon steel which has been normalised . Estimate its composition . How accurately can you make this estimate ? < /heading > The photographs of the microstructure are shown periodically below , in figures through . < picture/>Figure and show a relatively even mixture of light and dark patches , indicating a possible phase microstructure , whilst the size of the clusters suggests a coarse mixture . Due to the coarse nature of the structure , this eliminates the possibility that the images represent Martensite . < picture/>Figures 17 and at a higher resolution indicate a lamellar pearlitic structure occupying some of the dark regions , with some solid dark areas remaining . The light regions are believed to be due to the formation of the phase , where as the coarse dark areas are caused by the phase transformation into cementite . During grinding and polishing , the relative softness of the ferrite with respect to the much harder cementite , results in the ferrite being much finer , allowing more light to reflect back , hence the light areas . The large white regions are believed to be proeutectoid cementite , with the darker lamellar pearlitic structure representing alternating layers of Ferrite and cementite . The areas which appear completely dark in figures and show that there is considerable variation in the spacing between ferrite and pearlite , and hence some of the pearlite is unresolved at this magnification . The photographs therefore suggest a hypoeutectoid carbon steel , possibly composing of wt% C. With reference to the iron - carbon phase diagram , the steel of hypoeutectoid composition covers a large range ( - 0.765 wt% C ) , and hence it is very difficult to make an accurate estimate of the composition based on the photographs alone . < picture/>",0 "< abstract> Abstract The effects of tillage in on the rate of litter decomposition over and on soil invertebrate diversity and abundance in the following spring were investigated . The experiment was carried out from to February 2006 in farm at , There was a total of blocks with tilled and control plots in each block , a set of litter in mesh bags ; on the soil surface and the other buried at in depth , was set up in each plot . The soil was sampled from each plot in spring from which invertebrate diversity ( the number of organisms and species abundance ) was investigated . % loss of litter weight was analysed , there was no significant correlation with control and tilled treatments or with surface and buried treatments . The identified invertebrates were too small in number to carry out statistical analysis . There suggested various biases in the experiment such as low temperature over which reduced the activities of soil fauna , the size of blocks , the long - term land management prior to the experiment , and the duration of study , all of which were probably not effective to differentiate the soil community structure . The results pointed out the complexity and the inconsistent responses of soil ecosystem under agriculture which pose difficulty in examining the functioning of soil food web . < /abstract> INTRODUCTION Soil ecosystem in relation to interaction between soil organisms and physical , chemical properties of soil and flora is important in regulating above - ground ecosystem , yet its function is not well understood . Soil invertebrates are comprised of microfauna ( e.g. protozoa , fungi , viruses ) , mesofauna ( e.g. Collembola , mites ) , and macrofauna ( e.g. earthworms , beetles , invertebrate larvae ) . Those numerous organisms form a complex food web . Species composition at a particular depth is determined by soil physical structure ( e.g. temperature , aeration , porosity , water content ) , and by the availability of food resources such as litter , roots and fauna ( Adl , . , ) . Many macrofauna species contribute to decomposition of litter through initial fragmentation and comminution of materials . Macroarthropods , earthworms , onychophorans , and gastropods feed on litter and their chewing activities make it break down into small fragments ( Adl , ) . Initial decomposition is stimulated by the salivary secretions and excretion of digested litter . Saprotrophs colonise those materials and proceed to further decomposition process . In addition , predation of a soil organism by another has significant effects on litter decomposition . For instance , mites feed on bacteriophagus nematodes and regulate the decomposition rate by keeping the balance of species abundance and decomposition process ( , ) . Agroecosystem can alter the functional performance of this complex food web . Tillage , crop selection and rotation , pest management are the major anthropogenic inputs in agricultural practice ( , ) . In terms of the effects of tillage on soil community , Wardle et al ( ) suggested principal factors which modify the soil food web structure ; . soil physical disruption , . residue distribution , and . weed density , from the comparative study of the responses of soil organisms under different management of no - tillage and conventional tillage . According to this review , large soil organisms are vulnerable to physical disruption due to their body sizes , while small organisms are less affected or sometimes stimulated . Under no - tillage system , plant residue is accumulated at soil surface which host many soil organisms , thus this upper soil profile become the most important regulator of the soil community . Burial of litter by cultivation leads to the accretion of food resources below ground and changes soil physical properties such as temperature , moisture content , and aeration , stimulating particular micro- and meso - fauna species at ploughed depth , and the decomposition rate is likely to be increased . Above - ground plant community structure , particularly the presence of symbiotic nitrogen - fixing legume species , and associating changes in microclimate is important in providing a certain physical and chemical environmental condition for soil organisms . In the , it is suggested that changes in agriculture practice , for example , changes in crop species and the accompanied change in the timing of tillage have caused disturbance in soil ecosystem , resulting in the decline of larger animals primarily bird species , the diet of which is heavily dependent upon soil biota ( , ) . Introduced new crop species , use of pesticides and inorganic fertilizers , land intensification , and use of machinery may have been the major factors for the modification of soil ecosystem . In addition , although the extent of study outcomes are not yet satisfactory to confirm this correlation , tillage in , removal of litter over have probably diminished the abundance and activities of soil organism , hence available food resources for birds ( , . , ) . The aim of this experiment was to examine the effects of tillage on plant litter decomposition rate and the structure of soil ecosystem based on hypotheses ; . Autumn tillage has no effect on soil invertebrate diversity and abundance in the following spring . . Buried plant litter decomposes at the same rate as plant litter on the soil surface . . Autumn soil tillage does not affect the rate of plant litter decomposition . < heading > MATERIALS AND METHODS Study site The experiment was carried out at farm from . The field site has been left unmanaged for , so it had become to be covered with various grass species at the beginning of this study in . The experimental plot was in a flat plain without tall vegetation nearby , surrounded by arable grassland under other research . The predominant soil type was clay or sandy clay to the investigated depth of . < heading > Methods5 g of air - dried litter was weighed and was put in a mesh bag . Each bag was attached with labels . blocks were randomly designed within the site , each with adjacent plots of no - tillage and tillage treatments . Plots in ×50 cm were measured with quadrats , corners were marked with plastic sticks . For tillage treatment , the soil was ploughed with a spade to cm in depth . A litter bag was buried at in depth in each treatment , and another bag was placed on the soil surface of each treatment with nails . Hence , each block was comprised of buried bags , surface ones each in tilled and control plots . After the setting up in th , litter bags were left over until sampling on th . Litter bags were carefully removed from the sites . Litter samples were transferred to paper bags to be air - dried for . Any soil was removed from air - dried litter sample on sorting trays and the final litter weight was recorded . < figure/>One soil sample from each plot was taken by an auger of in diameter and in depth ( ) . ml of each soil sample was put on a Tullgren funnel , over a cup with alcohol and under a light bulb for to extract invertebrates . After , the rest of soil sample was emptied on sorting trays , macro- and meso - fauna were hand sorted with forceps and paintbrushes and were placed in a sample bottle with alcohol . Invertebrates obtained from the Tullgren samples and hand - sorting were identified . < heading > Statistical analysisLitter decomposition The difference between the initial litter weight and the final litter weight was calculated for each sample . % mass loss was obtained and was analysed by - way , examining the correlation between burial and surface , tillage and non - tillage treatments and the interaction between all treatments . < heading > Invertebrate diversity The numbers of individual invertebrates and species diversity was supposed to be compared with difference of tillage and no -tillage treatments . However , due to small number of data obtained and loss of data of hand - sorting samples , statistical analysis was unable to carry out . < heading > RESULTS Litter decomposition A total of samples ; samples from each treatment was investigated . There were exceptionally low values of in a control / surface sample and of in control / buried while the others exceeded . Averages of different treatments were in control / surface , in control / buried , in tilled / surface , and in tilled / buried , all ranged in relatively small scale of difference , difference ( fig . ) . Average % loss of buried litter samples was higher than that of surface ones in both control and tilled treatments by and respectively . In - way ANOVA , % mass loss was not significantly correlated either with tilled and control treatments ( P= 0.226 ) or with surface and buried ( P= 0.124 ) . When the interaction of all treatments was analysed , there was no significant correlation ( P= ) ( table . ) . < figure/>
Invertebrate diversity The results of hand - sorted samples were not available for analysis due to loss of the original data . A total of soil samples were obtained . Although there were more invertebrates found by hand - sorting , only a couple of organisms were identified in the funnel samples . There were a total of individuals of species present in control treatments and individuals of different species in tilled ones . Because of these low values , statistical analysis was not undertaken . < heading > DISCUSSION Litter decomposition There was no significant correlation loss of litter weight and any treatment . The primary factor which affected those small differences in litter decomposition may be season ; coldness . The experiment was carried out over when most of soil invertebrates species become inactive and decomposition process slows down due to low temperature ( , . , ) . Patterns of mass loss of plant litter after it fell on the soil surface in are divided into phases of ; . A rapid decrease through loss of fast metabolisable compounds and readily leacheable nutrients , . Slow change over , and . A gradual increase in the rate of decomposition from when biological activities and chemical activities in soil ecosystem become more active with prolonged day length and increased temperature ( , ) . In this experimentt , the fact that a very small number of soil invertebrates were sampled from the soil cores indicated the inactiveness of soil organisms during the experimental period . Hence , there was not substantial difference in the conditions of litter between the treatments . When the soil samples were taken from the field site in , many grass species had started to recolonise the ground in control plots , while there remained almost bare in tilled ones . Although vegetation coverage was much greater in control treatments than in tilled , which would have stimulated the assemblage of soil fauna including important detritivore in the former with diverse rooting system ( , ) , cold climate could have been a major constraint for the decomposition process other than biological factors ( Adl , . , ) . Correlation with surface or buried conditions seemed slightly strongly shown than tillage difference ( P= , P=0.226 respectively ) . This may have been a result of changes in food web structure by litter burial . Activities of soil microfauna and mesofauna are increased by the burial of litter as larger amount of food sources become available to those live in deeper depth ( , et al , . . , & Phillips , ) . Thus , decomposition rate is likely to be faster in buried litter than that on surface one and it is more increased by tillage operation ( , ) . However , this experiment did not show statistical significance to support those outcomes between difference conditions . Hence , the decomposition rate of buried plant litter and that of litter on the soil surface was not significantly different ( hypothesis ) and there was no clear correlation between the decomposition rate and tillage treatment in ( hypothesis ) . There are some suggestions of biases caused in this study . , size of mesh can result in overestimation or underestimation of mass loss inside the bags ( , ) . Small mesh can exclude large invertebrate species such as earthworms which are essential in initial decomposition process . However , large mesh sizes allow loss of litter out of the bags ( Adl , ) . The size of mesh used in this experiment was relatively large so that there was some possibility of transportation of litter by soil fauna which has led to overestimate the rate of decomposition . On the other hand , there were some very large invertebrates , e.g. earthworms of longer than , thicker than 3 mm in diameter which could have been excluded from the mesh bags , decreasing the rate of decomposition . , use of mesh bags may have caused modifications of microclimate within the bags . Mesh bags usually create moister microclimate inside which is favoured by microbes , hence the rate of decomposition is increased ( , et al . ) . In addition , nails , plastic sticks and other experimental tools may have resulted in physical changes in the environment . Although the extent of influence is not clear , there can be some sources of errors in experimental design . , litter used in this study was air - dried wheat straw but the field had not been under cultivation presumably for so that plant community was not similar to that formed under crop production system . There was uncertainty whether soil organisms preferably fed on fresh , abundant plant species or dried wheat straws added to the site with different chemical composition . It is argued that chemical content of a plant species , such as , , polyphenol was a factor which determines the decomposition rate ( , . Adl , ) . This study only measured the loss of litter weight from the start to the end of the experimental period , hence there is no available data on the chemical decomposition process in details . There may be some differences in the process between plant species which were not examined in this experiment in addition to variation in decomposition between plants in mesh bags and those in the soil . Finally , the size of blocks may have been too small ( Adl , ) and the duration of disturbance by tillage may have been not significant to modify the soil community . Plots of tillage and control treatments were located adjacent to each other and the size of a plot was ( 50×100 cm with blocks together in a block ) . The field site had not been under cultivation prior to the experiment with high diversity in terms of plant community . This might have been inadequate for the aim of study to differentiate the activities of soil organisms between the tillage treatments . Soil organisms may have been migrated from block to another irrespective of tillage disturbance , resulting in the elimination of effects of human management . < heading > Invertebrate diversity Collected data of both number of individuals and species diversity were insufficient to measure the difference of invertebrates ' responses to tillage and no - tillage treatments by statistical analysis . As shown in the decomposition rate , the most important factor that caused these low numbers of invertebrates collected in this experiment may be cold temperature over ( , . , ) . In fact , temperature had been very low , probably lower than ° for before the sampling , so that substantial number of invertebrates , if present , may have moved deeper than the depth of soil core of . Another cause of sampling failure may be the method of invertebrate extraction with funnel . Tullgren funnel under light bulb as heat source was used in this study , but the efficiency of extraction is dependent upon the soil type and invertebrate species . For example , is likely to stay in the soil which clumps together ( Adl , ) , i.e. clay soil , hence remain in the funnel . Among the total of soil cores sampled , most of the soil was clay - type . Although clods were crushed into smaller fragments by hands in setting - up operation for extraction , this stickiness and clusters of soil may have made extraction difficult . In addition , the amount of soil taken from the whole soil sample was very small , ml from , hence reduced the possibility of collecting the satisfactory number of organisms . In fact , when all the soil was hand sorted , there were much more number of invertebrates found , particularly from the control samples with some living grasses attached . As data were lost , it is not persuadable to argue the likely effects of the treatments on the results only with observation . However , there seemed a certain difference between the samples of tillage and no - tillage in hand sorting samples . The number of individual organisms was higher in control samples than that in tilled ones in many cases . possible explanation to this result may be the presence of reestablishing grass species in control samples which formed complex rooting systems , provided variety of food resources that increased the assemblage of fungi , bacteria , and invertebrates ( Titi , ) . Hence , there might have been some correlation tillage and invertebrates diversity in following . The undisturbed soil my have higher possibility of containing well - preserved seed bank which would lead to the establishment of diverse plant community at , whilst the ploughed soil my have been reduced the possibility of such recovery within a short period of time ( et al . ) . Furthermore , block design and the long - term management of the site prior to the experiment may have caused inaccuracy of this study . As already discussed , plot size was 50×50 cm which may not restricted the migration of organisms between the blocks to the expected extent . The field may have needed of management practice to affect biological community structure in the soil food web . However , study argued that the reduction in predatory arthropods population recovered up to the same level as found in no - tillage treatment within after the tillage treatment ( , et al . ) . It was probably due to high dispersibility of those species , but the reason for recolonisation of cultivated area was not certain . There seemed variation in the responses of invertebrate species to the disturbance and to changes in habitat ( , ) , but it may be important to consider the duration , intensity of tillage inputs in the long - term in order to examine the modification in the soil food web . In spite of insufficient amount of data collected in this study , there is increasing number of studies which investigated the correlation of the responses of invertebrate community , or particular species or functional groups with agricultural management , such as tillage , crop species and its rotation . It would be possible to estimate some probable outcomes from this study by referring to other available research . Many findings imply the difficulty of estimating the effects of tillage on species number and diversity due to high variety in both terms , but there were some notable responses of particular invertebrate species which may be induced by this management . Periodic disturbance by tillage can have an impact on the development of earthworm population and its life cycle ( , ) . Increased interspecific competition in the soil , reduction of food resources , and increased predation risk when earthworms were brought out to the soil surface by turn over of soil , may lead to influence the relative proportion of earthworm population size . Some studies suggested the importance of abiotic factors affecting this species such as soil water content and temperature ; ° is suitable condition for their growth in agroecosystem and ° is the optimum ( , ) . Physical damages , i.e. dismemberment , seemed not to be significant to most species of earthworms , but many studies support the preference of no - tillage system by those measurements ( , ) . Much smaller soil organisms ; microfauna showed different responses to tillage disturbance , mainly as a result of their particular ecological need ( Titi , ) . Mites rely on their dispersal pathway on pores , borrows , and tubes of partially decomposed plant tissues , hence , changes in soil physical structure by tillage can have negative effects on the requirement for their survival ( Titi , ) . On the other hand , Collembola demonstrate high adaptation depending on species . Some species are resilient to solar radiation , abrupt temperature change which may be caused by tillage operation ( Titi , ) . Loring et al ( ) found that tillage can stimulate soil dweller Collembola population moslty in the short term after tillage due to favorable changes in nutrient availability , reformation of pore spaces , and other physical properties of the soil . No - tillage system in comparison was likely to result in higher density of in total , but difference in population between tilled and no - tilled systems seemed declined over time which may imply their high adaptability ( Titi , ) . Feeding patterns are important factors that determine the responses of invertebrate species to tillage ( , ) . Plant - parasitic species were much vulnerable to cultivation than other species probably by the direct effects of burial or removal of plants , destroying their host environment . However , the effects of tillage , though evident , were not consistent between different species in many studies ( , ) . Those investigation suggested several points of tillage effects on soil invertebrates ; . increase in management intensity lead to raise the level of disturbance to soil ecosystem , . modification in species diversity , abundance would be induced not only by direct or indirect changes in the soil habitat but in liaison with relationship between functional groups ( , . Titi , ) . However , many findings agree that selection of crop species is the most important regulator on the functioning of soil food web and the degree of disturbance is variable according to other farming managements including pest management , organic matter application ( Titi , . Wardle , . Adl , ) . For this experiment , the amount and quality of data required accuracy and effectiveness to argue the likely effects of tillage on soil invertebrate diversity and abundance to be supported by statistical analysis ( hypothesis ) . < heading > CONCLUSION There was no statistically significant outcome which supported the correlation between soil invertebrate diversity , the rate of decomposition , and the tillage treatment in . This study probably had a major problem in biases in the experimental design to obtain sufficient amount of responses from soil ecosystem , there are many possible improvements as suggested . There are increasing numbers of studies which would be referred to estimate the likely effects of tillage on agroecosystems . In general , although not consistent in many cases , there seemed to have some negative effects of tillage operation on soil ecosystem in terms of disturbance , leading to the modification in the community structure . The question is still not well answered and research is under development . In conclusion , this study highlighted the difficulty of investigating the functioning of soil ecosystem under agricultural practice due to its complexity and inconsistent responses for anthropogenic disturbance . Further research is expected to apply this outcome .","To deliberate whether was a classical or neo - classical economist is essentially to compare the traditions in light of ' theories . This essay will consider how ' thought compares with either school . Above this analysis it is equally important to interpret general approach to the study of economics . The tradition of the classical political economy should be taken synonymous with the liberal critique of mercantilism and the analyses of the advantages of international trade . In this way , the neo - classical economy further advocated the principles of free trade within hegemony in . The approach of the neo - classical marginalist revolution signaled a specialization of economics as a purely technical discipline . As comments , ' Keynes ' achievement was to bridge the gulf between these practical ideas and pure neo - classical theory ; to root these thoughts in a new general theory of economics ' . Hence , ' writing was composed of a mélange of classical and neo - classical ideas . Yet , his approach to the study of economics most closely resembles the classical consideration of a political economy . These arguments of theory and approach will be brought forward hereinafter . < fnote > Bleaney , p.1 < /fnote > It is essential to compare the strands of liberal political economy - both the classical and neo - classical approach . The classical political economy is most commonly characterized by the works of and . Both wrote about an economy deeply rooted in a social context . Social relations were did not take a backseat to economic theory . Hence , Smith , in his analysis of social institutions , was careful to point out the properties of a market society that could potentially have adverse effects on the human condition . From this background Smith develops the theory of the invisible hand would direct individual interests to benefit the collective of society . However , this is not to be confused with the neo - classical perception of the homo economicus . More importantly , in his Wealth of Nations he outlined that the real value of a nation is not the gold or silver reserves it possesses but the labor it holds . In contributes to the classical political economy thought by introducing his theory of comparative advantage . This theory essentially puts forward the idea of international trade being a positive sum rather than a sum game . Hence , these are some of the fundamental points that contribute to the understanding of classical political economy . Both Smith and directly criticize the mercantilist approach to political economy . They label it a statist and protectionist doctrine that emphasizes the wealth of nations on the basis on material reserves . Indeed , mercantilist economies understand the benefits the trade as mutually exclusive . In contrast , according to 's theory of comparative advantage if a country engages in free trade then it will be beneficial to all nations involved due to specialization . Hence , both classical political economists are similar in their view that acting out of self - interest , either in society or in international relations becomes the general interest of all . < fnote > States and Market Lecture , No . , URL < /fnote > The development of a neo - classical school saw the discipline of economical thought evolve into a more scientific and more technical direction . It is generally seen as a departure point from the classical political economy . The analysis of ' how choices are made between alternative ends under conditions of scarcity ' became the focus point of neo - classical studies . Therefore it was seen to be a science free of any political or moral undertones . Indeed , the school , which is most commonly associated with neo - classical thought , emphasized the need for the universality of economic concepts . This stands in opposition to the historical school who are firmly believe in a historically contingent analysis . Hence , the neo - classical approach treats economics as a pure science that considers socially indifferent individuals . This approach has often lent the neo - classical economists a reputation for being market fundamentalists . Furthermore , they are additionally seen as predecessors to the neo - liberal political economy . < fnote > Gamble : < /fnote> Gamble , p.5 URL < /fnote > In order to compare ' thought with the classical and neo - classical school it is necessary to analyze some of ' viewpoints and stances . Several of his economic theories point towards as disapproving of classical economic thought . Ricardo and the classics were convinced that savings would be automatically reinvested . However , ' the difference between and the classical economists was that while they thought of this as the normal , universal state of affairs , he saw it as a special case . ' < fnote > Stewart , p.99 < /fnote > In this way the classical economists believed that balance between savings and investment was regulated by a changing interest rate . For instance , if the level of savings increases the interest rates will fall with a consequence of investments rising again . Thus , a decrease in consumption would be balanced by a rise in investment and hence employment would stay equal . Yet , as argues that savings are not reinvested by default , an increase of savings would then mean a decrease in consumption . The subsequent decrease in national income would signal a rise in unemployment . Hence , in this respect ' thought hardly aligns with classical economic concepts of savings and investments . Classical economists and clash once more about the relationship of wages to unemployment . In this regard , has argued that relied on fundamental classical concepts , yet developed a different conclusion . A combination of the Law of Diminishing Returns and the Theory of Marginal Productivity results in the observation if the number of workers increases then individual must fall . The studies of ' theories indicate that there was concurrence on this issue between him and the classics . Nevertheless , he claimed that they had not distinguished between real and money wages . In terms of macroeconomic principle if everyone experiences similar changes in money wages then the combined real wage will remain unchanged . From this it follows that if real wages do not change , then neither will the level of employment . Hence , in opposition to the classical economists argued that it was interest rates and not wages that cause unemployment . Interestingly , however , this theory is somewhat negated in light of the international political economy where individual countries are seen to have open economies . < fnote > Stewart , pp . < /fnote> Stewart , p. < /fnote > In terms of theory is not significantly closer to the neo - classical thought of economics . Indeed , disagreed with Say 's Law , which is seen to be one of the cornerstones of neo - classical economics . Keynes contradicted this proposition by disagreeing with the stipulation that supply will create its own demand . However , notes that ' did not make any obvious departures from the neo - classical tradition in the assumptions around which his theory was built ' . This leads us to the neo - classical synthesis argument that claims the Keynes ' General Theory was merely a ' special case of the classical theory ' . Yet , as seen above , ' thoughts are not necessarily favorable towards the classical political economy . Indeed , ' accusation that "" the classical economic theory of being itself one of these petty , polite techniques which tries to deal with the present by abstracting from the fact that we know very little about the future "" is not exactly favorable to the classical thought . < fnote > Bleaney , p.17 < /fnote> Togati , p.3 < /fnote> Keynes cited in , p.47 < /fnote > In light of these theoretical comparisons it is necessary to abstract and analyze what scientific approach used to develop these theories . The constructive method of the neo - classical school was criticized by as merely dealing with particular cases . Therefore , is seen as placing ' emphasis on aggregates rather than on representative agents as irreducible realities of economics ' . In addition , the General Theory market ... mathematics graph only developed later . < fnote > Togati , p.44 < /fnote >",0 "< abstract> Abstract: This experiment involved studying the kinetics of the reaction catalysed by alkaline phosphatase . , the responses of the enzyme to differing and temperature were examined . Optimum pH and temperature were determined to be 9.5 and 44 ° C respectively . Then , the Michaelis Menten constant was determined by plotting a Lineweaver Burk and plot from the results obtained of enzyme action at differing substrate concentrations . was calculated to be -3 . The product inhibition of alkaline phosphatase by inorganic phosphate was also examined , and it was established that the lowest phosphate concentration to produce marked change to enzyme activity was 20mmoldm -3 . This is much above the product produced in the other assays , ensuring that no product inhibition occurred during the rest of the experiment . Finally the order of reaction was confirmed to be order ; the rate of the reaction catalysed by alkaline phosphatase is proportional to the concentration of p - nitrophenyl phosphate at concentrations where enzyme is not saturated with substrate . < /abstract> Introduction: The enzyme used in this experiment was alkaline phosphatase , catalysing the hydrolysis of p - nitrophenyl phosphate to p - nitrophenol and inorganic phosphate . FORMULA This reaction is particularly easy to assay due to the fact that the product of the reaction , p - nitrophenol is a coloured compound at low pH. This means that its concentration can be determined simply by measuring absorption at nm . The low is achieved by addition of a strong base , ( aq ) , which also causes the denaturing of the enzyme , hence stopping the reaction at the required time . For this order enzyme catalysed reaction , at low substrate concentrations the rate of reaction is proportional to the concentration of the substrate . However , at higher concentrations the rate reaches a maximum , V max . This is when the enzyme is saturated . constant ( ) , is the substrate concentration when the rate of reaction is ½ V max . is always the same for a particular enzyme with a particular substrate . Its value can be a useful to compare different enzymes catalysing the same reaction as it will indicate which enzyme can function efficiently at low substrate concentrations . ( ie . the enzyme with lower value ) < heading > Method: For the effects of and temperature on enzyme activity , the method in sections of the laboratory manual was followed . For the determination of constant , the tubes were set up as shown in table . in the appendix ( p.8 ) . To each of these tubes , of buffer was added to make up volumes . The blank for the spectrophotometer was prepared by eliminating the substrate , but making sure to make up the volumes . The reaction was started by the addition of of the enzyme , alkaline phosphatase . Then the steps in 11.4.2 ( ii ) , ( iii ) and ( iv ) were carried out . The experiment analysing product inhibition of enzyme action required tubes with varying concentration of phosphate ( Table 7 . , appendix p. ) to be prepared . The blank for the spectrophotometer did not include any substrate . The reaction was started and terminated as explained in the laboratory manual . Finally , the time course assay of the enzyme reaction was carry out by preparing test tubes each containing p - nitrophenyl phosphate ( 5mM in 0,05 M glycine buffer , pH9.5 ) and buffer . The reaction was started upon addition of of enzyme . Then , the reaction was stopped with addition of ( aq ) at , , , , min and then at min intervals until . The amount of p - nitrophenol produced was determined by measuring A . < heading > Results : < /heading> Effect of pH on enzyme activity The results obtained from the experiment show that affects the activity of the enzyme . As can be seen in graph . below , when increases , the enzyme activity increases . The highest enzyme activity is around pH 9.0~9.5 where most p - nitrophenol is produced . However , at more alkaline pH , enzyme activity decreases again . pH 9.0~9.5 is the optimum pH for the enzyme alkaline phosphatase . < figure/> Effect of temperature of enzyme activity As temperature increase , the activity of the enzyme gradually increases at a fairly constant rate . ( . below ) However , at around 45 ° C , enzyme activity drops quite rapidly . According to the results , optimum temperature for the enzyme is ° C . < figure/> Determination of Michaelis - Menten constant Graph 3 and 4 ( p. ) are methods of calculating constant , , the plot and plot respectively . Since the plot is / V against ] , the x - intercept of the line is equal to , was calculated to be -3 . ( Calculations can be found in the appendix , p. ) For the plot , the gradient of the line is equal to - K M because the graph is a graph of V 0 against V 0/[S ] . From this plot , it was calculated to be 0.93mmoldm -3 . ( p. ) < figure/>
Product inhibition of enzyme action As shown in the graph . below , as the concentration of phosphate , of the products of the reaction catalysed by alkaline phosphatase , increases the amount of p - nitrophenol produced decreases , showing that the product inhibits the action of the enzyme . It continually decreases until about 20mmoldm -3 of phosphate is added , when amount of p - nitrophenol produced becomes constant . < figure/> Order of reaction Graph 6 . is a graph of the log(a/(a - x ) ) against time . Since the resulting plot is linear , the reaction is order . This means that the rate of the reaction is proportional to the concentration of the substrate , p - nitrophenyl phosphate . < figure/> Conclusion : < /heading> Effect of pH on enzyme activity pH affects the rate of enzyme catalysed reaction because at different values , the charges of various amino acid residues in the enzyme change . This affects electrostatic interactions between amino acids , altering tertiary structure and hence activity of the enzyme . The optimum value determined from the experiment for alkaline phosphatase is about pH 9.5 . < heading > Effect of temperature on enzyme activity Increasing the temperature initially increases the rate of enzyme catalysed reactions because more of the reactants posses the minimum activation energy , leading to more successful collisions of substrate and enzyme resulting in reaction . The optimum temperature for alkaline phosphatase determined from this experiment is ° C . Above this temperature , rate of reaction decreases because the enzyme becomes denatured as the hydrogen bonds holding the tertiary structure of the enzyme breaks . < heading > Michaelis - Menten constant The Michaelis - Menten constant is the substrate concentration when the rate of reaction is the maximum velocity that can be obtained . For alkaline phosphatase , is -3 . That is , when there is -3 of p - nitrophenyl phosphate , the rate of reaction is the V 0max . < heading > Product inhibition of enzyme action According to the graph , the lowest molarity of phosphate which markedly inhibits alkaline phosphatase is at 20mmoldm -3 . Since amounts of phosphate produced in all the previous reactions have been much lower than this ( not more than 5mM ) it would have been insufficient to begin inhibiting the enzyme . < heading > Order of reaction From the results obtained the order of this reaction is order with respect to the substrate , p - nitrophenyl phosphate . This means that the rate of the reaction is proportional to the concentration of the substrate . However , this is only true for low substrate concentrations because at higher concentrations the enzyme will become saturated with substrate . Although from the reaction : FORMULA it can be seen that water is also a reactant , the reaction is order because the concentration of water is so high it does not change significantly . Hence concentration of H 2O is negligible and the reaction is order . From the graph the rate constant , is equal to 0.011min -1 . ( Calculations can be found in the appendix , p. + )","< heading > Region By ancient decree , commercially grown grape vines and wine production are not allowed in . The nearest wine comes from the Loire valley , particularly from the region ( , ) . < figure/>With 's proximity to the region , would be the ideal choice of grape , having thick skin and being hardy and an early ripener . In this region , soils vary from , limestone , siliceous and chalky soils , but are is usually grown in regions of granite . The weather is influenced by the , with warm ocean currents resulting in mild and warm summers and also a damp climate . < heading > Vineyard Establishment Establishment and operating costs can vary significantly . Major establishment costs include land , land preparation , labour , grapevines , trellis materials and pest management materials . The site should be prepared by weeding and fertilisation to increase the organic matter content of the soil . Ripping the soil to a depth of , and establishing a ridge of soil high and wide , on which vines are to be planted may be advantageous . This will provide an improved surface and internal drainage , and allow for deeper rooting , also preventing ponding of water around the base of vines , which can lead to disease . Soil may be tested for fertility and , and if necessary nutrients , such as potassium , and limestone , to achieve pH 5.5 - 5.6 , may be added . Planting would typically be in straight rows running in a north - south direct , to allow for maximum sunlight interception . If the vines were to be planted on a slope , it may be necessary to plant across the slope . If pest control is to be an issue , it may be advantageous to plant the rows parallel to prevailing costal winds . Rows should be spaced , with a distance of , or wider if larger harvesting equipment must be accommodated . Planting should take place in , when the risk of frost has passed . Roots should be soaked and pruned as necessary , and the planting hole large enough to accommodate the root system . For grafted vines , the graft union should be - 3 inches above the soil level to prevent scion rooting ( Vine et al . , ) . It is important to properly train vines during of growth . Trellising can vary extensively , but all function to support the weight of heavy ripening fruit and to establish a vine form , which is easy to manage . It is especially important to provide good weed control during of vineyard establishment . Young vines do not compete well with grasses and weeds for soil nutrients , moisture and sunlight . Weed control may be achieved either mechanically or through use of herbicides for larger plantings . After a vineyard is established , management practises take over . Grape vines require pruning to remain productive and manageable . Control of diseases and pests is necessary to maintain healthy leaves and protect the fruit from various types of deterioration ( Vine et al . , ) . < heading > White wine production White wines are exclusively produced by the fermentation of grape juice . The flow diagram below illustrates the basic outline of the procedure : < figure/>Picking may be by hand for minimal damage and maximum selection , but this is expensive , therefore machine picking is common , with greater damage to the fruit as a consequence . Juice extraction and varying degrees of clarification precede alcoholic fermentation . The sensory characteristics of a dry white wine are particularly dependant on the conditions of the pre - fermentation operations of picking , crushing , pressing and clarification . The schematic below ( DSM-Oenology.com , ) illustrates some of the equipment that would be used in the commercial production of white wine : < figure/>Stems are removed by a de - stemmer , to avoid excess tannin extraction and transfer of vegetal characteristics . Grapes are crushed to allow juice extraction , but pressing should be gentle enough that juice extraction from grape pulp only , and not stems , seeds or skins . Grape must may be treated using SO 2 and possibly ascorbic acid , to improve colour and fruit flavour . In , particularly , grape juice is then clarified in order to remove solid particles : wild yeast and oxidases from the must before fermentation . This prevents the formation of off - flavours and vegetal characteristics and reduces SO 2 combinations . Clarification processes used include centrifugation , filtration or flotation . During alcoholic fermentation , natural sugars present in the must are converted into CO 2 and ethanol . This process is a complex series of conversions carried out by enzymes within a yeast cell . The sugars provide yeast with energy to continue fermentation until alcohol reaches a level where it becomes toxic and actually inhibits their growth . Fermentations vessels for most commercial wines are stainless steel , however oak may be used for premium wines . Fermentation temperatures of oC are regard as normal for obtaining good fruity flavour . Malolactic fermentation is less practised in white wine production , but may be used to deacidfy the wine by the conversion of malic acid to lactic acid by bacteria ( , ) . In , winemaking is according to the Sur Lie method . The wines are left over in either the barrel or vinification vat . During this time , the wines feed off the fine lees in the vats or barrels . The surplus of carbon dioxide , this produces gives a very slight carbonated nature , which increases the wines freshness ( , ) .",0 "< heading > Introduction The basic objective of the laboratory sessions was to use and to design a car in a wind tunnel and to analyse the properties such as the drag coefficient and drag force . The idea behind these laboratory sessions was to gain knowledge about basic concepts of fluid dynamics and car aerodynamics . This laboratory assisted in gaining a basic idea about analysis and optimisation . A car was fitted in to a wind tunnel and all the external specifications were provided . Then the car was analysed for different properties by varying the external entities . < heading > Method used A car and a wind tunnel is designed using . Then he original car was mated in to a closed wind tunnel using and then was added in . Using a wizard available in the external entities such as temperature and pressure were defined . Then the surfaces of the car were mentioned on which the air acts . Solver was then used to calculate the X - component of force by carrying out several iterations . The original car used for the initial calculations is shown below ; < picture/>The Modified car used for the initial calculations is shown below ; < picture/>Following data was specified before carrying out the iteration calculations ; < list > Heat transfer in solids : OffTime dependent : effects : OffFlow type : Laminar and number flow : roughness : micrometerDefault wall conditions : Adiabatic wall
The iteration calculations are carried out for different velocities of air ( , , , , m / s ) < heading > Theory Used : - The general data used for derivation and calculation of drag coefficients ; < list at sea - level ( FORMULA ) Speed of sound : FORMULA Dynamic viscosity : FORMULA Density : FORMULA Area of the original car FORMULA Area of the modified car FORMULA . Equations used for the calculation of drag coefficient and drag force; Drag force : FORMULA .Drag coefficient : FORMULA < /list>(Where ; FORMULA = density , V = velocity , A = area of the car ) < heading > Analysis and Interpretation of results The drag forces for values of velocity are found and using the equation shown in the "" Theory used "" the respective coefficient is found . Then graph is plotted for each car , with coefficient against velocity . Calculating the coefficient ; FORMULA FORMULA ( Above is an example calculation of a drag coefficient ) < heading > The results and calculations for the Original car: The drag coefficient for each velocity is calculated and tabulated below ; < table/>The graph shown below is of coefficient against velocity . Even though the points seem to be scattered around the plot area when the y - axis is considered all the coefficients for different velocities seem to be very close to each other . All the coefficients seem to lie between and . There is a general trend line added to the graph and it is considerably horizontal and straight showing that there is no change in coefficient even though the velocity of the air is changed . < figure/> The results and calculations for The drag coefficient for each velocity is calculated and tabulated below ; < table/>The graph shown below is of coefficient against velocity . Even though the points seem to be scattered around the plot area when the y - axis is considered all the coefficients for different velocities seem to be close to very each other . All the coefficients seem to lie between 0.3 and 0.36 . There is a general trend line added to the graph and it is close to being horizontal even though it is slightly slanted showing that there is only a very slight change in coefficient even though the velocity of the air is changed . This slight change of coefficients could be due to the different number of iterations carried out . < figure/> Conclusion According to the results from the cars it could be stated that coefficient is independent of the velocity of air . Since the forces and drag coefficients found in the Modified car was less than the values found in the original car , it could be derived that the modified car is more aerodynamic . The modified car has less forces with the different velocities and the difference between the coefficients of the cars is roughly about ' 0.05 ' . Below are some additional ways of interpreting properties such as pressure ; < picture/>Using the software used for this laboratory various other entities such as static pressure dynamic and pressure could be measured and interpreted .","Georges ' case indicates separate grounds for judicial review . The is substantive : this in itself raises the important issue of what standard of review should be applied and how this affects the constitutional role of the judiciary . This essay will argue that the courts have been too hesitant in applying intensive standards of review , and subsequently litigants are unable to predict the outcome of their cases . , is on the basis of a violation of the rules of natural justice , namely the rule against bias . These will now be considered respectively . < heading < /heading > S.6 of the HRA provides that it is unlawful for a public authority to act in a way which is incompatible with a Convention right . George may contend that the regulations breach the right to private life , under , on the grounds that the searches demean his physical integrity < fnote > Human Rights Act < /fnote> European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms ( ) < /fnote> Section 31 ( ) of Act provides a person has standing to initiate judicial review where he establishes sufficient interest in the matter to which the application relates . ) of the HRA provides that a person has sufficient interest where he is or would be a victim of the act of the public authority , contrary to s.6 . < /fnote> See X and Y v. ( ) EHRR for a useful definition of what constitutes privacy . < /fnote> X and Y v. ( ) EHRR , also < /fnote> Article 8 < /heading > Interference with article 8 may be justifiable only where it is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interest of national security , public safety or prevention of disorder or crime . The standard of review to be implemented in cases concerning convention rights has been the subject of much confusion . < fnote ) < /fnote > Following the decision of in Smith it was thought that decisions which infringe upon convention rights should be assessed an enhanced wednesbury grounds in the context of human rights ; that is the court will only set aside the decision of a body where it goes beyond the sphere of reasonable options available , and where there is a human right involved a greater justification of the reasonableness is required . However , when that reasoning was rebuked by the on appeal , for failing to recognise poorly and often subjectively justified decisions which contravened human rights , but were not wholly unreasonable as to be unlawful , a proportionality based test was advocated . As decisions of the are binding against the member state one should think should be able to legitimately expect the test of proportionality to be applied . However , recent cases have shown this is not so . < fnote > R v , Ex p Smith [ ] QB 517 < /fnote> Smith and Grady v , [ ] EHHR 33985/96 and 33986/96 < /fnote > The basic facts of the present case are similar to . Both involve long - term prisoners in a high security prison objecting to regulations on convention grounds . However , the appeal in was confined to the argument that a blanket policy permitting examination of legally privileged correspondence in the prisoners ' absence infringed rights recognised under both common law and . Thus it will not possible to ascertain the outcome of the current case based on . However , it will be useful to consider the reasoning of the court , who applied both an enhanced wednesburytest , in conjunction with proportionality in reaching the conclusion that ' rights had in fact been infringed to an unnecessary and impermissible extent . Closing his argument Lord stated that the intensity of review in public law cases shall depend on the subject matter at hand , even in cases concerning Convention rights . Thus , intensive review which the felt was necessary for protecting convention rights is by no means guaranteed domestically . Before we can discuss the possible reasons behind the reluctance to follow jurisprudence , it will be necessary ' position under the different standards of review , < fnote > R v. the Secretary of for , ex parte [ ] UKHL < /fnote> HMP Whitemoor < /fnote> Daly , . Para < /fnote> See Associated Provincial Picture Houses Ltd v. Wednesbury Corporation [ ] 1 K.B. 233 at and R v , Ex p Smith [ ] QB 517 < /fnote> Para , see also See R ( Mahmood ) v Secretary of for [ ] 1 WLR and R v , Ex p Smith [ ] QB 517 < /fnote> Was there a breach ? < /heading > It may be argued that the regulations were necessary in the prevention of crime and disorder or the protection of public safety in a democratic society . This is a convincing argument . Searches are now routine in many areas of life in the interest of public safety , for example when boarding an aeroplane or entering many high security buildings . One could argue that they are an expected and legitimate aspect of prison punishment . Nonetheless , the regulations must be either reasonable or proportionate to those aims . Since it is not possible to predict which test will be applied , we must prepare for both eventualities . < heading > Reasonableness Was a blanket policy requiring searching of all prisoners before they are returned to their cells so unreasonable that no reasonable authority could ever come to it , given consideration interference with ? One could argue that it is not beyond the sphere of reasonable options available , as a maximum security prison in the interests of public safety and prevention of crime and disorder to require searches of all prisoners for , example , drugs and lethal weapons or other illicit material . It is stressed that the suffering should go beyond the legitimate form of punishment . Whereas did succeed under reasonableness , the illicit contents which may be hid in correspondence is small whereas illicit contents which may be hid on the body is much greater and so is not wholly unreasonable . On the other hand one may speculate , that on the basis of , in general blanket policies ought to be very strongly justified , more so where a human right is involved . Upon weighing up the evidence I am inclined to argue that would be distinguished on the grounds that a greater level of interference existed , thus the regulations are not unreasonable or incompatible with article 8 . < fnote > R(Limbuela ) ( Tesema ) ( Adam ) v. Secretary of for [ 2005 ] UKHL 66 < /fnote> Proportionality < /heading > The contours of proportionality , as considered in , are that in determining whether an interference of human rights is so excessive as to constitute a breach the court shall consider : Whether a legislative objective of sufficient importance to justify limiting a fundamental right be identified : There is insufficient information available as to the motives of the prison in enforcing these regulations . However , using the same argument as above , it may be argued that the searches are justified by the need to keep drugs out of prison or ensure inmates do not have access to lethal weapons , in the interest of preventing crime and disorder . Whether the measures designed to meet the legislative objective are rationally connected to it : Using the example above , this is a suitable method to ensuring those goals . Whether the means used to impair the right of freedom are no more than is necessary to accomplish the objective : There may be less intrusive means of meeting those goals available , for example using metal detectors or doing random spot checks . Thus the regulation may be declared incompatible under the latter , but not the test . The effect of such a declaration is not so wide that it substitutes the regulation but effectively narrows the substantive choices available . < fnote > s.3 - s.4 Human Rights Act < /fnote > Whilst we do not have enough information to ascertain positively the outcome of proportionality , the above demonstrates the difference between the standards . Greater scrutiny of decisions is required , balancing the pros and cons rather than merely what is in the sphere of reasonable options available . Proportionality places the burden of responsibility firmly on the public body , and by return increasing the protection of the citizen . < fnote > See further , , S. ( and in Judicial Review , Scots Law Times < /fnote> The problem with proportionality < /heading > Where there is no consistency of review , citizens inevitably receive differing standards of justice . The difference , as notes , is one of degree rather than type . Proportionality scrutinises the same behaviour as the former , only applying a greater degree of scrutiny and contextual awareness . Both standards recognise the need to balance the litigants ' rights against competing policy and matters of public interest , but vary in the magnitude of discretion accorded to the court . writes that the move towards proportionality signifies shifting role of judiciary in constitutional order . Such intrusive reviewing of policy has not been within the traditional jurisdiction of the judge . The introduction of proportionality demonstrates the impact of jurisprudence on the role of the domestic judge in ways more subtle and unexpected than expressed in the human rights legislation itself . < fnote > Elliot , M. ( 2001 ) and , Cambridge Law Journal 60 ( ) 301 - 306 < /fnote > And perhaps , this is the root of the problem . The test of proportionality has been developed in a context , in the and in the , not in consideration of the constitutional role of domestic courts . courts have long rejected proportionality as an independent grounds for review , regarding it as being both supplementary to their constitutional role and unnecessary . Lord ' famously espoused dictum that one should not use a "" steam hammer to crack a nut if a nut cracker would do "" represents the sentiment that the court should intervene no more than is necessary to fulfil their judiciary duties . In fact to do so may be to supercede their powers and to go against the will of and thus act undemocratically . This was certainly the view of the Attorney - general in the case stating that : < fnote > R v Secretary of for , ex parte [ 1991 ] 1 AC 696 UKHL 4 < /fnote> R v. Goldstein [ ] W.L.R 151 at , see further : ) , , < /fnote>""a wide margin of discretion should be accorded at each stage in the analysis to the executive and to "" . A ( FC ) and others ( FC ) v. Secretary of for [ 2005 ] UKHL , Para < /fnote > This submission , based upon the assertion that those elected bodies are the only ones qualified to consider matters of policy in a society must be countered by the need for the courts to intervene , where appropriate , in the protection of human rights and freedoms . This too , according to Lord Hope , is in the interests of a democratic society . This is undoubtedly true . If the can not be entrusted with the task of ensuring elected officials do not use their power inappropriately against civil and human rights , then who can ? Lever argues that the review has an important function in democratic society , not because decision are necessarily better than legislative decisions , but because it is publicly accessible in a way that is not and provides a means for holding Government directly accountable . < fnote > Ibid . < /fnote> Lever , A. , [ 2007 ] Is Judicial Review Undemocratic ? , Public Law , -298 < /fnote > Numerous cases have been faced with the same question following , with no clear pattern emerging . The case provides the greatest affirmation of the proportionality test yet . It should however be noted that the requirement of such a stringent standard of review was required implicitly by the terms of the order and article under review and sadly such enthusiasm can not be applied freely too all human rights cases . Whereas the court in the immigration and human rights case decided an enhanced wednesbury test was most appropriate , the court in , another immigration and human rights case , utilised proportionality . However , as immigration is "" a broad social and political area and the judiciary were not policymakers "" substantial deference was allowed to when restricting rights . This shows that whereas the judiciary are becoming more confident in their application of intensive review , progress is painstakingly slow and apprehensive , but necessary . The judiciary can not properly perform its role of review where it is constrained by too feeble tools . As Lord Cooke in stated , the time is imminent when the courts must accept that : < fnote>[2005 ] CSOH 49 < /fnote> R. ( on the application of ) v Secretary of for , ( on the application of ) v Secretary of for , ( on the application of ) v Secretary of for , ( on the application of ) v Secretary of for . QBD ( Admin ) April 2006 < /fnote> Article 12 < /fnote>""The law can never be satisfied in any administrative field merely by a finding that the decision under review is not capricious or absurd"" Judicial review : Natural Justice < /heading > Natural justice , sometimes referred to as a duty to act fairly , has governing principles : is the right to fair hearing and , the rule against bias . This is notwithstanding the right to a fair trial under . The role of the Deputy Governor as responsible for hearing 's case , as responsible for searches , and the fact he was present during search compromises ' his impartiality . This appears to contravene the fundamental maxim of natural justice : < quote > ' No man is permitted to be a judge in his own cause ' . < /quote>'Nemo debet esse judex in properial sua ' < /fnote > It has long been established that public bodies exercising a statutory duty are obliged to observe the rules of natural justice . Thus , should seek leave for judicial review , within , under based on his legitimate expectation that the rules of natural justice would be adhered to . To avoid confusion , it will be appropriate to talk about procedural impropriety : In CCSU v. Minister for it was held that procedural impropriety includes both a breach of statutory procedural requirements , such as the human rights act , and the common law rules governing natural justice . < fnote v. [ ] AC 40 < /fnote> As amended by s.31 of Act CPR 54 < /fnote> See CCSU v Minster for the Civil Service [ ] AC 374 ( HL ) < /fnote>[1985 ] AC 374 , HL < /fnote > This is important as we shall see there is considerable overlap between the right to a fair hearing under and the principles of natural justice . < heading > What is the test of bias ? < /heading > In Re : Medicaments the bias test was held to be : < fnote > Re : Medicaments and Related Goods ( no . ) [ ] 1 WLR 42 < /fnote > whether the judge has been shown to have been influenced by any actual bias , or ; whether , if on objective appraisal , applying the reasonable man test , the material facts give rise to a legitimate fear that the judge is not impartial ( appearance of bias ) . In accordance with principles of substantive review , above , the judiciary do not attempt to judge procedure on its ' merits but on its ' legality . It will be useful to consult similar case law for guidance on whether actual or apparent bias exists . In considered the position of the Secretary of as a policy maker and decision maker within the , a role comparable to that of the deputy governor . They conceded that as minister and politician his dual role meant could not be independent and impartial ; he was biased . However , the fact he is accountable to parliament and subject to judicial review negated this bias . However , obvious factual distinction is that this decision was made with specific reference to a government minister , which the deputy governor is not . He is not accountable to , but only through judicial review . suggests that he would be subject to the appearance of bias where he not accountable in those ways , thus as the deputy governor is not this implies that he is subject to the appearance of bias . < fnote > R ( On the application of v. The Secretary of for the Environment , Transport and the Regions [ 2001 ] UKHL < /fnote > Further support comes from recent and similar prison case , ( and others ) . considered whether the deputy governor for a prison , who was present when a general search order was confirmed , was suitably independent to decide whether that order was lawful . It was reasoned that his presence endorsed the order tacitly so that a fair minded observer could legitimately think that he was predisposed to find the order lawful , as to do otherwise would be to acknowledge that he was wrong to assent to it , even tacitly . Thus the findings of guilt were tainted by the appearance of bias and were quashed accordingly . < fnote > R ( On the application of ) v. Secretary of for ; R ( On ) v. Secretary of for [ 2005 ] UKHL 13 [ 2005 ] W.L.R 688 ( HL ) < /fnote> Squat search order < /fnote > The facts are almost identical to the present case , so much so that it would be expected that a judge apply similar reasoning . That is : the fact that the deputy governor was responsible for implementing searches explicitly endorses their use , and his presence when refused the search which may be said to tacitly condemn his refusal so much so that a fair minded observer could legitimately think that he was predisposed to find the refusal of the searches unlawful , as to do otherwise would be to admit that the searches were wrong and he was wrong to endorse them . Thus , there exists the appearance of bias and the decision should be quashed . < fnote > See further , [ 2001 ] UKHL 67 < /fnote> Article 6 < /heading > George may also apply for a declaration that the proceeding were in breach on : right to a fair hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal . The rule against bias , above , and the right to a fair trial under overlap in many ways as where a judge is biased , then the tribunal can not be said to be independent and impartial . This is so true that in both and the Pinochet ( No2 ) the court considered the right to fair trial under under the same ambit as bias , concluding that the right added nothing more than was already contained in the test for actual bias : < fnote > R v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate , ex parte Pinochet Ugarte ( no.2 ( [ ] 1 AC 119 , ( HL ) < /fnote > Thus , as we concluded the deputy governor violated the rule against bias he also violated the right to a fair trial . < heading > Conclusions Rather disappointingly , the thing one can conclude is the answer to ' substantive review is inconclusive . We can not say which standard of review will be applied , although the case law would suggest the higher the interference with the human right , the more likely it is the courts will review more stringently . This raises important constitutional issues which transcend the difficulties of the current case . Where the courts are so afraid of violating their constitutional roles they shy away from more rigorous review , they , paradoxically , fail to fulfil that role fully . , the role and conduct of the Deputy Governor violates the rule against bias . Consequently the decision shall be quashed and in the long term the hearing functions of the Governor shall have to be transferred . < fnote > See , A v. Secretary of for [ 2005 ] and [ 2004 ] OpCit < /fnote >",0 "< list> INTRODUCTION The Human body is an unimaginably complex organization and integration of complex sub - systems ranging from the cells to the organ systems . The more complex the organization gets , the tougher it is to control and co - ordinate the various activities that they perform . The Neurological system has been designed in the human body for the function of control and coordination by electrical and chemical signals . The importance of Neurological sciences has also widened with the advent of Biological psychology that holds the system and system responsible for the behaviour of the organism including emotion , cognition , motivation , etc . < abstract> ABSTRACT In this paper , we analyse the various components of the Neurological system , their anatomy and functioning in a fairly detailed manner . The components of the neurological system i.e. the central nervous system comprising of the brain and spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system are explained along with an account of their sections by virtue of location , function , etc . We then look at the various techniques that are employed for scanning the brain . In this section regarding the various brain scanning techniques , there is a comprehensive account of the basic principle on which they work , their uses , applications and limitations . We also discuss future applications of brain scanning and other discoveries relating to the neurological system . < /abstract> COMPONENTS There are major subdivisions of the neurological system comprising of the brain protected by the cranium or the enclosing part of the skull and spinal cord protected by the vertebral column or the back bone . comprises of bundles of nerve cells combined to form nervous tissues . The run from the central nervous system to the various organs carrying signals across them . These nerve cells or neurons form knot like concentrated areas called . < heading > NEURONS ( Nerve Cells ) [ , 6 , 10]Picture : URL Neurons are the functional units of the Neurological system . They are responsible for receiving , processing and transmitting information across the human body . They are characterized by major properties - These cells get excited by responding to the external environmental changes called stimuli . CONDUCTIVITY - These cells also respond to the stimuli by conducting and sending across signals to various cells located even at distant locations SECRETION - When the electrical signal reaches the end of the nerve fibres it secretes a chemical neurotransmitter that stimulates the next cell . There are neurons in the human body . Their structure is similar to any other cell in the body except that they have a few other modifications to aide them in performing their electrochemical functions . part of the neuron is similair to the normal cells of the body that contain the various organelles like the cytoplasm , nucleus , mitochondria , etc . It is the of life of the neuron . Axon - It is a long cable like projection emerging from the cell body . It is responsible for carrying the electrochemical message across the cell . The Axon of the present in the peripheral Nervous system is insulated with layers of fat for insulation so that the electrochemical signal can be conducted more effectively . But the neurons present in the central Nervous system are not insulated . This insulation of fat is called . These conduct outgoing signals from the Cell body . Dendrites - These are small branch like projections from the cell that aide the call in communicating with the other cells and in creating stimuli by perceiving the environment . These conduct the incoming signals to the cell body . Nodes of Ranvier - The sheath has interruptions along its length to prevent ion leakage and these are the actual spots on the nerve where signal transfers take place . < heading > CLASSIFICATION Neurons can be classified under various parameters like size , Function , Location , etc . < heading > SIZE The neurons in the human body are present in a range of different sizes . For e.g. the sensory neurons present in the fingertip range across the entire arm while the neurons in the brain are much smaller . This could actually be an adaptive modification in order to perform the required function more effectively and efficiently . < heading > FUNCTION SENSORY NEURONS - They carry signals from the external environment to the central nervous . MOTOR NEURONS - These are that are responsible for the transmission of signals from the Central Nervous system to the muscles and glands of the body . RECEPTORS - These are the nerves present in the sensory organs that aide in detecting and perceiving the external environmental factors like light , sound , touch , etc . INTERNEURONS - These connect the various neurons that are present in the Central Nervous system . < heading > FUNCTION The ability of the cells to conduct electrical signals is due to the resting potential of the cells . The inner part of the cell membrane has a different electrical potential when compared to the outer part or in other words the sides of the cell membrane . In the picture below , end of the voltmeter is connected to the inner part of the cell while the other part is placed outside and it shows a negative potential of -70mV.Hence the inner part of the neuron is slightly negative with respect to the outside and this potential difference is called the resting potential because it is the potential difference in the cell when no signals flow through it . The resting potential of a neuron is normally of the order of -70 mV to -65mV. < picture/>Picture Ref : URL This potential difference is produced by the positive ions of sodium and potassium . There are carrier mechanisms that constantly transport the sodium ions from the interior to the exterior part of the cell membrane and the potassium ions are transported from the exterior to the interior part of the cell membrane . This transport mechanism is called the sodium potassium pump . There are sodium and potassium gate on the surface of the cell membrane that allow the diffusion of the sodium and potassium ions across them respectively . During resting potential , all the sodium gates are closed while a very few potassium gated remain open . Hence there are a lot of potassium ions inside the cell membrane while there are a lot of sodium ions along with a few potassium ions outside the cell membrane . < heading > POLARISATION During an action potential caused by a stimulus , all the sodium gates open up and the sodium ions surrounding the region diffuse into the membrane causing a depolarization of the exterior of the cell membrane while the interior gets positively charged or acquires a positive potential . All the potassium gates on the membrane then open up causing all the potassium ions to flow to the exterior of the cell . This depolarizes the cell membrane . This action potential causes the potential difference of the cell membrane to rise to < picture/>Ref : URL Then the potassium channels on the cell membrane open up causing the potassium ions to flow out and restore the positive charge outside the membrane . This is called repolarisation and this process restores the potential difference of the neuron back to its resting potential . b Picture Ref : URL < picture/>Picture Ref : URL The picture above shows the action potential . The potential rises up to a positive value as the sodium gates open up and is gradually restored to its resting potential as the potassium gates open up . There is a minimum stimulus required to open the sodium channels completely and this is called the threshold stimulus . < heading > ALL OR NONE LAW The Neurons are also governed by the all or none law by which the neurons either achieve complete action potential or do not achieve any potential at all . There can nothing like a weak potential . < heading > SPINAL CORD [ , 28,31] The Spinal cord is the main structural support of the entire human body and also acts as the pathway for nerve signals . It comprises of bones called vertebrae , pairs of nerves , muscles and numerous other connecting fibres called Tendons and Ligaments . There are numerous fibrous cartilages between the vertebrae called discs . These provide cushioning for the bones when the spinal cord moves . The Nervous system is also considered to be made of different types of matter that processes the information and the white matter that contains connections . The spinal cord is made of a central cellular area surrounded by nerve fibre tracts . The central Grey matter can be divided into a series of layers . Dorsal Horn Layers - It is a pathway for signals relating to pain , temperature and crude touch . The Ventral Columns - It is made of a pool of motor neurons activating and feeding signals to skeletal muscles . Intermedio - Lateral Column - It lies in between the other columns and contains preganglionic nerves . The white matter surrounding the grey matter can be further classified into < list Funichulus There are also grooves that run along the length of the spinal cord , the major ones being < list > posterior median sulcusposterolateral sulcus anterior median fissure anterolateral sulcus posterior intermediate sulcusPicture Reference : URL The sensory in the skin send signals to the spinal cord through the spinal nerves . The cell bodies of these neurons are located in , shown in the picture above . Some neurons make synapses or producing chemical signals with while others connect directly to the brain . Many neuron cell bodies in the Ventral horn have axons that extend across to the muscles to control and co - ordinate movement . < picture/>Picture : URL The white matter in the spinal cord has sensory tracts ascending in it which can be classified into This is the largest tract in the spinal cord and is responsible for sending signals regarding pressure , position and tactile to the sensory area of the cerebral cortex . Spinothalamic tracts - This can be further divided into parts . The lateral tract sends signals regarding pain and thermal sense while the anterior spinothalamic tract sends signals regarding light touch . Spinocerebellar Tracts - These are large diameter fibres that are responsible for muscle toning during a subconscious state of mind . Descending Spinal Tracts like rubrospinal tract , the vestibulospinal tract , and the reticulospinal tract are concerned with signals relating to voluntary motor function , muscle tone , reflexes and equilibrium , visceral innervation . tract < heading > THE BRAIN The Brain is perhaps the most complicated structure in the entire universe however unreliable and unpredictable it sometimes is . There are neurons cells in the brain with each neuron connected to other neurons . It can often be an absolutely unimaginable and complex . It handles of electrical and chemical messages every second . The brain constitutes of a person 's body mass but it still consumes a fourth of the total oxygen consumption of the person . [ 1]In a more specific and biological manner , the brain can be divided into the Cerebrum - It constitutes of the brain 's volume and is divided into hemispheres . Each of these hemispheres has thick folds called gyri and these are separated by shallow grooves called Sulci . Cerebellum - This part lies below the cerebrum . It constitutes of the brain 's volume but contains of the total neurons in the brain . It 's a cauliflower shaped part that is responsible for coordination within the human body . It mainly performs the functions of muscular coordination and motor control but it also plays a role in a few other processes like judging the passage of time , awareness and memory . It is sometimes referred to as the brain 's autopilot . It is also responsible for enabling us to carry out multi tasking eg . Walking and chewing simultaneously . This is considered to be the fairly simplest part of the human brain and is considered to be responsible for performing the involuntary functions like , Blood Pressure control , etc . This is a part buried within the cerebrum and is considered to be responsible for controlling the emotions , attitude and other personality traits of the individual . It is also responsible for sensing smell as it is connected to the olfactory nerves in the nasal cavity . part of the cerebrum is still a mystery as it lies deep beneath the brain and hence scanning and studying it can be fairly complicated . It is believed to be responsible to Intuition and emotions . < heading > THE CEREBRUM [ 26] Most scientists believe that the cerebrum is the region where most mental activities take place . The cerebrum is broadly divided into hemispheres - The right brain and the Left brain . It is believed that the right brain controls the reflexes of the left side of the body and the left brain controls the reflexes on the right side of the body . It is believed that the right brain controls Logic and language while the left brain controls creativity and orientation . Each of these sections is believed to be made of an inner core made of white matter and an outer wrinkled layer called the cortex that 's made of gray matter . The cortex can be divided into sections and most of the cerebral activity takes place here . The functional units of the cortex are columns of neurons . Although all these neurons are assigned specific tasks , most of them are devoted to communicating within themselves . < picture/>Picture : URL [ 2 , 14]The cortex can be divided into various components by virtue of their function . Frontal Lobe - It is believed to be the part of the cerebrum responsible for maintaining self control like aiding in controlling strong urges like anger , sexual impulse , sorrow , and etc . It also plays an important role in planning , implementing plans , decision making and controlling other behavioural aspects . People with a disorder in the frontal lobes undergo sever personality disorders . Parietal Lobe - It is the part of the cerebrum that aides in movement , perception of stimuli and orientation . Occipital Lobe - This part of the cerebrum deals with the processing of information from the eyes . It deals with the various aspects of vision like colour , light and movement . Temporal Lobe - This part of the cerebrum is located inside the skull just above the ears . It is responsible for interpreting the signals sent by the auditory nerves and the receptors in the ear . It also plays a role in memory . There are a couple of other areas in the cerebrum that are of special importance in the recent past due to new discoveries . 's Area - It is the area that is believed to store and maintain a list of words that the brain uses to communicate it 's thoughts in those words . Wernickes Area - It is the area that is believed to comprehend the incoming language either in the form of speech or text . It is also partly responsible for aiding short term memory . < heading > MEASURING BRAIN ACTIVITY [ , 30] The frequency of the electrical signals obtained from the mind can help us detect the state of the person 's mind . The different states are < list > Alpha Activity ( 7 - 12 ) - This indicates a relaxed statebeta activity ( - 30 Hz ) indicates alertnessTheta activity ( - 8 ) - It is the state of mind normally attained during sleep and is characteristic of the subconscious self . activity ( ) - It is characteristic of the unconscious self and is responsible for intuition , intellectual insight , etc. This indicator is measured using EEG.The technique is described in detail in a later part of this paper . can also be detected by measuring the cerebral blood flow and the glucose & hence the oxygen required to metabolise it consumed by the various neurons or regions of the brain . MRI exploits this indicator to scan the brain . < heading > SCANNING TECHNIQUES EEG ( Electroencalphography ) [ 18]Picture Reference : URL < heading > PRINCIPLE It works on the principle of picking up the electrical signals produced by the rhythmic oscillation of the neurons in the brain . < heading > PROCEDUREPicture Reference : URL It is a fairly method of measuring the brain 's performance . It consists of electrodes hooked on to the scalp . The electrodes pick up the electrical signals naturally produced by the brain . These electrodes are then connected to a galvanometer which is an instrument used to detect very small currents . < heading > ADVANTAGES / APPLICATIONS It can detect the mental state of person like sleep , anaesthised , awake , etc . It is used to scan brain damage , epilepsy and other problems . < heading > LIMITATIONS Physical movement of the subject can cause the electrodes to move causing a variation in the amplitude of the output signals . < heading > ( Computer Axial Tomography)Picture Ref : URL < heading > PRINCIPLE [ 25] This scan uses a series of different X - Rays to combine them and produce a - Dimensional image of the brain rather than the conventional X rays that produce simple dimensional images . < heading > PROCEDURE [ , 25] The subject is introduced into a doughnut shaped machine that moves around the subject and records a lot of images . The donut shaped hole has tubes along its edges with receptors in the opposite direction . Hence as the tubes complete rotation , the scan the image of a slice of a brain . This hole then goes around a spiral path , emitting X - Rays of optimum intensity depending on the type of tissues . Thus it obtains many images of think slices of the brain . Then a computer combines these images to form a image . < heading > ADVANTAGES / APPLICATIONS [ , 25] This view is more comprehensive than the conventional X - Rays in analyzing the brain . It can be used to detect damages in the brain and it can also be used to detect the cerebral blood flow when the subject is performing a task . The cerebral blood flow is a measure of the brain activity . It readily detects bleeding . < heading > LIMITATIONS [ 21] It fails to depict the precise details of soft tissues , especially the brain . It ca n't depict membrane formations and inflammations in the brain . It does not detect the malformations of the arteries and veins . < heading > ( Tomography)Picture Ref : URL < heading > PRINCIPLE [ 24] This scanning is based on a theory that the brain cells that are more active absorb glucose and metabolise more rapidly than the relatively inactive cells . < heading > PROCEDURE [ 24] In this process , the subject is injected with a small quantity of radioactive glucose . The instrument then measures the amount of radiations emitted from the various parts of the brain to calibrate the amount of glucose adsorbed by the various parts of the brain . This calibration is then used by the computer to create a colour coded image depicting the level of adsorption of glucose of the various parts of the brain . A red colured zone depicts good adsorption and active cells while blue zones depict low adsorption and hence the presence of inactive cells . < heading > ADVANTAGES / APPLICATIONS [ 24] The imaging software enables cross sectional scanning and viewing of the brain . Thus this feature enables to have an edge over other scanning processes by allowing researchers to study the structures deep inside the brain . < heading > LIMITATIONS [ ] < /heading > Since this process involves injecting radioactive material into the blood stream , a person is not allowed to take any scans per year . < heading > MRI ( Magnetic Resonance Imaging) PRINCIPLE [ 19] This scan works on the principle that an external magnetic field can be used to align the protons in the body to one direction and this causes their magnetic moments of most of the protons cancel out due to their spin in different directions - clockwise or anti clockwise along the same normal . However there still remain some protons whose magnetic moments do not cancel out . These are excited to higher energy levels and made to spin rapidly by sending a radio pulse and as they return to their ground state , they emit the energy . This energy serves as the signal for the MRI instrument . A computer then processes the signals and differentiates the various types of tissues . < picture/>Picture : URL < heading > PROCEDURE [ 19] In this process , the subject is introduced into a huge and powerful magnet of the MRI machine . This is a non invasive method and does not involve injecting any stuff into the blood stream either . It produces images of a very high resolution . It is also more effective in studying the brain and detecting damages or malfunctioning . < heading > ADVANTAGES / APPLICATIONS [ 23] It is used to detect tumours , especially in the brain and in the other soft cells in the spinal cord as well . This image can then be used by the physicians to locate the area during surgery . It is used to analyse blood flow patterns and blood vessel abnormalities . < heading > LIMITATIONS [ 23] Some People with implanted devices in their body like pacemaker , artificial lungs or metal objects like artificial teeth can not undergo the scanning as it would cause a very strong magnetic field . This scan requires the subject to be absolutely stationary so some people would have to be sedated in order to ensure this . < heading > FURTHER WORK AND FUTURE APPLICATIONS Neurology and scanning are the best fields in that possess immense potential for further work and future applications . Although there has been a lot of research and discovery about the functioning of the human brain , the working and structure of the brain is still an unraveled mystery to an extent . If the various activities of the brain like thoughts , behaviour , orientation , control , etc can be comprehended and translated into signals ( electrical , magnetic or any other form ) , it would enable and to analyse neurological and psychological problems including their cause and remedy . < heading > Identifying Criminals [ 27] The brain produces involuntary signals in a persons brain when he watches images relating to a crime and if the waves of the associated thoughts can he comprehended , it would enable us to detect if an accused man is guilty or not .","< abstract> SUMMARY The objective of this lab session was to get familiarised with the various methods that are used to study the microstructure of materials . We < /abstract> INTRODUCTION We used different instruments to analyse the microstructure of materials . We used ( SEM ) , and . We also familiarised ourselves with a high precision weighing machine and a hot polymer / ceramic pressing machine while making samples to X - Ray Diffraction . We looked at the various crystal structures of materials using these instruments . We compared and analysed various crystal properties like Size , Shape , Distribution , frequency of constituent elements in alloys , Properties like Twinning in the case of Brass , etc . The estimations made using the microscopes were pretty approximate and vague as the imaging software could n't detect the crystals on its own and we had to make rough measurements of the sizes . The measurement of crystal sizes on the microscope we a very approximate estimation as well . < heading > THEORY AND APPARATUS We analysed the Microstructure of the given materials using different instruments < heading > Scanning Electron Microscope The principle of electron microscopy is the differential absorption and radiation of electrons due to differences in the topology of surfaces . The wavelength of the particles ( light or matter like electrons ) used to magnify images is inversely proportional to the wavelength in the case of visible light or the wavelength in the case of matter . The wavelength of is nm . of an electron accelerated through V is nm 2.Hence the resolution of a microscope that uses electron beams can increase their resolving power by several manifolds as compared with conventional optical . < fnote > URL < /fnote> URL < /fnote > Figure is a pictorial representation of a type of similair to the one that we used . < picture/>In this Microscope , a beam of electrons is produces in a vacuum tube with an anode on end and a cathode in another . These electrons are focussed on the specimen . The specimen in turn interacts with these electrons and reflects the beam back . A detector detects these beams , counts the number of electrons reflected , amplifies the signals and uses its calibrations to produce gray - scale images on a computer . The beam is focussed on a larger number of points consecutively to produce a larger image . Samples that can conduct electricity like metals can be viewed directly on an electron microscope but specimens that do n't conduct electricity are normally painted or sprayed with a thin layer of gold to enable conduction on the surface . < picture/>The beams of a high velocity and low wavelength can only be produced in a vacumised environment and hence , requires the user to place specimens in a vacumised chamber in which the electron beam gets focussed on the sample . This makes it impossible for us to view live samples under an electron microscope as the vacuum and electron beams would kill the cells . < heading > X - Ray Diffraction X - Ray Diffraction is one of the most important material characterisation methods . It produces a unique fingerprint for each phase of every material by identifying the crystal structure of the atomic arrangement of the specimen crystal . The fingerprint is made using a plot of the variation in the intensity of the diffracted X - Rays with variation in the value of FORMULA . Since the value of the incident differs with different machines and depends on the potential difference of the vacuum tube that produces the X - Rays , etc . It is better to plot against the relative intensity of the X - ray i.e. the ratio of the intensities of the incident beam and the diffracted beam . When an X - Ray beam is incident on a plane of atoms , various fractions of the beam are reflected , refracted , scattered , absorbed and diffracted . Diffraction is the bending of light waves round opaque obstacles in its path . The principle of X - Ray Diffraction is 's . The equation of 's law is given by FORMULA < list> Where n = order of the diffracted beamλ = Wavelength of the X - Ray Beamd = Space between atomic planesθ = angle of incidence = angle of diffraction < /list > Figure shown below shows the atomic planes as the thick horizontal lines with being incident on it at an angle of θ . The distance between the atomic planes is d. < picture/>In the diffractometer used to obtain the - intensity graph , the X - Rays are produced using a cathode ray tube or a vacuum tube . A cylindrical glass tube has a cathode and another on either side of it and is vacumised to a very low pressure . When a potential difference is applied across the electrodes , cathode rays are produced in the tube . These Cathode rays are then diverted to hit a metal target , conventionally a copper target . This produces X - Rays . The intensity of the X - Rays is measured using a counter where the air is ionised and an avalanche of ions is produced at high radiation intensities . The X - rays then hit a sample of the material under observation . The X - Rays that get diffracted are counted using a again to measure its intensity . This process is carried on while altering the angle of incidence continuously . A graph is then plotted between twice the angle of incidence and the measured intensity of the diffracted X - Rays . This plot is characteristic of every material and can be used to identify it . The wavelength of X - Rays has a standard value of Angstorm or * ^ -10 m in machines using a copper target . Substituting the known values into the equation of 's law can help us in determining the values of the unknown factors . It 's hard to perform a quantitative analysis of mixtures using . It needs a significant amount of computing power and highly precise , error free measurements . There are a number of methods of calculating the composition of materials in a mixture like method , , method , etc . It involves using the starting and ending values of the prominent peaks of the pure sample and comparing it against the area of the peak , etc . < fnote > URL < /fnote>Figure 4 above shows a picture of a . < figure/>Figure above shows a -intensity plot of vermiculite clay . < heading > Optical MicroscopeAn optical compound microscope like the one we used during the lab session comprises of lenses . The specimen is placed below these lenses and is illuminated by a light bulb . The light rays from the specimen are converged and brought to focus by a highly spherical and high focal length convex lens . These converged rays are then magnified by an ocular lens at the eye piece . The Coarse Focus knob is used to move the objective lens up and down to bring the specimen into focus and the Fine Focus knob is used to fine tune the movement . < heading > HOT PRESS We also used a hot press to understand how polymeric specimens get recrystallised into a solid before undergoing X - Ray Diffraction < picture/>The picture above shows a hot press . The powdered specimen is placed in a chamber and exposed to high temperature and pressure . The heat is provided by resistance or induction of electricity . The specimen is then cooled by circulating cold water around the mould . < heading > SCIENTIFIC BALANCEThe picture above shows a scientific balance . We used a similar balance to weigh the samples of and before subjecting them to X - Ray Diffraction tests . < heading > METHOD X - Ray < /heading > The samples were ground into a fine powder and placed on a dish before placing the dish into the diffractometer . Mixtures of definite proportions of samples were weighed carefully on a sensitive electronic weighing machine before testing . The diffractometer produced a graph of against intensity The measurements for the pure samples of and were done previously along with a composition mixture of and . The results of these testings were provided to us . We prepared a composition mixture of and . We used a scientific balance to measure g of and g of before placing it in the diffractometer . < heading > SEM < /heading > Since electron microscopy uses electrons to resolve the specimens , the specimens need to be conductors of electricity . Metals do n't need any preparation and can directly be placed in the sample holder but ceramics and plastics and materials with living tissues need to be coated with gold before viewing them . When the sample is placed inside the specimen holder inside the vacumised chamber , the microscope is ready to start and it projects the image on a monitor in . < heading The sample has to be placed on the sample holder and secured safely with leaf spring like securing device . The light source or the bulb is then turned on . The brightness is kept low for low resolutions and is increased for higher resolutions . Making the bulb work on a high brightness for a long time could cause it to fail . The eye piece was of a standard magnification value of There were different objective lenses to choose from . They have different powers of magnification . When the right one is chosen , the coarse focus knob is used to move the objective lens up and down until a clear image can be resolved . The fine focus knob can then be used to fine tune the resolution . The microscope will now produce a clear and magnified image of the sample . < heading > POTENTIAL SOURCES OF and thermal expansion : Since electron microscopes resolve samples to a nanometre resolution , the effects of the vibrations in the environment and the expansion sue to the heat produced by the electron beams ; etc could cause errors in the images . Impurities in X - Ray Diffraction Samples : The samples observed using could be contaminated by impurities while handling it and by the atmosphere . Since we use the optical microscope to get an optical perspective of the crystals and do n't make any measurements , errors do n't make a significant impact . Besides there should n't be any errors associated with optical microscopy anyway . < heading > OBSERVATION , RESULTS AND ANALYSIS X - RAY DIFFRACTION
The pure samples of hydroxy apatite have significant characteristic peaks at θ values of and while the pure Poly ethylene samples have significant characteristic peaks at and . Although the prominent peaks of the constituent elements can be seen in the graph of the mixture with roughly the same shape . As mentioned before , determination of composition of materials from the graph is tedious and inaccurate when done using manual methods . < heading > OPTICAL MICROSCOPE Brass Brass displayed its characteristic property of twinning under the optical microscope . The image looked pretty similar to Figure . We could see alternating white and yellow phases . The specimen composed of copper and Zinc . Twinning is the phenomenon by which portions of a crystal have the same relationship . It can be formed due to the shear force during machining or by recrystalisation during annealing . < fnote > URL < /fnote> Steel We looked at a specimen of the X19 steel during the lab session . It had Carbon and it was furnace cooled from C. It however was n't annealed . It has dendrite shaped pearlite crystals which is a mixture of cementite and ferrite in a ferritic phase . The pearlite was formed because of a slightly rapid cooling rate . It 's known to be quite hard and brittle . < heading > SEM Porous HAP Bio composite or is supposedly an excellent medium for growing bone tissues in . Artificial joints use polymethylmethacrylate cement ( ) to secure the implant in the bones . They then coat it with for the bone cells to grow around the implant . of the properties that make this material suitable for growing bone tissues in it is its large pore size . The average size of the pores seems to be microns in diameter . There also seem to be an average of pores per square mm . < heading > Apatite CrystalsFigure above , shows the formation of bone tissues in the grain boundary of an apatite crystal . It 's probably a good example of biocompatibility and bio - integration . The size of the grain boundary is less than 1 micron . The bone tissues however are growing inside it and integrating with the material . < heading > Cancellous Bone Cancellous bones are found in the interior or a bone structure . It 's a low density spongy bone and is normally surrounded by high density bone on the exterior . It thus enables the flow of blood and nutrients to the entire depth of the bone to facilitate bone tissue formation . It forms in layers and is spongy in texture . Since the structure is made of layers of tissues attached together , there are vacant zones in between that act as pores and the size of these pores seem to be micron in diameter . < fnote > URL < /fnote> Cortical Bone 1 Cortical Bone 2Cortical bone is present at the outer shell of the bones . It comprises of cylindrical osteon cells that are stacked vertically . It has many tiny pores of about 5micron diameter and has some larger holes in some places of diameters microns . The shortage of pores , the vertical dense stacking , etc make it hard and resistant to bending and torsion . < fnote > URL < /fnote> HAP ParticlesThe HAP Particles are naturally found in bones and are also coated or sprayed on bone implants to allow the implant to integrate with the bones . The size of the crystals however do n't seem to be uniform . The size of the particles roughly ranges microns in length and different breadths . < heading > PE Particles PE SurfacePE or is a very important biomedical material that is used in bone implants in surfaces that bear friction especially in between the femoral and tibial component of the knee implant as a plate . A unique grade of polyethylene called molecular weight polyethylene or is used in the knee implant . The topology of the specimen seems to be quite smooth from the image . The crystal sizes are not uniform again as it depends on the polymerisation , cooling and environmental factors . Plastics are quite sensitive to temperature . The crystal sizes however seem to vary and microns in length . < heading > CONCLUSIONS All the instruments used to analyse and study the microstructure of materials were unique and served their own purposes . The Simple optical microscope was extremely useful in getting a basic perspective of the shape , distribution and phases of materials in a specimen . This information can easily be related to its physical and chemical properties . It can also help us understand the extraction and manufacturing processes involved with the materials and can aide us in optimising them . The Scanning electron microscope was extremely useful in looking at structure in details and understanding the grain sizes and looking at the grain boundaries in detail . The actual mechanisms involved with strengthening materials like interstitional or substitutional filling of atomic planes can be studies in greater detail under an SEM . The understanding of pore sizes and pore distribution in and the understanding of the crystal sizes of the bone tissues has helped in designing better biomaterials for orthopaedic implants . diffraction is an excellent method to understand the crystal structure and the atomic spacing in crystals . However a lot of calculations and computational power is required to put the data obtained from this test to proper use .",1 "< heading > QUESTION 1 Introduction and methodology We want to test the hypothesis that the regression coefficients for of the sample ( observations ) are significantly different from that for ( observations ) . For this purpose we will conduct a test , which is based on an F - test . Initially , we have the regression model : FORMULA We introduce a dummy variable ( D t ) , which we assume it affects both the intercept and the slope . The resulting regression model is now given by : FORMULA The dummy variable takes the value for of the sample ( observations ) and the value 0 for of the sample ( observations ) . So , the regression functions for the dependent variable in of the sample as resulting from ( ) are given by : FORMULA FORMULA The assumption that we have made here is that the regressions for of the sample are completely different , since we have allowed the intercept and slope to differ . We now want to test whether the regression coefficients for of the sample ( observations ) are significantly different from that for ( observations ) . In other words , we test the equivalence of the regressions and therefore we specify the null hypothesis ( H 0 : δ=0 , γ=0 ) , which states that the regressions are equivalent and the alternative hypothesis ( H : or ) , which states that the regressions are not equivalent . To test the H 0 against the H 1 , we use a test . The restricted model is represented by equation ( 1 ) and it assumes no difference in the intercept and slope coefficients across of the sample . The unrestricted model is represented by equation ( ) and it allows the intercept and slope coefficients to differ for of the sample . By running regressions , for each model we find the for each one , which we then input in together with the values for J , T , K and alpha ( number of restrictions , number of observations , number of coefficients and significance level respectively ) . By replacing these values in we get the computed values required to reach a decision . < heading > Results and conclusions Since F=5.638488309 > F c = , we reject the null hypothesis and therefore we reach the conclusion that the regressions are not equivalent . Thus , there is difference in the intercept and slope coefficients of the regressions which means that we can not pool the data into sample and describe them with common regression model that has the form ( ): FORMULA FORMULA Instead of that , the equation describing the regression for of the sample is given by ( ): FORMULA FORMULA This regression model implies that if x increases by unit , y will be increased by units . The equation describing the regression for of the sample is given by ( ): FORMULA This regression model implies that if x increases by unit , y will be increased by units . The same decision can be reached if we use the p - value . Thus , we reject the H 0 because p=0.007408845<0.05 ( Table 3 ) . < table/>
QUESTION 2 Introduction and methodology We want to examine whether heteroskedasticity is present . way for doing that is by plotting the residuals , however , a formal way of testing for heteroskedasticity is the test , which is the method applied in the current problem . We specify the null hypothesis ( H 0 : σ12 = σ22 ) , which states that the subsamples have equal variances and therefore heteroskedasticity does not exist and the alternative hypothesis ( H : ) , which states that the subsamples do not have equal variances and therefore heteroskedasticity exists . The data were split in and ordered based on variance . Then , regressions were run , using of the data ( observations ) in the one and of the data ( observations ) in the regression . The regressions provided the estimated variances , which were input in together with the values for T 1 , T 2 , K , alpha ( number of observations in the subsample , number of observations in the subsample , number of coefficients and significance level respectively ) . By replacing these values in we get the computed values required to reach a decision . The value was then compared with F c , the critical value from the F - distribution with ( T 1 - K ) and ( T 2 - K ) degrees of freedom . In case that heteroskedasticity is present in the data we assume that we have proportional heteroskedasticity and perform generalized least squares to correct for this . To do this , we need to change or transform our statistical model into one with homoskedastic errors . The initial statistical model y t = β1+β2x t+e t is divided by the square root of x t and we get the transformed model y t*=β1x t1*+β2x t2*+e t * . The new transformed error term e t * is now homoskedastic . Finally , we run a regression on the transformed model . < heading > Results and conclusions Since GQ=5.54153314 > F c=2.217197134 ( ) , we reject the null hypothesis of equal variances between the subsamples and therefore we conclude that heteroskedasticity is present because the variances for all observations are not the same . The same decision can be reached if we use the p - value . Thus , we reject the H 0 because p=0.00034173<0.05 ( ) . The fact that heteroskedasticity is present in the data means that the least squares estimator is still a linear and unbiased estimator but it is no longer the best linear unbiased estimator ( ) . Moreover , the standard errors usually computed for the least squares estimator are incorrect . As a result , confidence intervals and hypothesis tests that use these standard errors may be misleading . The equation that describes the regression of the new transformed model is given by ( ): FORMULA To sum up , by transforming the variables we have converted a heteroskadastic error model into a homoskedastic error model , but the meaning of the coefficients does not change . So , the transformed regression model implies that if x t1 * increases by unit , y t * will be decreased by units . Similarly , if x t2 * increases by unit , y t * will be increased by units . < table/>
QUESTION 3 Introduction and methodology We want to test both series of data for the presence of a unit root . For this purpose we will conduct a test for each series of data . Initially , we have the y t variable and we create more , namely t , t , y t-1 , Δy t-1 and . We then run regressions , which they have the same dependent variable y t but different independent variables . For the regression we use y t-1 as the independent variable , for the t and y t-1 and for the last y t-1 , Δy t-1 and . The regressions have the form : FORMULA The hypothesis that we want to test are specified as follows : The null hypothesis ( H : γ=0 ) , which states that the series has a unit root , thus it is nonstationary against the alternative ( H 1 : ) , which states that the series does not have a unit root , thus it is stationary . The tau statistics that result from the regressions are compared with the critical values for the test in order to reach a decision . We then want to test whether the difference of the series is stationary . We test this by running a regression using the difference of the series as the y variable and Δy t as the x variable using the same type of t - statistic . In case of the presence of the unit root we want to test whether these series are cointegrated , thus we need to test whether the errors are stationary . For this purpose , we conduct a test on the residuals of the regression between the series . From the regression output we get the residuals and then create new variables , delta_e and e _ t-1 . We then run a new regression using delta_e as y variable and e _ t-1 as x variable , which has the form : FORMULA The tau statistic that results from this regression is compared with the critical value for the cointegration test in order to reach a decision . < heading > Results and conclusions The regressions ( ) , ( ) and ( 5 ) for the series have the form ( Table 6 ): FORMULA The tau statistics ( , , ) are all positive ( Table 6 ) and when compared to the critical values for the test ( which are negative ) , we fail to reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the series have a unit root ( nonstationary ) . Moreover , we do not reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the difference is nonstationary , because the tau statistic ( ) ( Table 7 ) is positive . The regressions ( ) , ( ) and ( 5 ) for the series have the form ( Table 8) : FORMULA The tau statistics ( , , ) are all positive ( Table 8) and when compared to the critical values for the test ( which are negative ) , we fail to reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the series have a unit root ( nonstationary ) . Moreover , we do not reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the difference is nonstationary , because the tau statistic ( ) ( Table 9 ) is positive . Since the tau statistic ( -8.657508067 ) is greater than the critical value for the significance level ( -3.90 ) ( ) , we reject the null hypothesis that the least squares residuals are nonstationary and conclude that they are stationary and therefore the series are cointegrated . The regression ( ) has the form ( ): FORMULA < table/>
","A relationship between the market , the civil society and the state exists and each one of those sectors has its role and should act in collaboration with one another and not individually in order to address any failures . For example there is a specific circumstance where the state should intervene in order to address a market failure . More specifically , resources are allocated by the economic system based on the principles of demand and supply in the market . However , there is a category of goods , the so - called public goods that the market alone fails to supply . This category includes goods or services like street lighting , clean air , defense which are not restricted in use and non - excludable to non - payers , thus if they will be supplied they have to be supplied to everybody . In the case of such goods if the market has the entire responsibility and authority for providing them it would fail to supply them because it is not feasible to measure the amount consumed by each individual citizen and charge them accordingly like in the case of a private good for example ( e.g. hamburger ) . So there is a need for state intervention according to which the state would supply public goods free at the point of consumption , however , all citizens would have to pay in order to gain access to those goods and services through taxation or other means ( , ) . On the other hand , in a centralised system all power and authority is concentrated in the central level , the state . A good example of a centralised system used to be the system known as the ' Webminster system ' because institutions and powers were concentrated in a small part of central . The state as it has been defined by the sociologist is ' a human community that ( successfully ) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory ' ( , ) . It is known that the state exerts great power and control over the lives of people who belong in its territory and it has the responsibility and authority for the allocation of resources among citizens of the territory ( , ) . However , there is a need for a more decentralised system in order to ensure participation of citizens in the decision - making process rather than citizens being entirely controlled by the central body that has concentrated all the power . Decentralisation , in a more general context , has been defined as being about ' shifting power from some decision - makers to others ' ( , ) . More specifically , it is ' the transfer of decision - making authority and payment responsibility to lower levels of government ' ( and , ) and can be described as ' the redefinition of structures , procedures and practices of governance to be closer to the citizenry ' ( , ) . Decentralisation concerns countries , developed and developing ones , however there is not a specific model of it but this varies between different countries ( ) . Decentralisation is generally transferring authority from a central to a lower level and several types of it exist with the most common being deconcentration , delegation , devolution and privatisation ( and , ) . Sometimes though , decentralisation has been used as synonymous of privatisation ( , ) . In a centralised system all power is concentrated at the centre and those who already have the power tend to act for their own interest rather than the society as a whole . Within this context , decentralisation could be a way of devolving away some of the state 's power and allocate it within the civil society . of the strengths coming out of a decentralised system is the participation of the civil society in the decision making process . However , someone would argue why should people participate in making decisions if the decisions are good ? ( , ) . ' willingness to participate in decision making might be because they want to be consulted and involved in decision making since they are members of the society and those decisions affect their lives . So , they demand to be part of all this process . In addition to this , usually those who have the power act for self - interest . For example , the state has been described as being predatory ( Bardhan , ) . On the other hand , ' decisions taken closest to a local constituency are expected to better reflect the preferences of citizens and especially the poor ' ( ODI , ) . In these terms decentralisation with the form of civil society 's participation in the decision making process could be considered as a way to provide a check on state power and therefore reduce corruption . Within this context , citizens have now more opportunities for participation in governance apart from voting in elections and this leads to more democratic system . Several examples of corruption or otherwise ' wasteful and ineffective decision - making in a centralised system include funds and supplies that never arrived , projects that remained paper proposals as well as approvals that could not be obtained unless one had a friend or relative in the central ministry ' ( Meenakshisundaram , ) . All those failures arising from a centralised system indicate the potential for a decentralised system . Decentralisation could be seen as a means to ensure that resources are equitably allocated between the centre and civil society . The state has great power over people 's lives and it is responsible for allocating resources among different social groups . However , those who are at the centre and have concentrated the power allocate resources for their own benefit or for those being closest to them . Apart from that , the state also causes a form of inequality among different social groups since it takes money from some citizens ( e.g. through taxation ) and gives it to others resulting in unequal distribution of the social welfare ( , ) . This kind of corruption could be fight off by the devolution of responsibilities and authorities from the central government to local governments . The term ' local government ' refers to ' a sub - national level of government which has jurisdiction over a limited range of state functions within a defined geographical are which is part of a larger territory ' or ' the institution or structures which exercises authority or carry out governmental functions at the local level ' ( , ) . In addition to this , decentralisation in the form of ' transfer of state / national responsibilities or functions from central government to sub - national levels of government ' offers opportunities for local sustainable development ( , ) . Since resources will be allocated at the local level and several functions will be carried out at the local level this will help to support local economies as well as the development of local regions . As stated by ( ) , ' development will be driven locally based on the indigenous resources and comparative advantages of local entities rather than by external agents who are pre - occupied with many other priorities know little about local potential for development ' . With the devolution of power , responsibilities and authorities are transferred to local governments and each region will have to make decisions and act for its own development ( , ) . The participation of civil society into the decision - making process can allow voice to minorities ( e.g. marginalized groups ) . It also fulfills people 's need to be involved in decisions that affect their lives . However , it is not only about that . Decentralisation in the form of participation has the potential of improved effectiveness and efficiency of public services provision . Since citizens can influence decisions about service provision they can determine the type and quality of services they want as well as their willingness to pay for this kind of services . All this process is a kind of market mechanism for determining service provision in a way that is according to citizens ' wants and willingness to pay . This mechanism serves both as a way of maximizing citizens ' fulfillment and provision of those kind of services that merge with their willingness to pay ( , ) . of the main principles of decentralisation is the promotion of regional autonomy ( Policy guidelines , ) . Devolution of the power and authorities from central government to sub - national levels of government i.e. local governments , gives each region / locality the opportunity to articulate its own needs , which may not coincide with the needs of the central government . However , those needs may also differ within different regions within the context of local governments . The monopoly of the centre will no longer exist and new centres of power will be developed in a local level , which will serve to meet the needs of local entities . The fact that needs might be different within different regions / localities leads to a pluralistic society and there are contradictable aspects on that . On the one hand , regional autonomy is viewed as a way of dividing a nation . On the other hand , in a society with plurality of needs decentralisation is considered essential for maintaining the unity and integrity of a nation ( Meenakshisundaram , ) . Moreover , another positive aspect of decentralisation results from the participation of citizens in the decision - making process as well as the devolution of the power from the centre to a local level . Since citizens are entitled to fully participate in decision - making they feel that their needs and interests can be better fulfilled . In addition to this , the devolution of power into local governments makes people feel that the needs of local constituents are met . All this brings citizens closer to the government and helps to develop a strong relationship between the government and the citizens . As a final result of this citizens do not show any disruptive or anti - social behaviour , which could lead to conflicts resulting when citizens feel that their concerns and needs are not taken into consideration . So , a potential advantage of decentralisation is the establishment of a better relationship between the governors and the governed as well as reduction of the conflicts between the parties ( , ) . Despite the positive aspects arising from decentralisation there are also possible risks and negative consequences that should be taken into account . Among such risks and negative consequences one could make reference to greater inequality and greater poverty gaps ( , ) . The fact that the devolution of centre government to local governments as it has already been mentioned is in favour of the devolution of government resources and allocation of some of them to regions / localities . This helps to reduce the gap between central government and local government in terms of resource allocation . However , even among a certain region / locality there are substantial differences in terms of natural resources and how are these allocated among its citizens . In a decentralised system there is always the risk of ' resources and power being captured by local elites or special interest groups ' ( , ) . It is similar to the case where in a centralised system people at the centre concentrate all resources and use them for their own benefit . Indisputably , decentralisation is effective for ensuring distribution of government resources from central government to regions / localities , however , safeguard mechanisms are required to prevent gaps between regions ( , ) . It has already been mentioned that decentralisation through people 's participation in the decision - making ensures that local needs and interests are met . However , similarly to the case of not equitable sharing of resources between the centre and the regions in a centralised system there is also a similar risk arising from local governments in a decentralised system . That is to say , even within a regional / local community being governed by a local government system , the weaker and poorer sections of the society may have the experience of their needs and interests not being met by these local levels of government . A good example of this is , where of the rural households own of all assets while of the households own of assets . As a result of this it will take a long time until this gap is eliminated and poor groups of people will be able to raise their voice ( ( Meenakshisundaram , ) . Undoubtedly , decentralisation helps toward the achievement of devolution of the power from the centre to a local level . It can also ensure a more equitable resource distribution between the centre and the regions / localities , however , poverty gaps between groups in the same regions / localities is inevitable to exist even within a decentralised form of government . Inevitably , corruption occurs both in a centralised and decentralised system because those people who have the power tend to allocate resources for their own interest . Decentralisation is thought to be a more complex form of governance since it involves the distribution of responsibilities , power and authorities among local levels of government . Given that state / national functions are transferred to local levels of government there is a need for careful planning and adequate organization . There are examples of decentralisation schemes , which had not been well planned , and as a consequence of the bad planning and implementation they failed to meet their objectives ( , ) . A good example of ineffective implementation of decentralisation is . In particular , in the case of , both central as well as local governments did not have the experience and knowledge required for the management , planning and implementation of decentralisation . There was also lack of organizational capacity in that governments were not efficient in allocating responsibilities and authorities among central and regional governments ( Policy guidelines , ) . Despite the fact that decentralisation reduces anti - social behaviour of citizens and conflicts between governors and governed , it has the potential to be the reason for emergence of conflicts between national and local governments . The reasons lying behind that are . , decentralisation in the form of participatory governance ensures that the needs and interests of local constituents are met . However , local interests may not necessarily agree with national interests and conflicts are possible to emerge between local and national levels of government . These differences of course mean that not only national but also local interests are considered which is an advantage of decentralisation is ( , ) . , even though it has been said that decentralisation ensures equitable resource sharing between the centre and the regions , what happens in reality is completely different . Particularly , central governments tend to capture the bulk of power and resources leaving local governments with inadequate resources that makes them not capable in their role ( , ) . To sum up , decentralisation in the form of devolution of power , responsibilities and authorities from the centre to sub - national levels of government has positive aspects as well as possible risks and negative consequences . Even though decentralisation has been connected with the reduction of the centre it is necessary for any attempt of decentralisation to succeed to maintain a strong centre . This is particularly important for the successful planning and implementation of decentralisation schemes as well as for the establishment of coherence between local and national levels of government ( , ) .",1 "Initially these poems may seem similar . They both explore coming to terms with loss and use poetic language and techniques throughout . Yet structurally they are extremely different . Perhaps the most noticeable aspect of this is in terms of form . ' The Kaleidoscope ' is in the form of a sonnet , as it consists of lines mainly in iambic pentameter . Its structure is closest to that of a sonnet , although the rhyme scheme of the quatrain ( ABBA ) digresses slightly from the standard ABAB . ' The Kaleidoscope ' also differs from a traditional sonnet in terms of subject matter ; instead of being joyful and celebratory , its subject matter is more sombre . The terminal couplet of a sonnet has a "" usual tendency to summarise or comment on the quatrains , and hence to moralise "" ( , 2005 , p.49 ) . To an extent this is true here , as the concluding couplet of ' The Kaleidoscope ' is more generalised than the rest of the poem . There is a shift from a largely personal experience ( "" Offering me , my flesh , my soul , my skin "" ) , to a more detached and collective statement in line ( "" Grief wrongs us so "" ) . However , unlike the more traditional sonnets , there is a lack of moral resolution . The poem ends on "" not knowing why "" , which captures the incomprehensible nature of death . On the other hand , ' Underworld ' is written in free verse . Therefore the reader is not distracted by a rhyme scheme ; significant words are emphasised by enjambment and caesura as opposed to end rhyme . For example there is strong enjambment at line ; "" must I let you go / down alone into as winter "" . This emphasises ' go ' , a syllable that is also stressed rhythmically due to the trochaic meter of of the line . In addition , the phrase ' must I let you go ' has a different meaning when separated from the following line , as it implies more finality . Another prominent instance of enjambment in ' Underworld ' occurs between the and lines of the stanza ; "" to lie still on the ice , to know this is / not for ever ... "" . In this case , ' not ' is emphasised at line . It is a key word in this context , because it reinforces the theme of transience that is central to the poem . In addition , the tension between the syntax and the line break helps to create suspense , similar to that in the and lines of ' The Kaleidoscope ' ; "" Or , turning from the landing , I might find / My presence watched ... "" . In both cases the reader is urged onwards by a sense of anticipation . Throughout ' The Kaleidoscope ' , structure is imposed primarily by end rhyme , metre and sound patterning . The phrase "" my hands become a tray "" echoes the "" bearing a tray "" at the end of the line . These lines are similarly constructed , consisting of syllables mainly in iambic pentameter . This technique could be referred to as a scheme , as it increases the regularity of the language and adds structure to the piece . It implies that the persona of the poem is subconsciously comparing his life before and after his loss . The instance is followed by an example of synecdoche ; "" Offering me , my flesh , my soul , my skin "" . The repetition of ' my ' replaces the focus on ' you ' and ' your ' ( for example "" your books "" and "" your kaleidoscope "" ) earlier in the poem . Here the persona lists specific elements of himself , both physical and spiritual , and together these techniques reinforce that he is all he has left . Similarly , the sound patterning in ' Underworld ' can influence our general understanding and impression of the poem . uses sibilance in both stanzas , for example "" swallowed pomegranate seeds "" in the stanza and "" in something of "" in the second . There is also assonance in lines and of the stanza - the sound of ' go ' is repeated in ' alone ' in the next line . In addition there is internal rhyme in the line of the stanza connecting "" through "" and "" you "" . Significantly the ' o ' sound of ' go ' and ' alone ' creates a melancholic feel in of the poem . On the other hand , the ' oo ' sounds in and the sibilance are soothing . This adds to the reassuring tone in the stanza . Although there is an absence of end rhyme and regular metre in ' Underworld ' , the language is linked instead by symbolism and imagery . The stanza is an allegory for the Greek myth of and , illustrated by the title and the reference to "" pomegranate seeds "" . It relates to the rest of the poem in terms of the main themes , as these are primarily death ( or mortality ) and transience . In mythology , the underworld is seen as being underground and therefore physically separated from life . It is often linked to winter , and this is depicted as cold and lonely in the poem , through the mention of ' alone ' in line and the image of a ' freezing ' path . In contrast , represents warmth and life in the stanza , as it thaws the ice . This contrast between is in turn related to the idea of transience , because neither one is permanent . Finally , the poems are similar thematically in that death is an underlying concern , although there is a difference in the choice of language used . The phrase "" must I let you go / down alone into as winter "" ( lines , stanza ) in ' Underworld ' is reminiscent of Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night ' , which he wrote during the critical illness of his father . ' Good ' is a common euphemism for death , and probably originated from 's ' ' . In contrast , approaches the subject of death in more explicit terms in ' The Kaleidoscope ' ; "" looking in / at where you died . "" ( line ) . There is strong caesura after ' died ' , forcing the reader to pause and absorb the impact of this blunt expression . Using hardened and upfront language is a characteristic of 's poetry , though more apparent in his earlier poems ( , , p.143 ) . Nonetheless , it could be argued that "" as if preparing for a holiday "" in line of ' The Kaleidoscope ' is a euphemism for dying , as it is a pleasant way of describing someone 's departure .","This essay aims to explore the linguistic techniques employed in , in order to gain a fuller understanding of the text . In the poem , the persona ( likely to be himself ) seems to be speculating about age and reflecting on the past . Perhaps as a result of this , the tone is melancholic . The last quatrain differs from the preceding it in terms of subject matter , tense and degree of metaphorical language . This enables the persona to contemplate the themes of age and the passing of time in more detail . though , let us consider the title . ' is an unusual collocation , because ' long ' and ' small ' contradict each other semantically . If a room is long , it is likely to also be described as big , rather than small . The fact that the room in the poem is long and small implies it is out of proportion and out of the ordinary , as indeed it is . Another point to make here is that length tends to be associated with width . In this case ' the long narrow room ' might be an appropriate substitute , although this might ruin the simplicity of the title . The term ' narrow ' is disyllabic rather than monosyllabic , and arguably not as neutral in this context . Together ' long ' and ' narrow ' generate a tunnel - like image and a sense of claustrophobia , more so than ' long ' and ' small ' . ' The long small room ' is the presumed centre of the text ; not only is it the title of the poem , but also the quatrain describes it , the characters look in on it , and the focus of the quatrain is what happened there . Or , more specifically , the centre and main subject matter of the text is simply a room . In the line ' room ' is the head of the noun group . ' Long ' and ' small ' are its pre - modifiers , and ' that showed willows in the west ' is a post - modifying phrase . To decentre the text , one might want to draw attention to the ' willows in the west ' . These are mentioned in the and last lines of the poem , a technique that adds structure to the text and at the same time suggests a cycle . It is interesting that chose to mention willows in place of any other tree . Some people might associate these with the weeping willow and therefore the act of crying . Indeed , applies the verb ' stream ' to the leaves on the willow tree ; this is emphasised by the assonance in ' leaves stream ' . This phrase also connotes crying , as tears can be described as ' streaming ' , or ' a stream of tears ' . A sense of sorrow is also conveyed through the poem phonetically . In the and forth quatrains , repetition of the ' oh ' sound mimics the sound of sighing , for example the assonance in ' showed willows ' , and pillow / willow are end rhymed in the forth quatrain . There is also initial rhyme between ' narrowed ' and ' although ' in the and lines . It may be significant that the long small room looks out onto the west where the sun sets , as this suggests a place in time nearer the end of a cycle . The concluding line of the poem mentions the ' last leaves ' , perhaps a sign that it is and reaching . This sense of coming to the end of a cycle is related to the themes of age and time that are present more generally in the text . On the other hand , in the forth quatrain there are also references to beginnings . For example the ' clean white page ' and ' each morning on the pillow ' both create the sense of a new start , and for the latter the beginning of a cycle . It is clear the long small room is a memory ; this is implied by the phrase ' when I look back ' , as well as the fact that the quatrains are mainly in past tense . ' There ' in the quatrain also helps to distance the experience . If the quatrain was rewritten in the present tense it might look something like this ; < quote > Only the moon , the mouse and the sparrow peep In from the ivy round the casement thick . Of all they see and hear here they shall keep The tale for the old ivy and older brick. This repositions the reader so that they are in the room amongst the action . At the same time the room looses some of its intrigue and mystery . If the description of the room is relayed to the reader in past tense , it makes it easier for us to alienate . There is a shift in temporal dimension from the quatrain to the forth . The dash in the last line of the quatrain indicates a significant change in thought , separating the line both visually and conceptually . It is followed by ' this ' , a more direct representation of experience than ' that ' . The progressive participles ' crawling ' , ' resting ' and ' starting ' indicate that the lines of the forth quatrain are in the most immediate tense , the continuous present . If the tense was shifted to the generalising ' state ' present , these lines might look as follows ; < quote > Crawls crab - like over the clean white page , Rests awhile on the pillow , Then once more starts to crawl on towards age. This dimension creates a stronger sense of routine than the ' -ing ' form , but does not produce the same extent of contrast between the and forth quatrains . In the the reader assumes that the persona is ' like moon , sparrow , and mouse ' in that he or she also ' witnessed what [ he / she ] could never understand ... ' . There is an unexpressed causation here , but the structure of the text implies that like the other characters , the persona is a helpless bystander to the action . In marked contrast , in the subsequent stanza the persona participates in and directly manipulates the action . In the concluding lines of the quatrain , ' shall ' projects into the future , and so does ' the old ivy and old er brick ' . Here there is a direct comparison , as the adjective is an extended and intensified version of the . This would be lost if ' older ' was replaced by a synonym , for example ' ancient ' . ' Old ' also relates thematically to the rest of the poem , as ( unlike ' ancient ' ) it is commonly used to describe people . The metaphors in the poem are concentrated in the last quatrain , for instance ' crawling crab - like ' and ' leaves stream ' . These examples are both foregrounded through sound patterning . The initial ' c ' alliteration in ' crawling crab - like ' binds together the concept of crawling and the image of a crab , particularly as the alliterated syllables are stressed . It suggests a gradual process , and the comparison to a crab connotes brittle joints - these are both aspects of age . Using ' crawling ' on its own , or ' crawling child - like ' instead might create a different effect of youth and agility , and therefore contradict the theme of ageing . Up to this point there is little figurative language , and in this way the last quatrain is set apart from the rest of the poem . To sum up , the subject matter of the quatrains is mainly concrete . The poem mentions tangible objects such as a room , a house , a fireplace and a page in a book - these are all concrete nouns . On the other hand , the focus of the last quatrain ( age ) is an abstract concept . Consequently , this stanza is more general . Unlike the others the thoughts expressed in it are not tied to a specific time and place . And perhaps most significantly , the immediate tense makes the action continuous and indefinite , rather like the routine of life itself .",1 "Hebdige was a member of , ( CCCs ) during , who challenged the entrenched view of youth as trouble or in trouble ( Hebdige 1988:27 ; ; ; Malbon ) or a problem to society and themselves ( , 1993:101 ) and deviancy theory that is , behaviour different from considered ' norms ' usually constructed by the middle classes ( Griffin 1997A:23 ) . CCCs research created the subculture theory that went beyond the focus of youthful rebellion purely as a means of resistance ( Downes and Rock 2003:143 ) and argued that youth , using dress , style or music , challenged the parent culture ( 1988:30 ) in an effort not only to be heard , but as a way of bringing some control and meaning to their lives ' in a modern industrialised society ' ( Hebdige : ) . However , it is important to note that these studies focused on working - class young men ( ; , cited in and ) with the assumption that it is they who are the ' problem ' . Labelling theory ( , cited in 1993:109 ) influenced studies of criminology during and supports the concept that stereotyping increases rather than reduces criminal offending ( , cited in ; ) . It is not necessarily the behaviour itself that attracts the label , but the reaction of , or interaction with , other societal groups that therefore determine levels of deviancy ( ) . This CCCs argument therefore reinforces labelling theory ( Downes and Rock 2003:143 ) in that behaviour is influenced by judgments applied by powerful bodies over the less powerful ( ) . Over , youth subcultures have become more flexible in their consumption of style , music and experiences , but arguably continue to attract a negative image , particularly from the media . argues young people are predominantly portrayed in a negative light , and this negative stereotypical image is so widely accepted it overlooks any suggestion that this may not be an accurate reflection of young people . In this essay , I will use moral panics and youth subculture and post - subculture theories as a basis for supporting 's proposition ' that [ .... ] youth is only present when its presence is a problem , or regarded as a problem ( ; ) . However , I will firstly explore overwhelming evidence that portrays young people in a negative light ; arguing that once negative labels are applied they are difficult to remove and are widely accepted as the truth ( 1999:13 ) . My arguments will focus on aspects . , that negative labels are used by the media to create moral panics that influence public opinion and result in more restraining action being placed upon young people who are perceived to be a problem ( UK ) . , that youth subcultures created by young people challenge class and/or parent domination ( ) in their search for their own space and recognition of their existence . Young people 's actions and behaviours are misunderstood by the adult world ( ) , as the ' truth ' is so embedded in people 's minds and society . Therefore , the only starting point of any contact with young people is from the view of them being a problem . Within the context of moral panics and subculture theory it is important to understand something about how young people are labelled in negative terms , as this forms the basis from which moral panics escalate and compound the portrayal of young people , and in particular youth subcultures , in a negative light . ' Youth ' usually refers to young men and carries negative connotations of ' trouble ' ( Jeffs and Smith 1998/9:46 ) , ' problem ' ( Jeffs and Smith 1998/9:46 , , Hebdige in and 1997:402 ) , ' crime ' ( , and Smith 1998/9:49 ) or ' deficiency ' ( Jeffs and Smith 1998/9:45 ) . ) , work during , formed the basis ( 1983:400 ) of discourses during the 1950/60s in which young people were seen as instigators of trouble for example football hooliganism ( Hebdige 1979:133 ; ; , cited in 1999:122 ) or at risk from trouble for example teenage pregnancy ( ) . The problem of youth is debated in terms of attitude or actions that challenge the parent culture for example truancy , dress styles or , in particular , music - which causes the most friction between young people and adults ( ; 1972:95 ) . In terms of youth crime , reports show a plethora of contradictory evidence for example ' police records show a increase with a jump in violent crime , during . However , ... says crime has fallen on ( ) . Statistical information can be misinterpreted or exaggerated and present difficulties in interpretation , as in this case , distinguishing between terms for ' serious ' or ' prolific ' behaviour , which have been consolidated into one category ( ) . Furthermore , statistics fail to provide explanations for example in the case of higher crime rates and reducing numbers of offenders , persistent offenders might be responsible for a larger percentage of crime ( 2002:425 ) . In terms of deficiency , young people are always seen as in need of training or improving ( Jeffs and Smith 1998/9:45 ; and Carmet 1997:41 , cited in ; ) . The period between of development between childhood and adulthood has long been recognised as of ' storm and stress ' ( 1900 , cited in 1997B:19 ; and Smith 1998/9:50 ) . Foucault suggests that the lack of control experienced during the physiological changes in adolescence can overspill into unpredictable or uncontrollable behaviour ( cited in ) . Intrinsic to young people is their lack of past experience which can mean instability and this ' shaky ground ' may threaten to unsettle the more stable environment of adults ( ) . This categorisation of young people 's ' deviant ' behaviour will be seen as a reason for increased regulation , to bring these groups back in line with what is considered the ' norm ' ( Jeffs and Smith ) . However , who labels who is disconcerting as it is usually middle class adult views that are considered as the norm - white , male , middle class , heterosexual , able bodied ( non - disabled ) ( Griffin 1997A:23 ) . Any comparison will be problematic in terms of age as well as ethnicity , gender , class , sexual orientation or disability . As a result , feminists argue that women have either been ignored by research ( Malbon ) or afforded the same delinquent traits as men ( Griffin 1993:110 ) . Furthermore , certain societal groups can become the stereotypical scapegoat of all that is wrong in society for example the ' black mugger ' during ( Hall et al 1978 , cited in ; ) when major adverse social changes occurred ( Hunt 1997:631 ) such as mass unemployment in the 1970/80s ( Downes and Rock 2003:161 ) . Evidence therefore supports the perception of youth as trouble or a problem , without any justification . Finding the way to adulthood is a complex and diverse journey , full of anxieties and unknown experiences , and youthful actions draw attention to these dilemmas which are then emphasised by the principles of ' moral panics ' . Moral panics have a long history ( and ) , are problematic to define ( , cited in ) , oversimplified ( McRobbie , cited in ) , and are considered cyclical , self perpetuating and increasingly more frequent ( ; ) . They have become the ' norm of journalistic practice ' and the moralistic voice of society ( ) . ( ) believes that moral panics usually have little resemblance to the source of the original occurrence , are an extreme way of defining social problems , and frequently have a direct affect upon influencing legislation and regulations . It can therefore be seen that moral panics are both powerful and complex . Dominant societal groups have been argued to use moral panics as a means of political control ( 2000:312 ) . Adults may also use them as a means of control over children ( Hendrick , cited in , and ; 1990:54 ) . The influence of risk in an increasingly risky society ( 1999:9 ; , cited in Critcher ) are also important and complex factors pertaining to moral panics ( ) . empirical study in ( ) explored the behaviour of ' Mods ' and ' Rockers ' within the context of moral panics , the creation of ' folk devils ' and the applications of negative labels ( , cited in ; 1972:277 , Hunt 1997:630 ; ) . Media hype was responsible for originating the moral panic by reporting incidences that would previously have gone unreported and distorting and/or exaggerating ( Thompson 1998:35 , ) what did happen with pictures and ' melodramatic ' moralistic vocabulary . For example one report stated that "" all the dance halls near the seafront were smashed "" , there was only one dance hall in - on - Sea , Essex at that time and the total cost of damage to all properties amounted to £ ( Thompson 1998:33 ) . A snowballing effect is thus created with every subsequent minor disturbance involving any groups of young people reported and soon public opinion is knowledgeable in the ' fact ' that young people cause trouble , are a problem . This is interpreted as an attack upon morality ( Hunt 1997:630 ) and a threat to society ( 1998:3 ; ) - hence the folk devils are born and become something to be feared ( Thompson 1998:31 , ) . The power of the media to generate moral panics must not be underestimated . Newspaper coverage overwhelmingly shows young people in a negative light . For example in a review of news articles about young people had a negative focus , with only 46 being positive ( ) . and ( ) argue that "" most political strategies are media strategies "" ( my emphasis ) . However , with the role of the media becoming increasingly embedded in society , and the speed at which news can be disseminated in an increasingly globalised , technology - led society , the future power of the media may increase significantly ( and ) . The increased focus on deviant acts and more stringent surveillance , such as cctv or exclusion policies may result in young people ' acting out ' or ' hiding in the light ' ( ) ; believing the labels applied to them and resulting in a self fulfilling and perpetuating prophecy ( ; ; ) . suggests that if less focus was given to less deviant acts , such as those which are primarily young people having fun , the incidence of escalation and seriousness of deviant actions would reduce ( ) . Pressure groups can increase awareness ( and 1995:565 ) of local acts that can have a further reaching impact . In the study of incidents at - on - Sea a local resident , Mr Blake ' , gained support for tighter controls of young people 's activities . He subsequently drew politicians into his group and legislation was enacted to deal with ' malicious damage ' ( Thompson 1998:38/9 ) . Increasingly politician may use attacks on morality and the moral structure of society to win political support either for their party or their actions ( ) . By making young people the focus of all that is bad in society , governments can elicit support that would otherwise not be so easily won ( Thompson 1998:38/9 ) or divert attention away from real problem areas of deprivation or inequalities in access to work ( ) ( 1999:122 ; Rutter , cited in 1993:105 ; 2004:134 ) . A more recent example of the power of the media to influence legislation can be seen in the case of the murder of by boys under ( 1999:3 - 5 ; ) . The significance of this case was the perpetrators ' young age and this may have been seen as by journalists as an excellent opportunity to increase newspaper sales ( , cited in 1999:119 ) . By sensationalising the story boys suddenly became potential demons . Furthermore , argues that encouraged by the tabloid newspaper , The , numerous readers wrote to and could have been instrumental in extending the sentence served by the offenders . Certainly the high profile of this incident attracted a raft of legislation aimed at controlling the behaviour of young people in , which included truancy , drugs , joyriding - and much tighter legislation followed , for example curfew orders , fast - tracking punishment and tolerance ( ) ( 1999:6 ) . The power of the media to reinforce negative labelling by moral panics should not be underestimated . Social policy and legislation is created in response to what those with the power perceive to be the problem ( hegemony ) , or the threat to social morality or a ' good future ' ( 1997:67 ) . This is illustrated by the creation of the probation service which seeks to control young people considered troublesome ( 1997:67 ) and bring them back to ' acceptability . ' The major impact of moral panics is that they create or exaggerate negative labels and these are often more influential than the foundation of any truth ( Scott 1972:330 ; 1997:19 ; ) and this is particularly relevant in the case of youth subcultures . The post war economic boom presented new employment opportunities for many young people ( Jeffs and Smith 1998/9:57 ; Downes and Rock 2003:153 ) , when consumption ceased to be ' a luxury reserved for the wealthier classes ' ( and ) and working class young people could create new identities away from the traditional ones ( and , both cited in and ) , allowing some more disposable income than any previous generation and the power to make their position more visible ( 1983:401 ) . Increased leisure time pursuits were available and new lifestyles were created as a way of having fun . However , others argue that this increased financial freedom was seen as a recipe for delinquent behaviour ( Downes and Rock 2003:155 ; , 2005:159 ) or the behaviour could just as easily be labelled ' delinquent ' by the elite fearful of losing their hold over the working classes ( Cohen P 1972/80:192 in Thompson 1998:41 ) . Furthermore , previous generations may have been envious of this new freedom that they may have been denied ( Cohen P 1972/80:192 , cited in ; ) . The original theories of the CCCs argued that subcultures emerged from working class origins as way of rebelling against dominant middle class policies in the form of style , dress and music ( ; ) or in response to the destruction of working class communities ( Cohen P 1972:91 ) . Subcultures , they argued , were created from a need to define territory ( space ) , find a sense of belonging ( 2004:137 ) as well as defy hegemonic control and as a result of this friction , the perceived problem / trouble / delinquency became synonymous with youth subcultures ( ) . However , much early subculture research focussed on gang membership in deprived urban neighbourhoods and concluded that higher levels of crime emanated from gang members than non - gang members . Downes and Rock argue that this focus on gangs could just have easily influenced the assumption that all young people were delinquent / deviant ( ) . Examples of this can be seen in the Mods - working class young people who , by using their increased spending power , dressed up in an attempt to bridge the gap between themselves and the middle classes ( and ) , who were notorious for real or perceived clashes with the Rockers ( as already discussed ) . The focus on working class youth as deviant from middle class norms overlooked any alternative picture and identified a ' problem ' . Thankfully , subculture theory has not been static , and neither have subcultures , but a positive image is still lacking . More recently critiques , including CCCS members themselves and post subcultural theorists , argue that CCCs theory was too simplistic and rigid ( 2004:139 ) and did not look at why subcultures existed ( ; ) . They believe subcultures have increased in fluidity ( ; Maffesoli , cited in and 2004:12 ; ) , whilst still retaining collective or communal dimensions ( Malbon 2005:185 ) . Subcultures may be created as a way for young people to possess control over or stability in some part of their lives ( ) and reflect the modern fragmented world ( ) by coming together for short periods of time , dissolving and recreating new groups ( , cited in Mablon 1999:26 ) , whose object is to find enjoyment in abandonment ( usually with the aid of drugs ) ( ; ) . Dress and style have become more interchangeable and music also frequently occupies the same space ( and ) . Furthermore , the complex procedure to aspire to high levels of subculture capital or ' hipness ' ( 1995:202 ) or ' coolness ' ( Malbon ) is supported by the consumption of music ( ; Malbon ) , style / dress and , most importantly , having the ' right ' knowledge ( and ) . Here again the media is powerful as they are the main circulators of ' cultural knowledge ' ( Thornton 1995:203 ) . Advertising is frequently couched in terms of ' coolness or hipness ' to attract young consumers , especially towards technological gadgets ( Ogersby ; Malbon ) such as mobile phones . Furthermore , style and music tastes can cut across ' social class , age and education ' to create alternative groupings ( , cited in and 2004:10 ) to income or occupation classification ( 1995:207 ) . However , some would argue that consumerism and the emphasis on a material lifestyle creates ' strain ' that can lead to increasing crime levels , as those without strive to live the same lifestyle as those that have ( , cited in and ; ) resulting in ' anomie ' ( ' normlessness ' Merton , cited in ) . Furthermore , the majority of funding is directed towards crime and drugs education rather than promotion of youth culture . As a result policies are informed by young peoples ' activities that are most present , or visible ( ) , which it is argued are the minority ( Downes 2003:158 ; Scott ) . Straw ( , cited in and ) argues that subcultures have ceased to be local entities but rather have become global ( ) ' scenes ' , with style and music tastes being the membership card , for example Rave , but that might still have cultural differences at a local level ( ) . Whereas early subcultures were highly visible in public places , these new scenes have arguably gone ' underground ' , into clubs or venues outside the mainstream sphere of adults . In such a way , young people create their own space in which to celebrate individuality ( losing oneself ) in group solidarity ( the crowd ) ( , cited in ) , creating a safe , self regulating environment ( Malbon ) where consumption is of the experience itself rather than the type of style . As a result , the nightclub environment may be seen as a more liberating and safe environment for female clubbers ( Malbon ) . However , as the gap between male and female earnings remains , so music and culture will continue to be less influenced by the lower earning female population ( 1995:207 ) . Invisibility does not exclude young people from negative labelling , as is seen by the case of whose picture , as she lay dying in hospital as a result of taking drugs , was front page news for most tabloid newspapers . Leah , from a respectable family and took at her th birthday party . Suddenly , the perception , promoted by the media , is that all young people take drugs and are going to die ( Saunders ) . Media and advertising suggest a ' normalisation ' of drug taking amongst clubbers ( 2000:333 ) , but some research shows that young people take them in a conscious and systematic fashion and their consumption is restricted ( mainly ) to soft , recreational drugs such as cannabis , ( , ; ) . Research shows there is little support for ' crossing the ' into harder drug taking of heroin ( and ) . This aspect is little understood by the adult world as is evident from a recent story claiming the as the ' cannabis capital of ' , but differences reported between hard and recreational drug use is unclear ( ) . This could be considered yet another moral panic or more realistically recognised as a way young people create lifestyles to cope with the stresses of the modern world ( Shildrick 2002:46 ; ) , just as smoking has been used for past generations . Instead , again young people are portrayed as a problem , not only by injuring themselves , but threatening the stability of the future of society as a whole . In this essay I have investigated moral panics and youth subcultures and post subcultures with reference to 's proposition . The evidence against 's proposition is scant and sometimes targeted only at those already in a privileged position ( gifted and talented ) ( ; ; NAGTY ) , whilst the support for it is substantial ( 1988:27 ; ; ; and Smith ; ; ; ; , cited in ; 1993:115 ; ) . Young people have been labelled as deviant / delinquent or a problem for so long that is has become perceived as the ' truth ' , so commonplace that the significance of such labelling is not questioned ( 1988:27 ; ) , nor alternative ways of relating to young people sought . Youth and problem are synonymous , in that there are so many different negative labels applied . Adolescence is a time of great physical and physiological changes ( , cited in 1997B:19 , and Smith 1998/9:50 ) when over spilling exuberant behaviour is looked upon negatively ( , cited in ) ; as a problem - the working class young man is always a criminal , the black youth a mugger and any subculture member a drug addict . Excessive and exaggerated media coverage creates moral panics ( Thompson 1999:35 ) , exacerbating the negative labelling of young people . The media becomes the moral voice of the nation ( ) and informs public opinion to a point that legislative changes ( and ) result to curtail the activities of young people ( Thompson 1998:38/9 ) . There is plenty of evidence of this in the newspapers and very little to support positive images of young people ( ) . As more severe restrictions are placed upon them , young people rebel in the only ways they know how - by coming together in groups by consumption of style and music , decorating their bodies and seeking escape from adult spaces ( Hebdige 1988:8 ) . They are not driven by consumerism , but use the commercial market as a way to avoid labelling and away from mainstream that is seen as created and controlled by the parent culture ( et al 1995:19 ) . Early subculture theorists argue that defiance shown by working class young people against middle class ' norms ' created groups who became synonymous with deviant behaviour ( whether real or perceived ) ( ; ; ) , and were especially noticeable at times of major social change ( Downes and Rock 2004:161 ) . More recent subcultures , or neo - tribes ' neo - tribes ' ( Maffesoli , cited in ) , are influenced by wider issues than parent culture alone ( Malbon 2005:185 ; , cited in Malbon ; ) . The world has become more global , more risky and faster changing ( 1999:9 ; , cited in Critcher ) , whilst the restrictions upon young people have become greater ( Muncie 1999:6 ; ) . In order to find coping strategies they have become less visible , by creating their own ' clubs ' , adopted fluid and adaptable cultures and consumption has become one of experience rather than style ( Malbon ) . The ' experience ' is enhanced by activities frowned upon by the adult world - loud music , staying out late and the consumption of ( usually large amounts of ) alcohol and recreational drugs ( ) . This makes it easy to maintain the negative labelling of young people , easy for negative images of young people to be accepted as the truth and difficult to see the significance negative foundations . It is unclear how differently young people may be treated if the image of them were positive . The reasons for subcultures may have developed as theories have changed , but few new understandings have evolved . Despite adult concern , possibly for themselves and their future than for young people and extensive research , there seems little attempt to understand the desire for young people to find their own identities , rather the focus is on enforcing stricter controls and surveillance in order to bring them back into line . Furthermore , insufficient consideration of external factors such as boredom ( , cited in Downes and ) ' poverty , addiction , unequal access to education ' ( , cited in ) or employment ( and ; Downes ) will do little to support young people who have little accrued knowledge or experience to call on . Adult misunderstandings and more restriction of young people 's behaviour and actions will only lead to more outrageous behaviour on their part ( , cited in and 2004:4 ) and will do little to remove the negative image of young people dealing with the ' storm and stress ' of adolescence . Until young people are allowed to integrate into the adult world and assigned rights as individuals , the negative labelling will remain ( Smith ) . It is heartening to see the UK Youth Parliament manifesto ( ) calling for an end to the negative portrayal of young people and the promotion of more positive images by the media , but it is difficult to say how long it will take to effect this momentous change . : ( ) There is insufficient space within this essay to discuss this important aspect further . ( ) Inequalities in opportunities to enter the job market - of young people were unemployed in , versus of adults ( ) .","The landmark decision in to relax the exclusionary rule regarding the use of has received much comment and criticism . One must consider the advantages of using parliamentary material as an aid to statutory construction as it allows the courts to "" give effect to ... the intentions of parliament . "" Yet on the other hand there are huge concerns regarding the constitutional implications of the decision and it 's affect on the concept of the separation of powers . Furthermore one must consider the financial and practical implications of the decision ; increased time and expense inevitably linked with using is a disadvantage . One must therefore decide whether the advantages of using outweigh practical and political objections . < fnote > Pepper ( Inspector of taxes ) v Hart [ ] AC 593 < /fnote> Pepper ( Inspector of taxes ) v Hart [ ] AC 593 at p. per Lord < /fnote> Steyn , J. , ' ; a Re - Examination ' 21 ( ) , < /fnote> See White , ' 's up ' ( ) Solicitors Journal and , ' Perfection but at what cost ? ( ) Law Quarterly Review149 < /fnote > Pepper v Hart involved school masters from who partook in a concessionary scheme which meant their sons were educated at of the normal fees . It was not disputed that the fees were a taxable benefit under The Finance Act . However , the issue was "" what is the cash equivalent of the benefit ? "" This was defined in section . The school masters argued the "" cost of the benefit was the marginal cost to the employer providing the benefit "" and was therefore nil . It was originally held as correct , yet the crown contended this and argued that the expense incurred in educating the taxpayer 's sons was the same as a fee - paying member of the public . Their appeal was allowed . The issue was therefore placed before . < fnote > Pepper ( Inspector of taxes ) v Hart [ ] AC 593 < /fnote> Pepper ( Inspector of taxes ) v Hart [ ] AC 593 p.1 < /fnote > The point of law presented to was whether or not the courts should relax the exclusionary rule and be permitted to examine the proceedings in parliament prior to the enactment of s in order to firmly establish their true intentions . Law Lords decided , in a majority , that < fnote > Lord dissenting < /fnote> "" The exclusionary rule should be relaxed so as to permit reference to Parliamentary materials where : Legislation is ambiguous or obscure , or leads to an absurdity The material relied on consists of or more statements by a minister or other promoter of the bill and The statements relied on are clear "" < /quote> Pepper ( Inspector of taxes ) v Hart [ ] AC - 28 per Lord < /fnote > This decision has been both commended and criticised . It changed the role of the courts with regard to statutory interpretation and it is therefore important to study subsequent cases to examine its application . The decision in has been applied in a number of subsequent cases such as R v Warwickshire County Council . This case concerned the interpretation of s ( 1 ) of The Consumer Protection Act where the words "" any business of his "" were scrutinised . The court allowed reference to which clarified these words . This case and others , highlight the way in which intended Hansard to be used : It shows that the decision has placed the courts in a position to more accurately interpret the intentions of parliament . In v electricity Lord stated that using "" immediately made clear what had previously been obscure . "" supports the use of stating that "" there are certainly undoubted advantages in making use of all relevant materials to interpret a statute . "" Therefore both case law and academic writing highlight that there is support for the argument that the courts should not "" blind themselves to a clear indication of what parliament intended . "" < fnote > Pepper ( Inspector of taxes ) v Hart [ ] AC 593 < /fnote> R v Warwickshire County Council , ex parte [ ] WLR 1 < /fnote> See Stubbings v Webb [ 1993 ] WLR 120 , Chief Adjudication Officer v Foster [ ] WLR 292 < /fnote> A.E. Beckett and sons Ltd v plc [ ] 1 WLR 281 < /fnote> A.E. Beckett and sons Ltd v plc [ ] WLR 281 p.34 per Lord MR < /fnote> Holland , , Webb , J. , Learning Legal rules , , , 2003 p.230 < /fnote> Pepper ( Inspector of taxes ) v Hart [ ] AC 593 p.23 per Lord < /fnote > However , subsequent cases have also questioned and refined the decision . There have been questions raised as to exactly when reference to should be permitted , what an ambiguity is and how clear the explanatory ministerial statement must be . In R v Secretary of state their lordships refined the rule , agreeing that "" resort to as an aid to interpretation is the exception rather than the rule . "" Peacock , J who refers to the judgement of Lord as "" deeply flawed "" supports this approach , stating that the courts should "" treat the development in as a limited exception to the rule . "" This cautious approach is extended further by Lord who refined his own decision in v BMI warning against over - use of and stating that the ministerial statement must be "" directed at the very point of litigation . "" It was the case of which most "" tamed and muted "" the decision in . This case refined the decision so that it is now to be read in a narrow way ; it essentially accepts that the parliamentary context of the legislation is of use , but direct ministerial statements should not be accepted as law . < fnote > See Sheppard v Commissioners of Inland Revenue , [ ] per Aldous J < /fnote> R v Secretary of for the Environment , Transport and the regions ( ex parte Spath Holme Ltd ) [ ] 2 WLR 15 , HL < /fnote> Ingman , T. , , , , p < /fnote> Peacock , , ' Flawed decision - the basis of the decision in ( ) , Law Society p.2 < /fnote> Peacock , , ' Flawed decision - ' The instalment of an analysis of examining the future for using as an aid to statutory construction ' ( ) , Law Society p.3 < /fnote> Melluish ( Inspector of Taxes ) v BMI [ ] WLR 630 < /fnote> Melluish ( Inspector of Taxes ) v BMI [ ] WLR 630 < /fnote> Wilson v [ 2004]1 AC 816 < /fnote> Kavanagh , A. , ' and matters of , , < /fnote> Pepper ( Inspector of taxes ) v Hart [ ] AC 593 < /fnote > It has been argued by some that the decision to relax the exclusionary rule raises "" serious constitutional objections . "" Lord suggests that an individual 's statement can not "" represent the intentions of parliament i.e. both houses . "" This is an important point to consider . It has been taken to a further extent , some arguing that ministers may make deliberate statements which can be referred to in later litigation . Lord describes this as "" a constitutional shift in power from parliament to ministers . "" This has serious implications as parliament are the supreme law making body in the and if individual ministers are able to use the relaxation of the exclusionary rule to have more influence over the law then the constitution is threatened . The decision in blurs the lines between parliament and the judiciary , thus disturbing 's concept of the separation of powers . is deeply critical of this effect has on the constitution and commends the decision in . < fnote > Steyn , J. , ' ; a Re - Examination ' 21 ( ) , < /fnote> Steyn , J. , ' ; a Re - Examination ' 21 ( ) , < /fnote> Steyn , J. , ' ; a Re - Examination ' 21 ( ) , < /fnote> Wilson v [ 2004]1 AC 816 < /fnote > One must also consider that use of may result in "" an immense increase in ... cost of litigation . "" It is clear that using makes litigation a more lengthy and consequently more expensive process . This has social implications which may restrict access to justice to those who can not afford the cost of lengthy litigation . Davenport points out that "" The cost of legal services is largely governed by the length of time occupied in providing them . Will clients really have confidence in the legal system if they see such items on their bill ? "" The accessibility of must also be considered : suggests that "" apart from those in , it is highly unlikely that will be readily available . "" Therefore , the decision in has social implications . If use of is to be limited by access and cost of litigation it does not deliver the justice it is supposed to . Lord refers to use of as an "" expensive luxury "" which "" has substantially increased the cost of litigation to very little advantage . "" Therefore , the use of in finding justice must be juxtaposed against the practical problems it creates . < fnote > Pepper ( Inspector of taxes ) v Hart [ ] AC 593 < /fnote> Davenport ' perfection but at what cost ? ' LQR at - 155 < /fnote> White , ' 's up ' ( ) Solicitors Journal 1224 < /fnote> Pepper ( Inspector of taxes ) v Hart [ ] AC 593 < /fnote> Steyn , J. , ' ; a Re - Examination ' 21 ( ) , < /fnote> Steyn , J. , ' ; a Re - Examination ' 21 ( ) , < /fnote > In conclusion , there are advantages of using . It is beneficial for a court to place itself in a position of clarity with regard to the intentions of parliament . One must however consider political objections to the relaxation of the exclusionary rule , which question the effect the rule may have on the constitution and the concept of separation of powers . The practical and financial disadvantages of the rule are also of some substance ; increasing the cost of litigation may create the paradox that a rule designed to increase justice may actually prevent a part of society from accessing it . Whether we should follow Lord 's advice to fully re - examine the case remains to be seen . For the instance therefore , we must trust the courts to use their discretion , as shown in cases such as , ensuring that the rule is not taken too far . < fnote > Wilson v [ 2004]1 AC 816 < /fnote >",0 "< heading>1 . Introduction The aim of this experiment is to investigate the rate of a chemical reaction , and see how this is dependant on the temperature . The reaction to be studied is the oxidation of benzyl alcohol in an acid permanganate solution : FORMULA In this experiment benzyl alcohol and the acid ion are present in large excess , and therefore their concentrations can be assumed to remain constant . Thus the only measurable concentration is that of MnO 4- , and the rate of its disappearance can be measured to ultimately form a rate equation for this reaction . The rate of disappearance of MnO 4- can be found by taking aliquots of the mixture at regular time intervals and adding potassium iodide to the mixture . This will remove all permanganate , and thus stop the oxidation of benzyl alcohol . This will liberate a proportional quantity of iodine : FORMULA The number of moles of liberated can be found by titrating the solution against a solution of standardised sodium thiosulphate . FORMULA The concentration of MnO 4- is thus known for a given value of time , and hence the order of reaction with respect to MnO 4- can be found . When the concentration of MnO 4- is plotted against time , we can see the reaction proceed as a function of time . If the reaction is order with respect to permanganate then when examining the graph with a "" - life "" method it is found that consecutive lives are the same , this is only true for a order reaction . If the graph is a straight line , then this means the rate of reaction is zeroth order with respect to permanganate ion . The overall rate equation can be written as : FORMULA Where a , b and c are orders of reaction with respect to their respective reagent and intergers to be determined . k is the equilibrium constant also to be determined . In this experiment , the concentrations of benzyl alcohol and permanganate are in excess , and can be assumed to be constant , thus what is observed is order - pseudo rate equation : FORMULA K obs and c can be found by integrating the appropriate order rate equation , and plotting the relevant values . The order with respect to benzyl alcohol , and the acid are found from examining the results of different experiments . Once this has been done , the rate constant for the rate equation can be found by equating equations ( ) and ( 5 ) . There is a variation of k with temperature , Arrhenius in found a relationship that governs this whole concept : FORMULA where A is the pre - exponential ( frequency ) factor , E is the activation energy and R the molar gas constant . By manipulating this equation , it is possible ( with different sets of values of T and k ) , to find A and E , by graphical means . < heading>2 . Safety Procedures b < heading>3 . Method180.0 cm of benzyl alcohol solution ( -3 mol dm -3 benzyl alcohol , mol dm -3 sulphuric acid , acetic acid , with dilution factor ) , was dispensed from a burette into a conical flask . of potassium permanganate ( x 10 -3 mol dm -3 ) solution was pipetted into a separate conical flask . These conical flasks were placed into a thermostat bath ( at ° C ) , and left to reach equilibrium for . The potassium permanganate solution was then added to the benzyl alcohol solution . The stop clock was started immediately as these solutions were mixed . A aliquot of the solution was taken from the mixture at t = s. To which of potassium iodide solution was added . This was then titrated against standard sodium thiosulphate ( -3 mol dm -3 ) . This procedure was repeated , until the permanganate concentration decreased to of starting concentration ( ≈ of sodium thiosulphate titre ) . This experiment was then repeated for a thermostat bath at ° C . < heading>4.0 Results - 32.5 ° C4.01 Determining the order with respect to permanganate The titration results for this experiment are recorded in table . < table/>From this data , the molarity of remaining MnO4- was calculated , by using equations ( ) and ( ): FORMULA The number moles of MnO 4- = No moles of FORMULA The molarity of MnO 4- = no moles of FORMULA Example calculation ( for t=0 ) ; FORMULA FORMULA The complete calculations for all of these titrations are summarised in table . < table/>Plotting the concentration of permanganate against time , gives an exponential curve ( see graph 1 ) . This is characteristic of a or order reaction . Examining the graph using the life method , the time from t 0 to t is , and the time taken from t to t 3/4 is . These consecutive - lives are roughly the same , and this indicates the reaction is order with respect to MnO 4- . < heading>4.02 Determining Pseudo Rate Constant The rate equation for this reaction can be written as : FORMULA Where a , b and c are integers , and c has already been deduced to be = . The concentrations of acid and benzyl alcohol are in excess , and therefore can be assumed to remain constant throughout the reaction giving a pseudo order rate equation , which will have an effective rate constant k obs , this gives a rate equation as follows : FORMULA By manipulating the order rate equation ( 7 ) , a linear graph can be plotted . This will find the effective rate constant k obs . This is shown below : FORMULA Integrating with respect to t equation ( 7 ) on both sides gives ( 8) : FORMULA Equation ( 8) is of the form : y = c - mx , and thus the gradient of the graph is = -k obs . To obtain k obs a graph of ln[MnO4- ] vs time was plotted , using the manipulated data from table : < table/>The equation of the line of best fit from graph was : FORMULA Thus determining the k obs = < heading>4.03 Determining the Rate Constant The rate with respect to MnO 4- has been deduced , but those with respect to H+ and C 6H 5CH 2OH have yet to be . K obs is the observed rate of reaction with respect to MnO 4- . To deduce the rate of reaction for benzyl alcohol and acid , it is important to consider the following information : < quote>""If the concentration of benzyl alcohol is doubled , it is found the life of MnO4- is halved . "" "" If the concentration of benzyl alcohol is doubled while that of the acid is halved , the overall rate of reaction is unchanged . "" From ( i ) it is deduced that order of reaction with respect to benzyl alcohol is . The knowledge of ( i ) implies that from ( ii ) the order with respect to the acid is also . Thus a = , b = , and c = in equation ( ) . The rate constant for this reaction can then be found , from combining equations ( ) and ( 5 ) , using the starting concentrations of reagents . FORMULA substituting the following values will give rate constant k at ° C : FORMULA < heading>4.1 Results - 27.5 ° C4.11 Determining The Order With Respect To Permanganate The titration results for this experiment are recorded in table . < table/>From these results the concentration of remaining permanganate was found as previously state in section using equations ( ) and ( ) . These results are tabulated in table . < table/>From this , the concentration of permanganate can be plotted as a function of time ( graph ) , which is exponential . The time taken from t to t is , and time taken from t to t 3/4 is . These consecutive lives are precisely the same , indicating the reaction is order with respect to MnO4- . < heading>4.12 Determining Pseudo Rate Constant The pseudo rate constant can be found as in , by taking natural logarithm of the concentration of MnO4- ( as calculated in table ) , and plotting against time . < table/>The equation of line of best fit from graph 4 is : FORMULA Thus the gradient of the graph is = -0.000178 , hence : FORMULA < heading>4.13 Determining the Rate Constant We know that the rate equation is : FORMULA As discussed earlier a , b and c are all equal to . Also from combining equations ( ) and ( 5 ) the rate constant for the reaction temperature can be found . FORMULA substituting the following values gives k at ° C : FORMULA < heading>4.2 - Variation of the Rate Constant with Temperature Using Arrgenius ' equation ( ) it is possible to obtain the activation energy and pre - exponential factor of the reaction . Data from other groups were collected , so that as many values of K and T could be used to calculate accurate values of A and E. By taking natural logarithms of both sides of equation ( ) gives : FORMULA The natural logarithm of each k value was calculated , as was 1 / T. This would thus give a straight line graph , with gradient = E / R and intercept = lnA. The values of k and T were manipulated so graph 5 could be plotted ; these results are seen in table . < table/>The equation generated from graph : FORMULA This means FORMULA Also FORMULA Thus FORMULA < heading>5 . Mechanism From the rate of the reaction , it is known that molecule of acid , molecule of benzyl alcohol , and molecule of permanganate are involved in the mechanism of this reaction . Also the rate determining step is said to involve the breaking of a C - H bond . The proposed mechanism is shown below : < figure/>Although Mn 2 + is not formed from this mechanism , it is believe it is formed with further reduced by oxidation of benzyl alcohol . < heading>6 . Conclusions and Summary In this experiment values for a rate constant at different temperatures have been found ; mol -2 dm 6 s -1 and 6 s -1 at and K respectively for the following reaction : FORMULA The overall rate equation was deduced to be : FORMULA This reaction is overall order , and order with respect to acid , benzyl alcohol and permanganate . This lead to the conclusion that one of all these species was involved in the mechanism , instead as the stiochiometry equation ( ) would lead us to believe . The proposed mechanism has the rate determining step breaking a C - H bond : < figure/>Some sets of K and T data were collated and produced a graph to find A and E using 's equation ( ) . The values of A and E were found to be and mol -1 respectively . The values of k obtained experimentally , appear to be quite low since it is said they should be . This may be due to inaccuracy in the experiment , or poor experimental practise . The major inaccuracy in this experiment may be due to the reagents ( such as benzyl alcohol ) are prone to breaking down over a period of time when heated . Thus the titration results could have been affected by this . The temperature of the thermostat baths were monitored for every titration and were completely consistent . Also the graph generated by manipulating ' equation is very unclear and the plots are very spatially distributed . Thus the equation of best fit is an estimate at best , implying results for A and E are inaccurate .","< heading > Mini Project 2 : Modelling Solvent Effects The geometry of the tautomers was optimised at B3LYP/6 - 31 G level , then SPE calculations performed at HF/6 - 31G(d ) level in the gas phase . < heading > Results at HF/6 - 31G(d)//B3LYP/6 - 31G:2 - pyridone molecule Energy = -321.559919 a.u . - hydroxypyridine molecule Energy = -321.561331 a.u . In the gas phase - hydroxypyridine is more stable than - pyridone based on potential energy calculations at HF/6 - 31G(d)//B3LYP/6 - 31 G level . < list FORMULA FORMULA < /list> Results at HF/6 - 31G(d)//B3LYP/6 - 31 G in cyclohexane solvent:2 - pyridone molecule = -321.567996 a.u . - hydroxypyridine molecule = -321.565792 a.u . The calculations suggest that in cyclohexane - pyridone molecule is more stable than 2 - hydroxypyridine at HF/6 - 31G(d)//B3LYP/6 - 31 G level . < list FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA < /list> SPE Results at HF/6 - 31G(d)//B3LYP/6 - 31 G in acetonitrile solvent:2 - pyridone molecule = -321.576676 a.u . - hydroxypyridine molecule = -321.569629 a.u . The calculations suggest that in acetonitrile - pyridone molecule is more stable than 2 - hydroxypyridine at HF/6 - 31G(d)//B3LYP/6 - 31 G level . < list FORMULA FORMULA < /list> Discussion The difference between the tautomers is that pyridine molecule is less polar than the - pyridone molecule . In the gas phase there is nothing to stabilise this polarity , and thus the least polar of the tautomers is the most stable . This is shown experimentally and in from theoretical calculations . Once entering solution , the molecules can interact with solvent molecules to help to stabilise these "" partial charges "" or the polarity of the molecules . The least polar of the tautomers is affected least by this , and thus the stability of the tautomers swaps . This is true in both cyclohexane and acetonitrile , a non - polar and polar solvent respectively . By increasing the polarity of the solvent , increases the difference in energy due to the extra stabilisation afforded to the more polar molecule ( - pyridone ) . These calculations can not be directly compared to experimental values , since the experimental values are for Gibbs Free Energy ( which also includes an entropy term ) . However they provide a qualitative comparison which shows the correlation is correct , and agrees with my reasoning for the observed effect of solvent on tautomers . < table/>The sources of error underlying computational calculations are ) the level of theory used ( high level meaning it has few or very good approximations , and low level meaning it has many or not very good approximations ) , ) The basis set used for geometry optimisation and energy calculation , ) The geometry optimisation ( dependant upon the level of theory used and basis set ) . Here a high level of theory has been used , with relatively large basis sets , also the geometry was optimised at a good level also . However the solvent is modelled as a constant dielectric , which in reality is unrealistic , and more statistical methods such as , could be employed to model such systems in a more realistic manner . < heading > Mini Project 3 : Rotation Barrier For Glyoxal All geometries and energies were optimised and calculated at B3LYP/6 - 31 G : < heading > Cis - Glyoxal
Optimised structures are only at a true minima when all vibrational frequencies are real and positive- here this is true and thus it is at a true energy minima . Electronic Energy = -227.732975 a.u . Sum of Electronic and Thermal Free Energies= -227.691785 a.u . < heading > Trans - Glyoxal
Optimised structures are only at a true minima when all vibrational frequencies are real and positive- here this is true and thus it is at a true energy minima . Electronic Energy = -227.739898 a.u . Sum of Electronic and Thermal Free Energies = -227.698594 a.u . The calculations suggest that the trans isomer is lower in energy than the cis . < list FORMULA FORMULA < /list> FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA < /list> Transition State
Optimised structures are only at a true transition state when all vibrational frequencies except for are real and positive and the one is imaginary . Here this is true and thus this is a true energy maxima = > transition state . Electronic Energy = -227.727834 a.u . Sum of Electronic and Thermal Free Energies= -227.688040 a.u . Dihedral Angle = 81.96 ° < heading > Energy Barriers Cis- > Trans Potential Energy Barrier = FORMULA = FORMULA = FORMULA = FORMULA Free Energy Barrier = FORMULA = FORMULA = FORMULA = FORMULA < /list> Trans- > Cis Potential Energy Barrier = FORMULA = FORMULA = FORMULA = FORMULA Free Energy Barrier = FORMULA = FORMULA = FORMULA = FORMULA < /list> SPE MP2 / aug - cc - pVDZ//B3YLP/6 - 31G Electronic Energy TS = -227.263642 a.u . Electronic Energy Trans = -227.273290 a.u . Electronic Energy Cis = -227.265904 a.u . FORMULA FORMULA < list> Cis- > Trans Potential Energy Barrier = FORMULA = FORMULA = FORMULA = FORMULA < /list> If we had been able to calculate the change in free energy barriers at an MP2 level , I suspect they would have followed the trend when that is present with potential energy barriers- they would have lower than the estimates . Interconversion between isomers seems more likely at room - temperature with MP2 SPE calculations than B3YLP ones since both and barriers are lower by respectively . The only energy provided to the molecules to interconvert = ( where k is the bolztmann constant and T is the temperature ) . At this is = −23 x x 6.022x10 mol -1 = kJ mol -1 . Thus even with the lower barriers at MP2 level , it shows that interconversion does not occur without an external energy source . < heading > Discussion of Results Relative Energies
The relative energies of the isomers is calculated to be closer to the experimental value in the MP2 SPE calculation ( within ) , than the B3LYP calculation ( within ) . < heading of trans / cis FORMULA Where Ni/ Nj is the ratio of equilibrium population of the isomers , and gi and gj their respective degeneracies ( here both = ) . R is the molar gas constant= J is K and = kJ mol -1 ( MP2 calculation)- the difference in potential energies between the isomers . FORMULA FORMULA Thus the ratio of trans to cis at room temperature is estimated to be : i.e. for trans isomers there is one cis at room temperature . < heading > Barriers to isomer conversion
In both barriers the MP2 calculation outperforms the B3LYP calculations when compared to experiment . On average MP2 is within of experimental values , and the are within of experimental values . < heading > Dihedral Angle
Compared to experiment the dihedral calculated at B3LYP level is around 30 ° out . The sources of error underlying computational calculations are ) the level of theory used ( high level meaning it has few or very good approximations , and low level meaning it has many or not very good approximations ) , ) The basis set used for geometry optimisation and energy calculation , ) The geometry optimisation ( dependant upon the level of theory used and basis set ) . The calculations performed a lot better than the pure B3LYP calculations . This is because it is a higher level of theory and the used a large basis set . So here for the calculation the main error is the geometry optimisation- which uses a small basis set and poorer level of theory than perhaps required for this type of calculation .",1 "< heading > Introduction Insider dealing is summarised by as , "" the use of material inside information on public stock exchange ( securities ) markets to make a profit or avoid a loss "" . The problem of individuals abusing privileged inside information is not a new one . As early as there were official reports of insiders using their privileged information to dump over - valued securities on the market . A statistical survey in demonstrated the potential scope of insider dealing . When asked what they would do if they learnt of a merger with a company whose shares were certain to rise when news of the merger became public , of company directors said they would purchase shares and would give the information to a friend . < fnote > McVea , H. , What 's wrong with insider dealing ? , , Legal Studies ; see Criminal Justice Act , section for statutory definition < /fnote> Rider , , Market Abuse and Insider Dealing , , , pp.1 < /fnote> It is instructive to consider that misuse of privileged information was only first criminalised by . Prior to criminalisation , there was no statutory prohibition of insider dealing and the common law did not make insider dealing actionable . The very limited statutory controls were contained in . < fnote > Companies Act , sections < /fnote> Percival v [ ] 2 Ch < /fnote > The Criminal Justice Act ( CJA ) is the current regulatory legislation and defines inside information as information relating to specific securities , which , if it were made public , would be likely to have a significant effect on their value . The also prohibits the knowing disclosure of insider information to another . < fnote > Criminal Justice Act , section < /fnote> ibid , ) ; this is known as ' tipping ' and ' tippee liability ' < /fnote > It is important to note that there is no "" constraint ... on the use of privileged knowledge in dealings other than securities "" . It is part of everyday commercial practice to use privileged knowledge to make a profit . If in every contractual situation a party with superior knowledge was required to share the knowledge with the other party , there would be no incentive to gather such knowledge . In transactions involving "" the disposal of property and the conduct of commerce , it is necessary to have the best information available and therefore the acquisition of information should not be discouraged , let alone penalised . "" However , the basis for insider liability has continued to be expanded and the extended the definition of ' securities ' as well as ' insider ' . < fnote > see , Rider , supra , no.2 , pp.1 < /fnote> ibid , pp.2 < /fnote> Criminal Justice Act , Schedule < /fnote> ibid , section < /fnote > Insider dealing is not universally recognised as a problem and many commentators believe that it should neither be subject to regulation nor criminal sanctions . This essay will discuss , in part one , the principal reasons why securities receive extra legal protection and investigate whether the current regulatory system , especially whether or not the criminal offence of insider dealing , is either necessary or desirable . The part of the essay will look at whether the current law has sufficiently broad powers to allow the regulatory bodies to prevent and punish insider dealing . < heading > PART ONE < /heading> The allocative / market efficiency argument < /heading > It is commonly believed that society is positively affected by an efficiently functioning stock market . It therefore follows that share prices should reflect as much information as possible to identify those companies where investors ' capital is most valued . Detailed and reliable information ensures efficient investment of resources , as companies which are poorly managed or which no longer provide goods or services in which society is interested will not receive investment . It is therefore in a company 's interests to release "" favourable information relating to ... future prospects [ as this ] will in general mean that the company will find it easier and cheaper to raise share capital "" . < fnote > see : Preamble to Directive 2003/6 / of and of the , , on insider dealing and manipulation ( market abuse ) , , , pp . - 25 < /fnote> Channelling investors ' capital to its most productive use in the market is known as "" allocative efficiency "" < /fnote> see , , supra , no.1 , pp393 < /fnote > The best way to make this information available to the market would be to make a public announcement . However , public disclosure could , in many cases , devalue the information , lack credibility , or expose the company to liability if it later transpired that the information was inaccurate . Disclosure can also be costly and at some point the costs will outweigh the benefits of increased disclosure . Proponents of deregulation have , therefore , argued that insider dealing is the most reliable and cost - effective mechanism for channelling this information to the market . < fnote , , & Fischel , D.R. , The Regulation of Insider Dealing , , Law Review < /fnote> see , , supra , no.1 , pp394 < /fnote > Insider dealing also reflects a company 's financial prospects with greater accuracy , as all information , whether public or not , is factored into the share price . This has a positive affect on allocated efficiency . The price paid by investors , and society as a whole , for this greater efficiency is that insider dealers are able to make profits at others ' expense . Manne argues that "" it is desirable to have all ups and downs [ in share prices ] smoothed out to the extent possible "" , as this ensures a more secure and fair deal for investors . Insider dealing would help balance share prices by reducing violent fluctuations following sudden corporate disclosures . < fnote > Barry , , "" Witchcraft and Insider Dealing "" , pp.28 - 34 : in , ( ed ) , , , , < /fnote> Manne , , and the Law Professors , 547 , pp . < /fnote > These arguments are countered by proponents of regulation who argue that the foundation of the capital markets ' allocative efficiency is integrity . Unscrupulous insiders could adversely affect this efficiency . Insiders could use late disclosures to create more time to purchase securities . Similarly , ambiguous announcements would allow insiders to buy securities at a lower price and then sell at a higher price following a later , definitive announcement . This would create a "" causal relationship between insider trading activity and the accuracy and timeliness of corporate disclosures "" . < fnote > for a definition of "" "" see supra , no.13 < /fnote> Cox , , Insider Trading and Contracting : A critical response to , , Duke Law Journal 628 , pp.636 < /fnote > Such practices would clearly affect allocative efficiency and justify regulatory intervention . There is , however , a dramatic difference between market manipulation and insider dealing , just as a reliable tip on a winning horse differs from having the race fixed . Few deregulators argue that market manipulation should be permitted . Furthermore , there is a distinct lack of empirical evidence to suggest that any incidences of insider dealing have affected the disclosure or the accuracy of information from a firm . This is most likely due to the number of "" deals being conducted through a nominee or by a relative or friend [ as well as ] insiders ' reticence to talk about their activities "" . < fnote > see , Manne , supra , no.19 , pp . < /fnote> see , , supra , , < /fnote> Suter , , The Regulation of Insider Dealing in , , Butterworths , pp.2 < /fnote > Admittedly , unregulated use of inside information would result in a financial risk for the investor . This risk would be roughly equal across the entire securities market and , prima facie , there would be a negligible affect on allocative efficiency . However , the lack of affect relies on the assumption that investors are limited to securities . If investors decide to offset the insider risk by investing in other markets , instruments , or commodities then allocational problems would ensue . < fnote > see , , supra , no.21 , < /fnote> ibid , ; for example investors may choose to invest in Bills ( the closest available risk - free investment ) < /fnote> Insider dealing reduces market liquidity Market liquidity is a measure of how easily a security can be sold or bought without causing a significant price movement and with a minimal loss of value . Proponents of regulation argue that insider dealing would reduce liquidity , because market - makers would be affected by "" the cost of being damaged by an informed trader "" . This cost is transferred to the clients of the market - maker in the form of an increased spread and a decline in liquidity . The consequences of reduced liquidity are "" greater risk , greater costs to trading , lower returns to investors ... [ a less ] informationally efficient [ market and increased cost ] for financing investment "" . Clearly for this reason it is highly desirable to limit insider dealing as much as possible and protect market - makers and thereby investors from the low liquidity of assets . < fnote > Klock , , and , , pp . < /fnote> ibid < /fnote> The investor confidence argument < /heading > Totally unregulated practice of insider dealing would allow directors to make profits independently of the company making a profit or a loss . This would be a problem for shareholders and creditors , as directors could unilaterally decide their compensation and would possibly be "" indifferent between working to make the firm prosperous and working to make the firm bankrupt "" . If directors were perceived to do this then investor confidence would be undermined across the entire securities market and the cost of raising capital would increase for all companies . On the other hand , investors ' decisions "" to sell or purchase [ are ] unaffected by whether the insider is also secretly buying or selling shares on the open market [ therefore ] the investor is no worse off when the insider trades than when the insider does not trade "" . This shows that investors ' confidence should not be influenced . < fnote > for example by selling short a director would profit if the underlying value of the shares went down < /fnote> see , , supra , no.15 , pp.873 < /fnote> see , , supra , no.21 , < /fnote > Whilst this argument shows that investors ' confidence ought not to be undermined , it is generally accepted that "" the presence of [ regulatory ] laws is required if investor confidence in the integrity of the markets is to be preserved and promoted "" . The protection of investor confidence is vital for a strong and stable economy ; therefore efficient anti - insider dealing regulation is crucial . < fnote > see , Rider , supra , no.2 , pp.3 < /fnote> Inside information as a property right Proponents of insider dealing argue that inside information is a property right which belongs to the company and can be used to compensate directors . It is suggested that directors and stockholders would contract to engage in insider dealing because it would be to their mutual advantage . < fnote > see , , supra , no.21 , pp.642 < /fnote > If the opportunity to trade with inside information was left open to directors , it would encourage innovation and thereby greater efficiency and profit making . However , pro - regulators argue for practical and principled reasons , that this idea is unfeasible . < fnote > see , , supra , , pp.399 < /fnote > The practical difficulties include the impossibility for directors and stockholders to accurately quantify the good and harm done by insider dealing and thereby accurately assess the potential costs and benefits of their agreement . Furthermore , insider dealing is an unpredictable and dangerous reward for managers , as the opportunity may not often arise and the highly sensitive information would lose all value if leaked . < fnote > see , , supra , no.21 , pp.653 - 656 < /fnote > Principled objections include the possibility that the director will use shock news to cause the price of the shares to change as much as possible , which could include trying to make the company perform badly . It is apparent that the arguments against viewing inside information as a property right outweigh the potential benefits of increased innovation . < heading > Ethical arguments < /heading > Ethical considerations probably carry more weight than economic ones and are important to the underlying philosophy of regulation . contends that "" it is contrary to good business ethics that a man holding a position of trust in a company should use confidential information for his personal benefit [ and ] good business ethics should be supported and reinforced through legal sanctions "" . < fnote > Kay , M. , Justice Report on Insider Trading , , Modern Law Review 185 - 192 , pp . < /fnote > Good business ethics also have significant practical consequences . "" The 's position as a leading international financial centre depends on ... its reputation as a clean and fair place to do business "" . This reputation is derived from inter alia the enforcement of high ethical standards , which in turn ensures investor confidence in the market . The reputation of the markets is vital to the economy and its protection alone is enough to justify criminal sanctions for insider dealing . < fnote > see , Rider , supra , no.2 , pp.47 < /fnote > Regulation is also seen to have positive affects on other aspects of the market and "" the efficacy of anti - insider dealing regulation has ... become almost a litmus test for the efficacy and competence of the wider regulatory structure overseeing the markets and the conduct of business in the financial sector "" . < fnote > ibid , pp.3 < /fnote> PART TWO Having studied the economic and ethical arguments it seems clear that regulation is desirable and that insider dealing should entail criminal sanctions . It is now necessary to examine whether the law successfully deters and punishes insiders . < heading > The criminal law against insider dealing is unenforceable Insider dealing is widespread and extremely difficult to eradicate and the has a poor success rate for enforcing these offences . Although insider dealing was introduced as an offence in , it was not until that there were any convictions . This can most likely be explained by the fact that the prosecution is required to prove , "" to the high standard of the criminal law , a set of facts which in practice renders many cases incapable of prosecution "" . Furthermore , in many cases it would be impractical to try to discover all those who might have profited from inside information because it would be found that most of them acted on rumours from sources they could not identify . < fnote > ibid , pp.31 < /fnote> Mistry , , Battle of the Regulators : Is the system of securities regulation better provided for than that which operates in ? , , , pp.141 < /fnote> see , Rider , supra , < /fnote> ibid , pp.10 < /fnote> see , , supra , no.18 , pp.539 < /fnote > The enforcement of insider dealing regulation is also extremely expensive . In the case of , the insider was compelled to return the $ profit he made to the shareholders who owned small quantities of shares in various companies . The cost to the government in pursuing criminal and civil proceedings against substantially exceeded his relatively modest profit . This problem of expense is repeated in many insider dealing cases . < fnote > Chiarella v , 222 , 1980 < /fnote> see , , supra , no.18 , pp.539 < /fnote> Other legal measures used to regulate insider dealing To tackle the low conviction rate for insider dealing , ( FSMA ) was introduced . The is designed to both complement and fill gaps left by the , which did not provide a civil remedy for companies or unsuspecting outsiders . The also created the offence of market abuse . This offence is significantly broader than insider dealing , and can be committed by using information in investment activity , which is not publicly available . The Act also provided ( ) with new and extensive investigative and enforcement powers . < fnote > Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 , section ( 1 ) & ( ) < /fnote > The can impose civil sanctions , including a "" penalty of such amount as it considers appropriate "" and seek restitution in cases where privileged information is abused . The also has the power to seek injunctions against breaches of the insider dealing legislation . However , due to the continued inability of the to impose criminal sanctions on insider dealing , the civil remedies should extend further . < fnote > ibid , ( 1 ) < /fnote> ibid , section < /fnote> ibid , section < /fnote> Suggested further measures The should seek to follow some of inventive approaches towards insider dealing . has adopted an extremely pragmatic approach for dealing with insider dealing , by implementing ' consent decrees ' . This allows alleged insiders to pay a fine and promise not to undertake insider dealing again , without having to admit liability or wrongdoing . This is a highly effective mechanism , as it is both punitive and preventative without imparting any guilt . Financial savings are also made , as the alleged offender is likely to accept the punishment without the need for a complex and expensive court case . Moreover , the problem of establishing a set of facts to a criminal standard of proof is avoided . < fnote > see , Mistry , supra , no.40 , pp.140 < /fnote > A further helpful development of law would be to clarify and , if necessary , extend the scope of private civil actions . In the courts said that a contract could not be affected by insider dealing . However , the new legislation has changed from stating that the contract is "" not to be considered void or voidable "" to "" not to be considered void or unenforceable "" , there is debate as to whether this is still the valid law . If the law does still follow then the common law should be extended to allow private actions . In the courts extended the private rights of individuals to seek civil actions for offences such as insider dealing and this is one of the most successful ways of enforcing breaches under anti - fraud provisions . < fnote > v Goodman [ ] B.C.C. 308 < /fnote> Company Securities ( Insider Dealing ) Act section 8(3 ) < /fnote> Criminal Justice Act section 63(2 ) < /fnote> Kardon v [ ] 69 F.S. 512 < /fnote> Conclusion < /heading > Notwithstanding the debate over the economic affects and regardless of the lack of empirical evidence ; it seems clear , to protect investor confidence and the reputation of the markets , that insider dealing should remain a criminal offence . Criminal sanctions are a desirable preventative mechanism as they limit the incentive to abuse or manipulate the market for insider profits . However , criminal sanctions should only apply to those "" whose conduct is ' plainly morally reprehensible ' rather than [ for ] technical offences "" . < fnote , C. ( ed . ) , Book review : Essays on Insider Trading and Securities Regulation , , , pp.622 - 623 < /fnote > Civil remedies under the are the most valuable to regulate technical infringements . The legislature should consider increasing the powers of the as well as allowing private actions to increase the success rate of detecting and punishing insiders . A similar system to the ' consent decrees ' should be adopted . The overall aim should be to lower the costs of pursuing "" small fry "" whilst ensuring the "" big fish "" no longer get away .","< heading > Introduction Good corporate practices are vital for the confidence of investors and employees and indispensable to "" help ensure the longevity of the organisation "" . The centrality of corporations and corporate power in the modern world also profoundly influences the economy and society as a whole . In order to ensure that good corporate practices are implemented and maintained , it is vital to apply a steadfast system of corporate governance . < fnote > , , , , , , , ; see also : Shleifer , , , A survey of , , , , No.2 < /fnote> Definitions of corporate governance are not always consistent . Corporate governance is primarily understood to be the relationship within a company between the shareholders ( owners ) and the directors ( managers ) . More specifically it involves the means of the financiers of businesses gaining assurance of a return on their investment . Problems can arise where there is a significant separation between owners and managers , as shareholders are not in a position to prevent managerial excess , whether such excess results from incompetence , self - dealing or fraud . Corporate governance problems affect small family companies and large public companies alike , although public companies with dispersed shareholding suffer the most serious difficulties and are the focal point of much of the debate . < fnote > Keasey , , , S. , , M. , Corporate Governance : Economic , Management and Financial Issues , , , , pp.2 < /fnote> see : Parkinson , , G. , on Corporate Governance , ) The Political Quarterly 101 , pp.101 ; ? The , , and Structural Change in Corporate Governance , , , Vol . , No . , , pp.574 < /fnote> Shleifer , , , A survey of , , , , No.2 < /fnote> ibid , < /fnote > There is continued discussion as to how good corporate governance should be achieved and enforced . It is generally agreed that no single mechanism can provide the solution to the issues presented by a separation in ownership and control . In the corporate governance reforms have focused on the board of directors , in particular , the non - executive director and also on institutional investors . < fnote > ibid , pp.145 < /fnote> see : , , Director Compensation And , , , : management - dominated , passive boards of directors are cited as the most significant problem facing public companies < /fnote> Shareholders are able to appoint all of the members of the board of directors . However , the system still relies on non - executives as a controlling element . The articles of a company normally allocate extensive managerial powers to executive members of the board . Non - executives do not have these management capabilities and their responsibilities lie with general policy and strategy as well as the monitoring of executive directors . Monitoring is not intended to be a mere passive observation of the executives . Non - executives are entitled , and encouraged , to "" give executive directors a rigorous drilling "" where appropriate . < fnote > Esen , , Managing and monitoring : the dual role of non - executive directors on and boards , , and Commercial Law Review , ) , , pp.203 < /fnote> Re Continental Assurance Company of plc . [ ] WL 720239 , per , at para.29 < /fnote > The requirement to monitor executive management is reinforced by which requires non - executive directors to "" scrutinise the performance of management in meeting agreed goals and objectives and monitor the reporting of performance "" . The Combined Code specifies that "" the board , excluding the chairman , should comprise of non - executive directors "" . < fnote > The Combined Code on Corporate Governance , < /fnote> ibid , pp.3 < /fnote> ibid , section 1 , A.3.2 . ; this does not apply to smaller companies ( ie companies below the 350 throughout prior to ) who should have independent non - executive members < /fnote > There is no legislation in the area of corporate governance . The objectives of influential committees and resulting codes were to establish proposals which improve the relationship between owners and managers "" without recourse to heavy handed government intervention "" . is , therefore , not legally binding and there are no sanctions resulting from non - compliance . < fnote > The committees are : , chaired by Sir , set up in by , and the accountancy profession ; on Director 's Remuneration , chaired by Sir , set up on on the initiative of the ; , chaired by Sir , set up in on the initiative of the Chairman of < /fnote> Parkinson , , G. ( op.cit . ) , pp.101 < /fnote > require a public listed company to include details in its report and accounts statement of how it has applied the general principles of and state whether or not it has complied with the Code of Best Practice . In the case of non - compliance , an explanation must be provided . Listed companies are legally required to comply with . However , the only sanction for non - compliance with itself is the reaction of the market . This reaction can range from indifference to a dramatic drop in share price . A significant influence on the market reaction is institutional investors , who play a key role in corporate governance . < fnote > see : , Listing Rules , URL < /fnote> the Code of Best Practice forms part of see : , Listing Rules , Rule 12.43A < /fnote> Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 , section 91(1 ): "" contravene[tion of ] any provision of listing rules , it may [ result in ] a penalty of such amount as [ the ] considers appropriate "" < /fnote> Hannigan B. ( op.cit . ) , pp.150 < /fnote> ibid , pp.150 < /fnote> Mallin , , ( op.cit . ) , pp.80 < /fnote > Institutional investors are shareholders , mainly comprising of pension funds and insurance companies . These investors have significantly increased in numbers over . The combined share ownership of pension funds and insurance companies in the has more than doubled from in to in . Institutional investors have a strong interest in closely observing the corporate governance of companies , especially in light of the "" internationalisation of cross - boarder portfolios "" and in the wake of several financial crises in many parts of the globe . < fnote > ibid , pp.81 < /fnote> Office of , Share Ownership : A report on ownership of shares as at , , , URL < /fnote> Mallin , , ( op.cit ) , pp.80 < /fnote> see : infra ( , , and Parmalat ) < /fnote > This paper will examine the current form of corporate governance in as well as the efficacy of the current regulatory regime . < heading > Development and reforms < /heading > In spite of the importance of corporate governance , it has only relatively recently achieved prominence in the commercial sector . Various corporate collapses and financial scandals have provided the catalyst for this rise to prominence . illustrated the need for sufficient and effective internal controls ; underlined the importance of honest directors with integrity and the significance of retaining independent auditors ; demonstrated the dangers associated with limiting the involvement of shareholders in the running of a company ; and showed that a lack of independence of board members could have potentially disastrous effects on the company . < fnote > Keasey , , , S. , , M. , ( op.cit ) , pp.2 < /fnote> Mallin , , ( op.cit . ) , pp.266 < /fnote> In became bankrupt because of the insufficient internal controls on trading , trader , , amassed losses of < /fnote> Enron used special purpose entities to conceal large losses , in declared a recurring loss of and a right - off of shareholders funds < /fnote> In announced that it had overstated its earnings of its subsidiary by < /fnote> In Parmalat went into administration with debts estimated at after it transpired that supposed cash reserves were non - existent < /fnote > Following such high profile and catastrophic failings from company directors and internal systems , much of the recent development of corporate governance has been driven by the need to restore investor confidence in capital markets . In the current system in the non - executive directors play a critical role in assuring good corporate governance . < fnote > , , ( op.cit . ) , pp.42 < /fnote> The role of non - executive directors As well as monitoring the management , non - executives are required to be satisfied "" on the integrity of financial information and that financial controls and systems of risk management are robust and defensible "" . Appropriate levels of remuneration for executive directors are determined by their non - executive counterparts and non - executives also have an important role in appointing and removing executive directors . The non - executive directors are intended to consider the position of shareholders , and not to be sympathetic to the desires of executive colleagues . < fnote > The Combined Code on Corporate Governance , , pp.3 < /fnote> ibid < /fnote> Esen , , ( op.cit . ) , pp.203 < /fnote > Many directors , both executive and non - executive , see the role of non - executives as strategic rather than investigatory . In the past the non - executives have been accused of doing little more than rubber stamping managerial decisions . The existence of non - executive members on the board of directors provides no guarantee of effective monitoring and control of the management . < fnote , ( op.cit . ) , pp.145 ; , Modern Company Law for a Better Economy : Developing the Framework , 2000 , URN 00/656 , para < /fnote> Esen , , ( op.cit . ) , pp.204 < /fnote> The limitations on the enforcement of good corporate practice by non - executives The system of appointment requires that "" a majority of the nomination committee should be independent non - executive directors "" . However , there is no concrete guarantee that familiar associates of executive directors , who are unable exercise the impartiality required to properly uphold shareholders ' interests , will not be appointed . Management often favour chief executives who occupy a similar role in another company . As a result , these non - executives "" will not monitor any more diligently than they feel they should be monitored in running their own companies and will rarely risk loosing their jobs by questioning management 's decisions "" . < fnote > The Combined Code on Corporate Governance , , para A.4 < /fnote> Esen , , ( op.cit . ) , pp.204 < /fnote> Benfield , , Curing American Managerial Myopia : Can the German System of Corporate Governance Help , , of and Comparative Law Review , , pp.623 < /fnote > The degree of independence to be expected of a non - executive is a key issue . still mainly arise as a result of friendship or a previous business relationship with executive officers . Reservations have been expressed over the partiality of non - executive directors with existing personal ties . Non - executives can also hold several posts and it has been argued that , no matter how talented a director is , "" [ he ] ca n't be a good watchdog if [ he is ] only on patrol three times a year "" . < fnote , ( op.cit . ) , pp.151 < /fnote> ibid < /fnote> NACD , Corporate Governance Survey ( ) , cited in : Esen , , ( op.cit . ) , pp.205 < /fnote > Non - executives who are sympathetic to the views of management and are unlikely to challenge decisions are more prone to being selected and retained . The danger is that those selected will feel indebted to the executives for having chosen them and will be more inclined to accommodate management by unquestioningly accepting their actions . < fnote > Esen , , ( op.cit . ) , pp.204 < /fnote > Non - executives may find they lack the necessary information in order to correctly monitor the actions of managers . Often managers control the quality , timing and volume of information released to non - executives . As a result information reaching non - executives can be distorted , inaccurate or insufficient . The Combined Code attempts thwart this practice by providing that information should be released in a timely manner and be of such quality that non - executives are able to discharge their duties . < fnote > ibid < /fnote> see : Dent , G.W. , Jr. , The Revolution in Corporate Governance , , and the Director 's Duty of Care , , in , , and the Director 's Duty of Care , The ; < /fnote> The Combined Code on Corporate Governance , , para A.5 < /fnote > Resignation is a course of action often favoured by non - executives who oppose managerial decisions . The majority of non - executives have full time positions in other companies and therefore , would not be able to allocate the time necessary to oppose managerial decisions . Resignation seems to be a particularly inadequate method of exerting pressure on the management and is not a desirable means of ensuring good corporate governance . < fnote > Esen , , ( op.cit . ) , pp . < /fnote> Monitoring is expected to run throughout a non - executive 's term of office and not just in times of crisis . Nonetheless , the courts have expressed a reticence to impose too stringent a requirement on non - executives . It is felt , inter alia , that too high an expectation would result in no well - advised individual possibly agreeing to become a non - executive director . < fnote > Business Week , Lessons From Boardroom Dramas , , p. , cited in : Esen , , ( op.cit . ) , pp.203 < /fnote> Re Continental Assurance Company of plc . [ ] WL 720239 , per , at para.110 < /fnote> ibid < /fnote > In theory impartial members of the board who examine the workings of the company from an insider 's perspective are good enforcers of corporate governance . In reality non - executives are not always independent , have significant pressures on their time , are unlikely to be overly critical of the approach taken by management and lack the necessary influence to resist poor managerial decisions . < heading > The role of institutional investors Due to the size of institutional investors they have the ability to influence the actions of companies and these investors are seen as crucial to realizing good corporate governance . Institutional investors are expected to scrutinise company management on behalf of themselves and smaller shareholders . ) recommends that institutions monitor performance and satisfy themselves that the investee company 's board is effective . Institutional investors will normally consult reports published by the industry as well as undertake their own research to be sure that companies are complying with good governance recommendations . The ISC 's aim is to identify problems at an early stage to limit impact on shareholder value . < fnote > Keasey , , , S. , , M. , ( op.cit . ) , pp22 < /fnote> see : Combined Code 2006 , para D.1 ; ( op.cit . ) , ( op.cit . ) and ( op.cit . ) all clearly emphasised the roles of institutional investors < /fnote> Institutional Shareholders Committee , The responsibilities of institutional shareholders and agents - statement of principles , , pp.2 < /fnote> ibid , pp.3 < /fnote> Mallin , , ( op.cit . ) , pp84 < /fnote> Institutional Shareholders Committee , ( op.cit . ) , < /fnote > Institutional shareholders can show their dissatisfaction with management through an ' exit ' or ' voice ' framework . Normally institutional investors will seek to resolve any contentious issues with management through discussions . Abstention from voting on , or voting against , a particular issue is a further extension of the exercise of an institutional investor 's ' voice ' . The ISC recommends the use of dialogue , but does not preclude the sale of shares where this would be the most effective response to concerns . Institutional investors are also in a position to intervene where they feel that it is necessary to do so . Intervention can take several forms , including , public statements or calling extraordinary general meetings . < fnote > see : Hirschman , , , voice , and loyalty : responses to decline in firms , organizations , and states , , , , pp.4 < /fnote> Mallin , , ( op.cit . ) , < /fnote> Institutional Shareholders Committee , ( op.cit . ) , pp.3 < /fnote> Mallin , , ( op.cit . ) , < /fnote> The limitations on the enforcement of good corporate practice by institutional investors Asking institutional investors to monitor and control management on behalf of all shareholders in the firm can present fundamental problems . There are questions as to how willing or capable institutions are to actively govern corporations . It has been argued that "" institutions , at least on an individual basis , [ do not have the incentive ] to devote resources to active monitoring "" . This could be as a result of the fact that institutional shareholders are offered protection by the liquidity of the markets and can largely afford to be "" uninterested in all but the most substantial abuses "" . < fnote > Keasey , , , S. , , M. , ( op.cit . ) , pp.18 < /fnote> ibid < /fnote> ibid , < /fnote > Institutional shareholders invest money on behalf of their own clients . The interests of these clients do not necessarily run parallel to those of other shareholders or stakeholders in the business . Large institutional investors may actively seek preferential treatment over other shareholders . Where these investors own equity with superior voting rights they may seek to avoid paying out cash flows on a pro - rata basis and instead pay themselves special dividends . < fnote > ibid < /fnote> Clarke , T. ( ed ) , Corporate Governance : Critical Perspectives on , Volume , , , pp25 < /fnote> ibid , pp26 < /fnote > Problems of expropriation of smaller shareholders could be compounded where the institution is a different type of investor . For example , if the institutional investor is an equity holder it could use its position to compel the firm to take on risk , "" since [ the institutional investor ] shares in the upside while the other investors , who might be creditors , bear all the costs of failure "" . It can be argued that , "" while this governance structure may control managers , it leaves potential minority investors unprotected and hence unwilling to invest "" . < fnote > ibid , < /fnote> ibid , pp28 < /fnote> Takeovers as a mechanism for corporate , as well as evidence , suggests that hostile takeovers are an effective means of ensuring a company is well managed . Firms which are taken over are normally undervalued , which often reflects poor performance . Following acquisition , the new owner will typically remove the poorly functioning management . Takeovers have , therefore , been argued to be a crucial corporate governance mechanism . However , the significant cost of a takeover means that only companies with major performance failures are likely to be involved . < fnote > see : Scharfstein , , The Disciplinary Role of Takeovers , , , Vol . , No . , ; , , Takeovers : Their Causes and Consequences , , , Vol . , , < /fnote> see : , , , ( op.cit . ) < /fnote> Clarke , T. ( ed ) , ( op.cit ) , pp.23 < /fnote> Problems with the regulation of corporate governance < /heading > Many commentators believe that "" the current institutional restraints on managerial behaviour ... are simply inadequate to prevent corporate assets from being used in ways dictated by the managerial interest "" . suggested reason for this is the lack of sanctions behind the provisions of . At present , the only result of non - compliance will be the response of institutional shareholders and the market itself . Only in the most serious cases of managerial ineptitude or self - interest is there likely to be a reaction . < fnote > Keasey , , , S. , , M. , ( op.cit . ) , < /fnote > Arguably any meaningful market test is only likely to apply to small firms . The cost to a ' free ' market capitalist society of a large corporation going into administration is too great for the government to endure . The government loan which bailed out in provides a good example of certain companies being "" too large to fail "" . Therefore , the only realistic restraint on the management in large firms is the threat of hostile takeover . < fnote > Monks , , N. , Corporate Governance , Third Edition , 2004 , , , pp.39 < /fnote> ibid < /fnote > Takeovers , institutional investors and non - executive directors all appear to be mechanisms which will detect and react to cases of gross mismanagement but which do not look closely enough or are indifferent to less serious managerial excesses . < heading > Why are there no legal sanctions ? < /heading > The scandals of and , provoked immediate demands for legal change . However , using the law to regulate the financial industry "" is not always the panacea hoped for "" . Compromises built into the law , inadequate solutions or inadequate resources for policing may be factors preventing the law from exercising effective control . The fear is also that companies would be able to easily adapt to the law and use techniques such as creative accounting to circumvent new rules . < fnote > McBarnet , , After : corporate governance , creative compliance and the uses of corporate social responsibility , in : , J. , Governing the Corporation , , , , pp.213 < /fnote> ibid < /fnote > For this reason , principles , rather than specific rules , have been adopted as the most desirable means of regulating the ever adapting corporate sector . This will better serve to see the spirit of the law respected , rather than the use of techniques to thwart the actual letter of the law . < fnote > ibid < /fnote> ibid , pp.220 < /fnote> Conclusion < /heading > Corporate governance regulation is still in its infancy ; however , there is no doubt that it "" is an economic necessity , a political requirement and a moral imperative "" . The foundations of a reliable system have been laid and continued development of the roles of non - executives and institutional investors are the most desirable direction in which to proceed . < fnote > Charkham , : A study of corporate governance in countries , , , , as cited by : , , ( op.cit . ) , pp269 < /fnote > Internal regulation of the board through non - executives is a valuable objective . It is vital that non - executives exercise sufficient scrutiny and have sufficient independence to exert control over management . However , arguably , the most important restraint is that of institutional investors . There is an increased realisation and acceptance from institutional investors that the enforcement of good corporate practice is their role . Successful regulation in this area relies on institutional investors continuing to embrace this role and to supplement the work of non - executives through carefully monitoring , and , where necessary , applying pressure on management on behalf of all other shareholders . < fnote > see : Hermes Corporate Governance Principles , < /fnote > Companies are increasingly acceptant of and the Code of Best Practice . This acceptance , coupled with the willingness of institutional investors to control management , means that there is no need for prescriptive and inflexible laws . As institutional investors continue to increasingly adapt to their role , monitoring and pressure on the board will increase , and better corporate governance practices will result . It is vital to avoid the repetition of past damaging financial scandals . Should the current system fail to sufficiently regulate excessive managements , legal regulation should be considered . Meanwhile , the system should be subjected to continued review and institutional shareholders and the market itself should be encouraged to participate as much as possible .",1 "< heading>1 . Introduction The ' Experiencing the ' field course took place during of th - 29 th . It was based at field studies centre at , : < figure/>The 's activities included : < list > Launching several radiosondes and plotting their ascents on tephigrams . Taking part in instrumented walks in the surrounding area throughout the period ( maps are shown in Appendix 2).Monitoring both synoptic charts and satellite dataAnalysing data from a fixed observing station at and a meteorological mast at . Using all of this data to produce presentations and forecasts for the period Please note that there is also some automatically recorded data in preceding the period from the mast at . < heading>2 . Aims This report aims to both describe and explain the observed weather during the period th to th . It should link together observations from different sources to provide a coherent picture of the weather 's evolution during this time . < heading>3 . Analysis of ( UTC ) < /heading>3.1 . General situation and surface observations The weather on th started out calm and dry , as the country was sitting in a ridge of high pressure ( figure 1 A1 ) . However , by a rain shower was recorded at . This was possibly caused by an occluded front which may have moved across the ( In figure , , the front is stretched between and ) . Evidence for the rain is seen as a negative spike in potential gradient ( figure ) and a rise in relative humidity ( figure , ) . Initially on , there was a warm moist air mass over with associated mild temperatures and high relative humidities ( ) . A tephigram launch at 0845UTC showed a layer of dry air at approximately 900 hPa , which corresponds to early observations of a high cloud base which fell as progressed ( due to water vapour falling into the dry layer until it became more saturated ) . As there was no synoptic change in pressure over the , this provided an ideal time in which to look at the relationship between atmospheric pressure and height . The results are shown in figure . If the relationship is given by FORMULA , where FORMULA , then the scale height was found from the curve fit to be 7492 m. There may be substantial error in this however as the equipment may not have been properly calibrated . At approximately 1400UTC , a weak warm front passed over the region , bringing in exceptionally warm moist air ( figure ) . As the air was already warm and moist , the front was too weak to cause precipitation . However , the relative humidity increased enough for fog to be recorded on of the instrumented walks ( ) . The walk data also shows a drop in temperature and a peak in the wind speed at 1400UTC . However , geographical location needs to be taken into account , the measurement was made on an exposed ridge at the highest elevation during the walk whilst the 1300UTC and 1500UTC measurements were made in more sheltered locations . Therefore it is more likely that local effects caused the readings rather than mesoscale events . However , the data at and also support the theory that a front passed at 1400UTC . A comparison of and dry bulb temperatures for this time is given in figure ( ) . The correlation between the measurements shows that the variations in temperature must be mesoscale in origin and can not be down to local effects . Note , the temperatures at are damped compared to those at due to close proximity to the sea . The sea has a greater specific heat than land and therefore heats and cools more slowly . The relative humidity also increased at both and ; this would be expected if a warm front passed through the region ( figure , and figure , AD ) . The potential gradient shows the passage of the front clearly ( figure , ) . It shows a classic fog profile , which corresponds to the observations on the instrumented walks : < figure/>The solar flux also decreased sharply at 1400UTC , which could signify thick low cloud or fog ( figure , ) . Finally , the pressure was at a minimum at approximately 1400UTC ( figure , AD ) . < heading>3.2 Radiosonde Launches A radiosonde launched at on Saturday th shows a thick layer of high ice cloud , with a cloud base of hPa . This corresponds to satellite pictures for in which a layer of cirrus can be seen following the jet stream ( figure , AF ) . This also corresponds to observations made on instrumented walks . There is a thick layer of cloud extending to the ground that corresponds to the fog reported by the other sources of data . In addition , the warm front can be seen in the tephigram , as seen in the figure below : < figure/>After the front had passed , the region was in an exceptionally warm and moist air mass , which can be seen by the high relative humidity measurements in figure and figure AD . < heading>3.3 . Weather phenomena : The polar jet stream. This can be observed as a striking feature in the satellite images for ( figure , AF ) . Cirrus clouds are carried along by the jet stream , so a defined edge is seen in the cirrus at the edges of the stream . The strength of the jet stream can be seen in the hPa geopotential and pressure charts . Earlier on in , the jet stream was weak due to the large depression over the ( figure , AF ) . However , by the jet had significantly increased in strength and caused the edge to the cirrus ( figure , AF ) . < heading>4 . Analysis of the evening of Saturday ( 1800UTC on on 29/10/06) During of , a cold front passed over the region . This is the more northerly front lying across the coast in figure ( A1 ) . It is a trailing cold front from a developed cyclone , which moved in from the West during . The passage of the front was observed as a sharp dip followed by a rise in pressure , recorded at 0230UTC at observatory ( figure , AD ) . The temperature also started to fall at approximately this time , suggesting a cooler air mass may have moved into the region ( figure , AD ) . of rain also fell at although the time is unknown . This is unlikely to be a local effect as rain was recorded at between 0000 and 0600UTC . A sharp change in wind direction was recorded at at approximately 0230UTC ( figure AC ) , this is consistent with the passage of a cold front . There is also a sharp dip in the potential gradient at this time ( figure , ) . However as rain drops are negatively charged , the potential gradient should have dropped below if it had rained at . Therefore this is an indication that it might have been a weak front or that it did n't rain at . < heading>5 . Analysis of ( 0600UTC - 1800UTC)5.1 . General Situation < /heading > By th the cold front had passed over , leaving the region in a cooler air mass . This can be seen in the charts for ( figure , ) and for 0000UTC th ( figure , ) . Note , figure is a forecast pressure and thickness chart while the other figures shown are analysis charts . A large anticyclone can also be seen building over the entire region . This is associated with a stable air mass undergoing large scale sinking , which generally produces fine settled weather . The system is also causing the front to pivot clockwise off a point over rather than following a conventional path . < heading>5.2 . Surface Observations The situation is validated by the walk data , as seen in table 2 ( A2 ) . The pressure had risen noticeably since ( seen in figure ( A2 ) ) as would be expected in an anticyclone . Note , this pressure was measured with a digital watch , so the readings may not be as accurate as with specialist equipment . There are also errors in the altitude estimates used to calculate mean sea level pressure . The wind had also changed direction from to and its maximum speed during was 3kt . This may be explained by the wind being drawn around the centre of the high pressure area over the , which would produce slack northerly winds ( figure , ) . Note , local effects could have affected wind measurements as some readings were taken in more sheltered areas than others . The temperature was comparable to 's measurements even though the region was in the cooler air mass behind the cold front . This is because there was much less cloud so more solar radiation could reach the surface . There was some stratus cloud reported , but this was at a higher level ; cloud temperatures were approximately 8 oC compared to oC on 's walk . A layer of cirrostratus was also reported , as a halo was seen around the sun . The visibility had increased to over as could be seen , an indication that the air mass originated over the ocean . < heading>5.3 . Radiosonde launches radiosondes were launched on th at 0930UTC and . The tephigrams for the launch can be seen in figure ( AE ) . This shows a layer cirrus cloud above approximately 400 hPa ( ft ) but little lower cloud , corresponding well with the discussed observations . The profile is also exceptionally stable which would be expected in an anticyclone . As can be seen in the analysis charts for ( figures and 5 , ) , the cold front which passed through the region is almost stationary over the channel and by 0000UTC th , has been suppressed completely . As cold fronts slope backwards with height , the front can be seen on figure as the sonde passed through the air masses : A closer view of the tephigram is shown below , compared to showing a typical cold front : < figure/>More quantitatively , the front can be seen in figure by a jump in wet bulb potential temperature . This occurred between hPa and hPa , suggesting the sonde rose into a different air mass at this point ( figure ) . The profile for an anticyclone is one of stable large scale sinking . As the atmosphere would sink approximately adiabatically , the mixing ratio is conserved and a tephigram profile would get ' drier ' as an anticyclone developed , producing a subsidence inversion . This effect can be seen if the 's launches are compared ( figure , AE ) . This is not an ideal comparison , as the sondes were launched apart . For the effect to be clearly seen , a sonde would also have to have been launched . The relative humidity measured by the met mast also started to drop on ( figure , ) . < heading>6 . Summary Saturday was characterised with warm moist air that was advected from . This caused mild temperatures , high relative humidities and low visibilities . A warm front passed through the area at approximately 1400UTC . The polar jet stream was also strong and characterised by distinctive high level cirrus formations . had much clearer stable conditions due to an anticyclone building over and a cold front passing through the region . This led to reduced cloud and excellent visibilities . The front stayed over the English Channel before eventually becoming suppressed by the anticyclone .","< heading>1 . < /heading > See code < heading>2 . < /heading > Test A : Set = for all x. The solution is as expected . Test B : Set the initial condition to the square wave and check the solution after 0 time steps . This showed the square wave as expected . Test C : If FORMULA and FORMULA from the lab script where D is the total distance travelled and is the number of time steps , then FORMULA If the x domain is m with grid points and the velocity u is 1ms -1 , then it should take the model time steps to complete cycle ( i.e. because of periodic boundary conditions the solution should be in exactly the same place on the grid as before ) . The solution completed cycle at and 800 time steps as expected . Test D : From the formula above , if the velocity changed then this should n't affect the distance travelled per time step . When u was 2ms -1 , the model still completed cycle in time steps as expected . Test E : Set N to be a negative number . The program returns no values as expected ( it should n't work for a negative number of grid points ! ) . Test F : Set the velocity to be negative . This again should n't affect the direction travelled or the distance travelled per time step . The solution propagates ' forward ' as expected . < heading>3 . < /heading > See graph 1 < heading>4 . < /heading > A : The numerical model is moving more slowly than the theoretical model . This is expected because the numerical phase speed is always underestimated compared to the real speed for the scheme . The more time steps the model is run for , the more the numerical solution ' lags behind ' the theoretical solution ( this can observed in the results from runs for , and time steps ) . B : There are also oscillations in the numerical solution in the space following the initial function i.e. on the left hand side of the function on the graph . These are due to the computational mode of the numerical solution , introduced through truncation and round - off errors at each time step and because the scheme is designed to conserve . The amplitude of these oscillations increases for increasing time step as expected . The oscillations are also lagging behind the initial function , as numerical speed is dependant on wave number . Therefore , different components of the solution travel at different speeds , so waves with a shorter wavelength ( i.e. the computational mode ) travel more slowly . This is known as a diffusion error . C : The amplitude of the numerical solution is greater than the theoretical one for the leading edge of the initial function ( this can be seen at x=0.95 for time steps ) < heading>5 . < /heading > The numerical solution is unphysical if represents the concentration of a dye as it has some negative values in the oscillation following the initial function ( i.e. you ca n't have a negative concentration ) < heading>6 . < /heading > This error could cause problems for any physical quantity in a climate model . For example modelling a temperature field , or the concentration of a green house gas such as CO 2 or Ozone . Simply underestimating either of these would prove bad for a climate model , as well as the model proving unphysical if they went negative . < heading>7 . < /heading > The numerical solution to the scheme is unstable if the courant number is less than 1 . The courant number is the fraction of a grid point travelled in time step : FORMULA . If FORMULA , then c = . Therefore the numerical solution is oscillating and unstable ( amplitudes had increased to ~50000 by time steps ) . < heading>8 . < /heading > See graphs < heading>9 . < /heading > If the smooth initial function was split into it 's components , it is only made of a few sine waves of relatively long wavelength compared to the grid size . However , a square wave is made of a large amount of Fourier terms , many of which have a small wavelength . As numerical speed is dependant on wave number , these move more slowly than the long wavelengths . Therefore there are many more slow moving oscillations for the square wave than for the smooth function . < heading>10 . < /heading > See graphs < heading>11 . < /heading > The errors are principally associated with the computational mode as the solution begins to oscillate in sign with time step . This is because of the - 1 n in the general solution : FORMULA The st term is the physical mode and the term is the computational mode . The equation also shows that the computational mode also propagates in the opposite direction to the function . However , as the graphs are time step apart , movement is hard to distinguish . The solution needs to conserve ( mass ) , so there is also a wave formed upstream due to the negative in the computational mode . < heading>12 . < /heading > The function was expected to move as before , but with its amplitude would be reduced exponentially with increasing time ( i.e. the solution was being damped ) . The theoretical solution looks like FORMULA For small timescales , the numerical solution follows the theoretical solution closely . However , as the time approaches ( time steps ) , the amplitude of the numerical oscillation increases compared to the theoretical solution and short wave oscillations are seen . See extra graph for clarity . < heading>13 . < /heading > Oscillations can be seen because the amplitude of the computational mode has increased to greater than the physical mode . The physical mode is decreasing with time , but the computational mode is increasing with time . time steps ( or 0.5s ) is approximately the time it takes for the amplitude of the computational mode to be of the same order of magnitude as the physical mode . < heading>14 . < /heading > You could make the scheme implicit ( i.e. put in FORMULA on both sides of the equation ) . For example FORMULA I 'm not sure if this would model the same thing though .",1 "< heading > Introduction There are many factors that affect the geometries of transition metal complexes , including thes relative energies of the metal 's d orbitals , the number of d electrons the metal has , the oxidation state of the metal and the size of both the ligands and the metal . In this experiment , d 8 first row transition metal complexes will be synthesised and their structures determined from their infrared spectra and magnetic properties . < heading > Experimental1 . Synthesis of g of Cobalt chloride hexahydrate was dissolved in of ethanol , in a 250mL 2 - necked round bottom flask , fitted with a nitrogen inlet . g of tripheylphosphine was added to the bright blue solution . The flask was flushed with nitrogen , and heated in an oil bath to C. The solution was stirred magnetically , while a nitrogen atmosphere was maintained and the temperature remained 40C. A solution of g of sodium borohydride in of ethanol was added to the round bottomed flask , causing the solution to gradually turn from dark turquoise through to brown/ black in colour and small bubbles of gas were evolved . The solution was stirred for a further after the addition , then the fine brown crystals were filtered off on a glass sinter with suction . The crystals were washed with 30mL portions of ethanol , then 20mL portions of water , followed by a further 20mL portions of ethanol . The crystals were dried in a vacuum dessicator for before the yield and melting point were determined . Figure shows the spectrum of the product , the magnetic susceptibility of the complex is shown in table . FORMULA < heading>2 . Synthesis of of ethanol was placed in a round bottom flask , g of triphenyphosphine and g of nickel ( II ) chloride hexahydrate was added to it . anti - bumping granules were also placed in the flask and the solution was refluxed in an oil bath for . The apparatus was then set to downward distillation and of ethanol was distilled off . The black crystals were filtered off on a small sintered glass filter with suction and washed with of ethanol , and 15mL diethylether . Once the crystals were dry the melting point and magnetic properties were determined ( table ) and the spectrum of the compound was obtained ( Figure ) . FORMULA < heading>3 . Synthesis of g of nickel ( II ) nitrate hexahydrate was dissolved in of ethanol in a round bottomed flask . g of finely ground sodium thiocyanate and anti bumping granules were added to this . The mixture was refluxed for on and oil bath . The mixture was then cooled on ice , and the sides of the vessel were scratched with a glass rod to encourage crystalisation of sodium nitrate . The crystals of sodium nitrate were filtered off through a sintered glass crucible . g of triphenylphosphine was dissolved in of propan-2 - ol in a round bottomed flask , by heating with anti - bumping granules with a reflux condenser attatched . The filtrate of nickelthiocyanate , from the previous part of this experiment was heated on a hot plate , and slowly added to the triphenylphosphine through the tom of the condenser . This caused the colourless solution to turn a vibrant red colour . The flask was then removed from the oil bath and cooled in an ice bath , forming red crystals . These crystals were then filtered off on a small sintered glass filter with suction , washed with of ethanol , then 15mL of diethylether , and dried on the filter . The spectrum of the product was obtained ( figure ) , its magnetic susceptibility was determined ( table ) and its melting point was found to be Table 1 : summarises the magnetic properties of the complexes synthesised in this experiment . X g is mass susceptibility of the complex , given by the formula : FORMULA where l is the length of the sample in sample tube , C is the calibration constant ( ) R is the reading from the evans balance , R 0 is the reading for the empty sample tube and m is the mass of sample analysed . m is the molar magnetic susceptibility which is calculated by multiplying g by the molar mass ( M r ) of the complex in question . A is the molar magnetic susceptibility for the complex , which has been corrected for the diamagnetism of the components of the complex . The corrections used are : -6 for the metal ions , -6 for ( PPh ) , -6 for Cl- and x10 -6 for ( ) . < table/> Discussion There are possible co - ordinations for co - ordinate complexes : square planar and tetrahedral . The crystal field splitting diagrams for these geometries are shown below filled with d electrons as in the complexes in this experiment : < figure/>
As these diagrams show , the square planar geometry is often more favourable for d complexes , because all the electrons may be paired up in low energy orbitals , leaving the highest energy orbital unoccupied . However , the terahedral geometry is sterically much more favourable , because the bond angle in this case is , compared with for the square planar geometry . Steric factors are much more important when considering row transition metals , because the metals are much smaller , so the repulsion between the electrons in metal - ligand bonds will be increased . This means that bulky ligands will usually force the complex to adopt a tetrahedral geometry . The energy difference between the e and t set of orbitals in the tetrahedral geometry ( T ) also affects the geometry of the complex , sine the crystal field stabilisation energy ( ) of the complex depends on this ( = - 0.8 T ) . The magnitude of T is affected by the oxidation state of the metal : a greater oxidation state pulls the ligands closer to the metal , increasing the splitting effects ; and the field strength of the ligand : stronger field ligands such as ( PPh ) and ( ) increase the splitting . The magnetic moments of the complexes synthesised in this experiment ( see in table ) indicate that and 2(PPh 3)2 contain unpaired electrons , and is paramagnetic . This means that CoCl(PPh 3)3 and 2(PPh adopt a tetrahedral geometry , while Ni(NCS)2(PPh exists in a square planar arrangement . From this it is clear that steric factors out weigh the benefits of the low energy square planar configuration in the case of and 2(PPh complexes . Conversely the Ni(NCS)2(PPh 3)3 complex contains relatively strong field ligands , which increase the size of T making the tetrahedral configuration even more energetically unfavourable than the square planar complex . Geometric and linkage isomerism are possible for this complex : The co - ordination of the ( ) ligand can be determined with the infrared spectrum of this complex ( figure ) . If the ligand co - ordinates to the metal atom via the sulphur atom , the stretching of the bond appears at cm -1 in the spectrum , and the bond absorbs at approximately 2100 cm -1 . If the ligand co - ordinates to the metal via the nitrogen atom , however , these stretching frequencies are different ; -1 for the bond , and approximately cm -1 for the bond . In figure the absorbances at and -1 are most likely to correspond to the and CN bond stretches in the ligand , which are closest to the values quoted for bond stretches where the ligand bonds through the sulphur atom . As there are absorption bands for each of these bonds , I expect that the complex adbots a trans geometry . This is because on the asymmetric stretch for a trans complex will cause a change in the dipole moment , so only one absorption will be observed . For a cis complex , both the symmetric and asymmetric stretches of the metal - ligand bond will cause a change in the dipole moment , resulting in absorbtion bands around this region of the spectrum . This is consistent with steric arguments , as the cis complex would place the large ( PPh ) ligands next to each other with an angle between them of . This means that the Ni(NCS)2(PPh complex exists as structure shown above .","Born , the enigmatic figure that most people know as is one of the most influential writers to ever provoke and open up the debate between systems of power and the extent to which they maintain or could potentially maintain control and direct influence over its subordinates . believed that the most important and effective tool in upholding social order is through the regulation of language . novels that encapsulate the fears of how a totalitarian society can use language as a method of control over the people within it are his last works , and Nineteen Eighty - Four . These novels , in which established his popularity and reputation , provoked divided opinions , radical ideas and cultural unease at a time when many people were filled with anxieties and uncertainties about how authorities would govern their countries after . After the allegorical reflection of tyrannical rule over which was witnessed in , further attacked the idea of totalitarian authorities in , by portraying a world just thirty six years into the future where advanced technology gives absolute political authority to those in charge . historical relevance gave a sense of realism and plausibility , with his aim to convince his readers that a conscious objective approach to the use and especially observation of language was needed to avoid the type of social degradation that was suffered in under 's reign . < fnote > Orwell , G. Animal Farm . : . < /fnote> Orwell , G. Nineteen Eighty - Four . 1967 : . < /fnote > One of the ways in which articulates the relationship between language and power is through psychological manipulation . incidences in that display the subtle manipulation used by , who is the 's characterisation of , are firstly , where the dogs show that is not welcome on the farm , and , when 's propaganda agent , , delivers of his many responses to oppositional stances taken to the changing of the farm 's original commandments : < quote > ' at the word ' Snowball ' all the dogs let out blood - curdling growls and showed their side teeth' And < quote > ' You would not have us too tired to carry out our duties ? Surely none of you wishes to see Jones back?' P60 , Orwell , G. Animal Farm . : < /fnote > The quote highlights 's technique of manipulation through creating a negative feeling towards the notion of an ' other ' , who in this particular scene takes the form of an exiled farm member named ' Snowball ' . Snowball is the novel 's interpretation of ex - Soviet Union co - founder , and is continually blamed throughout the progression of 's domination of the farm for every thing that goes wrong . Not only does this prevent the animals from doubting the pigs ' abilities , but it also unites the farm against a common enemy , which before the revolution was the owner of the farm but now has taken the form of Snowball . This manipulation is extended further with the dogs ' ' blood - curdling growls ' and the display of their ' side teeth ' . The combination of this subliminally anchoring verbal and non - verbal language is an example of control through intimidation . Snowball 's ideas ran contrary to , and therefore were seen as a threat to the power structure that the pigs were beginning to form . The threat of the growls and teeth are not direct , but assist to subtly instil into the minds of the animals the way they should feel towards . The Quotation represents 's implications that the lies of propaganda were essential in 's rise to power as he goes about breaking each of the commandments . Tyrannies are maintained through the means of lies , persuasion and subtle manipulations of the truth and the constant threat of having ' back ' is a cunning way of manipulating the animals into associating the changes that being made to the with beneficial purposes , even though the less civilized animals do not fully understand the point that tries to make . The novel points to a natural human tendency towards class divide , a need for the separation between intellectual and physical workers and whereas clearly shows how it is achieved on behalf of the capitalist pigs , it is noticeable that not only are the animals in a poor position to be informed otherwise , but are especially gullible and carry out hard work without question most of the time . The relation between physical labour and naïveté is important because if the animals are drained of energy physically , the pigs soon discover they are more likely to be mentally drained and as such will not make the effort to consciously observe language and therefore oppose any drastic changes to their ideologies basic principles . They are instead forced to rely on their basic thought processes and their intellectually limited minds are therefore susceptible to unconscious registrations of the associations and meanings deviously uses in his language . Another way in which exhibits the relation between power and language is through the control of information and history . The following quotation is taken from , as the protagonist of the novel , , contemplates how the control of language can lead to the control of thought : < quote > ' All that was needed was an unending series of victories over your own memory . ' Reality control ' , they called it : in , ' double - think ' < /quote> p31 , Eighty - Four . 1967 : . < /fnote>'Double - think ' is the ability to withhold conflicting pieces of information in your head . This was a concept that the controlling party in took full advantage of by continually feeding its citizens minds with information , either propaganda about current facts and figures , or lies about historical incidents . Like all modernist writers , hinted at the booming scientific movement as an extension of the government that was attempting to create a sense of ' reality ' in the minds of its population . Just as the bible explains how things were are now , wishes to represent how people 's perceptions can be shaped and controlled through the perversion and corruption of language by the gradual replacement of historical truths with the party 's own fabricated information . As a person 's memory of what really happened in the past is slowly repressed into their unconscious , the subtle implementation of new information passes unnoticed into people 's minds so that not only are they oblivious to the exchange of information that has occurred , but they now believe this fresh information to be true , therefore shaping that person 's perception of reality , hence 's phrase ' Reality control ' . It is an ingenious method of maintaining the status quo and ceasing any thoughts of opposing the party , because a person would only find the state of affairs unacceptable if they had some kind of memory that things had been different at some point in time to compare it with . ' Newspeak ' was a concept that invented as a further warning to his readers that if they did not have control of what they say , they will not have control of what they think . The depletion of multiple meanings in words would lead to a reduction in the range of conscious thought once used to think of such meanings until there will be no way to express opposition to the party because the concept of it , let alone the meaning , will be eradicated from the memory . From the concepts of control described above , it is possible to see another system of control that the party establishes in : the idealisms of conformity and orthodoxy through the consistent monitoring of people 's language . The way that totalitarian regimes accomplish a state of orthodoxy in their people , at least the citizens of Eighty - Four , is to create a feeling of disdain towards those that whose use of language is unorthodox in comparison everyone else . The following quotation , which is taken from 's conscious ' unorthodox ' thoughts , describe the ways in which the party is extending its reign of power by teaching children to detect unorthodox language use in adults : < quote > ' All their ferocity was turned outwards , against foreigners , traitors , saboteurs , thought - criminals . It was almost normal for people over thirty to be frightened of their own children ' < /quote> P23 , , G. Nineteen Eighty - Four . 1967 : . < /fnote > The tyrannical party 's use of ' junior spies ' to monitor adults language is a necessary extension of their power for them because , until newspeak is completed in , there is still a potential for unorthodox language use which may express opposition to the party as previously suggested in . Also similar to is the use of psychological manipulation through the use of ' double - think ' , as people who are already under surveillance from numerous ' telescreens ' and hidden microphones , and now even have to be ' frightened of their own children ' , would be forced to keep their unorthodox thoughts constantly suppressed from their conscious minds should they be tempted to speak out against , and be heard by the party or its extended observers . Yet what is striking about the way that the party moulds its citizens into instruments of its power is the manner of how it is achieved , and its blatant disregard for human compassion . The above quotation highlights this method as an example of a cruel , deceitful and sadly inventive conduct of human lives ; the party has raised its inhabitants to posses an unquestioned and focused hatred on everything different from what they know as normal . ' Foreigners ' are looked upon in the same manner as ' thought criminals ' because they all pose the same threat to , not the children themselves , but the party . They all carry the risk of disrupting the status quo of which the party has built its ideals around . The party requires certain level of hatred towards ' others ' so that it can release the emotion and passion that every human being possesses in a manner that benefits the party . It needs to release this emotion to keep people 's emotion and passion released , but focused on external factors , and not internal elements such as the party or its methods . This , combined with the re - writing of history as mentioned previously , allows the party to run their government as they please without ever being questioned . The deceitful aspect of this way of treating people is a very simple one , if the party members recognise and have a deep level of understanding of how to corrupt and distort language to the point that they gain absolute and unquestioned power , such as in the method described above , then the members of the party themselves must have a conscious and compassionate level of understanding of human behaviour in order to achieve this . The cruel fact that they allow the majority of the population to become devoid of any real human emotion to become merely instruments of their power is the point wishes to express : As the use of language becomes increasingly more intertwined with the uses of modern , totalitarian instruments of control such as technology and science , we as human beings must keep a conscious , objective approach to the use of language to prevent us from becoming slaves to systems of power , devoid of conscious and a sense of objective reality . Now we have seen how a system of power can use suppressed emotions in an external manner to their benefit , we will now look at how those in command maintain human beings as instruments of control whilst still catering for the other important emotional need , pleasure . Of course , a system of power would not be so compassionate as to waste the time and effort required to do this without putting this to process to beneficial purposes . of the ways of achieving this pleasure outlet by using language is the reciting of the poem ' Comrade Napoleon ' in , which aims to solidify the conformist behaviour of the animals by attempting to discourage individuality and promoting an advance towards a collective mind state : < quote > ' Oh , how my soul is on when I gaze at thy and commanding eye , Like the sun in the sky' P80 , Orwell , G. Animal Farm . : . < /fnote > And < quote > ' Napoleon approved of this poem and caused it to be inscribed on the wall of the big barn , at the opposite end from , , G. Animal Farm . : . < /fnote > The poem ' Comrade Napoleon ' is similar to the elements of pleasure outlets on the farm that do not use language such as parades and military awards in that it serves as propaganda . This is because , firstly , the continual and gradually unconscious reciting of the poem means that the subject matter will eventually strengthen the sense of loyalty that the animals feel towards their ruler , and it will consolidate the mood , atmosphere and general feeling of the farm . In this way , the pigs have successfully provided a pleasure outlet for the animals whilst concurrently instilling the subject matter in the language used into the minds of the animals as they recite the poem . This advantages , devious use of language consequently increasing the influence of their power and strengthens the command of the pig 's reign . A key use of the language of songs and poems when they are recited as a whole is the transference of the animal 's mental process from internal to external . The society of the farm , just like the civilization of city life in , increasingly becomes an extension of people 's mental life . The pigs , similar to the party in , seek to achieve a unified sense of self within its subordinates , one that is unconscious and therefore easier for the conscious , intellectual pigs to control and command . Just as the majority of modernist writers tended to focus on the inner conflicts of their character 's mental states , describes similar processes in terms of external events . What suggests in and Nineteen Eight Four is that if language is the principle tool in the evolution of the human mind , language use requires a focused , conscious effort , which the pigs are able achieve . The other animals , due to their restricted levels of intellectual development , see through the perspective of what a civilized person would refer to as their unconscious mind , the natural , primitive and potentially overwhelming mental state . Hence , in external terms , if the animals realized that they themselves were being oppressed , they possess the physical potential to overpower the pigs , which is why the pigs use language to control them to such an extent . Modernist writers continually infer that a unified sense of self is ' unnatural ' in a civilised person , a trait that has also been linked to large social formations such as cities and large social groups . Therefore 's vision seems to indicate that , because of society 's processes reflecting that of the human mind , there must be a conscious and dominating force in society that controls the majority of unconscious processes in order for that society to function correctly , and that language , being the key tool of civilization , is the means in which to achieve this control . Nevertheless , as shown in these novels that show both humans and animals in power , language is inevitably corrupted by anyone that comes into power in order to suppress the potential overwhelming forces of the lower classes and subordinates . If most modernist writers consider the search for the internally unified self a myth , with the transition from internal to external processes in mind it seems as though is pointing towards the notion that the attempt at creating a collective whole from a group of individuals through the use of language is not only corrupt , but also highly unnatural . Because tended to focus on political rather than internal conflicts , he was not considered to be a modernist writer in the true sense . However , the external conflicts of his novels closely reflect theories of the internal conflicts of the human mind that greatly influenced the period in which these novels were written . In and Nineteen Eighty - Four , warns his readers that systems of power can and inevitably will use the civilizing tool of language to control the people that they rule over . The extent to which this is shown in the novels is not as improbable as it may seem , since already we have seen how systems of power can corrupt language to the point of psychological manipulation , misleading information , prejudice against others and propaganda to make lower orders praise those in control . These methods of language perversion exist just as they existed when the novels were written . Orwell did not write to prophesise the future , his works simply served as a reminder of how language has been put to corrupt use in the past , as was witnessed in , and the possible ways , though in an exaggerated manner , this corruption may occur in the future , as witnessed in . In both novels , suggests that every system of power will inevitably abuse the use of language as mechanisms of control , but what is changeable and important is the need for people outside the circle of power to keep conscious , objective approach to the use of language . If people can accomplish this , systems of power will never have the opportunity to take complete control and command of language and therefore their minds .",0 "< list> Introduction Buckling has become more of a problem in since the use of high strength material requires less material for load support structures and components have become generally more slender and buckle- prone . This trend has continued throughout technological history . When built bridges columns and buckling phenomena was n't understood , typical bridge designs of that earer had many tiers to the design to overcome the problem of buckling . Technological improvements over became apparent as slender columns began to appear in designs . In modern structures the use of slender columns is ever more apparent due the cost saving involved in using less material to deliver the same structural strength . A good example of the use of slender columns in the road bridge , opened in , comprising of a continuously welded closed box road deck suspended from catenary cables supported on reinforced concrete towers . Suspension bridges eliminate the need for struts other than the towers . < picture/>The aim of this report is to investigate the design of columns , and determine whether the equation can be use to predict the performance of column design . Columns are long slender members subjected to an axial compressive force . Lateral deflection on a column is called buckling . This report compares the results obtained using the equation with those found by practical testing methods . < heading > Procedure The test equipment used in this laboratory can be seen in the list below < list > Testometric 50KN tensile test machineSample slender rods to be tested < /list > For a full listing of the procedure followed for the testing of the slender rods refer to 1 in shows what diameter and length rods were used during the tests . Figure shows how the samples were secured in the tensile test machine . The rods dropped into hole in the machine mounting blocks . The distance between the blocks was the gauge length which was the length value used to calculate the results . The rods when held in this manner are considered to be built in . < figure/> Theory If a slender rod is subjected to an axial load , the rod is said to be under compression . If the compression load is increased , there will eventually be a point where the slender rod starts deflecting laterally . The point at which this lateral deflection begins is know as the critical load . If the load is removed before the critical load is reached the slender rod will return to its original shape , and the rods elastic limit will not have been passed . However if the critical load is exceeded then the slender rod will deform and begin to buckle . Once buckling has commenced it very quickly leads to total failure of the rod . The equation used to calculate the critical buckling load can be seen in Equation 1 , notice the sign ' α ' which denotes a constraint factor . This factor takes into account various ways of constraining beams in compression , the stress at the critical load can be found by using Equation 2 , where the critical load is divided by the cross sectional area of the slender rod / beam . Figure shows the different values used for α under certain constraints . In this report the alpha value used was , since the ends of the rods were considered to be built in . Another point to note is that the minimum moment of inertia is used to calculate the critical load . In this report circular rods were used , and therefore the circular cross section was the same . If however the cross section area varies such as in a ' T ' section then the moment of inertia values for the X and Y axis must be determined , and the smaller of the values must be used . This is because bending will occur about the axis for which I is minimum . Equation 1- , Critical Load FORMULA The stress at the critical load can be found by using Equation 2 , where the critical load is divided by the cross sectional area of the slender rod / beam . Equation 2 - Critical Stress FORMULA < figure/>The slenderness ratio is a measure of the length of the beam divided by the radius of gyration ' K ' . Where radius of gyration can be considered to be a measure of how much area is distributed away from the neutral axis . Therefore a column is more stable if there is either more area away from the neutral axis and/or the beam is shortened . Equation 3 - Slenderness Ratio Equation 4 is the equation used to determine the critical length for a column if the load is known . This length will be the maximum length at which the column will yield before buckling , if the length is longer than this value the column will buckle and the critical stress in less than the yield stress for that material . Equation 4 - Critical Length FORMULA Equation 5 - Radius of Gyration FORMULA Table 1 contains the results from test the diameter slender rod . The lengths tested can be seen in the left most column . The next set of columns contains the actual test data recorded using the tensile test machine . A compressive load was gradually increased on each test specimen until the indicated load stopped increasing , this indicates that the critical load has been reached , and the rod is beginning to buckle . This critical load can be seen in the load column under the test results column . Using these load results the critical stress can be calculated using The stress at the critical load can be found by using Equation 2 , where the critical load is divided by the cross sectional area of the slender rod / beam . To find the slenderness ratio for each sample length Equation is used . The same procedure was followed for the theoretical results section with the acceptation that the critical load value was calculated using Equation 1 . < table/>The test and calculation procedure was repeated with the diameter slender rod , contains the results . < table/>
Discussion Looking at the results shown in 1 it can be seen that the actual test results and the calculated results follow the same fit line as each other , this indicates that the theoretical results describe the same characteristics as those of the test results . However it is clear when studying that actual point values that the test result values are lower in magnitude than those which are calculated . Also of interest is the fact that the theoretical results only have points shown on the graph , since the calculated stress values go much higher than the yield stress of the material . Therefore these points are considered unrealistic and are not shown . Although they are included in the calculation of the best fit line , which ensures that the results calculated relate to the test results correctly . The test results also show that as the slenderness ration is decreased ( i.e the length of the rod is shortened since the radius of gyration ' K ' remains constant ) the critical stresses increase . This proves the theory that as the slenderness ratio is decreased the stability of the column is increased and therefore the limiting factor of the load that is able to be supported it set by the materials yield stress . < fnote > Due to the cross sectional area and moment of inertia remaining constant , ref . Equation < /fnote > Looking at where the theoretical results best fit line crosses the yield stress of the material and where the test results sit in relation to both these lines it is feasible to assume that the slender rod buckled before it yielded . It would appear from the theoretical results that the value for the slenderness ratio where the rod would yield before buckle is around 55 . However if shorter lengths of rod were tested then the actual test results would be more likely to follow the realistic results of a decreased rise in critical stress value as the slenderness ratio is decreased until the rod reached its yield stress . Figure explains this occurrence , it shows the relationship between the materials elastics modulus against the columns slenderness ratio Vs stress . This diagram shows that within the elastics modulus of the material ( i.e Up to point A on the modulus graph ) the equation is valid for columns whose slenderness ratio is greater than ( L / k)1 . Below this slenderness ratio the material goes past its elastic limit , and the equation is no longer valid . The theoretical values calculated for the critical stress are higher than the actual test results since the theoretical results assume a prefect slender rod where as realistically the rod is not perfectly straight , with a uniform cross section throughout , nor is the load applied perfectly concentric . The theoretical values do n't take into account imperfections in the misalignment or make up of the column being measured . For this reason safety factors are introduced into all structures . Graph results are very similar to those in Graph 1 in that they show that the equation can be used to predict performance of a column design as long as it remains within its linear elastic region on the modulus graph . As in the test results for the diameter slender rod shows that the rod tended to buckle before yielding , this was confirmed by the samples being slightly deformed when they were removed from the tensile test machine indicating the slender rods had passed their elastic limit . < figure/> Conclusion It is clear from the results that the use of the equation is an effective method for the evaluation of column design performance , providing the limits of the formula are known . It is also clear why the limits of the formula exist , and has been shown that the formula is only valid while the material behaviour remains within the linear elastic region of its modulus . It has been shown that due to the imperfections present in the materials properties , shape ( varying CSA ) and loading misalignment that the theoretical values tend to be greater than those found during testing , for this reason the use of safety factors is recommended . Columns that buckle within the elastic region are some times termed "" Long columns "" where as columns that have low slenderness ratios and essentially have no buckling phenomena are called "" "" . The critical load formulas contain no strength property of the material yet they determine the load carrying capacity of the column . The only material property that is involved is the elastic modulus , which represents the physical stiffness characteristic of the material . Slenderness ratio and material properties are used in the design of columns to determine to the critical stress in straight axially loaded columns . Buckling occurs about the axis whose moment of inertia is minimum , therefore columns that have irregular cross sectional areas and therefore different moment of inertias must use the minimum I value when calculating critical loads and stresses . Ways of increasing the performance of a column are to use a stronger material , increase the I value by changing the columns shape or use a material with a higher elastic limit","< heading > Nature of Chosen Area Over , the visibility of child soldiers has become increasingly common . Countries such as , , , , and , to name but a few , illustrate the ubiquity of problem . While child soldiers are covered by provisions under international law , these rules are inadequate to deal with the conditions of armed conflict in the world . There remain significant shortcomings and gaps in these laws that leave child soldiers in a more vulnerable and precarious situation than they are in already . of the prominent features of the contemporary use of child soldiers is that the majority of conflicts in which children engage in hostilities are internal armed conflicts . < fnote > See < URL > < /fnote> Machel ( 1996 ) , paragraphs and . < /fnote > When discussing the issue of child soldiers , there are several elements that need to be addressed . The is the issue of prohibition of the recruitment and use of children and the laws that govern such prohibition . The is if , despite prohibition , children are used in armed conflict , how they should be treated during the conflict and if captured by enemy forces . The last issue relates more to the post - conflict situation and whether child soldiers should be held responsible and accountable for their actions if they constitute crimes against humanity or other crimes recognized under international criminal law as requiring prosecution . This report will focus on the laws prohibiting the recruitment and use of child soldiers in addition to looking at what legal provisions exist for the treatment of child soldiers when they are used in contravention to the law . While there is also clearly a problem of the efficiency in the law 's execution and implementation , this report will not cover this issue , but will focus on the actual deficiencies of the law . < heading on Child Soldiers The regulation of the recruitment and participation of children in armed conflict is covered by a number of international law instruments . International humanitarian law , which regulates the conduct of hostilities , is naturally the most obvious starting point when looking at legal rules governing children in armed conflict . However , a variety of other instruments from human rights law to labour law also have relevant provisions regarding children in conflict . This section will look at the different provisions in international law concerning child soldiers , highlighting any inconsistencies and ambiguities in the law . There are main elements that legal rules address with regards to child soldiers . The is the age limit , which usually revolves around discussion of whether should be used when determining the minimum age to engage in hostilities . The is the issue of recruitment and whether or not it is compulsory or voluntary . Recruitment is also tied to the issue of age , particularly when addressing voluntary recruitment , which will be elaborated further below . The main element is what type of participation is allowed and this is usually divided into direct and indirect involvement . < fnote > See Fontana ( ) who includes a element , that of obligations of the state . < /fnote> The 's preliminary materials for suggests that direct "" establishes the relationship of adequate causality between the act of participation and its immediate result in military operations "" ( as qtd . in , , ) . However , ( , ) points out that ' direct ' is not strictly defined and other authors have provided illustrations for its application mostly based on the immediate threat to the adversary , rather than give a definition . < /fnote> International Humanitarian Law : < /heading > The do not discuss children in the context of combatants . While makes many references to children , it does so with a civilian status in mind , and while the focuses on combatants , they do not broach the issue of the possibility of children as combatants . The Additional Protocols on the other hand do include provisions on the recruitment and use of children during armed conflict . ) of Protocol I states that parties to the conflict "" shall take all feasible measures in order that children who have not attained do not take a direct part in hostilities and , in particular , they shall refrain from recruiting them into their armed forces . "" In a similar vein , ) of states that children under the age of "" shall neither be recruited in the armed forces or groups nor allowed to take part in hostilities . "" < heading > Age Limit While both establish as the minimum age for recruitment , Protocol I has an additional statement that when recruiting , priority should be given to the oldest . This is not stated in which governs internal armed conflicts . Since Protocol I expressly states where priority should be given , it is unclear whether this means that priorities do not need to be made in internal armed conflicts . < fnote > Art.77(2 ) Protocol I. < /fnote> Type of Participation The difference is that Protocol I makes reference to "" direct "" involvement in armed conflict , whereas makes no such reference . This seems to imply that indirect involvement would be permissible in international armed conflicts . That there is a distinction between direct and indirect involvement is supported by the fact that the was opposed to the insertion of ' direct ' in Protocol I , although this went unheeded . < fnote ( ) , . < /fnote> Recruitment There is also an ambiguity about the definition of recruitment and whether this encompasses both compulsory and voluntary enrollment . The had proposed during the drafting of ) of Protocol I that States should refrain from accepting voluntary enrollment of children , but this did not make it to the final text . Due to the fact that expressly uses ' voluntary enlistment ' this implies "" a difference between recruitment and voluntary enlistment "" which leaves the potential for children to enroll in the armed forces . < fnote > See Art.51 . < /fnote> The Convention on the Rights of the Child ( CRC) ( 1 ) of the reaffirms the rules of international humanitarian law by calling upon state parties to respect these rules relevant to the child . It also calls upon states to "" take all feasible measures to ensure that persons who have not attained do not take a direct part in hostilities "" and calls upon states to "" refrain from recruiting any person who has not attained into their armed forces . "" If recruits are , priority should be given to the oldest , which is a standard based in Protocol I. < fnote > Art.38(2 ) . As in Protocol I , the word ' direct ' is used . < /fnote> Art.38(3 ) . < /fnote> Ibid . < /fnote> Art.77(2 ) . < /fnote> The Optional Protocol to the CRC The Optional Protocol to the entered into force in . of the central issues during the drafting process was in the minimum age of entry into the armed forces . It was eventually set at for the direct participation in hostilities and compulsory recruitment by into the armed forces of states . However the door is left open for state parties to allow children under the age of to take direct part in hostilities because of the reference to "" all feasible measures "" which means that in exceptional cases , a military commander may decide that it is not ' feasible ' to withhold a soldier below from participating . In addition , the door is still left open for indirect participation . However , voluntary recruitment under is permitted provided that there are certain safeguards such as ensuring that it is genuinely voluntary , having the consent of parents , and reliable proof of age . On the other hand armed groups , which are distinguished from armed forces of State are not allowed "" under any circumstances "" to recruit or use persons . < fnote > Dennis ( ) , . < /fnote> Arts . and 2 , Optional Protocol , . < /fnote> Ibid , . < /fnote> Art.3(3 ) , , . < /fnote> International Labour Organisation The ILO Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention 182 commits states to "" take immediate and effective measures to secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour "" with child defined as all persons under . The worst forms of child labour include forced or compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed conflict . < fnote > Art . 3(a ) . < /fnote> Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child The Charter , like the , reaffirms the rules of international humanitarian law , calling on state parties to respect these rules which affect children . The requires state parties to "" take all necessary measures to ensure that no child shall take a direct part in hostilities and refrain in particular , from recruiting any child . "" The novelty in the Charter which sets it apart from other instruments is that the rules "" also apply to children in situations of internal armed conflicts , tension and strife . "" The utility of this is that the threshold of conflict is not as high as that required for to take effect . < fnote > Art.22(1 ) . child as "" every human being below . "" < /fnote> Art . ) . < /fnote> Art.22(3 ) . < /fnote> Rome Statute of Although international criminal law is essentially part of the enforcement mechanism of international humanitarian law , and hence does not come into play during the conflict but after it , the crimes under its jurisdiction are indicative of what is or is not legally permissible during war . The Rome Statue of defines war crimes as including the conscription or enlistment of children under into national armed forces and their use in the participation of hostilities . In the case of an internal armed conflict , armed groups also can not conscript or enlist children under the age of to participate actively in hostilities . < fnote > Another aspect of international criminal law is the prosecution of individuals for war crimes . in has jurisdiction over persons ' most responsible ' for atrocities , and that includes children , which was a decision subject to debate and controversy , see , ( ) . However , as stated above , the prosecution of child soldiers under international criminal law will not be dealt with in this report . < /fnote> Article 8(2)(b)(xxvi ) < /fnote> Article 8(2)(e)(vii ) < /fnote> Deficiencies in International Humanitarian Law This section will highlight the deficiencies in international humanitarian law regarding provisions relating to the recruitment and use of child soldiers in international humanitarian law , and how these deficiencies are not made up for in international human rights law , in addition to providing possibilities for review and difficulties and tensions that such a review may raise . < heading > Age Limit The minimum age for recruitment has been one of the most contested issues , which is why there remains discrepancy in the law in this area . Although the defines a child as anyone below , the possibility exists for persons under that age to engage in armed conflict . Setting as the minimum age for the recruitment and participation in armed conflict does present some theoretical tension . There is a notion that at , children do reach a certain stage of maturity and development . In , there are a variety of ' categories ' of children such as children , mothers of children , children , and young children . The repeated presence of ' children in reflected how at the time of drafting "" international usage ... settled on an age limit of as defining what is meant by ' children ' when no further description is given . "" The age of was also used because it was considered to be the most realistic , as revealed by the commentary of in the Report on the Work of the Conference of Government Experts , which included a note that in certain types of conflict where there is the unfortunate belief of the "" military necessity of using children ... it is important not to put the age limit on their use at an unreasonably high level lest we invite wholesale disregard for the provision . "" < fnote > Mann ( ) , . < /fnote> Arts.14 , , , , , . < /fnote> Art.14 , . < /fnote> Art . . < /fnote> Art . . < /fnote> Pictet , as qtd in ( ) , . < /fnote> Commentary of , as qtd . in ( ) , . < /fnote > Another possible aspect of tension is the argument that placing a minimum age of recruitment infringes on the right to freedom of association ( for example with the army , armed groups or national liberation groups ) , particularly for those who have reached a certain degree of maturity and development . Nonetheless , as has pointed out , "" the evolving standards in international human rights law ... sets the standard of as the minimum age for recruitment , "" giving the example of the Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child , which is the most recently drafted child rights treaty . < fnote , ( ) . < /fnote> Ibid , - 815 . < /fnote> Type of Participation Protocol I prohibits children under the age of from direct participation in international armed conflict , yet this does not exclude indirect participation . There exists discrepancy and double standards between international and non - international armed conflicts with regards to type of participation and recruitment . Protocol II is only applicable to non - international armed conflicts that have reached the threshold , and many internal conflicts fall short of this . While the intention may have been not to become involved in the sovereign affairs of states , the practical effect of this is the insufficient protection for internal armed conflicts , which remains of the major deficiencies . The also retains the word ' direct ' as does to the . < fnote > Goodwin - Gill and Cohn ( 1994 ) , . < /fnote> Recruitment The unclear definition with regards to recruitment , and in particular , regarding voluntary enlistment leaves the possibility for persons under to enter the armed forces and participate in hostilities . In addition , distinctions concerning voluntary recruitment are made when addressing a state 's armed forces and other kinds of armed groups ( in the context of internal conflicts ) in the Optional Protocol to the . < heading > Recommendations1 . The minimum age for recruitment and use of persons in armed conflict , whether this is an international or internal armed conflict should be . The law should be clear that this minimum age includes voluntary enlistment in addition to direct and indirect participation . < heading > Conclusion Instigating change in the rules of war is a difficult task , particularly when this requires change in the moral environment . Yet international law and international humanitarian law are always in a constant state of review . The adoption of and the inclusion of provisions relating to children participating in armed conflict , which were not in , are just example of changes in the legal , political and military environment . This process of review is inevitably a political one subject to a wide range of considerations . However , the very brutal nature of war makes it necessary for all involved to ensure that the widest range of protection is given to those under , and to ensure that the parameters of the law are well - defined and unambiguous . Finally , in raising standards and legal rules , it is also important to expend energy in implementation .",0 "< heading > Introduction The gradual realization that mind is reducible to brain does not just provide us with an organ that needs to be accommodated in any working theory of the mind - an increasing understanding of the brain also promises to rid us of old misconceptions about the nature of the mind . But what if a feature of the mind that is being called into question by scientific findings is so integral and intuitively certain to us that we feel disinclined to abandon it even in the face of contradictory experimental data ? ( ) argues that in such an event we must consider whether we have in fact encountered evidence that the mind is not reducible to the brain . An example will help clarify the argument : imagine that it is discovered that once every year each human nervous system on the planet temporarily shuts down , leaving the brain completely void of activity , only to return to an active state . Such a discovery would come as a blessing to philosophers of a holistic disposition who fight what they consider unwarranted forms of reductionism in philosophy of mind , because here would be direct proof that the mind is irreducible to just brain processes . I shall refer to such findings as conflicting data . < fnote > If the specific time of the freeze is different for each nervous system it is not impossible that such a phenomena is being overlooked . < /fnote > The present essay is a comment on 's ' Brain Bisection and the Unity of Consciousness ' ( ) in which he argues that the data relating to patients who have undergone corpus callosotomy constitute conflicting data with regard to the idea of the necessary unity of consciousness of a person or mind , and of mind being something numerically absolute . Corpus callosotomy , the surgical disconnection of the cerebral hemispheres , is not a mere thought experiment like 's ' brain zaps ' , or zombies , but was performed on patients in the and 60s regarding whom there is now a substantial body of experimental and observational data . One does not have to be a philosopher to be baffled by the details of this data . In evaluating 's claim I shall begin by discussing the hemispheric duality of the human brain , and how this duality is brought out to an extreme degree in the case of patients who have undergone callosotomy . I will then proceed to evaluate 's argument . argues that it is impossible to properly assign personal identity and a unified conscious experience to callosotomy patients without violating the clinical and experimental data . Thus , he concludes , we must either abandon certain concepts ( crucially , the necessary unity of consciousness of a person or mind ) , or accept that the mind is irreducible to the brain . I shall argue that by accepting that each person may have mind , we can avoid most of these difficulties . < heading > The bilateral brain Like the body , the brain is to a large extent bilateral . In the midbrain and hindbrain , one side is largely a mirror image of the other , but the sides are highly interconnected ( think peanut ) . In the cortex however , the cerebral hemispheres only connect directly through a relatively small band of axons called the corpus callosum . The extent to which the hemispheres can communicate through the midbrain seems , unfortunately , to be largely unknown . The midbrain and brainstem ( including cerebellum ) make up of the mass of the brain . They process and relay sensory information to the cerebral hemispheres and control functions such as emotion , reward and aversion , biological rhythms and some forms of memory . The cerebral hemispheres mediate higher cognitive functions such as episodic and working memory , planning and sensory processing . The right hemisphere receives input from and controls the left side of the body and vice versa ( neck and face are controlled by both ) . The left hemisphere , often called the dominant hemisphere , is slightly larger than the right one , and is the only one capable of producing spoken language . This difference in language ability is the only hemispheric asymmetry that brings into his essay but further differences that make up what is called the cognitive style of each hemisphere will be important to the argument . Very crudely , the left hemisphere tends to work by sequential analysis : systematic , logical interpretation of information . It is superior at dealing with symbolic information : language , mathematics , abstraction and reasoning , and its memory is stored in a "" language format "" . Conversely , the right hemisphere functions in a holistic manner , processing multi - sensory input to produce a unified picture of 's environment . It is superior at spatial orientation , mental imagery , colour discrimination , and the processing of music and emotionally significant information . Its memory is stored in sensory modalities . It is mute but can understand and produce ( written ) language at the level of a young child . Finally the left of each retina ( i.e. the right visual field ) is connected to the visual cortex of the left hemisphere and vice versa , with only a partial overlap in the middle . < fnote > It should be pointed out that the hemispheric asymmetries described here are only found in most right - handed individuals . In considering the callosotomy data , remember that some people are believed to have functionally identical hemispheres ( including language abilities ) . < /fnote> Close eye at a time to see this overlap . It allows for visual information from the centre of the visual field to reach both hemispheres even in patients who have undergone callosotomy and probably accounts for a lot of their unified behaviour outside the experimental setting . < /fnote> What is brain bisection? Corpus callosotomy , then , refers to a procedure where surgeons cut the corpus callosum to prevent the spread of epilepsy from hemisphere to the other . Although the procedure is no longer performed , many patients who have undergone it are still alive and have attracted considerable attention from psychologists , philosophers and neurologists alike . things should be noted about these patients . In everyday life their behaviour remains largely unchanged ( which , of course , is why the procedure became popular in the place ) . They retain the ability to "" play the piano , button their shirts , swim and ... do not report any sensation of division or reduction of the visual field "" ( p. ) . Their friends and family continue to refer to them as one and the same person . Nagel and some of his contemporary critics ( e.g. , ) make it sound as though callosotomy leaves the patient behaviourally completely unchanged but this is not true : callosotomy patients exhibit the symptoms of split brain syndrome , which can include a moderate memory deficit , selective learning difficulties , inappropriate or exaggerated politeness in conversation and a slight tendency to confabulate . Also , there can be a reduction in the ability to express emotion verbally ( alexithymia ) and maintain motivation while reading long texts . Some cases have even been reported of disconnected hemispheres answering differently to questions such as ' what do you want to be ? ' and patient repeatedly complained that when trying to hug his wife his left hand pushed her away , but such cases are very rare . < fnote > All page references in this essay refer to 's essay as reproduced in , ed . ) . < /fnote> This symptom has a certain commonsensical logic to it - the effect is readily understood as the disconnection of the more verbal left and the more emotional right hemisphere . < /fnote > In the experimental setting , however , a truly bewildering lack of communication can be demonstrated by separating stimuli so that it reaches each hemisphere separately ( called tachistoscopic stimulation ) . The most common example is that a patient is shown a word ; say , in such a way that TAX is in the left visual field and ABLE in the right . When asked to write down what word was shown the patients right hand will write TAX and his left hand ( poorly ) ABLE . If only is shown the patient will insist verbally that he saw nothing and express surprise at finding his left hand writing . Similarly , if asked to identify an object by touching it with his left hand he remains unable to say verbally what kind of object it is but will be able to point to it or draw a picture of it , using his left hand . Callosotomy patients are unable to compare sensory input that is processed separately by the disconnected hemispheres because without the corpus callosum , sensory processing in hemisphere is inaccessible to the other . In 's words , the observations in the experimental setting make us wonder "" whether these patients have mind , or , or some more exotic configuration "" ( p. ) . < heading > Conflicting data? Nagel considers different attempts to understand the minds of the patients following hemispheric bisection . Before we can consider these different accounts and 's analysis of them we must clarify what we mean by ' mind ' . What are the concepts with which the callosotomy data may be in conflict ? If we want to assert that a callosotomy patient has mind , is still person , then , because of their disunified experience , the idea of the necessary unity of consciousness of a person is challenged . The unity of consciousness is an old and influential philosophical concept that is central to thinkers such as , , Kant , and . The concept can be defined as the assertion that the subjective experiences of a person or a mind always occur as a whole , i.e. for me to be conscious of object in my present experience is to be conscious of all other objects of my experience and of them as a group . A similar definition which refers to at point ( p. ) states that unity of consciousness can be understood as a mind 's ability to compare the different objects of its experience . A more definition states that experience is necessarily unified because I am ( and must be ) able to ascribe all aspects of my experience to my self . ( For a multitude of complex contemporary explorations and definitions of the concept , see , or , . ) Common to all these definitions is the quite intuitive idea that each person or mind has ( unified ) conscious experience , not many . However , the data just discussed gives strong support to the idea that a callosotomy patient does not have a unified conscious experience . Thus , if we still want to refer to of them as an individual , as a single person or mind , then we must abandon the idea that a person 's consciousness is necessarily unified . argues that abandoning this idea is probably intuitively impossible , but it is a route that is compatible with animalist theories of personhood , and has been endorsed by thinkers such as , and I shall return to it . More generally argues that the callosotomy data challenges the idea of mind or person being something numerically absolute . He argues that , considering the experimental evidence , it is impossible to assign the callosotomy patients any whole number of minds . I shall argue that fails to respond to the ' minds ' hypothesis and that the callosotomy data does not necessarily contradict the idea of mind being something numerically absolute . Suffice it to say then , that by ' mind ' means something like a numerically absolute , single subject of a unified experience , something we normally consider ourselves and others to be . considers the following accounts of how a whole number of minds can be attributed to a callosotomy patient : < fnote > In his essay , refuses to ever really define concepts such as ' person ' , ' mind ' , and ' subject of a unified experience ' ( which he uses interchangeably ) . "" Instead of beginning with an analysis of the unity of mind I am going to proceed by attempting to apply the ordinary , unanalyzed conception "" ( p. ) . This creates serious problems in the interpretation of 's argument . < /fnote>1 ) The patient has fairly normal mind in the hemisphere that can respond verbally , and only automatic responses in the right one . ) The patient has normal mind in the hemisphere that can respond verbally , and occasional "" free floating "" conscious experiences which do not constitute a mind in the right one . ) The patient has normal minds , in each hemisphere . ) The patient has one , rather peculiar and dissociated mind that derives from both hemispheres . ) The patient has normal mind most of the time while the hemispheres function normally , but minds when stimuli is artificially separated in the experimental setting . ) becomes somewhat plausible when we ask ourselves who we are in fact talking to when conversing with a callosotomy patient . In a conversation we want to believe we are conversing with an entire person , and the lack of cognitive diminution following callosotomy is hard to account for other than by saying that the right hemisphere never has any conscious experience with which to contribute to conversation , even in an intact brain . Furthermore , we know from the experimental setting that the bisected hemispheres are curiously unaware of activity in the partner hemisphere and we know that only the left one is talking to us - so if the patient 's behavior is in perfect accord with his words ; if the left side of his body ( controlled by the right hemisphere ) is in perfect synch with the right side , need we not ask ourselves if the right hemisphere is not being completely subjugated , somehow controlled , by the dominant left one ? However , separating the hemispheres does not rid them of their common memories , desires and fears , midbrain and hindbrain , which might help to account for their synchronized behavioral output . Also , we should not forget that many conversational difficulties following callosotomy have in fact been reported ( see split brain syndrome above ) . < fnote > For instance , the dopaminergic system that originates in the ventral tegmental area of the midbrain and is believed to control most of our approach behaviour pools input from both hemispheres and thus provides the hemispheres with single behavioural goals . Also , in the non - experimental setting most relevant stimuli reaches both hemispheres ( i.e. both hear what is said to the patient , and visual stimuli that is in the centre of the visual field is processed by both ) . < /fnote>2 ) is a weaker version of ) . It states that although the right hemisphere probably still has some conscious experiences , it does not have the kind of structured experience that warrants us ascribing it a mind of its own . Aptitude tests taken by the right hemisphere ( not to mention its lacking 's and 's areas ) show that it has a limited ability to process symbolic information , i.e. language , logic , quantity and concepts . Can an experience that is to a large extent deprived of these organizing features ( categories if you will ) be more than something like a dream ? In other words is it not at least questionable whether the experience of the right hemisphere is "" mindlike "" ? Our evidence against this view is that the right hemisphere functions with a degree of autonomy , intentionality and intelligence which makes it difficult to deny it at least the conscious mental life of a child . The right hemisphere is "" a system capable of learning , reacting emotionally , following instructions , and carrying out tasks which require the integration of diverse psychological determinants ( p. ) . Some specific examples of what the right hemisphere actually can do on its own is needed here , but for the sake of argument , let us grant that the experiences of the right hemisphere may well be structured in a mindlike fashion . However , let us avoid the account which ascribes a mind to each hemisphere for now . Let us also reject ) which states that a single mind divides into in the "" experimental setting "" . As points out , this account is insensitive to the fact that the experimental setting simply structures the stimuli that reaches the hemispheres in a certain way . Such structuring ( tachistoscopic stimulation ) occurs every day ; there is just much more of it in the experimental setting , which simply brings out a split that is continually present . Let us proceed instead to ) which asserts that the patient is person and still has mind , although this mind is a bit unusual and , as it were , split at the top . This is probably what we have to believe legally and in interaction with the patient . This view also avoids the difficult question of how much of the corpus callosum had to be cut for mind to become . But this is the account that challenges the idea that each person or mind has unified conscious experience . A mind that knows that it has just been shown a plastic duck say and is in the process of drawing a picture of it can not be ascribed a single unified experience if it is at the same time unaware of having been shown a duck and is confused to find itself drawing a picture of . The consciousness of the callosotomy patient is split . How deep is this split ? It is certainly a split at the level of attention : the hemispheres can engage in very different , conflicting tasks , but so can some people . However , it is also a split in visual , tactile and olfactory ( and to some extent auditory ) experience : the patients can not compare stimuli that reach the hemispheres separately . This is far from normal . It is furthermore an epistemological split : the patient can be convinced of an assertion ( e.g. having seen a plastic duck ) and its negation simultaneously . Taken together these splits amount to a disunified consciousness in a single body . Still , it is not a split at the level of desires ( see footnote ) , fears , levels of arousal , "" instinctual "" responses , and hormonal environment . It is interesting to consider the hypothetical implications of a complete brain bisection . It is unlikely that the midbrain would survive such an operation , but if it did the mental and behavioral split would certainly be much deeper . So there are still elements of unity in the case of callosotomy patients . In ( ) argues that a split brain patient can still be considered a person even though their experience is not unified . He invites us to consider a benevolent scenario where we imagine we are one of those individuals whose hemispheres are functionally identical , and have recently had a device installed such that we can easily and quickly block all transmission along the corpus callosum , and just as easily reverse the process . Using this device we could divide our attention completely in situations where we wish to do so ( we could for instance listen to different conversations and then , upon reconnection , perhaps have mnemonic access to both ) . However , argues , this would not mean that new persons would have suddenly popped into existence and then somehow merged into one when the device was inactivated . Given a bit of practice we would learn to accept the extent to which a single person 's experiences can be separated . The difficulty involved in this argument is that it presumes what it is trying to argue for , namely , that only one person or mind was present to begin with . But it could just as well be argued that rather than partially dividing a single mind , the device temporarily disconnects minds that are normally intimately connected . Also , while we 're discussing science fiction devices , why not imagine such that we could connect ourselves to a hemisphere , and a fourth . Would connected hemispheres make person according to 's argument , or , or ? Does it not make more sense to call each hemisphere a mind ? Perhaps , but can we really call each hemisphere a person ? Although uses the terms interchangeably , mind and person are not necessarily the same thing , though we often think of them as such . way out of these difficulties is to adopt an animalist account of personhood and argue that the callosotomy patient remains one and the same person as long as the ( human ) animal , i.e. the body , its behavior and appearance , and perhaps its DNA , remains intact . A person then , could have ( or more ) minds , and still be person , provided these minds could cooperate in the control of the body . I am skeptical to animalism myself , mainly because it denies the possibility of a person surviving a brain transplant into a new body . But it is certainly debatable whether is justified in equating person and mind . ' Person ' , much more so than ' mind ' , carries traditional properties such as a body , a name , habits , a social security number and so on , and all these remain intact in the callosotomy patient . For now , I shall simply refrain from referring to ' person ' but will instead use the term ' mind ' . Let us consider ) then , the assertion that in the callosotomy patient each hemisphere has a mind of its own . In so far as there is any standard interpretation among neurologists and psychologists in this matter ( e.g. , and - the pioneers of split brain research ) , this is it . As far as I can see there are versions to this argument : ) Brains that have undergone callosotomy have minds , intact brains have one . ) Brains that have undergone callosotomy have minds and , though we do not normally notice it because of their extensive communication via the corpus callosum , so do intact brains . rejects ) on the grounds that the patients ' behavior is too integrated ; too much like that of normal people for us to talk about minds housed in the same body . Indeed , the sides of the patient 's body cooperate admirably and their family and friends continue to refer to them as person . The easiest way to bring out the difficulty involved in ) is to consider the actual callosotomy . Patients are usually awake during brain surgery and we can ask ourselves when exactly their mind splits in as the surgeon slowly cuts the corpus callosum . Surely it must be a gradual decline , and what if a small strand of the corpus callosum is left intact , do we still get minds ? Consider that , on average , the corpus callosum of women is thicker than that of men . And what if , by application of a new species of neurotrophins we could initiate an increase in the number of axons connecting the hemispheres in a healthy subject ? If this operation was performed successfully , the patient would probably experience something like an increase in the unity of his consciousness ; in his ability to compare sensory information in the hemispheres for instance . Then maybe , he would come to believe that his experience was and always had been the result of closely connected minds . So what if we accept this view ( ) , that every intact brain has minds , and that this duality is simply brought out more clearly in callosotomy patients ? Remember that the hemispheres are to a large extent mirror images of each other , i.e. they both contain structures for processing input from all the senses and frontal and association cortices for thought , planning and integrated experience . Maybe all brains have what calls "" separate realms of conscious awareness ; sensing perceiving , thinking and remembering systems . "" or what calls "" loci of consciousness "" . For some reason seems unable to take this view seriously and dismisses it in a footnote . But it is the view of many researchers , including some philosophers ( e.g. , Pietsch ) , and it is in my opinion the most difficult one to throw aside . Nagel ( footnote , p. ) tries to do so by arguing that "" in case anyone is inclined to embrace the conclusion that we all have minds "" they should consider that each hemisphere can be subjected to further functional disconnection , yielding "" several cooperating minds with specialized capacities "" . But this is a misconception - it is very unlikely that , say , a disconnected visual cortex would have experiences that would warrant us ascribing it a mind . Rather , it would be a complex biological camera . Most importantly it would be disconnected from the associative white matter of the cortex where experience is integrated and the prefrontal cortex where experience is manipulated . It is unfortunate that does not take ) more seriously for I can not see any further objections to it . If we equate mind with person it is perhaps understandable why we should be reluctant to accept ): we do not want to refer to the callosotomy patient as persons - the fact that they inhabit the same body and cooperate to such a considerable degree through common memories and desires etc makes this alternative implausible . But is there any reason why I can not refer to them as minds that have lost the direct connection that my minds have ? The unified consciousness that I experience then , is the result of potentially separable minds . < heading > Conclusion The callosotomy data forces us to consider a duality which is present in all of us , but which we normally do not notice . In the case of callosotomy patients this duality has been brought out and can be demonstrated by careful experimentation , but their behavior remains coherent in the normal setting . It is unclear how to interpret this . argues that it is impossible to attribute personal identity to them , and to describe the unity in their experience , in a way that does not violate the experimental , observational and theoretical data . While it appears that they experience streams of consciousness , we remain unable to refer to them as persons in a single body . Does this mean that we must abandon the idea of the conscious experience of a person being necessarily unified ? No , argues , it can just as well mean that the unity of consciousness that we experience is simply incompatible with , and irreducible to , the clinical and experimental data . I have argued that the callosotomy data suggests that the unity of consciousness that each of us experiences is not absolute : our experience could be more or less unified . In the case of callosotomy patients , their anatomy is such that they can have completely separate experiences simultaneously . Although these experiences can perhaps not be attributed to the same mind , I have argued that they can still be attributed to the same person , as long as we accept that the unity we all experience is still the result of sensory processing in interconnected minds , and that the experience of each mind would remain unified even if the corpus callosum was cut ( though it would then process less sensory input ) . Thus , while the necessary unity of consciousness of a person is indeed challenged by the callosotomy data , the necessary unity of consciousness of a mind is not . In other words , the callosotomy data challenges the assumption that a person has mind . But I hope I have shown that this conclusion is perfectly plausible .","The advent of the strikes and protests halfway struck a serious blow at the communist regime . Whilst it provided a powerful response of workers to the repressive character and ' determination [ of the regime ] to maintain [ the political and economic ] systems , whatever their human costs and lack of legitimacy ' , an important questions comes to mind . Where from came this powerful articulation of demands , and of ' the most powerful , sophisticated and advanced working - class movement yet seen , certainly in the ' communist ' sphere and perhaps anywhere in the world ' ? To answer this question , it may be fruitful to study the emergence of new class societies in , paradoxical when matched with thought . Economic and political developments throughout united with a blend of national - historical and wider economic grievances to prepare the ferment for ' a new generation of protesting workers with a clearly different way of articulating their grievances [ as ] a strictly phenomenon ' . In this essay I will have a closer look at the development of a class spirit among workers , and argue that it was from their socio - economic situation that discord arose . < fnote , ' in in , vol . ( ) , p. . < /fnote> , Festival of the . , Reform and Revolution in ( : ) , p. . < /fnote> Walter D. Connor , ' in in , vol . ( ) , p. . < /fnote> Jadwiga Staniszkis , in . The Experience ( Berkeley : ) , p. - 8 . < /fnote > The prehistory of the movement was , most importantly , sparked by an increasing crystallisation of a "" class consciousness "" within the ranks of the work force , many of whom were becoming convinced ' that they [ could only ] improve their lot collectively ' . Despite official state rhetoric , there was an increasingly realistic attitude to the existence of a new dominant class made up of ' the intelligentsia as a whole rather than just the bureaucracy narrowly defined ' ; a class of highly educated , better - rewarded technocrats and managers , charged with the affairs of increasing efficiency of production and economic policy making . While official policy claimed to pursue a policy of egalitarianism , the reality behind these claims was only limited . The producing classes , those of the workers and peasants , found themselves on the same position in the material hierarchy as before , while a decrease in real standards of living were initially concealed only by the relative success of social mobility . However , the stretch of social mobility had its limits and by a new generation of workers , unfamiliar with opportunities for social mobility , many of them younger than 25 years of age , began to form an increasingly articulate and assertive sense of collective grievances . While according to the orthodox theory of communism the party was the vanguard of the workers , epitomising its real interest , workers on the work floor reportedly referred to ' management in the person , reserving "" we "" for themselves ' . This clearly meant the beginning of an independently developing working class , at odds with the intelligentsia and a regime increasingly alienated from 's new social reality . < fnote , ' in in , vol . ( ) , p. . < /fnote> Georg Konrád and , The Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power ( : ) , p. xiv - v. < /fnote> Walter D. Connor , ' in in , vol . ( ) , p. . < /fnote> , in the Twentieth Century - And After ( / , ) , p. . < /fnote> Konrád and Szelényi , The Intellectuals , p. . < /fnote > Similar to the early nineteenth century , the creation of a new working class indeed took place within the rather short timeframe of or generations . Over after , an average of of the younger peasantry came ' to form the new working class , [ and ] to create the social drama of a new life , a new world ' . As their direct socio - economic interests began to reveal themselves in increasing antagonism with the state - directed economic policy , workers , as a class an sich and with an agenda different even from that of the oppositional intelligentsia , more and more often became involved in violent confrontations with the state . Social discord became increasingly apparent , and '' murdered by , workers murdered by a ' Workers ' State ' , became the symbol for all their accumulated grievances ' . < fnote > Connor , ' Social Change and Stability in , p. . < /fnote> Ibid , p. . < /fnote> assertion that ' [ was ] the single most important date in the pre - history of ' , may provide further insight into the extent that was connected to the working class . Its reaction to the government 's implementation of food price increases revealed signs of a growing unity and singular purpose of action . When the government resolved to give up its policy of consistent non - unemployment ' aimed at forcing greater productivity through the use of threat of unemployment as an incentive for better and more efficient work ' , this seemed a direct threat to workers at large . After strikes and violent confrontations throughout , the government withdrew its economic reform plans , while was forced to step down as a consequence of his unpopular repressive measures and number of deaths as a direct consequence thereof . This political outcome was seen by many protesters as a direct result of their protests , which served made workers realise where there strength lay . Throughout , many strikes followed , and although the regime ' exacted its revenge on the workers ' , resulting in many workers being ' sacked , arrested , beaten , jailed ' , strikers usually got what they wanted . This , and the fact that many protests ' involved a large group which was generally representative of the worker population as a whole ' , accounts for the growth of an awareness that the economic situation of workers was connected with , and could be influenced by , their political role as an occupational group . < fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote> Jan B. de Weydenthal , ' : Workers and ' in Jan and ( eds . ) , in ( : ) , p. . < /fnote> Weydenthal , ' : Workers and ' , p. . < /fnote> Barker , Festival of the Oppressed , p. . < /fnote> Weydenthal , ' : Workers and ' , p. . < /fnote > Yet , what made for the timing of this growing self - awareness ? Where from came the momentum that enabled workers to start attempting to influence their economic position through strikes ? The communist party had , from the onset , based much of its legitimacy through the reasonably successful initiation of a process of social mobility upward . Workers were recruited from among the peasant ranks , while better - educated workers were needed to support the growing bureaucratic apparatus . These developments enabled many to enter new realities that were hitherto undreamed of , creating a sense of greater equality , if not of material wealth , then of opportunity . It also sparked , however , another process , which would later develop into one of the primary reasons for the antagonism between the workers and the intelligentsia as a whole . The quick development of industries created a culture of technocracy , in which economic status became more directly related to ' a hierarchy of statuses based on diplomas , irrespective of the actual amount of work done ' . This put pressures on access to higher education as a direct way of material advancement , as the intelligentsia were protective of their traditionally advantaged position . The attitude of this "" red bourgeoisie "" was becoming an assertion ' [ t]hat they do and should live better than workers ' . This , however , created tension , as these ' unequal patterns of allocation of social rewards ' were legitimised by the class that benefited from it , ' despite the traditional systemic commitment to egalitarianism ' . With the decreasing flexibility in the labour market , most economists and sociologists began to note a shift from ' phases of system - building to the tasks of system - maintenance ' . The loss of revolutionary economic appeal for the masses , however , eventually began to cost the members as well ; ' and the lost members , bringing total membership below . < fnote > Connor , ' Social Change and Stability in , p. . < /fnote> Konrád and Szelényi , The Intellectuals , p. . < /fnote> Connor , ' Social Change and Stability in , p. . < /fnote> Weydenthal , ' : Workers and ' , p. . < /fnote> Connor , ' Social Change and Stability in , p. . < /fnote> The stagnation of social mobility can be said to have a - sided effect . While , the one hand , it formed a ferment for discontent because the state failed to meet the workers ' expectations of equality , regimes [ had to ] , in a sense , deal with the workers they have ' . While the legitimating narrative came out of redistribution , ' the technocrats , like the ruling elite itself , [ had ] an interest in keeping labor in a dispositive position ' , which entailed maintenance of the status quo . A further source of frustration was found in the fact that , despite repeated pledges for reform from the party leadership , very little change was noticed , while concessions were repeatedly watered down . This was particularly hard to swallow since continually facts were coming to light revealing the decadent and privileged world that the small number of the party and administrative élite ' had created for themselves . Contradictions were experienced very starkly when any kind of protest was followed by measures on a worker 's economic privileges and ' any sign of active solidarity ' was immediately called ' political conspiracy ' . Gradually , workers began to connect their economic discontent with a wider , social picture , which thoroughly undermined the legitimacy of the state . As now the argument of economic prosperity was no longer something could count on , the social and political situation became something of a ticking bomb . < fnote > Connor , ' Social Change and Stability in , p. . < /fnote> Konrád and Szelényi , The Intellectuals , p. . < /fnote> Weydenthal , ' : Workers and ' , p. . < /fnote> Konrád and Szelényi , The Intellectuals , p. . < /fnote> Connor , ' Social Change and Stability in , p. . < /fnote > The decade running up to the strikes of saw an increasingly untenable paradoxical situation . According to thinking , communism provided the means to stop the alienation of the workers ; yet , they were becoming increasingly alienated . This was clearly demonstrated by the slow production process of inferior quality produce . By , an observer described "" the situation as ' the emergence of workers as a distinct , albeit unorganized , political force and the inability of institutionalized leadership groups to integrate the workers into the existing pattern of systematic operations ' . It is important to note , that the origins of this alienation were , to a great extent , class - originated , coming from the specific economic grievances of the workers . < fnote > Konrád and Szelényi , The Intellectuals , p. . < /fnote> Weydenthal , ' : Workers and ' , p. . < /fnote > Economic alienation eventually meant political alienation , which then began to organise itself . The strikers of were no longer easily reintegrated . They were ' far more disciplined ; they were not committed to socialism or the party ' any longer , whereas large sections of 's industrial workers in were still prepared to give the regime another chance , in bitterly reminded his co - workers of how little had been done with the workers ' trust and support . If the was not prepared to listen to their grievances anymore , the workers would organise themselves outside the state . This essentially foreboded the inability to continue any profitable form of communism . As observed , < fnote , , p. . < /fnote> Konrád and Szelényi , The Intellectuals , p. . < /fnote>'Solidarity had shown the bankruptcy of east communism because the bulk of communism 's chosen people , the workers , had looked outside the party for redress of their social grievances'. We have observed that the regime became increasingly inapt to rally the support of the workers for the socialist cause , or to reasonably incorporate them within a plan economy . It is , nonetheless , important to have a closer look at the reasons that caused the process to assume such a radical working class character . Surely , there existed a strong section of "" critical intelligentsia "" , yet their position was precarious : whereas they assumed a role as the voice of the working class , they were also ' part of the intellectual class , from which neither its structural position nor its value - system [ allowed ] it to secede ' . It is said , moreover , that moral decay could be observed across the intelligentsia - so much so , that one sociologist spoke of ' the ' semi - feudalisation ' of society ' . The success propaganda of communist society that western historians are quite familiar with , also seemed to have blinded the regime , rendering it numb to criticism or alternative ideas . This hostile view , however , is only useful to a certain extent , and it is more likely that many members of the intelligentsia simply still ' [ had ] a stake in the status quo and , therefore , support[ed ] it ' . < fnote > Konrád and Szelényi , The Intellectuals , p. . < /fnote> Barker , Festival of the Oppressed . , p. . < /fnote> Ibid , p. . < /fnote> Connor , ' Social Change and Stability in , p. . < /fnote > There were , however , also initiatives from the intelligentsia within broad daylight of the 's political sphere , which provided powerful criticism of the way in which the state treated dissident workers . And while many intellectuals desiring reform continued to trap themselves in ' an iron cage ' of ' the limits of possible reform ' , organisations such as ( ) set out in a number of semi - legal ways to create a bond of solidarity between workers and intellectuals , an number of them eventually becoming involved in . Examples of selfless and risk - taking initiatives are not hard to find ; intellectuals such as lost their jobs , continuously spent time in jail and got beaten up , in the meanwhile enabling the publication of illegal books . The problem of intellectualism and political involvement , however , would eventually cause problems by , when , during the round table talks intellectualism gave the negotiations an air of secrecy and ' institutional horse trading ' . < fnote , , p. . < /fnote> Barker , Festival of the Oppressed , p. . < /fnote> Barker , Festival of the Oppressed , p. . < /fnote> Jadwiga Staniszkis , in . The Experience ( Berkeley : ) , p. . < /fnote > By , n increasing awareness of the existence of social class was observed in society . This classification was not so much based upon political affiliation as upon material wealth . Rapid industrialisation since had brought new realities urban workers , a large number of them of young age , in a setting of narrowly confined economic possibilities . When rapid economic and industrial development began to slow down and the initial success story of social mobility began to lose its stretch , problems became observable . The popular official state narrative of egalitarianism became increasingly exposed , whereas the state had little means to provide alternative justifications . In a situation that was becoming more and more complicated , the workers soon discovered the power of strike and protest , something which the regime was rather fearful of . With no alternative means of political participation , the working class was rapidly becoming self - aware and radical , while the regime , with a large number of critical intellectuals torn between the rigor of party policy and the difficulty of reform , proved unable to control economic decline and the social outcry against party elitism and decadence . A state that claimed to hold the interests of workers as its highest principle was rapidly losing support from just that group . The strikers of were no longer easily drawn back into the folds of socialist society which had , according to them , structurally failed to improve itself . A number of critical intellectuals , however , come to the aid of the workers . The created effective means of communication between different workers ' groups , and bridged the gap of solidarity between intellectuals and workers . Nonetheless , the development of must be viewed as a broad expression of workers ' grievances with the sympathy and support of a number of critical intellectuals .",0 "The early state owed its creation in to both warfare and ideology . Ideology , as well as other factors including competition for land , caused warfare between the cities of . This warfare resulted in defeating the king of and physically uniting the lands under one king . He united the people of psychologically by creating religion based on the gods they all shared . was once thought to be a myth but work by the historian , , describes a king that came from the south and united . His Greek name was and modern have identified him as , the victorious king depicted on what is now known as the ' Narmer Palette ' , which was discovered in . The war won by was an important catalyst in the creation of the state , and his methods concerning the organisation of the people and their ideology , helped to maintain this unification and prevent further inter tribal strife . As said "" Narmer became master of a land that required only the organised effort of its inhabitants to realise its ample resources "" . The also played an important role as it not only allowed the agricultural industry to develop , but it was an important means of communication that helped trade and assisted in keeping control of . < heading > Religion Although religion was ultimately an important factor in the unification of , it also caused divisions between the cities . The believed in the same gods but each city also had different ideas as to which gods were the most powerful and important . Each city had a ' patron ' god and their own hierarchy of the gods . The stories about how the gods were created were also different . For example , some towns claimed that created the other gods through masturbation whereas others believed he spat them out . This caused tension between the cities , as each one was certain they were right . Eventually some towns worked together but there was still a division between the north and south of . The north became known as and the south became . These ' lands ' worshipped the same gods but still had different religious hierarchies . The goddess of Buto became the protector of and the goddess became the protector of . Despite the fact that these goddesses caused tension between the north and the south , who both thought their respective goddess was greater and should therefore be worshipped accordingly by the other cities of , they also helped unite . When defeated his enemies he joined the crowns of upper and to symbolise the unification of the lands and to establish himself as supreme ruler . He also combined the symbols of and ( a falcon and a cobra ) and used them to symbolise royalty as well as the joining of the religions . combined all the Enneads and Ogeads of the various towns into one hierarchy , ensuring that deity from each cult had a prominent position . Where there were many gods commanding aspect of life e.g. , Amun , Amen and the Aten were all gods of the sun , they were merged as or attributed with slightly different tasks and powers . ( Ra and were joined as the sun god and ' king ' of gods and the was the sun and sunlight , not a human manifestation ) The stories of gods and creation were also combined in a somewhat confusing manner . Basic explanations of how the world came to be got more complicated as more gods and forms of gods became involved so no one would feel resentful . If a particular group felt their deity was being suppressed they may have rebelled and caused more conflict . < heading > Warfare Modern archaeologists know that conflict was occurring between tribes before came to power . These villages or tribes were also known as ' Nomes ' . Some argue that these early confrontations were due to racial differences . It is said the "" inhabitants of were generally longheaded and small of stature , and occasionally their skulls showed signs of admixture ( ) . However in Lower the people were taller with a different skull structure suggesting they had origins . These people split into different hunting tribes and each adopted a different cult symbol that caused the divisions to widen . The chieftains of these tribes often waged war on his neighbours to gain more land and power . Occasionally some tribes formed alliances to defeat a common powerful enemy , but they soon turned on each other as soon as the threat was gone . It is also likely that many of the battles were over land . Early tribes wanted more territory in which to hunt and later towns wanted more fertile land to farm . Like , the chieftains made palettes to celebrate their success in battle . Other artefacts , such as knives , have been found depicting battle scenes that give some indication of the conflict before the creation of the early state . A flint knife found at el Araq shows people attacking each other with clubs and sticks , and bodies floating in the water beside a boat . It appears that although the was later used to consolidate the unification of , it had once allowed many tribes easy access to neighbouring tons and villages , therefore encouraging conflict . Recently new evidence has been discovered that suggests that there was a king before who had fought battles in the hope of uniting the tribes . He is only known as , as his cult symbol was the Scorpion . However he was obviously unsuccessful as conflict between towns and "" continued until united them in around . Unification was then developed and consolidated by Narmers successor and the official Pharaoh of Egypt , . name was Min , which is a classical form of , leading to arguments as to whether was or Narmer . Archaeologists agree , however , that it was who united whether he was known as Menes or not . < heading > Conclusion The early state was created due to the influence of both warfare and ideology . was slightly more important in the unifying of but ideology was important in ensuring this unification and creating unity in the minds of people who had once been at war with each other If ideology had not been a factor in the unification , all would have achieved was conquering another land . The people may have rebelled and would have divided again . On the other hand , if had not been plagued by conflict for and if had not gone into battle , may never have unified the way it did . Tribes may have overpowered another eventually , causing some form of unification but the victors may have dominated over the other tribes . This would have caused tension and conflict that would result in the division of . It appears that warfare and ideology were not only equally important in the founding of the state , but they were also responsible for maintaining it .","< heading > Introduction and Background Theory < /heading > The Gamma ray is a high - energy form of electromagnetic radiation and often occurs as a product of radioactive decay . This experiment uses a radioactive source that emits these rays , and other pieces of equipment to study the various properties that gamma rays possess . To begin with , we obtain a spectrum of the radiation from this particular source to study its features and explain them scientifically . , we scatter the gamma rays upon electrons to examine a common property known as , and then finally observe the effect of absorptive materials upon these rays . < heading>1 . and Detector Characteristics1 . . Detecting and processing Gamma Rays In order to obtain quantitative data of gamma rays and their energies we must use various pieces of equipment to detect them , and then display the information we require in a suitable manner . The main piece of apparatus used to for detection will be a sodium iodide ( ) scintillation counter . This makes use of primary feature of gamma rays , known as the photoelectric effect , in order to change the rays into electrical information that we can manipulate with a computer[2 ] . A multi - channel analyser subsequently stores and processes this information ready for use . uses a crystal and a photo - multiplier to convert any gamma rays that fall upon the crystal into voltage pulses . The photoelectric effect states that if a high - energy photon is incident on a certain material , it will eject a photoelectron from the surface of that material with the same energy as the photon that displaced it . In this case , the gamma ray photon ejects a photoelectron from the crystal , which in turn emits a light photon from the crystal with energy proportional to that of the original gamma ray photon . These light photons are collected by the photo - multiplier , converted into electrons by the same principle , and are amplified into a voltage pulse . Therefore , for each gamma ray that strikes the crystal , a charged pulse will appear on the anode of the photo - multiplier , where the voltage of the pulse is proportional to the original energy of the gamma ray[3][6 ] . < picture/>The Multi - Channel Pulse Height Analyser takes these voltage pulses and sorts them according to height ( voltage ) into of channels . The pulses are recorded as ' counts ' in corresponding channels , and are later calibrated so that each voltage channel represents a given energy . The information is finally displayed on the computer monitor for extraction . So if data is recorded for a given time , the number of counts in a certain channel will then denote the number of gamma rays with that specific corresponding energy that have been detected in that time[7 ] . consequence of this type of analyser is that it introduces what is known as a ' dead time ' into the calculations . This is the time that the analyser can not detect a count , as it is still processessing the previous one . The monitor therefore displays the real time , the actual time that counts can be detected as the ' live time ' , and the ' dead time ' in which they can not be , which is simply the live subtracted from the real . This experiment uses a radioactive isotope of ( Cs137 ) Caesium that emits gamma radiation of energy , equal to 662keV. Therefore , if we place the detection apparatus near this source we would expect to see a line from just channel ( that corresponds to this energy value ) in which counts have been recorded . This is known as the ' photopeak ' for the radioactive source and is shown in Figure . < picture/>1 . . and > As described above , the scintillator uses the photoelectric effect to convert the energy of these incoming gamma rays into photoelectrons and processes these to give a signal , so it is important to remember that the actual spectra will really be an energy spectrum of these electrons that have received energy from the gamma rays . Therefore , unlike the idealisation shown in Figure , the spectra we record may display many more features due to other physical processes that have caused absorption of these rays . Some of these features are effects of the property of gamma rays , in that they undergo scattering . In reference to the spectrum characteristics , the scattering occurs inside the detector crystal , and hence is a result of the equipment used . Later parts of the experiment will investigate this scattering property further but it is necessary to discuss the Compton Effect in order to understand the spectra we obtain . In experimented with high frequency rays by scattering them upon electrons in a carbon target , and he observed that the wavelength of these scattered Rays was greater than that of those that were incident on the target [ 5 ] . This change in wavelength of the radiation as a function of the angle ( FORMULA ) with which the rays were scattered through with respect to their incident path on the target was found to be : FORMULA ( ] where me = the mass of the electron in the sample = h = 's constant = x 10 -34 Js c = the speed of light = -8 ms -1 By then referring to the Planck hypothesis , ( Equation 2 ) it could be shown that the energy of these was decreasing upon collision , and also changed with scattering angle FORMULA ( Equation 3 ) . FORMULA ( ) where E is the energy of the radiation ( J ) υ is the frequency of the radiation ( Hz ) λ is the wavelength of the radiation ( m ) If we consider this situation as demonstrated by , and shown in Figure , it is clear that as the incident ray collides with the electron , some of the initial energy of this ray ( E1 ) is transferred to the electron ( Ee ) , which then becomes known as the recoil electron . The final energy of the ray ( E2 ) is hence less than before , and in accordance with this , the final wavelength λ2 has increased from the initial λ1 . < figure/>Combining Equations and we obtain the ratio of the energies of this photon before and after collision with the electron and hence the final energy E2 . It is this equation below that we that attempted to verify in the Compton Scattering section of the experiment[1 ] FORMULA ( ) In this equation the term "" mec2 "" represents the ' rest - mass energy ' of the electron , which by simple calculation can be found to be 511keV. < enote > This value was taken from [ p302 ] The electron - volt ( ) is a unit of energy commonly used at the atomic scale . The value is determined by dividing the energy in by the charge on an electron 1.6x10 - 19C. < /enote > Now we refer back to the case in which , upon detection , the gamma ray collides with a free electron inside then NaI crystal . The result of this is that some of the gamma ray 's energy ( E1 ) is transferred to the electron by the process , where this Ee of the electron is equal to . Now if the scattered gamma ray escapes the crystal only a fraction of the incident energy is present in the electron which will be detected by the computer . From Equation 3 it is clear that the amount of energy absorbed by the electron will also depend upon the angle with which it is struck by the gamma ray , and hence we see this wide range of energies that are detected , known as as in Figure . < picture/>Simple conservation laws tell us that the maximum possible energy ( Emax ) that can have been delivered to the electron occurs at an angle of o and this is described as the Compton Edge[2 ] . In practice , the photopeak and appeared much less sharp due to the electrons emitted from the photo cathode with the flash of light . Each interaction will cause a statistical spread of the number of electrons emitted during this process of analysis , so that the spectrum features appear smeared . Taking into account all of these other sources that can distort the signal received by the analyser , the spectrum we expected would appear more like that in Figure . < picture/>It was then possible to determine just how ' smeared ' these effects were by calculating properties of the energy photopeak . These were known as and the Relative efficiency of the detector ' ε ' . < heading>2 . < /heading > As well as investigating the energy of the scattered rays as described by Equation 3 , we also examined the scattering cross - section as it varied with angle . The - Nishina corrects for relativistic quantum mechanics to give a more exact angular distribution of scattered gamma - rays[7 ] : FORMULA ( ] ro is the classical radius of the electron = -15 m also FORMULA ( ) < list > N = number of photons incident on detector per unit time n = number of scattering electrons in the scatterer in the path of the beam I = incident flux of photons ΔΩ = solid angle subtended by the counter at the scattering point Therefore , to obtain the values for the cross section we needed to adapt our values of the count rate ' N ' i.e. the number of photons detected per , by taking measurements based on the geometry of the system . < heading>3 . Absorption Spectroscopy All types of radiation are absorbed by matter , but this absorption varies depending on the type of radiation and the material used to absorb it . Gamma radiation is very penetrating and will pass through many materials , but at the same time some photons will be absorbed and the intensity reduced . This absorption can occur in ways . The of these is photoelectric absorption , by which the photon gives all of its energy to an electron in the material causing it to escape , providing this energy is great enough to overcome the binding energy of the atom that contains it . , during scattering , some gamma ray energy is transferred to the scattering electrons , and finally in pair production all the gamma energy is absorbed and produces an electron and a positron . In all of these processes the incident gamma ray loses energy on passing through the material and hence the intensity of the beam will be reduced . It can be shown experimentally that if a beam of intensity is incident on a slab of thickness t ( m ) , the intensity of the emerging beam I will be governed by the following equation [ 1 ] : FORMULA ( ) where FORMULA is the linear absorption coefficient in ( m -1 ) This experiment used lead filters of varying thickness in order to test this equation . This was then repeated at different angles ie . photopeak energies , in order to find a relationship between FORMULA and energy E2 . < heading > Experimental Details Before any measurements could be taken it was necessary to calibrate the channels to correspond to energies to give the results meaning . The high voltage supply that powers the detector , must be set to 800V and switched on before any readings can be taken . We leave the detector to record a spectrum of the Caesium 137 ( ) source ( that should resemble Figure ) and locate the photopeak . The monitor will display the live , real and dead time counters , and each ' count ' will be recorded as a point on screen . We then place another radioactive source Americium ( ) in front of the detector and once again leave the detector to record these counts on top of the previous spectrum . It should be clear that there are now photopeaks , corresponding to of the , and the other 57.5keV that we are told is the energy of the Americium source . By setting the software to ' calibrate ' and determining , as accurately as possible , the corresponding channel for each photopeak we assign each channel a given energy to take measurements from in later sections . < heading>1 . and . . . < /heading > Radioactive decay is a random process , and hence as each count represents a single decay , the number of counts obtained in a set interval of time will display the statistics determined by the random process known as statistics . application of statistics is that the square root of the mean value of some readings FORMULA should be equal to the standard deviation of those same set of readings . In order to demonstrate this we must use the software to set up a region of interest that contains the full energy peak of the source . Then each time the detector is left to run the computer will show the total number or counts collected in this region over a given time . In this example the region of interest was set up and the software left for a real time of , times , and the total number of counts in the photopeak was noted for each recording . < heading > 2 . . . < /heading > The detector was left to record for until a clear spectrum could be seen for the sample . This was saved and printed and the various features were labelled and explained scientifically . < heading > 2 . . . Detector Characteristics For this same spectrum , typical properties of the detector were examined . The of these was the energy resolution of the photopeak ' R ' where FORMULA , FORMULA is the full width at maximum height ( ) and E is the peak = ( see Figure ) . As shown in Figure we wanted the photopeak to be a single line , but the detector introduces this smearing effect . This resolution is an indication of that extent . A further indication of this was the relative efficiency of the detector that showed the fraction of the total flux that contributed to the photopeak , given by FORMULA [ ] . This was done by recording the total number of counts over this time and then setting up a region of interest , with errors , around the photopeak to see how many counts were contained within that area . < figure/>Finally , the detector was left for and from this the total number of counts were recorded and the dead time , to find the dead time per count for this given activity . < heading > 2 . . . . . as a function of angle After a typical spectra had been obtained and appeared to show the correct features , we were able to test the formula to verify the relationship between scattered energy and scattering angle . The iron rod , that acts as the scattering target , is placed in between the gamma ray source and the detector and the position of the detector was varied with the angle via the markings on the apparatus . This is displayed in Figure . At each of these angles spectra were recorded and we then determined , with errors , the energy peak of the scattered rays ( E2 ) for each one . It was impractical to use angles o as the beam would saturate the detector and the results would be unreliable . The values of ( ) used were FORMULA at o intervals , and these results were later compared to the theoretical values we would expect for this source at the same angles . < picture/> 2 . . . - Nishina Cross - section Here , the iron rod target was replaced by the large sphere in order that we could find the number of scattering electrons ' n ' in this sample for later calculations . As above we , once again , varied the detector with angle and recorded spectra at a range of angles FORMULA at o intervals , each for of real time . The sphere was then removed and a further set of readings taken at each angle to act as the background count for each FORMULA . All the spectra were saved and suitable regions of interest set up around the photopeak to show the integrated number of counts in this region . The background integrated counts were subtracted from the scattered counts for these angles , and these values were modified to give the cross - section values . To obtain these values we needed to find ( i ) the number of scattering electrons ' n ' , ( ii ) unit solid angle subtended by the detector ' ' and ( iii ) the gamma ray flux at the sample ' I ' , as shown in Equation 7 . In order to do this , we recorded the mass ' m ' and radius ' R ' of the scattering sphere , noted the activity of the sample at the source , the distance 'd ' between the source and the scatterer , and the width of the aperture of the detector ' 2r ' . These are shown in Figure . < picture/> 2 . . Absorption Spectroscopy < /heading> 2 . . . < /heading > For this section we were given a table of theoretical values for absorption coefficients and we wished to verify those that corresponded to scattered energies in the range . In order to test this relationship we selected angles that would show this energy range as related by Equation 3 . Hence , we chose . For each of these angles we recorded spectra for , using the large rod as a scatterer and with , , , , and sheets of lead in front of the detector . The values for were those when no leads sheets were blocking the beam . The thickness of the lead sheets was measured using a micrometer in different places and an average taken for the value of ' t ' to reduce errors as the lead surfaces were quite uneven . At each FORMULA a region of interest set up around the photopeak and these channels were noted to ensure the same area was observed for each attenuation , and the total number of counts recorded at each reading . These were then manipulated to fit Equation 6 and test the attenuation relationship of gamma rays . < heading>2 . . . Attenuation Coefficients as a function of Energy < /heading > The data obtained above was used to determine values of μ at each angle ie . energy . These were then separately plotted to show the absorption coefficient as a function of energy and to find a relationship between the . < heading>3 . Experimental Results < /heading>1 . and . . . < /heading > The photopeak was taken to be in the region of interest between channels and that correspond to energy values of FORMULA around the peak . The readings below are the number of counts found in this region after of real time , repeated times . This was to show a key property of 's statistics in that the standard deviation of a set of results FORMULA where FORMULA is the mean of the set of readings . < table/>For these readings we get FORMULA and hence FORMULA . We then analysed the values using excel to get a value of FORMULA which is almost a error between this and FORMULA ! Instead , by taking away the most extreme values we reduced FORMULA to , so FORMULA and also FORMULA was now giving much better agreement . < heading>3 . . . Spectra After the spectra shown in Figure was obtained . The cursor was moved to the positions labelled and values for the various features were shown on screen . Errors were estimated and these features shown were then compared with their theoretical positions . < ( photopeak ) = ( given ) . As was more drastically smeared ends of it were considered to give B = keV , and B ' = keV and so an average value for the edge of FORMULA . FORMULA < heading>3 . . . Detector Characteristics For this same spectrum , the cursor was placed at different regions in the photopeak to determine the features of the equipment ' RE ' the energy resolution and the relative efficiency . maximum height was estimated and FORMULA was taken to be . Therefore FORMULA . If we assume the same percentage error in RE as in FORMULA we get an energy resolution percentage of FORMULA . Then for the relative efficiency we used the number of counts to give , an efficiency of . We estimated an error of FORMULA counts in the photopeak and so roughly of the efficiency . Consequently , by rounding , we found . For a spectrum of long we recorded counts in total . The displays showed : < list > REAL 5:59.85 sLIVE sDEAD s And so for an activity of counts per second ( as shown on equipment ) we see a dead time of FORMULA . Hence for each count there is a delay of this number of before the next count can be processed . < heading>3 . . < /heading>3 . . . as a function of angle < /heading > We determined the theoretical values from Equation 3 and compared these with the position of the energy peaks at each angle . We estimate an error of each side of the photopeak due to smearing . < table/>3 . . . - Nishina Cross - section After recording the integrated and background counts at each angle we were able to correct for background radiation by subtracting the values . These background corrected counts are shown in 3 . It was then necessary to take into account the absolute detector photopeak efficiency FORMULA as it varied with energy . For example , a value of FORMULA means that for every counts the detector only registers as , so all of the background - corrected counts needed to be divided by the correct FORMULA value to account for this . We were given that for NaI detectors FORMULA and that for FORMULA , FORMULA where ' a ' is a proportionality constant . This constant was found by substituting in these values to give a = . By inverting Equation 3 we determined the theoretical energy values for each FORMULA and hence the corresponding detector photopeak efficiency , and then finally divided the background corrected counts by the corresponding FORMULA values for the fully corrected counts . Now to convert these counts to cross - section we refer back to : FORMULA ( ) < list > N = number of photons incident on detector per unit time n = number of scattering electrons in the scatterer in the path of the beam I = incident flux of photons ΔΩ = solid angle subtended by the counter at the scattering point'n ' , the number of electrons by finding the number of moles and atoms in that given mass via some chemistry . The mass of the iron sample was due to discrepancies in the spherical shape . Using FORMULA we know mole is g and hence we have 0.502mol in this sample . We can find the number of atoms by multiplying by 's constant x 10 23[12,p.416 ] , and the number of electrons by then multiplying by from FORMULA . By carrying the same percentage error as in the mass measurement we determine : FORMULA electrons ( an error of ) ' I ' , the flux at the centre of the scatterer as FORMULA where FORMULA in Figure . Activity at sample quoted at 8 disintegrations per on apparatus , x given as [ Labscript ] , d measured at , R measured at FORMULA . Hence , an error of and so an error of in z 2 and in I. FORMULA . unit solid angle using FORMULA . R is quoted above and the aperture of the detector . Adding percentage errors in these measurements gives FORMULA We then divide the FORMULA corrected count rate by . Summing all these percentage errors we get error introduced when converting counts in cross section values . Also , assuming a error in each of the primary and background corrected counts we can add error bars of to the cross - section graph . < table/>3 . . Absorption Spectroscopy < /heading>3 . . . > By manipulating Equation 6 we can see that : FORMULA ( ) and therefore if we plot a graph of -Ln(I / Io ) against t the gradient will give us a value for the absorption coefficient . Once again , discrepancies in finding the photopeak lead us to an error of roughly FORMULA in the number of counts . The errors in t were found by taking the greatest difference between the average of the values . The errors in I / Io were simply the sums of the percentage errors hence FORMULA and this was carried forward in the logarithm , also . < table/>It was impossible to obtain any reliable results for FORMULA as the photopeak was so smeared that the peak was inconclusive . This would have left us with values to determine the correlation between the absorption coefficient and energy , hence we took further readings at an angle of o as angles lower than this caused saturation of the detector . For the same reason , the readings were only taken for one and a half minutes of live time but we were still able to find a value for μ at this energy . An example graph for FORMULA to show how FORMULA was found is shown below . Using the errors bars we found the greatest possible difference in the gradient and hence the error in the coefficient values . < figure/>3 . . . Attenuation Coefficients as a function of Energy < /heading > The theoretical values for the absorption coefficient as a function of energy were plotted , and then the values obtained above were used to compare these values in the energy range FORMULA . From these graphs we attempted to find the type of relation between the properties . Once again we assume an error of FORMULA in finding the photopeak and used these values , shown in . < table/>4 . Discussion4 . . and In order to test that gamma decay was a random radioactive process that obeyed 's statistics we wished to show that ; square root of the average is equal to the standard deviation of a set of readings . We managed to obtain FORMULA and b.fo but only if we ignored the most extreme readings . This proves that 's statistics are obeyed but that there were other errors to be considered such as human timing , computer analysis in recording counts , that would be improved if more readings were made for longer and . Also , if we refer to Figure we can see that it takes a lot of readings for the average to fully converge to a given value and hence more readings will be more accurate . < figure/ > FORMULA The experimental spectrum and its features as shown in Figure agreed well with the expectations of Figure with the full energy peak , plateau and all clearly visible . The theoretical FORMULA for was to be using the formula below [ ] . From the spectrum we determined proving to be well within the boundaries introduced by the smearing effect of the detector . FORMULA ( 7 ) We also expected to see a ' backscatter peak ' at , caused by gamma rays that have interacted with the materials that surround the detector by scattering also . This Ebackscatter for gamma rays of , found when FORMULA can be found more precisely from the formula given below FORMULA ( which gives FORMULA of FORMULA . From the spectrum we found this energy as , showing that the experimental peak lies just outside of the theoretical value according to estimated errors . The position is very nearly correct but shifted slightly to a higher energy which is probably due to the fact that some photons are scattering from materials between FORMULA and hence moving the peak . Also found , as shown as feature D in Figure is a peak at an energy of FORMULA which is most possibly an escape peak that arises from photo - electric absorbtion in the shielding materials and are typically [ ] Other features observed from this spectrum include the energy resolution RE that shows the extent to which the photopeak has deviated from a single valued straight line of keV and was found at FORMULA so the peak is quite easily resolvable for this spectrum . However , at larger scattering angles the photopeak became much flatter and wider as the detector adds a much larger error . Also , the relative detector efficiency analyses the counts so FORMULA accounts for background radiation and other features showing that of all counts appear as the photopeak showing just how prominent the other features of the spectra are . Finally , the dead time for was of quite small proportion at -5 counts / but this may play a much bigger role at larger counts . This could be accounted for as lost time and the results monitored , but if it remains constant then the proportions could still be reliable enough . < heading>2 . < /heading > To verify the Compton Energy formula as given by Equation 3 we plotted our experimental values with the theoretical values as determined by this equation , as shown in Figure . From this we see an almost perfect agreement in terms of both shape and value , for scattered energy as a function of angle . All results fit within error bars of , except the value of . This may be due to some saturation of the detector at the low angle that will pick up radiation from the straight - through beam . < figure/ > FORMULA Similarly , for the - Nishina cross - section graph ( Figure ) we see the correct shape and order of magnitude of the measured values compared to theoretical values as given by Equation 4 , but some of the values after o scattering angles seem to settle near -30 as the photopeaks become much flatter and undeterminable . < figure/ > FORMULA FORMULA < heading>4 . . Absorption Spectroscopy < /heading > Firstly , the theoretical values of absorption coefficients were plotted to determine some kind of relation between this and the energy they were measured at to give Figure , which showed different kinds of correlation at high and low energy values . < figure/>We then looked more closely in the range of the energy values that corresponded to the angles used in the measurements and , expecting an exponential relation from Figure , plotted to natural log of coefficients against energy to give a straight line as in Figure . All values fit within experimental errors but the main problem with this argument is that there are points , and the extra point determined early at o only made a minor improvement on this . For these values it would be fair to assume that Ln(μ ) = -1.71 Ln(E 2 ) + 15.851 and hence the amount of absorption that occurs in a material will depend exponentially upon the energy of the rays used . < figure/> Conclusions < /heading > This experiment proved well the statistical nature of radioactive decay , and statistics demonstrated that the error in a reading could be given by its square root and that results would improve in accuracy if left for longer and more data recorded . The spectrum obtained by the detector fitted well to theoretical predictions as did its features , and the characteristics of the detector were able to tell us limitations in the method so that we could account for them , e.g. with the absolute detector efficiency η , energy resolution RE and photopeak efficiency ε . Both the energy and the - section as a function of angle were in good agreement with theory within experimental error , but various aspects of geometry could be improved . The various measurements and corrections that needed to be made added a great deal of error into some values . Also , determining the photopeak and also the background radiation was always quite difficult due to the operation of the detector as explained in the primary sections , so a more efficient detector would always be beneficial . Finally , the attenuation coefficients were found successfully and also agreed well with data but needed many more evenly spread readings in order to confidently predict a relation with scattered energy , as points could agree with a many theories . Overall , further and longer readings would help to confirm many of the results found here but this experiment was very useful in statistically verifying the various properties possessed by gamma rays .",0 "The focuses on central character , , and his psychological changes as he moves from a prescribed , reserved way of life and love to a strong sensual desire to live more fully and to live only for himself . This culminates in a frightening ethic of individualism based purely on his impulses , be they positive or negative . The result is that he becomes so involved in himself that he neglects his wife to the point of abandonment , and she dies alone . Of course other characters are involved in this transformation . His wife and his enigmatic friend Ménalque play particularly important roles , however there is often critical debate over the function and validity of the as actual human characters . is variously described by critics as ' spirit of waiting , endurance and immobility ' and ' l'honnetete ' personified . She is generally agreed to be imbued with the noble characteristics of love , faith and patience , which she shows to her husband ' with the strength of her love ... tender care she took care of me ' . However this story is in person narrative through the eyes of Michel alone . It soon becomes clear that he lies throughout the narrative ' ... would have stopped me ' pg26 when there is nothing to suggest she would be so controlling ' I seemed to recall I was quite calm ' pg26 when he has just described the horror he felt when coughing up a blood clot . We are aware that we can not , therefore , take anything that he says at face value . Many critics complain that , for example , says very little , she is often described as ' silent ' and because of this can not be analysed as a person or character in her own right . However if we are seeing her from 's perspective , it is important to note that firstly , he only recognises her as an individual when he leaves to go to with her ' she to whom I had attached my life had a whole real life of her own ' . Even after this occurs , the person he discovers her to be is someone attached to his previously gentle and intellectual way of life and thinking . As his worldview becomes more and more self - centred , she appears to him as an obstacle , stopping him from doing what he wants , which is whatever pleases him at the time . may well be a very intelligent character , full of depth , but from the viewpoint of our protagonist that really does not matter at all . is silent perhaps , because Michel does not want to listen to her . < fnote > Fowlie , Gide : His Life and Art pg 51 ( : ) < /fnote> Gide , pg ( Penguin ) 2000 ( All further page references are taken from this edition ) < /fnote> Fowlie , : His Life and Art pg ( : ) < /fnote > She represents what he is rebelling against , his former self . She is also later associated with his illness , something that he loathes and detests . Michel identifies as ' weak ' and ' spoiled ' when she is affected by the illness he probably gave to her in the place , and increasingly abandons her to follow his own pursuits . reads this story as ' the drama of fulfilment of the self ' and that this involves the ' sacrifice ' of the weaker : < fnote > Dickman , "" , "" in , Vol . , . pg published by - accessed via URL < /fnote>'By the weak is often meant those that are the most delicate , the most principled , and the most moral ; because those who have not dared reject moral constraint can not fully realise their own self and can not come into close contact with those who might have helped them to do so . Placed before this dilemma , the stronger are those who choose themselves , unequivocally ( especially if they feel real value in themselves ) as much justification in this choice as in the less egocentric alternatives . ' Dickman , "" , "" in , Vol . , . pg published by - accessed via URL < /fnote > This is basically how Michel ends up viewing the world . notes this perfectly ' it leaves out the weak ' pg112 . He refers to his new self as authentic and true , because he thinks that to truly live , one must simply follow impulse and even claims that the inhuman impulses are the purest and therefore most authentic and true . However , that this results in the death of an innocent woman casts a severely critical light on individualism and the extremes it can lead to . is therefore key to 's critique of the concept , even though she speaks and acts very little . The fact that she is so carelessly pushed into the background speaks volumes for her . We can not really tell if she is the weak character claims she is , because he is a completely untrustworthy source of information , but even if she is , the reader can not justify his treatment of her . 's view of as an obstacle is clearly a biased view . The reader can quite easily see as a positive force in 's life , constantly attempting to save him from completely indulging his egoism . Without her death there would be no consequences to 's actions , nothing to bring him to his senses . She is the only character who immediately sees and responds to 's metamorphosis ' you like what is inhuman . ' In her death she helps him see what he has done and is still doing to himself , but even all her faith and love can not stop him . He refuses even her prayers , for fear of being indebted to God and is determined to cure himself . He also attempts to hide his new self from her ' I offered only an image of myself which ... became falser and falser each day ' . When does speak she makes it clear that she sees the change in her husband ' I understand your doctrine ... but it leaves out the weak ' pg112 . However it is possible to see as a purely representational device . In this light she represents physically 's spiritual state , and as she weakens , so does 's grasp on his previous life , until finally she spends her last night on earth completely alone , dying without comfort . She represents the final rejection of 's old ways ; he has pushed them away to the point where there is no going back . even rejects her rosary on her deathbed . His new personality has not just destroyed but consumed and transformed his old life to the point where it is unrecognisable . Another way to view the character of , again in a more representational then human way , is the balancing force to the character . The influence of this character on is undeniable . Michel leaves his wife dying in order to simply drink and talk with this figure . Most critics view him as the catalyst in the story . Before meeting him Michel is in a ' tenuous state of equilibrium ' , his newfound impulse to "" live "" at any cost balanced only by his wife 's patience and care . Ménalque tips the scales completely , offering to Michel a kind of individualism - in - action , not just a way of thinking , but also a way of living . Michel has not yet put his thoughts into real practice at this point and the prospect is appealing . < fnote > Brée , Germaine Gide pg137 ( : ) < /fnote > compares 's relationship with to that of Gide and his relationship with . Although some events in the book closely match those in Gide 's life , ( like his journey to , an illness , and a marriage requested by a parent on their deathbed ) , equating the personalities of his characters with people in his life is problematic . claims that ' recalls certain aspects of Gide himself . "" She also says was a very conflicted man and I find it far more likely that rather than using one character to represent himself , if he does represent himself at all , he would use all the characters to reflect the conflicting aspect s of his personality e.g. 's faith as the influence of his religious upbringing . < fnote > Sheridan , "" in Gide , pg vii ( Penguin ) 2000 < /fnote> Brée , pg136 ( : ) < /fnote > comments on critics that suggest that also highlights 's latent homosexuality , previously hinted at in his preoccupation with the appearance of ' That is what I fell in love with - his health . This small body was in beautiful health ' . Indeed makes this allusion about his ' obvious attraction for 's appearance ' . however is adamant that himself makes no suggestion that would encourage Michel in this way , that he merely shows him the ethical system by which he can live , as he does . makes the point that critics of the novel overly pinpoint 's homosexuality , and that this is not its main focus ' much has been said about his latent homosexuality , a great deal too much ' . However I would point out that 's speech is often very affectionate and could be construed to be the language of attraction ' "" This sadness this caused me revealed to me how strong my affection for you is ... "" ... grabbing my hand .... "" Can I count on you to spend this last night with me ? "" ' pg82 I think that the new system of ethics being offered by , in order to be based on individualism and basic impulse must necessarily include sexual impulses . It is the way that is so full of life that attracts the ailing Michel to him in the place and starts him off on the road to pure egoism . If does not highlight or suggest the indulgence of 's sexuality with explicitly with him , the life he proposes and lives out himself would do so implicitly ; it would be what it truest and most authentic for . At the time it was written , this would have been deemed an unnatural impulse ; the exact kind that Michel has decided is in fact the truest . < fnote > Bettinson , A Student 's Guide to Gide pg21 ( : ) < /fnote> Brée , Germaine "" "" in The . No . May 1957pg published by - accessed 23/4/06 via URL < /fnote > Brée goes on to describe as a ' true pre - Sartrean hero who assumes a mode of life that corresponds to his exigencies ' and who ' warns rather than perverts ' Michel . Having re - read the passages involving , I can only disagree . The only way to take up this view is if we view himself as the embodiment of a warning , which fails to pick up on . I can only find evidence in the text which points to goading Michel on further into his self - obsession and immoral lifestyle ' The slightest hint that you might be one of them [ people of principle ] froze me in mid sentence . I hoped I was mistaken .... ' Pg82 < fnote > Brée , pg138 ( : ) < /fnote > Davies makes a very scathing judgement of both characters and picks up on an issue discussed by many critics . It is often commented that 's writing is very dramatic , his characters often not well developed , which leads to the reader 's difficulty in being really engaged with the story . Davies goes further than this , stating that ' minor characters exist purely in terms of their functional purpose , which is to serve as stimuli for setting in motion the psychological reactions of Michel ' . For him they are ' cogs in a wheel ' who ' hardly exist in their own right ' with ' little more than symbolic value ' . He describes a mouthpiece for the ideas which are to insinuate themselves gradually into 's mind . ' He is ' a phase in the development of 's mental attitude ' , the ' ideal embodiment of certain principles of individualism ' ' so ideal that he fails to come to life ' appearing and disappearing once his ' mission as converter is accomplished . "" As for , she is reduced to a character ' without the depth or substance of real life and existing primarily for the reactions she provokes . ' < fnote > Davies , : ' L'Immoraliste ' and ' etroite ' pg ( : ) < /fnote> Davies , : ' L'Immoraliste ' and ' etroite ' pg ( : ) < /fnote> Davies , : ' L'Immoraliste ' and ' etroite ' pg ( : ) < /fnote > There are varying critical responses to this question of reality and humanity in the characters who appear to be the angel and devil on 's shoulders . suggests that ' succeeds in pervading the work with a potent charm of presence ' and says she is ' silent , but the reader has no difficulty in imagining her thoughts . ' Yet in the same article she refers to her as ' more a warning than a woman . ' < fnote > Thomas , Gide : Ethic of the pg ( : and ) < /fnote> Fowlie , Gide : His Life and Art pg ( : ) < /fnote > A lot of what says about appears to me to be true . He lacks any real human qualities and disappears as suddenly and mystically as he appears . Marceline at least has positive human qualities we can relate to . However it is true that most of the other characters in the book simply provoke reactions in . Marceline tries to bring him back to his former self , but ends providing something for him to rebel against , and gives him the final push he needs to put his thoughts into action . 's death serves to awaken Michel to what he has caused with his relentlessly self - centred lifestyle . Beyond this the characters do and say very little . I would argue , however that this does not make them unimportant characters . Their dimensionality may be due to the fact that sees people this way because he is so wrapped up in himself . The fact that their functions are very clear in the novel may well be a device to make the reader more aware of Michel and the effect they have on him , rather than what they are like themselves . At , the only developed character in this story is the man protagonist , through whose eyes we continually see . He is far too concerned with himself to be bothered with anyone else , and accordingly so are we . What I find interesting about his relationship with is that in following his advice he is almost returning to ethical system he was following at the start . He complains that ever since he was born he has never really lived , just followed rules set down by others , mindlessly and unquestioningly . Although he does attempt to question 's version of individualism , eventually he finds himself agreeing . ' You ca n't expect them all to be different ... I realized what I had said was stupid ' pg81 . In my opinion this shows Michel to be the weak character that realises is excluded from his philosophy . He is not even strong enough to put his own theory into practice without the push from . expands on this , stating that the book is ' an exploration of what can happen if such ideas fall into the hands of someone too weak to sustain them ' . He also supports my point that Michel can not live the individualist life that proposes ' this supposed complains of his lack of will and is reduced to calling on his friends to get him out of his lethargy . ' < fnote > Sheridan , "" in Gide , The Immoralist pg viii ( Penguin ) 2000 < /fnote> Sheridan , "" in Gide , The Immoralist pg ix ( Penguin ) 2000 < /fnote > Ménalque is also a key part in Gide 's satire . He represents an ideal to which becomes determined to live , but can not without sacrificing something , which ends up being , the only one who really looked out for his ethical well being . Davies points out this idealism as the characteristic of , which prevents him from coming to life for the reader . Perhaps again this was intentional on the part of Gide , he is a product of these ideal values and therefore can not be seen as a real person . People like Ménalque simply do not exist because his lifestyle is impossibly idealistic . and are difficult to analyse because they appear so little in the story in comparison to the main protagonist . However this does not make them irrelevant because they both have huge impacts on the way Michel thinks , which is of course the main focus of the novel . Gide is not concerned with creating a cast of complex characters who we grow to know and care bout , and besides , he has one character that is complex enough on his own to make up for the others .","Words used to describe range from ' raw and honest ' to ' bleakness , futility , nostalgia and defensiveness ' . herself recalls that the initial responses from many publishers were ' frankly this is too bleak and depressing . "" This would appear fitting for a book depicting , often quite brutally , the lives and hardships of working class women living somewhere in the north of . use of the word ' exhilarated ' therefore does not initially seem to fit . The Oxford English Dictionary defines ' exhilarate ' as ' to make cheerful or merry ; to cheer , enliven , gladden ' . Union Street is certainly not cheerful or merry and the reader does not come away with any of those emotions . What there is , is a certain sense of optimism and a feeling of respect for the women the reader meets throughout the novel . < fnote > Thursfield , ( ) URL accessed on < /fnote> Haywood , Class Fiction from Chartism to Trainspotting ( ) < /fnote> URL accessed on < /fnote > states that of her intentions whilst writing was to give a voice to the working class women whose stories has not been heard , and had been dismissed as unimportant and irrelevant . ' They are what calls "" voices that had not been listened to "" ' . Working class women had often simply been ignored in literature . This aspect of her work could be seen as exhilarating . Despite the bleakness of the women 's stories , at least they have been heard . refers to it as ' stories of the other , the one that many never see or never want to realise exists ' . However , a current reader will not be unfamiliar with such texts . was of many writers , artists and filmmakers of her time who sought to represent the working class in a new light of significance . The working class towns which describes are few and far between , and is in fact depicting their decline . Any impact the text makes is therefore likely to come from another aspect of 's writing . < fnote , ' An Interview with in Contemporary Literature Vol . No . ( 2004 ) pg < /fnote> This could be the fact that Union Street revolves around working class women as central characters . It is not unusual to find texts which centre around ' angry young men ' from the working class , for example Osborne 's Look Back in Anger or Sillitoe 's , but rarely are working class women given center stage , the inner monologues are solely male . Haywood comments ' it is this separate sphere of essentially feminine ordeal and trial which mediates elements of class consciousness . "" enters the heads of these women , and finds that their stories are moving tales of strength , as they persevere through hardships often unrecognised by traditional histories . 's suggestion that the reader is not meant to consider the situatutions themselves may not be so far fetched if we understand it to mean that we are not to despair at these women 's lives , but marvel at how they make it through them at all . < fnote > Haywood , Class Fiction from Chartism to Trainspotting ( ) pg < /fnote > In this sense we can recognise some optimisms in a text where there initially appears to be little hope . In each story , bleak as it may be there is often some light . The final line of story , preceded by a horrific rape and a painful description of her attempts to deal with it by rejecting her femininity , is ' she was going home ' . This suggests that perhaps she can return to society , a reappropriation of the family . Although initially rejects her child ' There was nothing about this baby she recognised as hers ' ( ) the chapter ends with them sharing a close bond simply through their shared gender ' the thought that inside that tiny body was a womb like hers ' ( ) . fights the welfare workers to the end , refusing to go into a care home and dies , sadly not in her own home , but at least on her own terms ' she wanted to die in her own home . And if that was no longer possible ... she would not be here waiting for them when they came ' ( ) . husband dies after a horrific battle with disease but his death brings her closer to her son ' The she held out her arms and her started to cry too ... He put an arm round his mother 's shoulders . And she started to dry her eyes ' ( ) . Finally , although murders her daughter 's unborn baby , she finds comfort in the form of her other grandchild ' She nuzzled into his chest ... and the warmth consoled her ' ( 220 ) . < fnote > Barker , ( , ) pg ( all further references in main text ) < /fnote > However this does not apply to every character . The end of Joanne Wilson 's chapter holds no hope ' I wish I did n't have to go ' ( ) . Pregnant and unmarried , with a boyfriend who reacts to the news by having violent sex with her ' she was afraid for the baby ... he was trying to screw it out of her ' ( ) Joanne is trapped with no real alternative offered to her . She goes on to marry but there is no sense that this is a happy occasion . Her friendship with is a positive in her life but it can not get her out of the situation she is in . chapter is in fact more about her elderly client than it is about her . She is defined by her job as a prostitute and although does attempt to depict her in a more humanistic and positive light ' He listened to her talk ... the cracked and seamed face lit up ... as she talked about the past , about the people she had known ' ( ) we only hear her speak as reported by . She is the only woman in the book who does not have a voice of her own , it has been appropriated by her clients . This is hardly makes for exhilarating reading . There is an argument for a sense of exhilaration through the down to earth , realistic style of 's writing . The author herself claims that the characters are based on women she knew when she was growing up , and the blunt northern dialogue is certainly naturalistic ' You mucky bloody sod ' ( 2 ) ' He could see she was a bairn ' ( ) . The disclaimer at the start of the novel is clearly ironic , preparing the reader for a realist text . However this is not a naturalistic or realist novel in the classical sense . The narrative is highly symbolic , each woman representing a different aspect of the life cycle of woman . Coming to terms with sexuality , for this comes violently and far too early , pregnancy , post natal depression , marriage , motherhood , loss of loved ones , abortion and death . The women get older with each chapter , and finally , under a tree which is clearly representative of life itself ' withered and unwithering ' ( ) the oldest and youngest characters meet and both face their mortalities ' at the same moment ... she found it possible to believe in her own death ' ( ) ' it was time for them both to go ' ( ) . The symbolism is obvious and therefore not necessarily very effective , however it does make the message of the text more universal and humanistic , where it could have been very dry and politicised . argues that ' realism is at least a limited or partial aesthetic ' and quotes as saying ' the social realist tradition can not contain the realities of my lifetime , horrors which one might have called surreal if they had not actually happened ' . Obviously in a degree of realism is key , and the blunt , matter - of - fact descriptions of some horrific scenes for example ' unbidden came the memory of the other child , red as raw meat , gasping its life out on the lavatory floor ' ( 220 ) is surely meant to shock us and indeed make us stand back and consider ' what these poor women have to put up with ' . There is an argument for a kind of exhilaration here , the kind one would attach to violent films , perhaps , or to the sense of disbelief that comes with the realisation that these scenes were a reality for many women . Indeed the psychological and emotional depiction of the characters is highly realistic , even describes it as ' pioneering ' . However there are some things that traditional realism can not achieve . The lack of an observational narrator allows the reader to become more highly involved and attached to the characters , creating a much greater emotional impact . argues that ' the narrative[s ] are seen to refuse the pitfalls of monologism , a characteristic predicated of "" classic "" realism ' There is also a sentimentality in the symbolic nature of the narrative which has just as much impact , and is perhaps , ' exhilarating ' in a different , more positive way . < fnote > Taylor , D.J A Vain Conceit : in ( , ) pg < /fnote> Figes , Eva quoted in , D.J A Vain Conceit : in ( , ) pg < /fnote> Haywood , Class Fiction from Chartism to Trainspotting ( ) pg < /fnote> Kirk , John ' Recovered Perspectives : , Class , and Memory in Writing ' in Contemporary Literature Vol . No . ( ) pg < /fnote > Another avoidance of realism is the lack of temporal specificity . The only pointer we have in the text itself to suggest any kind of time frame is the various mentioning of the troubles as read by the women in newspapers , and fleeting references to miners ' strikes . Also telling is the fact that many of the men in are unemployed , suggesting a period of deindustrialization . However this could place us anywhere and . Although discussion of class is clearly a key issue , and there are points at which characters specifically discuss the politics of the time ' "" you mean that 's your . Government has nowt to do with it ' ( ) , the novel often skims over contemporary events , mentioning them briefly but never dwelling on them as something which particularly affects the lives of these women . Haywood points out ' these absences could be the whole point ' , but also finds a problem with it . ' If the overall point is that history as conventionally defined has passed these women by , the essential critical question is the extent to which the novel colludes with that disempowerment . "" Monteith argues that ' is attempting a distillation of historical and class memory , of the national with the personal . "" Of course the national does creep in , but only via issues which affect the women 's lives directly i.e. deindustrialization causes their husbands to lose their jobs , miners ' strikes cause a shortage of coal . This poses a problem for comment , as this form of disempowerment would undercut the idea that the women are in fact empowered in any way by their stoicism in such hard times . The only solution seems to me to take the view that rejecting conventional history in the novel is necessary to allow the women 's stories to be told . The novel does suggest that the women are uninterested in history as it stands , but equally , conventional history has never been interested in them . The histories can not be conflated , at least not simply . < fnote > Haywood , Class Fiction from Chartism to Trainspotting ( ) pg < /fnote> Haywood , Class Fiction from Chartism to Trainspotting ( ) pg < /fnote> Monteith , ( , ) pg < /fnote > argues that the representation of the working class women as a community is something which strengthens the novel 's impact . ' We are presented with a community ... and this sense of community is sharpened by 's use of dialogue and dialect ' . Not only this , but he suggests that and 's encounter , which both begins and ends the novel , develops a ' sense of mutuality ... which calls for a recognition of communality and kind , ' ' a kind of sisterhood which transcends age and is grounded in identifications of gender , class and community . "" There is a sense , perhaps in this encounter , that the women in the novel could bond and form a community on the basis of ' sisterhood ' and shared female experience . However I think what the novel is more keen to point out is the isolation of these women . quite clearly sets out to debunk the working class myth of neighbours being able to rely on each other , with their doors always open , sharing what little they have . Although characters like claim to play mother to the street , each woman is quite definitely alone , and gossiping behind each other 's backs , acts of racism and violence , and even flat out rejection from the community are more numerous than acts of kindness ' she needed a woman to talk to but in all this sodding street there was n't one of 'em you could trust . They 'd all turned against her because since left there 'd been other men in the house ' ( 35 ) . also points out that ' shows that easy community ... is fallacy ... women are not celebrated in a feminist reclamation of sisterhood or class solidarity ... rarely seen to form genuine friendships or maintain supportive mother - daughter bonds . ' < fnote > Kirk , John ' Recovered Perspectives : , Class , and Memory in Writing ' in Contemporary Literature Vol . No . ( ) pg < /fnote> Kirk , John ' Recovered Perspectives : , Class , and Memory in Writing ' in Contemporary Literature Vol . No . ( ) pg < /fnote> Monteith , ( , ) pg < /fnote > Haywood also argues that the ' psychological ... representation ... also stresses their isolation from each other and the fast disappearing community ' who have ' no common core ... other than shared stoicism and often violent sufferings of the gender itself . "" This breakdown of community is not essentially gendered . This is particularly noted in story . Having lost his job he loses his friends at the pub and becomes an outsider in the community . ' After a while the talk left him behind ... He gradually saw less and less of his mates ... But in fact they were not avoiding him . He was avoiding them . ' ( 222 ) < fnote > Haywood , Class Fiction from Chartism to Trainspotting ( ) pg < /fnote > If we choose to read the women 's shared bravery and courage as an ' exhilarating ' sense of community , overcoming their shared hardships together , then in a way we choose to read it as a feminist text . The fact that it was picked up by , a publisher of books by and about women also backs this up . However this creates the possibility that for a male reader , would be particularly un - exhilarating . Any male characters that they could possibly relate to are ' written off ' according to , and for , ' the only sympathetic men ... are sexually unthreatening ... inert ... or are ready to undergo a feminist conversion . "" Quotes from herself on the matter range from ' I never thought for a that feminism is only about women ' to ' they are n't allowed to say much . I think that 's mainly because I 'm focussing on the women . "" Could it be that in telling the unheard stories of these working class women , it is almost necessary to silence the voices of the working class men who have for so long been the centre of the narrative ? Monteith disagrees entirely , stating that deals with ' disintegration of northern industrial communities ... and its repercussions in relationships between women and men ' . She also argues that men are relegated to the background because that is where they were at the time . Having been displaced from their working communities they are left ' on the vulnerable edge of the family unit ' . She suggests that they are ' disempowered ... but not universally demonized ' , ' pushed to the symbolic edges of the text ... they have not been airbrushed out . "" , what depicts is symptomatic of the realities of deindustrialization and the difficulties facing both men and women in adjusting to these economic changes , having to re - evaluate their roles in the family unit , and finding that this can pull them further and further apart . However , there is often a sense that men are simply a burden to women . Although is shown to have enjoyed a long and loving marriage to her husband , and proves to be a strong and reliable friend to both and , it is noticeable that both these men are in some way feminised , both displaying a castrating ' lack ' . late sexual awakening may be a positive for him , but it is at the expense of , for whom prostitution and therefore sex is ' just a job ' ( ) . is far from comfortable reading for men , let alone ' exhilarating ' . < fnote > Seabrook , and , Trevor A World Still To Win : The Reconstruction of Postwar Working Class ( Faber and Faber 1985 ) pg < /fnote> Haywood , Class Fiction from Chartism to Trainspotting ( ) pg < /fnote> Perry , ' in Backtalk : Women Writers Speak Out ( , ) pg < /fnote> Monteith , ( , ) pg < /fnote> Monteith , ( , ) pg < /fnote> Monteith , ( , ) pg < /fnote > Haywood also points out that ' women inhabit an elemental world of feminine experience ' citing frequent references to periods and other bodily fluids . This could be considered as a way of representing women as being more connected to nature and the fundamental essence of life , as well as a continuation of the symbolic theme of the female life cycle . These are things which connect all women , arguably reinforcing the idea of a community grounded in ' sisterhood ' . However Haywood suggests that ' such an approach reinforces biological reductionism ' and that the women 's ' inability ... to control their own bodies and social backwardness of the setting ... positions the narrative uncomfortably on the edge of a form of cultural voyeurism ' . A reinforcement of this representation as a positive aspect comes surprisingly from a male character . contemplates ' He had always believed there were sorts of women : the decent ones and the rest ... how could you remember they were different , if every sag , every wrinkle of their used bodies proclaimed that they were one flesh?'(230 ) This is clearly an uncomfortable description of the female form , but it unites women in their bodily experiences . 's encounter with is highly voyeuristic , but leads him to a greater understanding of women than he had before , perhaps even greater than any of the other men in the novel . There is always a danger of ' biological reductionism ' in such an approach , but 's matter of fact take on it neatly avoids this , turning it into a positive aspect of the novel . < fnote > Haywood , Class Fiction from Chartism to Trainspotting ( ) pg < /fnote> Haywood , Class Fiction from Chartism to Trainspotting ( ) pg < /fnote > Hanson 's use of the word ' exhilarating ' is perhaps ill - advised . demonstrates that the working class women who endure the horrific , but entirely realistic scenarios she places them in , are funny , warm , strong and interesting people with important stories to tell . She does this , however , without diminishing the suffering they go through . The horrible details of life are still horrible , but 's achievement lies in exposing them at all , not revealing them as any less wretched , sordid or pitiful than they are . Where there is optimism it is always preceded by bleakness and despair . The ' exhilaration ' , if there is any to be found at all , comes from knowing that the women she depicts are strong enough to work through , if not entirely overcome the troubles in their lives .",1 "< heading > PART A : < /heading> i - See diagram < /heading> ii ) 00:00 UTC chart The dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures would have been used to calculate the frontal position using air mass properties . Behind the cold front there are station readings of both low dry and wet bulb temperatures , for example T dry = , T wet=4 ( expected for a polar maritime air mass ) . In the warm sector , they are both much warmer - T dry = , T wet=12 as moist air has been advected from the south . UTC chart : Western cold front : A clockwise veer in wind direction and an increase in wind speed are expected across a cold front . This was observed between stations ( - 37 kts from the west ) and ( - 27 kts from the south west ) . It was otherwise hard to observe as a low pressure centre was placed near the front with tight isobars - strong winds . Falling pressure normally precedes a cold front shifting to rising pressure as it passes . This can be observed in the kink in isobars along the front and the shift in pressure tendency from falling to rising ( falling at , , , 2 G and rising at , and ) . The front follows the trailing edge of cloud and the heaviest rain : This can be seen in the satellite and radar and also in the weather reports from stations , , and 2I. The stations along the front also have T dry = T wet which corresponds to this rain . Central occluded front and triple point : An occluded front generally ' wraps around ' closed isobars at the low pressure centre and has been drawn as such . Conditions around an occluded front are similar to cold fronts . The occluded front follows the line of heaviest rainfall ( radar and reports from stations and 2 K ) . There is also a small change in pressure tendency across the front ( falling at station and rising at station 2J ) . However it is hard to distinguish this due to the intensity of the nearby low pressure centre . The front also marks the boundary between cool polar air behind the system and warmer mixed air in the occlusion . Central warm front : The warm sector is warmer and moister than ahead of the warm front . For stations behind the front , , and 2O , the wet bulb temperature is oC while at station ahead of the front , the wet bulb temperature is only 6 oC. The air is also drier at this station . There also seems to be an increase in wind speed across the warm front ( stations , , 2O and report winds of above kts while the stations to the south of the front report maximum speeds of . frontal system : As the system is older , it is much more occluded and so the occluded front is much longer than in the main system . To the north of the occlusion , the air is drier compared to the mixed air inside the ' hook ' . ( c.f . station has T dry = , T , while has T dry = , T wet=0 ) . The front also follows the line of heaviest rainfall ( satellite and weather reports from stations along the front , i.e. station ) . There is also less cloud inside the ' hook ' of the occlusion ( satellite and station ) . The warm front is placed due to greater amounts of cloud ahead of the front and an increase in temperature from T dry ~ 7 , T wet=8 ahead of the front to T dry = , T wet=8 behind it . 12:00 UTC chart : The system has now become much more occluded as it develops . The low pressure centre has also moved to the . Cold front : Placed through small kink in isobars ( more pronounced near the low pressure centre ) . The pressure tendency is also falling ahead of the front ( stations 3E , , G and 3 K ) compared to riding tendencies behind it ( stations , and ) . There is also a clockwise veer in wind direction across the front ( stations behind the front , , 3B , 3C and report W , WSW winds while stations 3E , and G ahead of the front report S , directions ) . Note the increase in wind speed ca n't be seen as the wind is amplified as it flows along the nearby Channel . The front also follows the line of heaviest cloud and rainfall , ( radar , satellite and stations 3B , 3C and 3E weather reports ) . Occluded front : This was placed due the satellite showing the distinctive ' hook ' shape in this area and the wind speed / isobars . It also follows the line of heaviest rain . Warm front : This was placed along the line of heaviest rain ( stations and 3 M ) . There is also an increase in wet bulb temperature behind the front ( stations and M show T wet~ behind the front while stations 3O and show T wet ~ 6 - 8 ahead of it ) . There is also a slight kink in isobars and clockwise wind shift ( Easterly wind at while Southerly at and 3 M ) . < heading > PART B : < /heading> i) Please see calculation for full workings . The geostrophic wind was found to be ms -1 blowing from the west and parallel to the isobars at that point . The surface wind was measured to be kts ( ms -1 ) blowing from . This difference is due to friction in the boundary layer : From notes , over land , the surface wind is of the geostrophic wind flowing o to the isobars . This corresponds with the results found . < heading > ii) Please see calculation for full workings . The geostrophic wind was found to be ms -1 ( error analysis in calculation ) blowing from the west , parallel to the isobars at that point . This is compared to a surface wind measured as 95 kts ( ~50ms -1 ) from the WSW . The difference is again due to friction in the boundary layer . However , as the measurement is over the ocean the friction is much less ( no terrain to create friction ) . Therefore the surface wind would flow at o to isobars and at of the strength of the geostrophic wind . This again corresponds well to the results found . < heading > iii) FORMULA FORMULA This shows the vorticity increasing while decreasing slightly . This corresponds to the development of the cyclone . At , the system had just started to build and therefore would n't be expected to have much relative vorticity . However , by , the system had developed around an intense low pressure coupled with high geostrophic winds blowing around tightly packed isobars . This would be expected to have much higher vorticity reaching a maximum around the point that the occluded front started to form ( as that 's the point with the most energy in the system ) . The fast development of the cyclone and the speed the fronts moved over the also suggests high vorticity . The vorticity was still high at although it had dropped slightly , suggesting that the frontal system was starting to lose energy and so lose vorticity . The vorticity is still an order of magnitude higher than normal however , so fast winds are still expected . ( these seem much faster around the low in the 12:00 charts due to the centre of the low pressure now being over the ocean , so recorded wind speeds are much closer to the geostrophic wind value ) . The higher vorticity , the more vortex stretching of the cyclone would be expected to occur so air is pushed aloft and more rainfall would be expected . Heavy rainfall was recorded at the developing low at all timescales however . The higher the vorticity , the faster the fronts would also be expected to move over the as the geostrophic winds would be faster . The relative vorticity is normally ~0.1 planetary vorticity ( 10 -4 ) so these values are of the right order of magnitude ( it would be expected to get higher values as the storm progresses , especially due to the intensity of the system ) . There are many errors with this method , especially as it assumes a smooth pressure gradient and a perfectly symmetrical grid .","was born in the heart of on , the daughter of a bourgeois financial steward to the influential brothers and a mother whose moral virtuousness was questionable . These lowly origins fail to infer the dizzy heights of court life into which this bourgeois woman was to enter . Re - christened the Marquise de Pompadour , she became the official royal mistress to in , and remained in this role until her death . During her time as ' the favourite ' , Pompadour became probably the most powerful woman in , exercising great influence over the king and his government . This is what has marked her out in history : while it was not unusual to find a royal mistress , was an exception in the power she was able to exert , particularly as a figure with her origins in the lower social orders . < fnote > Mitford , Nancy , Madame de Pompadour ( London : Penguin , ) , p.19 < /fnote> Lever , Evelyne , Madame de Pompadour : A Life ( New York : Farrar , Strauss and Giroux , ) , p.111 < /fnote> Jones , , The Great Nation : from to ( London : Penguin , 2002b ) , p.129 < /fnote > The aim of this essay is to examine the evidence concerning the popularity of this extraordinary woman , both among the aristocratic courtiers that constituted life at and the populace , from which Pompadour had emerged . One might readily expect a situation to emerge where the Marquise became ' popular in , unpopular in ' , as a favourite of the sovereign , resented by those she had left behind in . It is the task here , then , to discuss the extent to which this order of events truly did unfold during her reign as royal mistress , or whether other factors contributed to Pompadour 's popularity emerging in a different pattern . In order to prove this statement , one needs to find evidence supporting the idea that Madame de Pompadour was popular at , thus among the courtiers , ministers and royalty that resided there . The most obvious example of the 's favour here is to be found in the adoration offered by . In singling out a woman of bourgeois origin to be his companion , had broken with convention . His reasons for doing so appear to have been genuine love and affection for Pompadour , which continued to grow throughout her period as his official mistress . The king spent large amounts of his time with Pompadour , going to her rooms soon after dressing and remaining in her company unless his royal duties dictated otherwise . She took it upon herself to ensure that insatiable appetite for life 's pleasures was always met , entertaining him with theatre , readings , singing and conversation . In return , the king openly adored his mistress , granting her both enormous privileges and assets . The favour in which she was held is exemplified in ' reaction to any criticism of his ' favourite ' , for example the dismissal of , who was openly hostile . As Lever indicates , ' could not do without this mistress , whom he liked better than any other woman ' . < fnote > Mitford , Madame de Pompadour , p.67 < /fnote> Ib i d. , p.79 < /fnote> Lever , Madame de Pompadour , p.114 < /fnote > However , despite Pompadour 's obvious popularity with , who had chosen her for his own , even he commented negatively on her bourgeois origins , suggesting he would have to ' educate ' her , referring , as points out , to her ' social behaviour ' . This should not detract from the affection already exemplified between these individuals : Louis adored and indeed loved his mistress , ignoring the consistent criticism that was bandied around court . < fnote > Crosland , Margaret , Madame de Pompadour : Sex , Culture and Power ( Stroud : , ) , p.55 < /fnote > In order to affirm Madame de Pompadour 's popularity at , needs more evidence of affection than merely that shown by the king ; after all she was his chosen companion . The obvious place to look next is to the royal family , and whether she was accepted or popular among them , a more contested issue . While some sources suggest that the king 's daughters tolerated the , there is much reference to the dauphin 's resentment . The queen , meanwhile , seems to have shown a preference for over previous mistresses . It has been noted that Pompadour ' put herself out to any extent to please the queen ' and her influence seems to have encouraged to pay more attention to his wife and family . However , while Pompadour was indeed held in gratitude for proving less a disruption than the king 's former ' favourites ' , to say that she was popular with the queen would be something of an exaggeration . In particular , the queen disagreed with the way in which Pompadour 's influence had moved government policy more in line with financial interest than the principles of pious Catholicism that she supported . In the this even led to the creation of a devout group , which included both the queen and dauphin , who together thoroughly ' rejected the values represented by the advent of Pompadour ' . It would seem therefore that , if Madame de Pompadour was truly popular at , this did not derive from favour among the royal family , aside from her lover . < fnote > Mitford , Madame de Pompadour , p.67 < /fnote> Ib i d. < /fnote> Jones , Colin , Madame de Pompadour : Images of a Mistress ( London : , ) , p.50 < /fnote> Ib i d. , p.47 < /fnote > Moving on to those who made up court life at popularity here seems even less apparent . While some courtiers treated her courteously , they largely did so only because they recognised her potential to influence the king 's favour . The most honest , openly positive comments about the seem to reflect on her good manners and looks , for example during presentation to queen it is admitted that her ' behaviour was perfect ' . However , such praise was rare ; instead most of life as official mistress was spent dealing with the constant criticism dealt out to her by the court . < fnote > Mitford , Madame de Pompadour , p.67 < /fnote > Most of the resentment faced by the was related to her low social standing . Few courtiers seem to have expected her relationship with the king to be long term , on account of her bourgeois origins , and many instantly despised her entry into an arena traditionally exclusively aristocratic . Crosland sums up this attitude in her statement that ' there were many men ... all willing to despise her , not because she was the king 's mistress ... but because she was a bourgeoisie ' . The duc even refers to her presence as ' monstrous ' , somehow suggesting a subversion of natural laws . It seems abundantly clear that the 's place at was detested by a majority of the court , and the resentment felt towards this bourgeoisie was exacerbated by her growing influence on the king and , in turn , court life . < fnote > Crosland , Madame de Pompadour , p.56 < /fnote> Duc de Choiseul , cited in , p.39 < /fnote > Part of Pompadour 's increasing power was related to her attempts to instil members of her family in important court and ministerial positions , dismantling the system established by as she did so . This was a source of particular unpopularity among those who , not without due cause , felt their established security threatened by this newcomer of such low social origin . As argues , ' Favourites ... would always ask for favours to be granted to those close to them ' , and it was largely for this reason that Pompadour 's bourgeois background was so alarming . Tournehem , a close friend of Pompadour 's mother , was made directeur des Bâtiments and her brother giving rights to the role should stand down . The royal mistress had thus secured direct access to the king not just for herself but her extended family , affirming her place in court life , much to the disgust of her enemies there . < fnote > Ib i d. , p.130 < /fnote> Crosland , Madame de Pompadour , p.60 < /fnote> Jones , Madame de Pompadour , p.40 < /fnote > An extension of this , and probably more important in terms of widening her unpopularity among courtiers at , was Pompadour 's restructuring of government on a more bourgeois basis . Her assent to power was accompanied by an ' influx into court life of professional financiers ' , a change which heralded a break down of the system of ' in place since of the kings predecessor . The resentment felt towards her in this respect is perhaps notable for being symbolic of wider fears concerning the growth of power among the bourgeoisie , and the potential threat this offered to established aristocratic hierarchies . In helping to gain access to posts in the court ceremonial hierarchy for those lacking a noble background , Pompadour set in place the potential for future political instability , while simultaneously sealing her unpopularity among the established ministerial world at . < fnote > Ib i d. , p.42 < /fnote > The evidence presented thus far seems to make fairly clear that while became increasingly popular with , in terms of as a whole she was not favoured , and in fact openly despised , both for her lowly origins and her influence on the king and court structure . These criticisms extended out to the wider population of , where Pompadour had always been unpopular for having abandoned her people for the ' other side ' : the tax collectors . It would be beneficial to highlight here the ' ' episode , which perhaps best illustrates the parallel court and city resentment towards Pompadour . The peace reached at Aix - la - Chapelle ending was seen as unsatisfactory by a large proportion of the people , who had had to suffer great privations in order to finance the fighting . Not wanting to blame their monarch entirely , Madame de Pompadour provided a perfect scapegoat for the situation , and satirical verses scorning her low social origins and financial wastefulness , among other factors , began to circulate . This is important to the debate in place here because an insider at , eventually proven to be , was almost certainly informing the satirists , their content being too personal for common knowledge . The ' Poissonades ' , then , symbolise the unpopularity of the Marquise both within court life and in more widely . < fnote > Lever , Madame de Pompadour , p.118 < /fnote > Other events that had roused detestation in court also carried knock - on effects upon Pompadour 's popularity in . The ' bourgeoisisation ' of court that she had brought about was later held up as a major reason for 's lack of military success in . Pompadour had put forward for promotion , who led the battle at , where the army suffered what was probably its worst military defeat . To the this was yet another example of the way in which Pompadour had corrupted court life , resulting in failure . It is true that , as indicates , ' whenever something went wrong in ... it was the fault of the mistress ' . The Marquise , it appears , was a useful scapegoat for a king whose military mistakes were felt by a population on the brink of poverty as a result of massively inflated taxation . < fnote > Crosland , Madame de Pompadour , p.131 < /fnote > This issue of taxation is crucial to an understanding of the hatred towards . A major cause of resentment was the belief that Pompadour ' cost the country a fortune ' , that is , that she was an unnecessary extravagance in a country with such high levels of taxation . As points out , ' Each taxpayer felt that her houses , furniture and works of art were paid for out of his own pocket ' , and thus she became increasingly unpopular as the king lavished greater privileges upon her . Important also was the royal mistress ' role as a patron of the arts , an activity that , with its increasing focus upon the style , led to further criticism . In her desire to propagate an image desirable to the king , Pompadour frequently used artists like to capture her portrait . Presenting herself and sponsoring those involved in this intimate and allegedly immoral style meant that Pompadour came to be viewed as symbolic of the government decay . < fnote > Ib i d. , p.95 < /fnote> Mitford , Madame de Pompadour , p.118 < /fnote > The emphasis on intimacy and private life symbolised by 's presence also made her unpopular among the populace in the sense that it meant the king was distracted from his royal duties . This withdrawal took several forms , an important one being refusal to carry out the ' Royal Touch ' . The presence of a mistress meant that the king , not wanting to be hypocritical , could not take and thus lost the alleged healing power to cure scrofula . < fnote > Bloch , , : and in and ( : Routledge and , ) , p.224 < /fnote > Kaiser suggests that this breaking of public ritual is part of a wider violation of the model of monarchy made by the king . He argues that , starting with his turnaround after the renouncement at , consistently violated the ' love contract ' between the king and his people by placing his desire for personal pleasures over the needs of his populace . The importance of a lack of distinction between private and public in is clear from the way in which all of , including the state rooms , was open to the public . The king lived , as puts it , ' like a man in a glass house , visible to , and within reach of , his subjects ' . As royal mistress , then , was the ultimate symbol of ' neglect of public duty . She was perceived to have made worse his natural propensity towards the pursuit of frivolous pleasures and , in doing so , thus subverted the will of the people to her own . < fnote , , ' Louis le Bien - Aimé and the Rhetoric of the Royal Body ' , in and ( Eds . ) , From the Royal to the Republican Body : Incorporating the Political in Seventeenth and ( , ; : , ) , p.132 < /fnote> Mitford , Madame de Pompadour , p.5 < /fnote > As with the court resentment towards her bourgeois origins , the hostility aimed at Pompadour in her role as the symbolic intimate was probably part of a wider reaction to the ' feminisation ' of public life . In drawing further into his own oversexuality , Pompadour was blamed for having emasculated the king , thus making him an ineffective and inadequate leader . This gendered fear thus exacerbated the notion that she was responsible for ' all the woes of ' , thus making her an increasingly unpopular figure among the from whom she had derived . < fnote , ' , < /fnote> Ib i d. , p.160 < /fnote > The evidence seems to speak for itself in the debate surrounding whether was unpopular in . She was regarded with both hostility and disrespect , blamed for having made the king and court ineffective at leading the nation , and being nothing more than an ' expensive distraction for the king ' from the duties he should have been performing . < fnote > Jones , Madame de Pompadour , p.98 < /fnote > In drawing this debate to a close , then , can it be argued that Madame de Pompadour was ' popular in , unpopular in ' ? The latter part of this statement is certainly supported by the image of the Marquise that has been uncovered . However , I would argue that we can not view Pompadour as having been ' popular in ' . While the king 's growing affection for his mistress is abundantly in evidence , both the remaining royal family and the court seem to have held Pompadour in a distinct disregard . The court resented her encroachment into a world reserved for the nobility , and this seed grew with her attempts to instil her relatives and friends into important ministerial positions . In addition , the ' Poissonades ' are an excellent example of the way in which much of Pompadour 's unpopularity actually often originated from her presence in the courtly world of . As both a bourgeoisie and a woman , it would seem that could never be popular . Her actions , in making the court more bourgeois , and her symbolic presence , as a representation of the private and intimate , subverted established principles , traditions and rituals and drew the king away from what were seen to be his royal duties . This idea suggests an interesting point of development for this essay : most of reaction to Pompadour seems to have part of wider social fears , firstly , of suspicion towards women and their dangerous political influence and , of a bourgeois takeover of public life . Madame de Pompadour was fated , it seems , to suffer an unpopularity based on fears of gender and class , made real in the way in which she threatened established hierarchies and the traditional model of monarchy . In conclusion then , to say that Madame de Pompadour was ' popular at , unpopular in ' is to underestimate the extent to which the hostility that surrounded her was present in , and often originated from , court life and her actions within it .",0 "< heading > Referral information Laceration ( ) to left lower shin following a motorcycle accident on . An ambulance was called by a motorist . < heading > History Presenting Complaint : < /heading > Mr fell from his bike and slid down an embankment and hit his left leg against a lamppost . His left leg was extensively bruised he sustained a laceration ( ) to left lower shin . It was active and bloody and his calf was very swollen . He did not lose consciousness during the fall . < heading > History Presenting Complaint : < /heading > Mr had recently made purchase of a sports motorcycle . He had been an avid biker previously but had since stopped partaking in the sport . He was riding at when he slipped on some spilt diesel and fell from his bike onto his left side . He did not sustain any fractures but has extensive soft tissue damage to the left side of his leg . He had a haematoma removed from his leg into his admittance into hospital . He will have another investigation done to see if there any more clots in his leg . He is being treated for DVT . < heading > Past Medical History : < /heading > Mr was a motorcross enthusiast from . This is a competitive sport , which involves cross terrain motorcycling . He used to suffer from joint pains due to the strain his sport placed on his body . He underwent a laporoscopic investigation in his right knee in but nothing was found . He was diagnosed with asthma in childhood , but has not had an asthma attack for . He had a vasectomy in and an appendectomy in . He was diagnosed with osteoarthritis in his lower back , both knees , and both wrists in . < heading > Drug History Social History: Mr is a driving instructor . He lives with his partner in a bedroom semi - detached house that he owns . He has sons and daughters , and is a grandfather to a and a . He was divorced from the mother of his children in . He describes this as a very dark time and suffered from depression for which he did not receive medication . He states that he is happy now and has been with his current partner for . He enjoys his occupation and the freedom it gives him to organise his own workday . He lives in a small village where there is a good social network and sense of community . < heading > Analysis of history Soft tissue injuries are those injuries ( excluding fractures ) affecting the joints and muscles of the limbs . Sprains , strains and dislocations are considered soft tissue injuries , with some authorities also including bruising . Soft - tissue injuries are often classified as : < list > sprains strains contusions tendinitis bursitis stress injuries ( including stress fracture ) < /list > The treatment of soft tissue injuries is based on resting the injured part , applying ice packs to limit swelling and reduce pain , the application of a firm compression bandage as support , and elevation of the limb . This treatment is known as ' RICE ' . RICE = Rest , Ice , Compression and Elevation Ice packs should be placed on for a maximum of and can be re - applied when the damaged area becomes warm again . Never apply ice directly onto the skin , as this may cause tissue damage . Always use a barrier , such as cloth , between the ice pack and the skin to help protect tissue . < heading > Bruising < /heading > Bruising , or more correctly , ' contusion ' , is bleeding by damaged blood vessels beneath the surface of the skin . This is invariably caused by blunt trauma , the application of force to the injured site . A common injury , especially in contact sports , is ' corked thigh ' , a heavy blow to the muscle mass of the thigh , which involves damage to blood vessels as well as injury to the thigh muscle tissue . Although not a serious injury , it is very painful and prompt aid assists in a rapid recovery . < list> SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS history of a blow to the thighpain and tendernessswelling and discolouration Degrees of severity of soft tissue injury A soft tissue injury can be categorised into grades or degrees of severity of injury . < heading > First degree ( mild) The result of a mild stretch of ligament or capsular structures , or over - stretch or direct blow to muscle . There is minimal swelling and bruising but mild pain is felt at the end of range of movement or on stretch or contraction of muscle . There is no joint instability , minimal muscle spasm and no loss of function . < heading > Second degree ( moderate) The result of moderate stretch of ligament or capsular structures , or excessive stretch or direct blow to muscle , causing tearing of some fibres . There is moderate swelling and bruising , with moderate pain felt on any movement which interferes with the ability of the muscle to contract or lengthen . There may be some joint instability with ligament / capsular injuries . Moderate muscle spasm may result as a reflex response to both ligamentous / capsular injuries and muscle injuries . Due to the tearing of some fibres , there is a decrease in the tensile strength of ligament / capsule or a decrease in the contractile strength of muscle , both of which cause interference with function . < heading > Third degree ( severe) The result of a severe over - stretch of ligament , or excessive stretch or direct blow to muscle , causing a complete tear of the injured structure . There is significant swelling and bruising with severe pain even at rest which significantly interferes with function Ligament injuries result in gross instability and significant decrease in tensile strength , with muscle injuries causing severe muscle spasm and ' splinting ' , while the injured muscle is incapable of exerting force . Function is severely impaired . < heading > Epidemiology . < /heading > Approximately five per cent of all cases seen in A / E departments of hospitals in the are due to participation in sport / exercise - sports injuries per annum , of which per cent involve time off work . ( and , ) . < heading>3 The importance of early management < /heading > The early management of soft tissue injuries can be either extremely effective or , if inappropriately applied , may be damaging . The course of injury can be modified by the effective and timely use of therapeutic techniques and modalities . For example , chartered physiotherapists , who are frequently the of the health care team to see an injured athlete , are in an excellent position to prevent the development of chronic oedema which can markedly interfere with the later stages of treatment , lead to a poor rehabilitation outcome and increase the potential for recurrence of injury . Application of the appropriate modality at a particular stage in the healing process can act to prevent undue complications and can help save much time that might otherwise be spent unnecessarily in a prolonged period of convalescence . < heading > Phases of Healing -- Phase I The current literature describes main phases of soft tissue healing . An initial reaction phase which lasts post - injury.4 This phase is also referred to as the acute inflammation phase.3 The reaction phase displays with the classic signs of inflammation with pain , swelling , redness and warmth . The long - used application of cryotherapy ( ice ) is still supported by numerous studies as very effective treatment in this initial phase.6,7,8,9 Cryotherapy slows the inflammatory process as well as provides an analgesic effect . Ultrasound may also be used to decrease swelling in this inflammatory phase , but must be used for short periods to prevent hyperemia.10 Transcutaneous nerve stimulation ( TNS ) and electric muscle stimulation ( ) have The use of manipulation can also be employed in the reaction phase and is suggested in the areas of fixation that have resulted from the injury . This will expedite the removal of hemoarthrosis , reduce spasms , edema and pain as well as reduce nerve root irritation when present.12 < heading > Phase of Healing -- Phases II and III The stage of healing , the repair phase , may last from . This phase is characterized by the production and laying down of new collagen . During this phase , the collagen is not fully oriented in the direction of tensile strength.5 The phase , the remodeling phase , which lasts from or more , is the phase in which the collagen is remodeled and along with with phase determines the functional capabilities of the soft tissue after the healing process is completed.14 True rehabilitation must focus on maintaining these functional capabilities . To regain the functional capabilities , stresses of function must be put on the healing tissue . "" Mobilization techniques must take place throughout the repair and remodeling phases to insure proper tissue adaptation . Several benefits of mobilization have been defined which include increased strength and flexibility of healed tissue , less scar formation and adhesions , increased cartilage nutrition , and lesser incidence of recurrence of injury.18 < heading > Rehabilitation Protocol3.2 The aims of early management The management of soft tissue injury during has aims : < list > to reduce local tissue temperature to reduce pain to limit and reduce inflammatory exudate to reduce metabolic demands of the tissues to protect the damaged tissue from further injury to protect the newly - formed fibrin bonds from disruption to promote collagen fibre growth and realignment to maintain general levels of cardio - respiratory and musculoskeletal fitness / activity . < /list>7.7.1 Initial examination Take account of < list > history - current medication , pre - existing problems , allergies , previous treatment mechanism of injury pain swelling function - range of motion , muscle performance , quality of movement deformity temperature colour < /list> Indications for immediate referral immediate gross swelling - indicates extensive bleeding from injured tissues deformity - may indicate complete rupture of muscle / ligament or fracture of bone severe loss of function - may indicate any of the above , plus nerve lesion head injury spinal injury loss of pulse - indicates circulatory involvement blanching or rapid gross discoloration - indicates circulatory impairment or gross bleeding severe abdominal pain severe shortness of breath . < /list>7.7.2 Early ( immediate ) management Protection Required to protect the injured tissues from undue stress which may disrupt the healing process and delay rather than promote healing . A further obvious function of protection is to remove the athlete from the location of injury . Protection may be applied by : < list > plaster cast taping bandaging splints slings crutches ( protection from weight - bearing ) bedrest < /list> Rest Required to reduce the metabolic demands of the injured area and thus avoid increased blood flow . Also needed to avoid placing undue stress on the injured tissues that may disrupt the fragile fibrin bond which is the element of the process of repair . Rest may be applied selectively , to allow some general activity , but the patient must avoid any activity involving the injured area which may compromise the healing process . Rest may be achieved by : < list > advice - the patient is advised not to participate in any activity which might place undue stress on the injured tissues avoidance of movements which replicate the mechanism of the injury and / or which cause / increase pain the use of crutches , slings etc . , which provide a means by which the injured area can be rested from participation in normal functional activity . < /list > Total rest is rarely required - this is difficult to achieve and advice to avoid all activity rarely meets with good compliance , particularly from athletes ! Although the injured structures should be rested during the early stages of the healing process , adjacent structures should be exercised . However , general activity should be reduced during this period to reduce metabolic rate and tissue demand for oxygen , decrease heart rate and blood pressure and consequently reduce blood flow . The concept of rest to promote the early part of the healing process and protect the newly formed repair tissue , together with controlled exercise / movement of the injured part to provide the stresses necessary for the correct alignment of the healing tissues , must be carefully balanced . < heading > Ice Ice is the most common means by which cryotherapy ( or cold therapy ) is applied . At this point , therefore , ice will be used to represent the application of cryotherapy in general , with the different means by which this may be applied being considered in more detail later . Ice is used in an attempt to limit the damage caused by the injury , by reducing the temperature of the tissues at the site of injury and consequently reducing metabolic demand , inducing vasoconstriction and limiting the bleeding . Ice may also reduce pain by increasing threshold levels in the free nerve endings and at synapses , and by increasing nerve conduction latency to promote analgesia . < list> Considerations in the application of ice: duration of application ( ranges from ) - consider the evidence for the most effective duration of application frequency of application - consider duration of effects the area to be covered nature of underlying structures the most effective means of application . < /list> Compression Compression is applied to limit the amount of oedema caused by the exudation of fluid from the damaged capillaries into the tissue . Controlling the amount of inflammatory exudate reduces the amount of fibrin ( and ultimately the production of scar tissue ) and helps to control the osmotic pressure of the tissue fluid in the injured area . < list> Considerations in the application of compression: the most effective methods of application duration of application area of application mode of application - intermittent or continuous , with or without ice how long do you continue to apply compression ? < /list> Elevation Elevation of the injured part lowers the pressure in local blood vessels and helps to limit the bleeding . It will also increase drainage of the inflammatory exudate through the lymph vessels , thus reducing/ limiting oedema and its resultant complications . < list> Considerations in the application of elevation: mode of elevation duration of elevation frequency of elevation < /list > Rehabilitation protocol following soft tissue injury must include mobilization techniques to insure good functional adaptation . A program combining manipulations , the use of modalities , mobilization technique , and a strengthening program will insure optimal rehabilitation . Manipulations and modalities should be used during all phases of healing to limit fixations , control pain and spasms as well as maintain neurologic integrity . Mobilization should be carried out within the limits of pain on the patient , starting with controlled passive motion . Controlled passive motion should be employed until a maximum range of motion is reached . At this point , active assistive motion should be employed . As the injury heals and the tissue adapts , the patient can be graduated to active resistive motion . Active resistive motion should be followed by a strengthening program of kinetic resistive exercise . This will insure a return to maximum strength for the patient . Keep in mind all rehabilitation should be performed within the patient 's limits of pain and periodic re - evaluation and testing such as muscle testing and surface EMG should be performed to evaluate the patient 's progress . Also remember that the final remodeling phase can post injury ; rehabilitation should be directed accordingly . < heading > Investigations . < /heading > Radiology : Radiological changes of osteoarthritis may be seen in of the population and in of those over . Although only a proportion of these have symptoms . ( ) Radiology shows loss of joint space , subchondral sclerosis and cysts , marginal osteophytes . MRI . MRI demonstrates early cartilage changes . Other tests . The FBC and are both normal . Rheumatoid factor is negative , but low - titre tests may occur incidentally in elderly people . < heading > Management . < /heading>8 Evidence for the guidelines Here follows a summary of the guidelines for the management of soft tissue injury during , together with an evaluation of the supporting evidence . Each section will conclude with a brief summary of current practice with respect to each of the elements of PRICE , as extracted from a questionnaire distributed to members of the . A summary of the questionnaire response can be seen in Appendix E The guidelines are for the application of PRICE ; they are based on the assumption that an accurate diagnosis has been made , and that PRICE is the appropriate intervention of choice . Individuals may decide to apply alternative modalities , as identified in Appendix C. Individual consultation and agreement may be required to ensure adherence to the guidelines . Situations in which caution should be observed have been identified in sections , and . Specific contraindications are identified in individual statements relating to each of the elements of PRICE . A summary of precautions and contraindications are presented in Appendix G. < heading>8.1 Protection ( and prevention of further injury) Injury results in a sudden drop in the tissue 's ability to withstand tensile stress . Immediately following injury there is little or no drop in tensile strength but within , as the inflammatory process evolves , a significant loss of tensile strength is observed ( , ) . The extent of this loss is proportional to the degree of tissue damage . Protection against further tension to the area of tissue damage is essential until an accurate diagnosis of the extent of the lesion is established ( ) . In following injury ( six days ) , tension to the site of injury may disrupt the fragile fibrin bond which forms a network of ' scaffolding ' which provides the link between the margins of the injured tissue ( ) . Protection may vary from the initial moving of the injured athlete from the location in which further injury may occur , through provision for general support to avoid using the injured part ( eg crutches ) , to the application of specific means of limiting movement ( eg braces / splints ) . Various modes of protection have been advocated : < list > crutches ( et al , ; Reider et al , ) slings ( Levin , ) taping ( et al , ) hinged brace ( Reider et al , ; et al , ) plaster of / splints . < /list > Protection does not form the focus of any of the papers reviewed . However , it is mentioned as an element in the total early management of soft tissue injuries ( including following surgery ) but specific recommendations are not provided . However , taking into consideration the nature and timing of the healing process and the evidence of the effect of excessive early stress on healing tissue , the following recommendations are made . < heading > Following a treatment plan: After a comprehensive evaluation of the disorder , the orthopaedist will make recommendations for the treatment plan . For most orthopaedic disorders and injuries there is form of treatment , and the treatment plan may involve a combination or progression of several . < heading > Initial treatment may involve : < /heading> rest medical counseling medication immobilization physical therapy exercise activity modifications a combination of these methods < /list> Additional treatment may include : < /heading> casts splints procedures , such as arthroscopy surgery , such as joint replacement < /list > Physical therapy . The application of heat to an affected joint may provide pain relief . Exercises maintain muscle power and improve the mobility of weight - bearing joints . Hydrotherapy may be useful . Drugs . Paracetamol for pain . If not effective try 's which should be used on an intermittent rather than a continuous basis . Low dose tricyclics are used for nocturnal pain . Physical therapy . Reduce weight , walking aid held in the contralateral hand in hip arthritis , in the ipsilateral hand if knee arthritis . Do exercises ( e.g. regular quadriceps exercises in knee osteoarthritis ) and keep active . Surgery . Replacement of the joint is indicated if pain and loss of function have failed to respond to drugs and physical therapy . < heading > Physical examination Examination Inspection Colour . The skin was reddened and bruised discoloured over the whole of his left leg . Contour . The joint was normal . Deformity . The joint in a normal position . Relations . The other knee joint in the other leg was also osteoporotic but neither of the joints was pathological . The nearby muscles were not wasted in either leg . < heading > Palpation Skin . The skin temperature was normal , not hot . Tenderness . Pressure on the left leg caused pain . Synovium . The synovium was not palpable . Muscle bulk . The leg was swollen , it was not possible to detect the bulk of the muscles that control the joints in the left leg . contours . It was not possible to feel the bone at the edge of the articular cartilage .. < heading > Movements It was not possible to move the left leg . It was bandaged and raised . Crepitus . There was no crepitus . Abnormal movements . There were no abnormal movements because the ligaments were all in place . There was reduced movement due to the soft tissue injury in the left leg . The movements in the right leg were not affected . General examination . Osteoarthritis is not associated with any other generalised disease , so the rest of the examination should be normal . As the patient was young , he had no unrelated illnesses . General : The patient was comfortable in bed . His left leg was bandaged from the ankle to mid thigh . He has not been allowed to leave his bed due to the risk of DVT . < list> Respiratory . < /heading>14 breaths / minute . 100% Cardiovascular system . < /heading > BP 120/80Pulse 80 / min Neuro . There is no sensory deficit . He is able to move his toes in his left leg . It was not possible to test his reflexes in the injured leg due to the plaster . The reflexes in his right leg were normal . Abdo . No abnormal signs . < heading > Formulation of the patient 's problem(s) Mr has been referred to hospital after a motorcycle accident where he sustained a laceration to his left lower shin . He will be treated with a skin graft once the wound heals up sufficiently . He has osteoarthritis in both of his knees , both wrists and in his lower lumbar region . Ideas . Mr is aware that he had an accident and he attributes this to slipping on some spilt diesel . He describes it as an unnavoidable accident . He states that there is an increase in the number of motorcycle accidents due to lorries having ineffectual diesel caps whci do not seal very well . Therefore when the lorry turns a corner it spills diesel . Concerns . Mr is concerned that he may have more blood clots in his left leg . This would mean that his stay in hospital would be prolonged whilst they are removed . He has not been given a time frame for when he might be discharged and since he is bed bound he is very bored . He would like to have some idea of when he might be able to go home . He is also concerned about how long it might take for his leg to heal because he is the main breadwinner . He has suffered from depression in the past and there is a risk of him developing depression again and this could stunt his physical recovery . Expectations . He hopes that if clots are found they will be removed . This will be followed by a skin graft . He hopes that it will not take long for the graft to heal and then he will be able to start working again . < heading > Management When treatments such as anti - inflammatory medications , cortisone injections , and physical therapy fail to improve the situation , total knee replacement could be an option . A Total right knee replacement was undertaken for the management of < heading > Pre - surgical Investigations Bloods < /heading > WBC - 10.95 ( high)Hb - 12.7 ( low)RBC - 4.19 ( low)HCT - 0.355 ( low)PCT - 243Neutrophils - 7.97 ( high)MRSA not isolated . < /list> U + E 's < /heading > SOD - 138POT - 4.3CHL - 106Urea - 5.6 X - rays - There are no fractures . < heading > Reassurance and explanation Mr was informed about the x - ray findings . He is aware that he will require a skin graft and the risks involved have been fully explained to him . < heading > Prescription / medical intervention Mr was admitted to an orthopaedic ward . He is waiting for futher tests to be undertaken to see whether any other clots are found . Then he will have a skin graft applied to the wound . < heading > Observation Check for DVT , Infection , Haematoma , . < heading > Advice and Prevention He had an accident after falling from his bike , he could be advised to avoid riding bikes . < heading > Outcome He is still waiting for his skin graft . < heading > Prognosis < /heading> Mortality / Morbidity : < /heading > Undue morbidity ( eg , amputation ) may befall the patient subjected to inappropriate or ill - timed care of knee dislocations . Oversight of the magnitude of soft tissue injuries of the knee may result in a failure to expeditiously consider compartment syndrome and its resultant complications , including loss of limb . or mismanagement of damage to supporting structures of the knee may lead to chronic knee instability with subsequent development of degenerative joint disease and loss of knee function , including an inability to bear weight or ambulate . < heading > Evidence based care and issues for research Cemented total knee replacements will remain the gold standard for total knee replacement but the use of uncemented designs with bioactive surfaces such as hydroxyapatite are showing promising midterm results . Research into mobile bearing knee replacements continues . Such prostheses appear to demonstrate an attractive way of overcoming the constraint versus conformity conflict inherent in any artificial knee replacement . < heading > Commentary Total knee replacement in some form has been practiced for . The complexities of the knee joint only began to be understood . Significant advances have occurred in the type and quality of the metals , polyethylene , and more recently , ceramics used in the prosthesis manufacturing process , leading to improved longevity . As with most techniques in modern medicine , more and more patients are receiving the benefits of total knee arthroplasty ( )","It is now well documented and widely accepted that the 's interior consists mainly of molten rock and exists as layers of differing content and density , ranging from a solid iron core to a molten , mineral rich mantle . This , however , has not always been the case and many hypotheses on the nature of its structure have been put forward throughout history . science fictionalist , , proposed that , to account for the flawed calculation of the earths density , vast internal caves existed as hollows below the surface and in his popular children 's story , ' Journey to the centre of the ' he exploited this fact by allowing the characters to descend through these air filled passages toward the centre of the . Of course this sounds preposterous now but many of the arguments made by hold true and at the time in which it was written , people believed that this was the knowledge of the scientific community . When describing the journey to be undertaken in , the young states that , "" the internal temperature rises one degree for in depth "" which equates to a geothermal gradient of around , well within the accepted value of . However , this gradient only holds true for the continental crust , a vital error which leads to an overestimation of the temperature at the centre by a magnificent factor of . Despite his inaccuracy , he does state his assumption that the gradient remains constant , in keeping with scientific procedure . The argument between him and the professor develops and counter theories expressed as expected . It is true that an internal heat of such magnitude would indeed lead to unpredictable and explosive consequences and so other avenues must be explored . The professor disputes even the concept of internal heat , he believes that , "" The has been heated by combustion on its surface , that is all "" and that any heat which once was held internally as a result of this combustion must now have all dissipated through volcanic vents . There are several obvious errors in his argument but again , each has been presented from a scientific and informed viewpoint . We know that heat within the is , as the professor said , a result of its violent creation . However , it is now known that this heat was formed in the outer regions by the conversion of kinetic energy of extraterrestrial bodies on impact with our young planet , whilst gravitational energy from contraction heated its interior so , although the vigorous reactions mentioned between atmospheric water and what he proposes composed the 's surface , sodium and potassium , do occur as he states , this is inaccurate . It is important to note though that although erroneous , the argument is supported by an experiment he claims was performed by , the chemist who discovered the afore mentioned elements , and so is in keeping with scientific methodology . He was also correct when saying that the depletion of volcanoes over history indicates that the earth is cooling down , but the process is extremely slow and he has assumed that no additional heat is being generated , which we know is not the case . The decay of radioactive isotopes in the mantle is constantly producing heat which goes into powering the solid state convection cycle associated with plate tectonics . The professor concludes , inaccurately , "" that the interior of the globe is neither gas nor water , nor any of the heaviest minerals known . "" We know that all of these components contribute to the 's internal structure . The mantle is predominantly peridodite , a rock made up mainly of the silicate minerals , pyroxene and olivine . There is also evidence that there is water within the mantle and these vapours and gases can be observed during volcanic eruptions . I think , when reading this book , it is important to remember that its sole purpose is to entertain and excite the reader . Although many of the facts stated have scientific support and the way in which they were presented have academic credibility , there are several , and in my opinion , intentional flaws . If had been accurate when describing the internal structure of the he would inevitably have had to conclude that the mission was impossible . Temperatures and pressures of such great magnitude would not allow such a thing . The molten interior would be impenetrable . I think the book is a wonderful introduction to geology , providing much insight into the field but it is by no means a substitute for text books . I think also , at the time it was written , it was to be taken somewhat with a pinch of salt . I believe represented his true feelings through the voice of when presenting his arguments against the journey as he knew such a feat could not be undertaken but the professor , with his convincing and logical arguments , persuaded him , as much as the reader , that it could and no budding geologist would turn down such an adventurous quest for knowledge .",0 "< heading > INTRODUCTION The evidence for prehistoric hunter - gatherers comprises the large floral and faunal assemblage , technology and architecture . These remains enable archaeologists to reconstruct the subsistence of these ancient communities . Through osteological refuse hunting methods and site function can be identified , and technology indicates the activities on site . This evidence also assists in the recognition of simple hunter - gathering groups and the more complex societies . However , the accuracy of these interpretations can be questioned and on occasion re - evaluated . The following essay will approach the study of hunter - gatherer subsistence and , with the inclusion of case studies , evaluate the evidence involved during interpretation . < heading > SETTLEMENTS A simple hunter - gatherer community may be identified by the recognition of a small , highly mobile group with little material culture ( , ) . These groups were probably seasonally mobile , relocating to areas of predictable resource , possibly moving from the grasslands , rich in steppe fauna and wild cereals , into forested areas , for the harvesting of autumn maturing fruits and nuts , and onto the coastal fringes , to rely on the multi - seasonal supply of fish and other marine resources . Although highly mobile , these groups would remain in area for a period of time or . The architectural remains are few but indicate lightweight habitats and shallow hearths , with little or no storage facilities . The waterlogged site of , in , , has been and continues to be , one of the most re - evaluated sites of prehistoric . At the time of occupation , bp ( Legge and , ) , was a lakeside settlement . A birch wood platform was constructed on a reed bed , flattened by probable human traffic , supporting an argument of occupation during the period of growth ( ibid ) . No traces of structures have been found at the site , although the excavator , , suggests only the lower levels of the platform , having remained permanently waterlogged , were preserved ( ibid ) . Structural evidence was discovered at the waterlogged site of , . Semi - subterranean huts , of successive floor layers , were found constructed of plant material , still visible during excavation ( Nadel , ) . The western most feature of the site was the lone grave of an adult male , orientated north - south , with stones positioning his head so he faced east , into the settlement . There were no grave goods associated with the burial . To the east , a small stone feature , measuring in diameter , had been constructed in the area between the grave and the dwellings ; however , there is no evidence of association between the stone feature and the grave ( ibid ) . A series of hearths throughout the site varied in ash and charcoal , colour and size , and contained a wealth of flint and organic remains . The changes may represent different activity areas , although not all the hearths were contemporary ( ibid ) . More permanent dwellings were uncovered at the site of in , . These riverside huts , occupied by sedentary hunter - gatherers between and , were trapezoidal in shape , the wide end towards the river , and varied in size from to ( Mithen , ) . Limestone plaster floors were surrounded by postholes indicating a probable wooden structure and large sub - rectangular hearths were lined with limestone blocks ( ibid ) . Sandstone sculptures resembling man / half fish images , found within the huts , may have had a ritualistic purpose , possibly connected with fishing practices . The evidence for these settlements , amongst other remains , is the surviving architecture . At the proposed temporary hunting camp of , ) , limited water logging has allowed only the lower levels of the platform to be preserved , rendering interpretation of the structures impossible . A slight improvement of preservation at resulted in the organic remains of the huts to be preserved . The location of this waterside site , suggests occupation may have been for longer periods through , with easy access to alternative resources , both aquatic and terrestrial . appears a more permanent settlement , as great effort had been taken to make plaster floors with sunken hearths . Again , this riverside position would provide access to a number of resources . Through the time and effort invested in the construction of hunter - gatherer settlements , archaeologists are able to establish whether the site was permanently occupied or a transitory camp . The surrounding resources probably dictated the location ; careful planning would ease access to a number of environments , allowing a varied , multi - seasonal diet . < heading > OSTEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS of death of an animal can indicate the season of occupation , species specialisation and even hunting strategies . teeth display growth zones and wear patterns , which can indicate of death . Through the examination of teeth eruption and wear , or through the examination of individual bones , the age and diversity of species present on site can indicate whether animals were hunted individually or in groups . An attritional pattern , with an elevated number of individuals in the youngest and oldest classes , may reflect the relative ease in hunting the inexperienced or infirm ( Pike - Tay and , ) . A catastrophic pattern , displaying the highest number of individuals in the youngest category reducing down to the oldest , may indicate a drive style hunting strategy or a natural death resulting from a catastrophic event ( ibid ) . A majority of the osteological evidence from suggests to occupation of the site . This conclusion was reached by the examination of roe deer and red deer tooth eruption , in comparison to modern animals , identifying the or even month of death . A juvenile red deer maxilla contained milk teeth with wear indicative of a specimen , a probable spring birth would suggest a summer kill ( Legge and , ) . However , elk mandible resembled the stage reached by most animals in the of , although this would be dependent on the date of birth ( ibid ) . If the elk had been born in , death during would cast doubt on the season of occupation . The presence of absence of antlers on the skull also identifies the season of death but does not necessarily identify the season of occupation . The skulls of red deer with shed antlers indicate death occurred in spring , or May ( Legge and , ) , possibly suggesting the period of occupation . In conflict with this evidence was the discovery of red deer frontlets with the antlers still attached . Assuming modern red deer display the same habits as those present during the , the animals were killed between and ( Thomas , ) . This conflicting evidence may be explained by the importation of raw material , in the form of antler , for later processing for worked bone tools , and the frontlets are commonly interpreted as ritual objects . There is a suggestion was a hunting camp from which the meat was transported to the base camp ( Legge and , ) . This proposal could be acceptable , although the absence of pelvis and spine from the site would indicate butchery occurred elsewhere , possibly at the kill site ( Darvill , ) . Through the study of the faunal assemblage , is currently accepted as having been occupied during spring and with a possible seasonal migration to a coastal site ( Legge and , ) . Storage of resources can distort the interpretation of seasonal occupation . When hunters were on expedition , the likelihood is stored food would have been transported from the base camp or collected from stores in the landscape . Depending on when the vegetal food was gathered or the animal killed , the food refuse may indicate , when the hunters occupied the site at a different period of ( Champion et al , ) . Osteological evidence can reveal the season of occupation and the purpose of the site ; however , re - evaluation can uncover conflicting evidence . Changes in the habit of animals should also be considered . Although modern red deer carry their antlers through the winter into , ancient animals may have displayed different patterns . A similar problem in changing habits may arise in the study of tooth eruption . Altered nutrition may cause modern animals to erupt their teeth at an earlier age , therefore casting doubt on the ages of animals within the archaeological record ( , ) . Although studies of modern animals in comparison to medieval individuals suggest this is not the case , tooth eruption , as a seasonal indicator , may be problematic ( ibid ) . Species representation within the faunal assemblage may identify preference in the diet or the abundance of a particular animal . At the Final site of , south - west , reindeer are the dominant species in the faunal assemblage , with horse as the preference ( Boyle , ) . Reindeer were an important part of the subsistence strategy and there is ample butchery evidence in the form of recognisable cut marks ( ibid ) . Reindeer remains , although the primary taxa , display less intensive processing than the secondary taxa , including less cut marks or fragmentation . Of the reindeer remains , display evidence of processing in comparison to of non - reindeer ( ibid ) . The greater frequency of butchery marks on the secondary species may indicate increased processing for greater yields , possibly to warrant the effort of hunting a less abundant animal . The species representation in the archaeological record of indicates a diverse diet , and , when examined in conjunction with the presence of characteristic tools , suggests a culture . Although at , is much larger than the average of most sites ( , ) , other characteristics reaffirm the identity . Artefacts are few , restricted to beads of the shell dentalium , and flint and bone tools . The diet , however , is varied as the faunal assemblage contained tortoise , birds , hare , fox , gazelle and deer ( Kislev et al , ) . of fish bones were also recovered , although the pattern of deposition was uneven , common in places , scarce in others . Fish , a multi - seasonal resource , is highly nutritious and obviously of great importance to the site economy ( ibid ) . Osteological analysis can identify many aspects of hunter - gather subsistence . A dominant species in the diet may indicate preference , however , it may also suggest abundance . The age profile of the faunal assemblage can signify the hunting method adopted by the population , whether they hunted individual animals or employed a drive strategy . However , osteological analysis as a seasonal indicator is fraught with problems ; the importation or storage of resources can distort the result . < heading > POLLEN , MACROFOSSILS AND VEGETAL PROCESSING As the climate warmed at the end of the Pleistocene , around 10,000 , the diversity of plants in the landscape increased and spread to areas previously too cold for colonisation . The prehistoric hunter - gatherers were able to collect an increasing variety of grasses , fruits and nuts over a wider area , eventually developing storage techniques to preserve the excess for scarcer periods . The observation of the growth patterns of wild grasses would later provide knowledge invaluable during early agriculture ( , ) . During , phases of occupation are identified at as indicated by the charcoal found during pollen analysis . The phase coincided with the construction of the platform , around 9488 BP , lasting and the phase lasted but falls into a period of anomalies within the pollen record . The occupants of were extremely restricted in their vegetal diet . The local woodland and waterside allowed the collection of bog bean , fat hen and nettle , all of which were represented in the pollen record of the site , but there was no evidence any were actually eaten . Settlements in fared better in the plant community . The warmer climate allowed the growth of various fruits and nuts not available in the cooler west . In , the forest surrounding the site of produced edible grasses , including wild varieties of barley and emmer wheat ( Kislev et al , ) . In the autumn , the inhabitants were able to gather fruits and nuts including almond , olive , pistachio and grapes ( ibid ) . Evidence of all of the listed varieties was found on site , however , although they would have grown in abundance , no evidence was recovered to suggest the harvest was stored in vessels or pits ( ibid ) and there has been no discussion of plant processing technology . The intensive collection , processing and storage of cereals , indicates the presence of a complex hunter - gatherer society . The organisation of the harvest , followed by intensive processing , required man - management ( , ) , probably requiring delegation by a person of status . This exploitation of storable resources including wild cereals and nuts by the , may have led to a sedentary lifestyle ( ibid ) . The possessed processing equipment including querns , pestles and mortars and storage pits , and the abundance of cereals and other plants led to the expansion of the culture towards the highland ( ibid ) . The warming climate allowed the spread of edible plant species , providing the hunter - gatherers with a predictable food source . Not only did plants vary the diet and introduce vital nutrients , they provided a resource suitable for storage . The value of plant evidence within the archaeological record is immeasurable . Radiocarbon dating can provide a date for the site , and the diversity of plants will assist in the reconstruction of the environment and diet . < heading > TECHNOLOGY The technology available to the prehistoric hunter - gatherers was in the earlier periods limited , and is identified by , and in most cases restricted to , lithic assemeblages . Mobile hunter - gatherers would carry only simple and portable technology and complex groups would store cumbersome objects at the base camp ( , ) . Although changing technology and the introduction of new tools can date a site , the possibility of trade must be considered . Exploitation of a migratory species can result in a high kill rate , providing enough food for immediate consumption and also for storage , possibly required during sparse periods ( ibid ) . ( ) suggests non - migratory species may be utilized during these sparse times to bulk out the stored resources . During the Palaeolithic , a period known as the Early Gravettian , , is characterised by points and microgravettes , both of which have been recovered form the site providing the name for the period , , ( Pike - Tay and , ) . There was a dominance of maintainable lithic tools and organic technology was rare ( ibid ) , however , the environment may not have been favourable for the preservation of organic material . produced a lithic assemblage consisting of and flint tools , dominated by burins and scrapers ( Legge and , ) . A wealth of organic technology was recovered from the waterlogged conditions , including barbed antler points in such a number they may represent a cache for later use ( ibid ) . A change in the characteristics of the antler points may represent phases of occupation ( ibid ) , which , if radiocarbon dates tally , may coincide with the phases indicated by the charcoal layers . In addition to rolls of birch bark , possibly used as containers , and heavy elk antler mattocks , a partially decayed wooden object was recovered . The purpose of the artefact has not been identified , but suggestions include a digging tool or a paddle , although no evidence of a boat survives . As a multi - seasonal food , fish have always been an important resource . Shallow water fishing probably produced wrass , ling and saithe , the latter representing of the fish bone evidence recovered from the shellfish middens of , ) . Examination of fish otoliths can estimate the size and age of a fish at death , and growth rings can reveal the season . remains from on , , occupied 5950 , reveal the fish measured in excess of in length and must have been caught in deep water , presumably from a boat . The site of , , is a settlement producing a wealth of fishing evidence . canoes and decorated paddles were used to row out on to the water . Large stones were used as ballast , a small fire , associated with eel fishing , burned ( Mithen , ) and bone hooks and leisters , double fishing prongs , were used to catch small cod , spurdon , seals and porpoises ( , ) . A fish spear was recovered from peat dredged off the Leman and Ower banks , km off shore in . The spear was associated with pollen dating to a reduction of pine in favour of trees that preferred warmer conditions , around 8950 BP ( Flemming and , ) . Fishing strategies , like hunting , can alter depending on the environment or . The site of produced an informative pattern of seasonal food . Within the faunal assemblage , the remains of ringed seal were recovered and analysis disclosed the means by which they were caught . From the autumn until , the seals were hunted using harpoons or clubs , but as progressed into , the preferred method was harpoon or spear , and as autumn approached the seals were caught using nets ( , ) . The reason for the changing strategy has not been explained but may result form changing weather patterns or animal behaviour . The multi - seasonal availability of fish and other aquatic species provided much needed nutrition during sparse periods . The introduction of boats and fishing technology enabled the fisher - hunter - gatherers to venture out onto deeper water and even on to the islands . Organic preservation within the technological record allows radiocarbon dating , or pollen analysis can identify the period by the changing environment . The appearance of new technology , or the improvement of existing tools , provides a dating tool for other sites and allows the archaeologist to reconstruct the activities on site . < heading > CONCLUSION The evidence for prehistoric hunter - gatherer subsistence is varied in type and reliability . Osteological evidence may indicate seasonal occupation and species availability but changing habits of the animals must be considered and may result in re - evaluation . The changing climate at the end of the Pleistocene encouraged colonisation by grasses , fruits and nuts into areas previously unsuitable for the different vegetation . The collection of wild grasses by the hunter - gatherers exposed them to the cereal growth patterns , which would prove invaluable during early agriculture . Technological breakthroughs introduced an increasing and diverse marine diet , possibly to supplement the sparser periods . Organic evidence , dependent on preservation , can provide a radiocarbon date but the transportation or trade of resources can distort the evidence . Although there is a wealth of evidence for the subsistence of prehistoric hunter - gatherers , with the development of new theories and scientific methods , re - evaluation is inevitable and necessary .","< heading > INTRODUCTION Language can "" distinguish the ' human ' from the animal "" suggests ( : ) ; if Neanderthals were non - verbal , does this place them in the animal bracket ? and Dibble observe only indirect evidence has been preserved and therefore there is no definitive answer ( ) , however , a development in the skeletal morphology might have been required to allow a greater range of sounds ( , ) . Cerebrally speaking , finds it difficult to believe the early human brain could be equivalent in size to , or in the case of Neanderthals in excess of , modern humans but produce a hominid incapable of speech ( ) . Is it possible to identify a spoken language in the fossil record and through their material remains ? This essay will approach the subject by examining articles detailing fossil evidence , neurological interpretation and the function of verbal communication , attempting to identify whether Neanderthals were capable of speech . < heading > FOSSIL EVIDENCE Examination of fossils has revealed as evidence for and against the possibility of language among Neanderthals and reinterpretation has identified some inaccuracies in earlier work . The presence and absence of the hyoid bone , necessary for muscle control required during speech , has also caused much debate , together with the position of the larynx . Here , the work of several individuals will be summarised , providing evidence for both sides of the argument . In , the discovery of fossil in renewed discussion on the possibility of speech . The skeleton was incomplete , however , the hyoid bone , located within the cartilage surrounding the larynx , was recovered ( fig ) . Although ( ) describe this small bone , required for speech , as identical to modern examples , and depict the bone as a "" slightly enlarged version of a human hyoid and nothing like an ape hyoid "" ( : ) . The discovery of the fossil caused reassessment and proposed the morphologically modern bone was capable of a modern range of sounds ( , ) , a hypothesis supported by ( ) when he submitted , assuming the presence of a cognitive ability , there is no reason a full range of sounds could not be produced . However , and his colleagues suggested the dimensions of the hyoid could not distinguish the fossil from that of a modern human or pig hyoid and even suggested that Neanderthals may have oinked instead of spoken ( Trinkaus and Shipman , ) . However , the recovery of the hyoid bone and the comparison to that of a modern human does not assist in the interpretation of the remaining components of the vocal tract - what did the unpreserved soft tissue look like and did it allow speech ? The pharynx , a tube connecting the oral cavity to the throat , is also partly responsible for the ability to speak ; without a long pharynx , the range of sounds is limited , as this soft tissue moderates the vibrations at the larynx ( , ) . < picture/>Previous arguments have proposed the low position of the larynx in the human throat allowed a wide range of sounds ; interpretation suggested the high position of the larynx produced a limited range , for example , 's reconstruction of the vocal tract of the Chapelle - aux - Saints fossil suggests an inability to produce the vowels [ a ] , [ i ] and [ u ] ( Tattersall , ) . There has been suggestion that the position of the larynx has less to do with the capability of speech and more to do with climatic adaptation ; ( ) considers the possibility the high position allowed the warming and humidification of cold dry air before reaching the lungs . In , Stringer and Gamble also considered the position of the larynx , and how the larynx descends in an infant . The newborn human larynx is positioned high in the throat , enabling the infant to suckle and breath simultaneously without choking . As the child grows , as their language skills develop , the larynx descends to the adult position , enabling a wide range of sounds . This descent coincides with a change in skull shape from the flat base of a newborn to the angled skull of an adult . Some correlation has been found between the flattened shape of the infant skull and that of some fossils , possibly evidence of an underdeveloped vocal tract resulting in an inability to produce a modern range of sounds ( , ) . This proposal should be considered together with the possibility of misinterpretation . On examination the skull of the from had been pieced together and glued by . Later cleaning and reconstruction produced a rounder shape to the skull - more human - like ( , ) . This misinterpretation of shape may have led to a reconstruction of the vocal tract , by and , resulting in a hominid with the inability to talk , swallow or even open the mouth ( ibid ) . Pre - Neanderthal fossils , including examples from and , show a modern morphology to the skull . The smaller brains may have resulted in less sophisticated behaviour than the later Neanderthals , however , they may have been capable of speech . The Neanderthals possessed flatter skull morphology and a larger brain , yet are suggested as being incapable of speech - Stringer and Gamble find this unlikely ( ) . ( ) provided an interesting critique of the work of ( ) when discussing the possibility of speech . had assessed the dimensions of the hard palate and the epiglottis and suggested a position of the larynx < figure/>low but within the neck ( fig ) . claimed there were similarities between the supralaryngeal tract of , chimpanzees and newborn humans , resulting in a restricted speech capability . disagreed with this hypothesis , saying the interpretation of the oral cavity was incorrect and the tongue would occupy of the oral cavity ; this , suggested , was too much and proposed the examination of several features of the skeleton , including the superior genial tubercles and the length of the palate , allowed successful reconstruction of the oral cavity and an appropriate sized tongue to be applied . This reassessment allowed a suitable position , only obstructing the oropharynx , part of the pharynx between the soft palate and the hyoid bone , during the acts of swallowing and breathing ( fig ) . This reconstruction produced a vocal tract similar to that of modern Homo sapiens , although possibly with a facial extension in the anterior direction ( the characteristic forward movement of the mid - face ) , resulting in a proposed capability of speech ( , ) . < figure/>Recent work has examined the correlation between the size of the hypoglossal canal and the capability of speech . This canal contains the nerve supplying the tongue ; it was proposed the varying canal size indicated the size of nerve and reflected the speech capability of modern humans in contrast to the linguistically impaired non - human primates ( Kay et al , ) . The study concluded the canals of fossils were comparable to those of modern humans and therefore Neanderthals were physically capable of speech , as were other members of the genus , by ( ibid ) . A re - evaluation of data and a later publication by others was prompted by the discovery of numerous non - human primates with a hypoglossal canal comparable to that of modern humans . The conclusion was that there was no apparent correlation between the size of hypoglossal canal and the nerve it contained , and therefore does not reflect linguistic capability ( Degusta et al , ) . < heading > NEUROLOGICAL INTERPRETATION The presence of a vocal tract capable of speech is not evidence of language in itself ; the brain is responsible for the creation and comprehension of language ( , ) . Some palaeoanthropologists and archaeologists , including Mellars ( ) , suggest a neurological evolution may have resulted in the introduction of language , probably prior to the beginning of genus ( and Edgar , ) ; however , and ( ) are quick to counter this argument with the observation brain evolution continues , indicating a single mutation is unlikely to have caused the initiation of speech . Neurological studies have been attempted over to explain the introduction of language ; here , some early work and more recent data will be summarised . Of the fossils currently known , preservation has not allowed the examination of a brain , although the study of endocasts of the inside of the cranium , revealing the peaks and troughs on the brain surface , has allowed the study of various early hominids . Experts look for asymmetry in the brain hemispheres and structures linked to language competence , including 's area and 's area ( , ) , searching for reasons behind linguistic communication problems . Working during , anatomist conducted an autopsy on a mute , revealing a lesion or defect on a particular area of the brain . Broca deduced this area was responsible for muscle control required during speech ( , ) , however , recent data , including brain scans of humans , suggest several areas contribute to the control of speech and 's area may be responsible for motor function including limb control ( , ) . Examination of non - human primate brains has found the presence of 's area , although under - developed compared to humans , resulting in the interpretation of the pre - evolutionary brain as capable of only limited speech or possibly a complete absence ( , ) ; however , ( ) believes the examination of the contours of the brain will not disclose linguistic ability . More recent studies in the effects of Alzheimer 's disease have reaffirmed the possibility of speech impairment if there is an under - development of the brain or if damage is present . An underdevelopment of the left hemisphere of the brain may restrict the ability of language as evidenced in the study of aphasia , conducted by in . Lesions on this area were found to cause symptoms including problems in formulating and understanding spoken language ; the same area of the brain is responsible for motor functions , possibly resulting in disrupted movement of the limbs , a symptom of apraxia ( , ) . Damage to this hemisphere could cause speech and/or motor function impairment ; this may suggest an underdevelopment would have the same effect ; therefore , early hominids , including Neanderthals , prior to evolution , may have been unable to form a complex language due to cerebral impairment . This possible impairment may also explain the limited range of lithic tools recovered from sites ; their restricted motor functions may have prevented them from making technological advances . Further neurological research may produce more evidence to prove or disprove the ability of speech . < heading It seems likely that some verbal communication would have been required to pass on knowledge of hunting strategies and lithic tool production ; however , although may have been physically capable of speech , did they , and for what purpose ? Having approached the physical possibility of speech , here the purpose will be discussed . Although speech as we know it may not have evolved , language of another form may have been present . Non - human primate calls possess some meaning ( , ) and the same could apply to a system of communication reliant on a series of grunts within an early hominid culture ; the only requirement would be a "" consistency with their way of life "" ( , : ) and may even have provided a bond within the group ( and Edgar , ) . A gestural language would be successful providing there is mutual understanding between individuals ( , ) as evidenced by sign language for the deaf . However , a non - verbal system of communication could be open to misunderstanding ; errors between the provider and receiver may result in misinterpretation and may restrict the number of possible gestures within the language , possibly resulting in the evolution of a spoken language ( , ) . Several individuals have discussed the restricted geographical movement of early hominids over . traced movement between resources and found travelled further , repeatedly , than their counterparts . This movement would provide not only a wide range of resources , but also an increase in human contact ( ) ; this may have led to an increased use of language , whether gestural or vocal . In contrast , and found little or no geographical human movement and observed the distribution of resources would shape the social unit ( ) . This would possibly lead a sedentary lifestyle , with no human contact outside of the group , resulting in a local dialect if any language was present . observed the lack of cross - oceanic movement by ' the Ancients ' , including the Neanderthals , led to a lack of colonization of the interior ; this simple society , they suggested , would also possibly have had no purpose for a complex language ( ) ; there has been suggestion the production of non - utilitarian objects and the boats required for the colonization of , probably prior to the glacial maximum of ( , ) , are the evidence for the presence of language ( Davidson , ) . The production of lithic tools is a specialised task and became increasingly complex through the Palaeolithic evidently requiring instruction ( Dibble , ) . However , this does not necessarily identify a language based communication system ; the simplistic tool types in the and may reflect the lack of a complex language ( ibid ) , although , this in itself does not determine a total lack of language . Tattersall ( ) suggests the development of tool - making techniques may be contemporaneous with the evolution of language and regional dialects : possibly prompting the other . However , the possibility of observation and imitation must also be considered during the spread of lithic technology ( , ) , although is quick to counter this argument by suggesting the skill would be lost in a newly - colonized region in which the traditional materials could not be obtained ( ibid ) . and ( ) observed there appeared to be no technological advancement in the production of stone tools around the time of the proposed introduction of language ; it was during that there was a diversification of materials , design and function , possibly contemporary with the introduction of art ( ibid ) ; the pre - language cultures may not have required art for ritual activities or needed it for social identification ( , ) . The production of any form of lithic tool requires substantial cognitive ability , reliant on sufficient neurological evolution . It has been suggested that tool - making and language involve similar cognitive processes ( , ) ; again triggering the other . Continued neurological studies , related to the disorder apraxia , may reveal the beginnings of tool use and the communication systems for their continued production ( , ) ; the techniques applied require skilled motor control and advanced planning ( , ) and argues the technique may be too difficult to acquire through observation alone , without verbal instruction ( ) . As language is a form of ' displaced reference ' , where symbols , on this occasion words , are used to refer to objects in their absence ( , ) , it proves invaluable when planning for the future . The evolution of language resulted in the ability to communicate "" potentially life - saving information "" about the environment in which early humans lived ( , : ) . Animal movement patterns , hunting strategies and gathering techniques could be relayed to assist survival in a hostile environment ; suggests such tasks would be difficult to organize without the ability to verbally communicate ( ) . An evolution in communication systems would potentially lead to success as a culture ( , ) ; if this is so , and the Neanderthals were capable of speech , why did they die out ? argued the better adaptation of modern humans for verbal communication might have a link with the extinction of , ) . < heading > CONCLUSION Early arguments of whether Neanderthals could speak relied on the skull shape and reconstruction , although , loose interpretation , of the vocal tract . The discovery of the hyoid bone of fossil was initially accepted as proof of vocal communication , however , there has since been evidence to suggest little difference between the early human fossil , the vocal tract and the oral cavity and that of members of the animal kingdom . Some researchers have considered specific areas of the brain responsible for speech ; others also assign motor function to these areas , possibly explaining the diversification of stone tools around the same time of the proposed spread of a complex language . The spoken language may have developed as a more reliable form of communication to aid the transmittance of information , possibly to improve the way of life through hunting , gathering and tool - making techniques . Following this research , it is difficult to believe survival skills could be passed on in any other way than verbally , however , the physical ability of speech in Neanderthals does not necessarily prove the cognitive ability . Unfortunately , the question of whether Neanderthals were capable of speech remains unanswered .",1 "< heading > Referral information Source of referral and a summary of key information Miss is a receptionist who was electively admitted on with chronic pelvic pain . < heading > History All relevant information gathered from the patient about the presenting illness , co - existing problems , and current treatment , significant past medical history and the social and family background . The patient 's view of the nature of the problem and their expectations for treatment . < /heading > Miss has complained of recurrent pain predominantly in the left iliac fossa , and also suprapubic area for , which has progressively been getting worse for . She describes the pain as "" sharp "" , grades it as at its worst , and currently suffers the same pattern of pain on a basis . The pain is aggravated by lying flat , and relieved by trunk flexion . She takes no medication for the pain , it does not radiate , there are no associated factors , and it is not linked with her menstrual cycle . Her cycle is currently regular with bleeding . There was no intermenstrual or post - coital bleeding , and no discharge . Her cervical smears have been normal since she started on the screening programme aged . Miss was admitted with the same complaint in , and in had a diagnostic laparoscopy . Miss had a bout of oligomenorrhoea in that resolved spontaneously . She currently complains of a history of dysparenuria on deep penetration . Miss has had no previous pregnancies , miscarriages or abortions . She has had previous sexual partners , and has had a stable partner for . She does not use contraception . Her past medical history is unremarkable excepting removal of a naevus from her groin aged , and grommets in her ears aged . She takes no medications , and has no known allergies . Socially , Miss works as a receptionist , and lives with her fiancée . She smokes cigarettes / day , and takes on significant alcohol . A systems review was unremarkable . < heading > Physical examination Highlight the findings most relevant to your clinical problem solving by underlining them General - < /heading> HR- 68 , regular . RR- / min . BP- 163/68 HS- I + II + 0 added . Temp- Afebrile . ° Jaundice / anaemia / cyanosis / clubbing / oedema / lymphadenopathy . well. Abdominal ° organomegaly . Soft and non - tender . BS++ , normal . ° PR examination performed. Vaginal < /heading > There were no ulcerations , erythematous patches or signs of infection on the vulva or vaginal orifice . The cervix was closed , and the uterus a normal size . The adnexae and anterior fornix were tender on palpation . All other examinations were unremarkable . < heading > Analysis of history and examination Reasons for your choice of the cause of the patient 's problem(s ) and any other cause that still needs to be considered at this stage Considering the age , duration of complaint , and sexual history of the patient , the causes of chronic pelvic pain are limited . The most likely diagnoses at this stage are Disease ( ) , endometriosis , pain syndrome ( chronic pelvic pain + dysparenuria without organic cause ) . Less likely is irritable bowel syndrome ( IBS ) , and other causes of pelvic masses . This may also be an atypical presentation of sub - acute appendicitis . < heading > Formulation of the patient 's problem(s ) Encapsulate this in physical , psychological and social terms ( the triple diagnosis) Miss is a lady who has been suffering from chronic , pelvic pain for . This affects her performing her activities , has caused her to have irregular periods , causes her pain during sexual intercourse , and has caused her worry about her fertility as she has had unprotected regular sex with the same partner for . Socially it has affected her as she describes being embarrassed as she suddenly "" doubles up "" in pain without warning . < heading > Management Use the framework of RAPRIOP to structure your proposed management . to the guidelines to the writing of portfolio cases for the details of the issues to be addressed under each heading. Investigations Bloods- FBC , U+Es , , . Pregnancy test . Laparoscopy- A laparoscopy in was reported thus:""Obvious evidence of infection within the pelvis . Multiple filmy adhesions within the omentum and sigmoid were evident , attaching mainly to the fundus of the uterus , and serosa of the fallopian tubes . Further inspection revealed tethering of the ovaries to the back of the broad ligaments . A dye salpingogram revealed a non - patent left fallopian tube , and a right fallopian tube , which filled and eventually spilled . Impression- evidence of previous pelvic infection , and blocked left fallopian tube giving an increased risk of ectopic pregnancy , and decreased chance of conceiving . "" < /quote > A high vaginal was positive for aureus , and + for erythrocytes . < heading > Reassurance and explanation Miss was counselled regarding the risks of general anaesthesia , and consented for a laparoscopy , laparotomy and left salpingoophrectomy . A discussion regarding future family plans also took place , and the risks and potential benefits of removal of an ovary and fallopian tube were discussed . The possibility of at a later stage was also considered and explained . < heading > Prescription / medical intervention Miss underwent a diagnostic laparoscopy and subsequent laparotomy and left salpingoophrectomy . Post - operatively , she was prescribed IV Metronidazole ( 1g/8hrs ) and Cefuroxime ( 1.5g/8hrs ) . She was also prescribed Co - codamol prn . < heading > Observation < /heading > Post - operatively , Miss was observed on the ward for and discharged with a appointment . < heading > Referral and team working Involved Miss 's GP , theatre staff , and the and at . < heading > Advice and Prevention Excepting abstention , barrier methods of contraception are the best way to prevent chlamydial infection . The progesterone - only pill is also thought to be slightly protective due to the mucus plug formation . < heading > Outcome A description of the progress of the patient as far as possible . This should include consideration of further issues to be resolved . Where appropriate you should contact by telephone patients who have been discharged home. Mrs underwent a diagnostic laparoscopy , which showed multiple adhesions from the fundus of the uterus to the peritoneum . The left ovary was covered with multiple adhesions to surrounding structures , and the right ovary also displayed adhesions to the back of the broad ligament . The right fallopian tube looked unhealthy , and the right ovary had a clubbed appearance . The adhesions were divided , and a left salpingoophrectomy was performed . < heading > Evidence based medicine ( ) and issues for research A brief consideration of the evidence base required for the diagnosis and management of the patient 's problem(s)'Clinical Evidence ' has provided on ' empirical vs. delayed treatment until the results of microbiological investigations are known ' and ' how do different antimicrobial regimes compare ? ' < heading>1 ) 2003- Empirical antibiotic treatment No Randomised Controlled Trials comparing empirical antibiotic treatment versus treatment guided by test results [ ] . However , case control study found that delaying treatment is associated with reduced fertility [ ] . < heading>2 ) Different antimicrobial regimes There is consensus that antibiotic treatments are more effective than no treatment for women with confirmed pelvic inflammatory disease ( ) . systematic review of observational studies and RCTs has found that several different antibiotic regimens ( including parenteral clindamycin plus parenteral aminoglycoside ; parenteral cephalosporin with or without probenecid plus oral doxycycline ; and oral ofloxacin ) are similarly effective in relieving the symptoms of , and achieve high rates of clinical and microbiological cure . We found no good evidence on the optimal duration of treatment . RCTs found no significant difference between oral ofloxacin versus parenteral cefoxitin and doxycycline . RCT found no significant difference between outpatient treatment with intramuscular cefoxitin - probenecid and oral doxycycline versus parenteral antibiotics for outcomes of recurrence , infertility , or ectopic pregnancy at [ ] . In the studies reviewed , cure rates of were achieved [ ] . It is interesting to note that there is no explicitly directed towards medical vs. surgical management of , and no on methods of restoring tubal function post- . < heading > Commentary A commentary on issues of epidemiology , psycho - social , health care delivery , ethical issues or disability relevant to the patient and/or problem Impact on your learning Describe what you have learnt from this case Presentation and differential diagnosis of chronic pelvic pain . Medical and surgical management of . Psychological and financial consequences of infertility in young women . URL Hillis SD , , , . Delayed care of pelvic inflammatory disease as a risk factor for impaired fertility . Am J Obstet Gynecol . , , , . Pelvic inflammatory disease : metaanalysis of antimicrobial regimen efficacy . J Infect Dis 1993;168:969 - 978 . Walker CK , , , . Anaerobes in pelvic inflammatory disease : implications for guidelines for treatment of sexually transmitted diseases . .","< heading > Introduction : < /heading > Few concepts in medical education in have ignited such controversy , nor resulted in such polarised opinion as the concept of ' Problem Based Learning ' ( PBL ) . The creators of PBL intended change of a hitherto unprecedented level- from how students perceived their role in the educative process , how their teachers or ' facilitators ' provided education and guidance , even to the extent of how the individual reflected on the society they were training to serve , and indeed how society judged the practice of medicine and medical education . The purpose of this report is fourfold : < list > To understand the reasons behind the development of PBL.Defining PBL.Perspectives on PBL.Reflection on PBL.1 ) The development of PBL : The McMaster model""Intelligence is what you do when you do n't know what to do . "" , Psychologist. To fully understand the evolution of PBL in in the , it is essential to understand the situation and circumstances from which it developed . For , medical education had been strictly delineated into pre - clinical and clinical blocks . The pre - clinical phase over taught what is generically referred to as the ' basic medical sciences ' to include anatomy , physiology , biochemistry , pharmacology and behavioural sciences . The syllabus was extremely prescriptive , and involved sitting several important examinations before admittance to the clinical phase . Admittance into the clinical phase brought medical students into contact with patients , frequently for the time , and left certain medical graduates of the ' Baby boomer ' generation with the feeling that "" We knew a great deal of medicine , but were [ initially ] terrible doctors [ ] "" . The educational theory behind this traditional model of medical education is referred to as ' logical positivism ' [ ] . Logical positivism expected that once students were told the "" truth "" about what is known about science and medicine , as is frequently done in a lecture setting , then all students present would have at least a similar level of knowledge and understanding of the content . Logical positivism also has to be considered in the cultural context of the time ; many of the doctors who developed under at in the 's had recently emigrated form the system of medical education that although had exceptionally high academic standards , resulted in young doctors who had merely memorised an amount of factual information for a very limited time , failed to apply or integrate the knowledge they had , and ultimately resisted further learning [ ] . This contrasted starkly with a limited pool of students whose medical education had been interrupted or postponed by . When these older students returned to their studies , the skills they developed either in battle or ingrained during military training , such as task delegation , man management , and a capacity for independent thought and reasoning , were transferred to their medical education with remarkable success . Their teachers found they interacted more with their academic environment , engaged in a cognitive conflict that further simulated their learning , understood that knowledge evolved through social negotiation , and that individuals given a certain piece of information may perceive it in very different ways [ ] . It may colloquially be referred to as ' life experience ' . In many ways , these war veterans in the 's were the ' mature students ' admitted to undergraduate medical degrees , and are comparable with the University medical students admitted from diverse social and academic backgrounds [ ] . The influence and impact of these remarkable graduates was not lost on educationalists . ME Knowles , considered one of the pioneers of ' adult learning ' theory considered carefully the experiences of these doctors , and proposed that appropriate conditions for adults to learn included the following : a learning environment characterised by physical comfort , mutual trust and respect , mutual helpfulness , freedom of expression , accepting that people may very different viewpoints , a shared and common perception of both teacher and student of the same educational goals , and finally that the student accepted some degree of responsibility and ' ownership ' of their learning experience[2 ] . Knowles added , "" Adults need to feel a need to learn where the learning process relates to , and uses , their own experiences . "" These experiences and caveats to learning were very much at odds with the educational theory of logical positivism . Indeed , this philosophical view , and its logical consequences were rapidly losing any currency it held with both scientists and educators , and the 's new educational theory of ' constructivism ' was born [ ] . Constructivism was heavily influenced by the previous findings of the post - war medical students , and formally proposed that : Knowledge comes from interactions with our environment . Conflict stimulates learning . Knowledge evolves through social negotiation . Variability occurs in levels of individual understanding . It assumes that knowledge is not an ' absolute ' construct , but is formed by the learner based on previous knowledge and overall views of the world . This resulted in the idea that the opportunity to find knowledge for oneself , to contrast one 's own understanding of a particular concept with others ' understanding , and then redefine or restructure knowledge as more relevant experience is gained seems to harness a ' reality ' of learning that was so absent in traditional medical education and logical constructivism . Furthermore , Knowles argued , constructivism could be applied to any level of education , form pre - school to post - graduate training , and broadens its application far beyond medical training . Taking all this into account , at was established in , and admitted its undergraduates for the programme in , with the students graduating in . Even the concept of , now common , was a unique concept at the time . It was based upon the view that health is a broad subject encompassing not only the problems of ill health , but also the impact of biology , environment , and the way of life on health . Each health professional has specific educational requirements , but by learning together in shared facilities it is believed that it promotes an environment where effective interprofessional working relationships may be established [ 7 ] . Currently students are admitted to the undergraduate programme at . The academic programme operates on a year basis , and students qualify for the degree at the end of their academic year . This qualification gives the student eligibility to sit ( a national examination that all medical graduates must sit and pass . < heading>2 ) Defining PBL . < /heading>""Life is short , the art long , opportunity fleeting , experiment treacherous , judgment difficult . "" , ( translation). In PBL students use a "" trigger "" from the problem case or scenario to define his or her own learning objectives . They then engage in independent , self - directed study before returning to the group to discuss and refine their acquired knowledge . PBL is not explicitly about problem solving ; rather it uses appropriate problems to increase a student 's level of knowledge and understanding . The process is clearly defined , and the several variations that exist all follow a similar series of steps [ ] . Several generic skills are used during a PBL session , these include : < list>1 ) Teamwork.2 ) Chairing a group discussion.3 ) Recording information.4 ) Listening to the views of others.5 ) Cooperation.6 ) Respect for colleagues ' views.7 ) Evaluation of literature.8 ) Self directed ) learning facilitates not only the acquisition of knowledge but also several other desirable attributes . These include communication skills , teamwork , problem solving , independent responsibility for learning , sharing information , and respect for others . It may be thought of as a small group teaching method that combines acquisition of knowledge with the development of generic skills and attitudes . Presentation of clinical material as the stimulus for learning further enables students to understand the relevance of underlying scientific knowledge and principles in clinical practice [ ] . However , introduction of PBL into a curriculum requires several other issues for curriculum design and implementation to be addressed [ ] . It is usually introduced in the context of a defined core curriculum and integration of basic and clinical sciences . The Introduction of PBL also has implications for staffing and learning resources and demands a different approach to timetabling , workload , and assessment [ ] . Paper based scenarios usually form the basis of the core curriculum and ensure that all students are exposed to the same problems . These scenarios may involve laboratory data , photographs , video clips , or even newspaper cuttings relevant to the clinical issue . Recently , modified PBL techniques have been introduced into clinical education , with "" real "" patients being used as the stimulus for learning . Despite the essentially unpredictable nature of learning clinical medicine , a "" key cases "" approach can enable PBL to be used to deliver the core clinical curriculum , and this has been a core ethos of PBL . Once these curriculum issues have been addressed , how the session is conducted must be addressed . The model described below is closely related to the ' Maastricht - jump process ' [ ] . A typical PBL tutorial consists of a group of students and a facilitator , who may occasionally ' steer ' the session . The length of number of sessions a group stays together with each other and with individual tutors varies between institutions , at McMaster this was usually between . The group should to be together long enough to allow a good group dynamic to develop but may need to be changed if personality clashes or other dysfunctional behaviour emerges . A chair for each PBL scenario is then elected by the group , and a scribe to record the subsequent discussion . The roles are usually rotated for each scenario . Suitable flip charts or a whiteboard are then used to record the flow of discussion . At the start of the session , depending on the trigger material , either the student chair reads out the scenario or all students study the material . If the trigger is a real patient in a ward , clinic , or surgery then a student may be asked to take a clinical history or identify an abnormal physical sign before the group moves to a tutorial room . For each module , students are usually given a handbook containing the problem scenarios , and suggested learning resources or learning materials may be handed out at appropriate times as the tutorials progress . The process below is then followed , although this varies with institution [ 9,11 ] . Step 1 Identify and clarify unfamiliar terms presented in the lists those that remain unexplained after discussion . Step Define the problem or problems to be discussed ; students mayhave different views on the issues , but all views should be considered ; the scribe then records a list of agreed problems . Step "" Brainstorming "" session to discuss the problem , suggestingpossible explanations on basis of prior knowledge ; the students draw on each other 's knowledge and identify areas of incomplete knowledge ; the scribe records all relevant discussion . Step Review steps and 3 and arrange explanations into tentativesolutions ; scribe organises the explanations and restructures if necessary . Step Formulate learning objectives ; group reaches consensus onthe learning objectives ; tutor ensures learning objectives are focused , achievable , comprehensive , and appropriate . Step Private study ( all students gather information related to eachlearning objective ) . Step Group shares results of private study ( students identify theirlearning resources and share their results ) ; tutor checks learning and may assess the group . Introducing PBL into an undergraduate medical curriculum makes new demands on tutors , requiring them to function as facilitators for small group learning rather than acting as providers of information . Staff development is therefore essential and should focus on enabling the PBL tutors to acquire skills in facilitation and in management of group dynamics , including how to manage dysfunctional groups . It has been argued that this process takes time , and that not all tutors automatically make good facilitators . However , it may also be said that facilitator training also provides a useful opportunity for facilitators to reflect on their own knowledge , skill and learning . The tutors of a PBL course should also be aware of the institution 's educational strategy and curriculum so they are able to help students to better understand the learning objectives of each individual module in the context of the wider curriculum . The methods of assessment should also be fully understood by both student and facilitator , and time should be available for the student to discuss any concerns he or she may have about the program with the facilitator . Finally , Staff may feel uncertain about facilitating a PBL tutorial for a subject in which they themselves are not specialists . Subject specialists may , however , be poor PBL facilitators as they are more likely to interrupt the process and revert to lecturing . However , students do value expertise , and the best tutors are subject specialists who understand the curriculum and have excellent facilitation skills . However , enthusiastic non - specialist tutors who are trained in facilitation , know the curriculum , and have adequate tutor notes , are usually very good PBL tutors [ ] . < heading > Perspectives on PBL""Education is the transmission of civilization . "" Will Durant , th philosopher and historian. Advantages There are several advantages to having a curriculum based upon the tenets of PBL . The teaching is student centred . This means it fosters active learning , improves understanding , aids retention of information , and also promotes the development of lifelong learning skills . The generic competencies necessary for successful PBL are desirable in future practice . It is believed that PBL students integrate well into multidisciplinary teams , have to foster effective communication skills in order to complete the learning objectives , and are generally perceived to be good ' team players ' [ ] . , facilitates an integrated core curriculum . If the is done well , it should all ' come together ' when the core blocks have been completed . This avoids the student ' pigeon - holing ' pieces of information into a systems - based format . PBL students are deemed to be more motivated than their peers following a more traditional medical education . Done well , is also more fun for the facilitators , and allows a rapport to develop that would be difficult to achieve in a lecture theatre setting . PBL promotes more informal , more frequent communication between student and facilitator , which can only aid each other 's understanding . The constructivist approach also ensures that students activate their prior knowledge and build on their existing conceptual knowledge frameworks . Finally , the proponents of PBL say if encourages ' deep learning ' , whereby students interact with learning materials , relate concepts to everyday activities , and therefore improve their understanding of the subject matter [ ] . < heading > Disadvantages Unsurprisingly , is not without its critics . The argument is that it requires a facilitator who actually facilitates , rather than teaches . Tutors who enjoy passing their own knowledge on may find PBL facilitation both difficult and frustrating . As with any new concept , it also takes time for the facilitator to find their own balance in each group . PBL is also resource - hungry , and requires a suitable facilitator for every people . In the LWMS pre - clincal programme , that would mean SHO / equivalents , and small group rooms . Adequate library facilities are also essential , as large numbers of students need access to the same library and computer resources simultaneously . PBL students may be deprived of a particular inspirational teacher who in a traditional curriculum would deliver lectures to the whole group . Finally , there is the very real danger of information overload . Students may be unsure of the depth and level of study required for a particular assignment , and also what is actually relevant and useful . < heading > Reflection on PBL""We wander for distraction , but we travel for fulfillment . "" , is an evidently an effective way of delivering medical education in a coherent , integrated program and offers several advantages over traditional teaching methods . It is based on principles of adult learning theory , including motivating the students , encouraging them to set their own learning goals , and gives them a role in decisions that significantly affect their own learning . Rather predictably , PBL does not offer a universal panacea for teaching and learning in medicine , and it has several well - recognised disadvantages . Traditional knowledge based assessments of curriculum outcomes have shown little or no difference in students graduating from PBL or traditional curriculums [ ] . Research over has shown students from PBL curriculums seem to have better knowledge retention [ , ] . PBL also generates a more stimulating and challenging educational environment , and the beneficial effects from the generic attributes acquired through PBL should not be underestimated . Finally , I must ask myself the question what has exposure to and its novel educational methods had on my education and progression though medical school . I have always had a very strong feeling that students at any stage in their education never ' learn how to learn ' . PBL is certainly suitable for only certain types of student , who are prepared to fully engage with the material offered , to contribute to class discussion in a pro - active yet non - dominating way , and have a strong interest in the education of others . I believe achieves this by being very open in its applications process ; it welcomes applications from anyone with an undergraduate honours degree , yet only selects ' Mac people'- who will contribute to its PBL classes , and by being the most selective medical school in . Any reflection on medical education is time well spent , and my elective period in has further strengthened my interest in pursuing a career in medical education after I qualify .",1 "In lay exhausted after of warfare . Physical ruin was combined with the collapse of coherent political and economic structures . described the region as ' a scrap heap , a mortuary , a breeding ground for scourges and hatred ' . With the army all but defeated , the met at in in order to restore stability and ensure recovery . The emergence of however meant 's security for was anything but guaranteed . Before we can begin to establish to what extent was ' secure ' in this era , it is necessary to establish the context within which the new would be shaped . It is also necessary to define what is meant when refers to and to establish a coherent definition of ' security ' for the latter in particular remains a concept subject to various interpretations . It is necessary to examine the policies of Containment and 's expansion in any assessment of the security of in . It can be argued that the victor 's division of did more to threaten security than ensure it . The emergence of international organizations and military alliances can be interpreted as means through which world leaders sought to establish security . Catudal argues that the doctrine of deterrence , which fuelled the nuclear arms race , did little to contribute to the security of . Protest activity within must also be highlighted as it contributed to political insecurity within the region . Thus it seems that despite the absence of direct military conflict , hostile relations between the and meant 's security was anything but assured in this period . < fnote > Catudal H.M. ' Nucleur Deterrence : Does it ' , ( ) p.40 < /fnote > was the open yet restricted rivalry that developed after between the and . The struggle has been labeled because of the absence of direct superpower conflict . What was to develop instead was a conflict of ideologies , involving the appliance of economic pressures and propaganda , fought through proxy wars throughout the world . The context within which post - war emerged must be given some consideration . was now a very different continent to that of . Aside from the sheer economic devastation and human casualties , the most significant point for our discussion is that ' the legacy of the war had left the Continent , and with it , divided in ' . In an unprecedented development , and would evolve into separate political entities and become a battleground for - Soviet relations . Thus in our discussion of security it is important to emphasize to which side of the ' Iron Curtain ' , as imaginatively described the division , we are referring . The post - war security system which would be sought was for a new , with a new set of political and economic relations , and was to involve different protagonists and institutional arrangements . < fnote > Nugent N. ' The Government and Politics of , ( ) p.13 < /fnote> URL < /fnote > The concept of security in international relations has been subject to much academic debate . Baylis argues that there does exist a consensus that security implies freedom from threats to core values but there is major disagreement over whether the focus should be on ' individual ' , ' national ' or ' international ' security . During , security was largely referred to in a national and military sense . This view arose out of realist assumptions which perceive the international system as anarchic , given the absence of a central authority . Drawing on theoretical perspectives of and , Realist doctrines perceive states to be the primary actors on the international scene and given the absence of trust between states , survival is considered the most basic driving force of state behavior . An analysis of how ' secure ' was in this era must therefore assess the extent to which felt secure militarily . However as has argued , this idea of security is criticized as ethnocentric and ' underdeveloped ' . states ' defining security merely in military terms conveys a profoundly false image of reality ' . Buzan argues security includes political economic , societal , environmental as well as military aspects defined in broader international terms . Thus civil unrest within and economic circumstances must be considered . It should be noted that our concern lies not with the national security of individual states but with the overall structure of . < fnote > Baylis J , The Globalization of World Politics ' USA and ( ) < /fnote> Buzan B. ' and Fear ' London , ( ) p.214 - 242 < /fnote> Ullman R. ' Redefining Security ' , , Vol . ( 1983 ) p.129 < /fnote > The initial policies of both the Superpowers were to have a profound effect on the security of post - war . Into the power vacuum which emerged stepped the and who would become the decisive arbiters within . 's post - war expansion combined with the policy of Containment ensured the division of , a division which would become a symbol of hostility and tension and install feelings of insecurity throughout the continent during . argues 's expansion within originated primarily out of defensive concerns . The had suffered far greater causalities and destruction than the Western allies . had been killed whilst vast amounts of industry were destroyed . However it remains difficult to justify the coercive and intimidating methods with which regimes were enforced . In was willing to accept coalition governments in but was to intensify his campaigns . By much of was modeled on the state . witnessed rigged elections whilst and were the subject of particularly coercive campaigns . The parties , directed under the Cominform , went about purging opposition members and in 's opposition leader was hung . In other countries key opposition figures were either killed or imprisoned . commented in his famous speech that ' whatever conclusions may be drawn from these facts - this is certainly not we fought to build . Nor is it one which contains the essentials of permanent peace ' . Thus implicit in 's justified remarks was that 's actions did not encourage a sense of security within post - war . < fnote > Crockatt R , and ' , ( ) C.3 < /fnote> URL ( added ) < /fnote > Let us now turn to assess the implications of foreign policy on the security of . Following warnings in that they could no longer support government forces in resisting opposition , took action upon its wish not to see fall under the domination of any one power . The policy of Containment was founded upon the views set out in Long Telegram published in . set out what he believed to be the motivations behind expansion and his recommendations for policy . ' There can be no permanent modus vivendi ' with wrote ; the must pursue ' long - term , patient but firm and vigilant containment of expansive tendencies ' . The announcement of the Truman Doctrine in made it policy ' to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures ' . The subsequent announced in , pledged in aid to countries willing to open their markets to trade and investment . What labeled ' the most unselfish act in history ' was rejected by the as ' dollar imperialism ' . Booth argues that when states believe they are behaving reasonably , as in preparing to defend legitimate interests , few have the imagination to appreciate how dangerous their actions may appear . This common ethnocentric bias , he argues , meant ' there was a general failure to understand the other 's hopes and fears ' . Whilst did enhance economic security within those countries who accepted assistance ( industrial production rose by above pre - war levels ) , grand rhetoric fuelled hostile relations with the . The implications for were entrenched division and an international atmosphere of mistrust and suspicion . Nowhere was this more evident and concentrated than in . < fnote > URL < /fnote> URL < /fnote> URL < /fnote> Booth K. ' Strategy and Ethnocentrism ' , ( ) p.40 < /fnote > At , , and agreed upon the division of ; a division which would come to symbolize hostility and be the cause of much military and societal insecurity within . The future of loomed large in the minds of other states given that she had occupied much of the continent times in . It was ' the struggle over which shaped the character of the alliance systems ' writes . was to be the site of the first ' hotspot ' in when in cut off road , rail and canal links into . The capital lay deep inside the occupied zone but had been similarly divided at . The result was a huge Western effort to supply the population of by airlift . conceded defeat in and so ended the major point of tension in - the tactics were designed not to kill but to threaten and thus this incident , at the heart of , set the pattern for how future hostility would be expressed . would continue to be a cause of military and societal insecurity within throughout . existed as an island of capitalist prosperity within a depressed economy . This eventually led to the building of in as the sought to halt the flood of skilled refugees crossing from to . The wall not only prompted a tense superpower military stand off with regards to access to , but also contributed to feelings of societal insecurity given that it physically divided friends and families . Security within was however enhanced during the period of in . Under Chancellor , pursued the policy of ' Ostpolitik ' which involved an acceptance of the borders and increased trade . spoke of ' states but nation ' and sought a ' peace order ' through . Unresolved border disputes with were settled whilst both states became members of the . In signed the and a non - aggression pact with . Such diplomacy led to increased feelings of military security within and within in general . and sought a restoration of amicable relations whilst in between and symbolized a new spirit of friendship between these long - term enemies . of enshrined the principle of inviolability of frontiers in thus further enhancing feelings of military security . Let us now turn to assess how institutional arrangements within sought to establish security during . < fnote > Hyde - Price A. ' beyond , Sage Publications Ltd ( ) p.30 < /fnote> Hyde - Price A. ' beyond , Sage Publications Ltd ( ) p. < /fnote > The post - war context gave way to unprecedented efforts to ensure military and economic security through institutional institutions . Nugent argues there was a ' widely shared optimism ' that the creation of organizations could break down mistrust and enhance feelings of security . The 's foundations were laid at whilst in , states signed with the and . states that ' an armed attack against or more of them in or shall be considered an attack against them all ' . argues ' threw a nuclear cloak over the 's of enabling recovery and resistance to Communism ' . The 's response was the formation of in between the states of coordinating any future military action . Whilst both developments further entrenched division they did encourage a sense of military security for both spheres . Meanwhile the creation of the and in , despite perhaps proving unsatisfactory for citizens , also helped stabilize . Hyde Price argues these developments ' gave the post - war order a growing sense of stability and predictability ' . A sense of economic security within was also enhanced through the establishment of the IMF , which aimed to alleviate currency instability in countries suffering economic difficulties , whilst the provided long - term loans for schemes that required substantial investment . In the was established to manage aid and coordinate the economic policies of states . The 's formation of the Cominform in enhanced control in whilst the establishment of in prompted coordination between the economies of . Institutional arrangements and economic cooperation did help to achieve greater feelings of military and economic security within . It can be argued however that such feelings were undermined by the impact of the arms race throughout . < fnote > Nugent N. ' The Government and Politics of , ( ) p.12 < /fnote> URL < /fnote> Mason J. ' : 1945 - 91 ' , ( ) p.32 < /fnote> Hyde - Price A. ' beyond , Sage Publications Ltd ( ) p.32 < /fnote > Despite the absence of direct - conflict , what continued to give its potentially destructive edge was the substantial build up of nuclear arsenals of both superpowers . referred to the possibility of ' the most destructive war in history ' if ' peaceful coexistence ' was not maintained . later argued that ' nuclear war can not be won and must not be fought ' . Why then did the superpowers ( and to a lesser extern and ) proceed in an unprecedented build up of arms and what were its effects on feelings of security within ? Deterrence theory was the driving force for the build up of nuclear capability . Catudal writes ' Deterrence refers to the policy of preventing or discouraging an action by confronting an opponent with risks he is unwilling to run ' . Whilst the avoidance of nuclear war has for some proved the effectiveness of deterrence , its critics argue the policy is fraught with dangers which continuously threatened the security of . 's ' security dilemma ' serves to highlight how actions a state may believe to be defensive e.g. the acquirement of nuclear weaponry , may be interpreted as aggressive by the enemy . in provided a chilling example of the crises and subsequent dangers nuclear weapons can cause . Catudal argues that the primary reliance on nuclear deterrence made it very difficult for policy makers to consider alternative approaches . He concludes nuclear deterrence served as a ' convenient rationalization for the development of weapons made available by military technology ' and that ' there is little evidence to show that it actually works in practice ' . The superpower 's nuclear weapons threatened the military security of simply because of the global nature of their effects if used . In strategically placed nuclear weapons in ensured would be at the heart of any potential nuclear war . If we are to adhere to Buzan 's notion of security one can also argue that the arms race led to feelings of societal and environmental insecurity within . The movement organized its protest in in response to growing fears of nuclear war and growing concerns for the environmental damage caused by atmospheric tests . The movement reached its peak in in response to the crisis at . Thus despite some confidence in the doctrine of deterrence , the destructive potential of nuclear weapons served as an ever present source for feelings of insecurity in . < fnote > URL < /fnote> URL < /fnote> Catudal H.M. ' Nucleur Deterrence : Does it ' , ( ) p.37 < /fnote> Jervis R. ' Perception and misperception in international politics ' , ( ) < /fnote> Catudal H.M. ' Nucleur Deterrence : Does it ' , ( ) p.40 < /fnote > Political instability within must also be highlighted as it serves as evidence of societal insecurity during . Given that much control over this region was enforced with assistance it was perhaps inevitable that opposition movements would surface . The uprising of resulted in the deaths of rebels and troops . more were wounded , and left the country as refugees . Again in forces invaded to put an end to the political liberalization and reform which has occurred under . Such political instability illustrated insecurity within which could only be silenced by brutal force . Thus it seems that there is much evidence to suggest was far from ' secure ' during . Whilst institutional arrangements did go some way to stabilizing the superpower 's spheres of influence economically and militarily , the post - war foreign policies of the superpowers charged with aggressive rhetoric , the threat of nuclear weapons and political instability ensured a situation in which security was often in doubt . Whilst some of the greatest achievements of were seen within , was essentially temporary because , as argues , ' there was no consensus on what détente meant , or what codes of conduct it involved ' . To label as the ' long peace ' , as commentators such as and do , is to adopt to an overly narrow definition security which places an excessive emphasis on military security and neglects its societal , economic and environmental aspects . In addition the ' the long peace ' perspective advances benefits of the nuclear deterrence theory which remain highly questionable . is now certainly more secure now is over . < fnote > Hyde - Price A. ' beyond , Sage Publications Ltd ( ) p.37 < /fnote> URL < /fnote >","It is certain that everyone in the world is able to speak language but every individual would not always use the exact same vocabulary or speak in a similar way in most language . Moreover use of language is different depending on certain groups of identity in particular gender differences between male and female enable to vary styles of language or lexical expressions widely . Furthermore these distinctions seem to emphasise a sense of identity such as masculinity or femininity as behaviours or attitudes . This essay will firstly discuss how men 's language and women 's language are dissimilar from points . These points are vocabulary , speech styles and ways of interaction . In addition this essay will move to analyse how these differences are made while taking consideration of social life in early childhood and social relations in genders and then conclude on how much linguistic identity is important in establishing a sense of identity between genders in social context . To begin with the language used by men and women has a distinct feature towards vocabulary or lexical expressions . Ide ( : , cited , : P219 ) pointed out that language has contrasting personal pronoun forms in men 's speech and women 's speech ( see appendix ) . The difference is use of watashi in other words men use watashi as a formal expression of pronoun , I whereas women refer to watashi as a plain form . Furthermore men have deprecatory level of language such as ore , omae and kisama however women are not allowed to use corresponding form of words . As a result it seem that women are more likely to deal with polite language and also men are accustomed to use improper language ( , : ) . It has been found that the difference concerning vocabulary can be found not only in but also in other languages . As ( : P126 ) has indicated men are inclined to swear or use taboo words compared to women for example men used swear words times as much as women in a single sex group ( , , cited , : P127 ) . On the other hand it has been claimed that women speak in more polite ways than men ( , : P235 ) for instance women are apt to express regret when they ask a favour such as ' I 'm awfully sorry to bother you but I 've run out of milk . Could you possibly lend me a pint ? ' or to pay a compliment when they see someone such as ' You are looking marvellous ' ( , : P129 - 130 ) . Furthermore has admirable words specific to female for example adorable , charming or sweet ( , : P156 ) . It is also clear that speech style by men is not exactly the same as the one by women and the difference between genders seems to be associated with topics in conversations . ( : P118 ) found that women are inclined to discuss personal matters than men therefore they often use hedges such as I think , I mean in order to avoid making direct remarks to recipients and prevent them from showing rudeness . Furthermore women tend to be polite when they control force of their speech . ( : ) argues that women are more likely to use modal auxiliaries such as might , could or modal adverbs such as perhaps , possibly than men because women are inclined to be concerned about face needs for others in private conversations . Women can also use hedges such as you know in order to emphasise personal opinions confidently ( , : P116 - 117 ) . On the other hand men focus on common issues in a chat as a result it is not necessary to concern way of speaking ( , : P118 ) . In addition women are inclined to speak tentatively and less assertively than men . It seems certainly that women regularly deal with tag questions such as is n't it or are n't they so that they are able to imply uncertainly on statements ( , : ) . According to Montgomery ( , P162 ) it has been claimed that there are types of tag questions , checking tags such as ' You like living in , do you ? ' and facilitating tags such as ' That was a good film , was n't it ? ' While the former is added by means of double - checking for the speaker the latter is orientated towards the addressee in other words speakers are expected to have turn - takings by addressees . Montgomery ( , P162 ) goes on to argue that women 's speech includes a number of facilitating tags which speakers ask supports from addresses therefore it seems to emphasis less assertiveness . The difference between men 's language and women 's language is ways of interaction . ( , P231 ) notes that minimal responses such as yeah , mmh , or right are able to encourage speakers to continue to talk . Women frequently use these conversational supports because they tend to indicate how much they are truly listening with minimal responses however men regard them as a sign of agreements for speakers ( , : ) . Furthermore men hardly have minimal responses but often interrupt conversations ( , : P379 ) therefore women can not help stopping conversations with a few conversational supports by men because they wonder if their speech might not be interesting or addressees might not support the opinion . On the other hand men make a chance to talk by interrupting conversations and start to talk with frequent minimal responses by women ( Chaika , : P379 ) . It is clear that there are distinctive linguistic features between male and female and the differences seem to be essential to establish their own identity respectively . Furthermore these linguistic identities have been produced by various influences in social context . of all differences in language depending on genders are associated with social life in early childhood . Romaine ( 2000 , ) reports that fundamental speech styles are formed through early social interactions since girls have a tendency to play in small groups whereas boys are more likely to have outdoor sports such as football with a number of friends . ( : P157 - 158 ) also found that these dissimilar social experiences strongly affect use of language in other words girls are able to learn how to cooperate or deal with harmonious relations with members of a group in order to avoid arguments therefore their speech should be tentative and polite furthermore they sometimes have to control their opinions . On the other hand boys often compete with fellows through games for sports consequently they are accustomed to speak themselves with confidence in order to overcome fellows in conflicts ( , : ) . As a result female ask intimate connections or disclosure for social relations whereas men seek hierarchy , status and independence ( Montgomery , : P168 ) . and McConnell- ( , - 317 ) argue that these dissimilar speech styles help to indicate a certain sense of identity depending on genders . It has been claimed that linguistic features are also related with social context for example politeness concerning women 's speech has a concern with marriages . According to Romaine ( 2000 , P79 , ) in the Victorian culture proper languages regarded as a standard of manners as well as behaviours or dresses as a result everyone in particular women had a special education such as elocution or voice training and were eager to acquire proper languages . In that period a marriage with independent gentlemen was an object of admiration towards luxury lifestyle so women aimed to attract men with sophisticated manners . Furthermore sophisticated linguistic skills influenced marriages in and vice versa in modern age . and ( : P283 ) argues that women are able to develop linguistic skills by marring a socialised partner so it is considered that successful marriage enables to achieve job advancement . In addition there are the other social influence to consider linguistic identities between genders . Chaika ( : P382 ) found that women who speak tentatively are enabled to persuade men more strongly than women who speak assertively . However this tentativeness in women 's speech is less effective to the same sex in other words women are more likely to be influential by assertive speech ( , : P68 ) . Therefore women are accustomed to change speech styles depending on gender of addresses however it rarely happens in men 's speech because speech styles have no concern with effects for addresses whatever the gender is ( , : P68 ) . ( : P68 ) concludes that this linguistic feature tends to be a choice for women because women are deliberately able to speak in a tentative way in order to persuade men easily and avoid arguments with men in a social life . In conclusion it is clear that there are quite different language styles between men and women and it is an essential part to show own identity as attitudes or ideas . Moreover the linguistic identity has been concerned with social life strongly therefore it seems to reflect images of femininity and masculinity in social context . As women tend to be gentle or delicate women 's language is more tentative , polite than men 's language . On the other hand men 's language also shows masculinity such as confidence , competitiveness or rudeness according to social relations to men .",0 "Rumour of gold on the far western frontier may not have aroused great interest along the seaboard of during , following discovery of the precious metal in . As rumour became fact by however , interest swelled ; the hope of a fresh start and a guaranteed fortune caught the imagination of many , sparking a trans - continental migration over that we know as ' The California Gold Rush . ' Travel to the far west was anything but trans - continental however , and this essay focuses on the travels of those who took to the sea , sailing around or crossing , before the building of . Focus is also placed on the journey undertaken by those choosing to make the trip by land , from the mid - western region , toward . This discussion also notes theories on the yearnings of a rising middle class culture which historians can understand through analysis of the diaries of sea - faring who were faced with relentlessly out in the open sea . The journey , no matter what the route taken , was hazardous , the terrain and at times climate unforgiving , but as declares , the typical gold seeker , ambitious and curious , was not however , easily swayed from his purpose . Such a desire and determination would certainly prove necessary . < fnote > , , A History , ( US ed . ) p167 < /fnote > With the exception of those living in the territory of and the islands , no reached during . The President confirmed Gold rumours as fact on th , catalysing the greatest migration the young had seen by that date . Those to arrive had travelled via this of , reaching on th . Such was the volume of travellers toward in that historians now refer to those making the trip as . Such was the tirade of migrants from the states that terms it ' the stampede of and the subsequent years . "" As terms it , ' 's Gold discoveries launched a thousand ships and hitched a thousand prairie schooners . "" By , census administrators at estimated that emigrants had travelled to the region , most of them being easterners . variety showed great diversity , as the working class mixed with the wealthy , those from states mixing with those from the . The relationships between this latter group will be assessed shortly , highlighting just how polarised the regions had become in just before . Before any talk of travel , it is important to briefly note why exactly people chose to leave the states of . Many were tired with the growth in urban life since the revolution ; the demand for labour , strict timekeeping , intemperance and other such facets of an ever - growing city centralised society . Those in rural regions , who failed to maintain their farms , may have seen a new life in the as a better alternative to urban society . Since independence , the building of a new nation rested on the idea of wealth for all . Gold represented just that for many . The responsibilities that had been woven into society concerning family obligations were also largely ignored as the chance to make a quick fortune was seen as favourable . < fnote > Rodman W. Paul , California Gold , ( , ) p23 < /fnote> Malcolm Rohrbough essay in and eds . Rooted in , ( , ) p25 < /fnote > For those who chose to travel via , a journey which would take , the wonders of the region gave them new experiences , showed them things the likes of which they had never seen before . Even though this route was seen as quicker than the alternative venture around , if there were a shortage of vessels on , as there often were in , then a stay in would be prolonged . Most of the ships that left for in were worm - rotten with awful living spaces and food supplies . Whilst crossing the , disease dogged many travellers , as cholera , dysentery and yellow fever struck within the immensely unsanitary conditions . The region both intrigued and appalled the migrants . Many viewed the natives as lazy , but also disrespectful toward the . The recent evangelical revivals during can partly assist explanation of such opinion , as the natives gambled exuberantly on 's . Viewing the , J. E .Clayton commented , ' they ... have no sense of shame about them . "" Such views indicate the conservative nature of the during this period , most of whom would not have come into any contact with diverse cultures before . Many journeymen also saw the natives of the region as heathens having had no prior knowledge of Catholicism , although many viewed the buildings with awe . The journey across the isthmus involved canoe trips and mule rides through rich forests diverse in animal and plant life . Despite the beautiful nature on show , arrival in often brought great relief to the migrants . This highlights both the tedium of the journey , and their discomfort in the presence of foreign cultures . < fnote > , Days of Gold , ( , ) p59 < /fnote > The journey around , for those who chose to undertake it , ( of sea - going emigrants ) was far longer and more laborious than the other sea - faring option , but that did not mean it was far safer . Passengers tried to amuse themselves with games on board , whilst cockfighting and bullfighting was common when ships anchored . The straight of proved hazardous with strong currents and dense fogs , which only served to prolong the journey . Life on board ship , whether around or across proved tense at times , as the class and regional diversity of the passengers on board most ships highlighted growing social and cultural gaps within society . Travellers had left there families in many circumstances , and as individuals , were in a position to observe other cultures from within their own country . The aforementioned discomfort felt by many travellers toward foreign peoples can actually be compared with their feeling toward persons from their own country . With , as traveller Layette Fish wrote , ' nearly if not all states represented , ' many passengers accounts of their journey are focussed on the animosity they felt toward their fellow shipmates . This is not to suggest that every ship saw segregation become the mainstay of life on board . Historians have collected accounts though of such animosity , most of it written by commenting on their neighbours . < fnote > , Days of Gold , ( , ) p56 < /fnote > Many northern passengers commented that men often swore and gambled , in copious amounts . Many northerners felt a sense of superiority toward their counterparts , which among other things may have grown from the post - independence polarisation of and cultures . may have modelled their opinions on industrial advancement in comparison to slavery and plantation economy . At this time of course , slavery was a major political issue . As ships anchored to pick up men and supplies in the states , many travellers got their glimpse of slavery , witnessing among other things , slave auctions . Seeing slavery in action may well have affected how viewed onboard for the remainder of the trip . A , , saw slavery for the time and had a very negative view of it . Class also proved an issue onboard . Many people travelled in companies , yet even within these companies , certain individuals could afford greater living spaces and food . These people were happy to , as writes , ' maintain social and economic distinctions between themselves and others of that company . "" This onboard class consciousness may represent a microcosm of a growing class culture within urban life . agrees that tensions onboard ships were rife , yet not universal . Men would bond together when in sight of a potential enemy vessel , to pit ship against ship or to relax and tell jokes . In certain situations where it became necessary , men from all walks of life found something in common to maintain a harmony . < fnote > Malcolm Rohrbough essay in and eds . Rooted in , ( , ) p33 < /fnote > The evangelical revivalism of had led to a re - thinking of moral values and standards within . Avoiding the waters of temptation made up an essential part of how the good man should behave , yet for many , the temptation of Gold in the West represented to great a temptation to avoid . Many Ministers denounced those who wished to give in to such temptation . They did however , suggest things : that they migrants would bring civilisation to , and that they would keep diaries during their travels . It is in his reading of such diaries , that historian has constituted a theory unlike that of other historians . Acknowledging as so many historians before him have , that most of the accounts are similar in their descriptions of repetitive events out at sea , focuses on the style of writing , the ' experiments with metaphor and identity , ' claiming that within these works , it is possible to find the yearnings of a rising middle class . The migrants are in a unique position , travelling with many unknown persons , toward a place they are unsure of , toward a fortune they hope to find . Out on the open sea , the shuffled off the rigid coils of dry respectability , replacing it with yearnings for self - immersion . The passengers had so much time to themselves , that things they could n't appreciate , or discuss in their lives back home became topics of great creativity , such as the arts . also writes of sea - sickness as ' a moment of transition ... between former lives and new existences , ' as men who had never experienced it before thought it represented their on earth . < fnote , , ( , ) p95 < /fnote> Life travelling by land to proved harder than and just as hazardous as travel by sea . The more favoured route , which was already marked out , took the Argonauts west from through , although some took a more southern route . made this trip over land in alone , and all took on many responsibilities . Individuals were responsible for making sure their possessions could be carried west , and had to be able to guard against attack . Men were forced to take on domestic duties usually the responsibility of women in family life . Those who undertook travel by land did so with a sense of pride , re - enacting the frontier movement west a century before across the . Competition became an important part of life as a cross - country , rivalries including those for water , grass and speed in reaching destination . These travellers were forced to live travel together as countrymen with the same goals , despite different regional backgrounds . Tensions were similar to those found at sea , as southerners saw northerners as reformist fanatics . Indeed , as notes , rivalries were not just based . Men from for example tended to stick together , whilst other despised them . As noted , the terrain faced by these migrants would prove unforgiving at times , but in the case of , the climate also played its part . If a travelling group ended up here , as in the case of in , there could be no escape . himself had to leave his large and rather slow group in the valley to find provisions , as such a large following faced up against sweltering heats and aimless canyons . Supplies had quickly run out and oxen had had to be killed for food . For many who reached , bitter disappointment followed . Due to the sheer volume of migrants , only those who arrived earliest made real gains . Mining was tiring and prices within quickly soared to take advantage of the ' rush . ' Many struck it rich , but quickly spent their findings . writes of the harsh travel arrangements laid on for men such as him as well as noting the condition of men returning from the mines , ' whole launch - loads of miserable victims of fever and ague . "" Much of this disappointment therefore makes so much of what has been described seem pointless . Yet , it is so hard to describe it as a waste of time because of what it represented ; new experiences for those prepared to travel to the unknown , in the company of the unknown . Those who travelled shared something different to the rest of the nation , the chance to see other cultures and to interact with foreign surroundings . These experiences may not have always proved friendly and without dispute , but they were different from the normal life of , in the case of , urban culture and society , a chance for those who dared to find themselves within an unfamiliar and variable environment . < fnote > E.Gould Buffum , An account of in the diggings , ( , : from original source ) p33 < /fnote >","The unique style of story - telling established by in his masterpiece ' One Hundred Years of Solitude , ' allows him to deliver to the reader a fantastic , unnatural and truly magical experience , as his abandonment of linear form and incorporation of non - rational elements combine to create the supernatural wonderland that is . The deadpan narration throughout the novel is a key construct when forming and using the literary technique known as "" magical realism , "" and uses this style to great effect throughout the novel , to such an extent that the unbelievable become commonplace , at times without argument or bewilderment . It is necessary therefore , to establish which ' magical ' events in the novel are created to stupefy and intrigue the reader , purely for literary enjoyment , and which are actual metaphors or messages that are formed to symbolise events , encounters or emotions . By placing examples of the many magical and supernatural events into groups , namely psychological , character , and nature based , it will be possible to review ' "" magical realism "" and consider its function in context with events throughout the novel . The most apparent psychological occurrence in the novel surrounds the idea of an ' insomnia plague , ' a so - called ' illness ' that ' invaded the town . '(47 ) The very notion that humans could all survive for such a long period of time without sleep is extremely improbable and this mental condition is in no way ' transmitted by mouth'(47 ) as described by the narrator , but is so successful in manipulating a convincing matter - of - fact tone , that delivering the plague as a genuine , contagious disease is simple and effective . The important issue concerning the plague is not the likelihood of its manifestation in the town , but its deeper meaning concerning the towns people , and to a greater extent , the 's . Solitude , as a psychological condition , refers , in part , to a loss of the state of mind and in this insomnia ordeal , the most important thing for the family is to retain memory , a vital component with which a state of mind can be kept or destroyed . The magical formation of an insomnia plague could represent the plague of solitude that haunts the family throughout the story and in their attempt to avoid change , develops the ' memory machine'(49 ) to eliminate forgetting . Upon Melquiades ' returns to , he ' gave a drink of a gentle colour and the light went on in his memory . '(50 ) The magical plague has now been irradiated with the drink of a potion , and the fact that brought that memory saving potion is important in itself , as will be discussed along with the functions and magic surrounding his character . However , the determination of 's founding family to retain memory , and the deliverance of potion , serve to highlight an ideological change in , as if indicated that this point would signify an end to the prehistoric communities of the past and 's thrust into the modern course of history . Covering of history ( when reading a purely linear timeline ) , creates an incredibly large number of characters and in order to distinguish them , traits are formed for each , allowing the reader to enjoy many different personalities , emotions and interactions formulated by the author in exemplary fashion . An inevitable emotional interaction occurring within such a large group surrounds the mystery , passion and magic of love . The ability to love is key to the novel , and in that respect , important characters emerge late on in the story , and . The ' yellow butterflies ' that swarm around were not apparent when met him and it was only after she started to feel ' an irresistible urge to see him'(291 ) that she realised ' the butterflies preceded'(292 ) his appearance . The way in which uses butterflies during the affair between and is so much more romantic and innocent than in his description of other love affairs in the story , that it is almost impossible to deny their meaning . Deciding that the magic of yellow butterflies is used for simple literary enjoyment is , therefore , far to disappointing an explanation and perhaps the preferred meaning surrounds the true romance of 's real love , as ' lost her mind over him'(294 ) and he eventually was shot in his desperation to see her , after ' they made love twice a week for . '(296 ) This conclusion allows understanding of 's fight with the butterflies as she kills them ' with an insecticide bomb . '(296 ) has been unable to love and so can only destroy its magic , detesting 's relationship with a desperately unromantic fervour . There are many small examples of magic and supernatural behaviour throughout the novel that have simple and explicit functions , which simply comment on events . such example involves 's other daughter , and 's son Aureliano , perhaps the only other couple who are actually in love in the novel . Their ' mad passion .... made 's bones tremble with horror in her grave , ' a concept so supernatural and yet mentioned with such dry narrative that it is almost difficult to pick up on and which serves the simple purpose of outlining 's sheer anger at such an occurance . The author plays with literature so well that he is able to maintain 's harsh , disbelieving personality after death . Remidios the 's character differs from all the other characters in the novel and it is due to her strange , rather removed and at times unfocused personality that she acquires a rather magical , enlightened persona . Her ascent into heaven whilst holding onto sheets that she is folding may serve no other purpose as a supernatural event , except to reinforce her character . may simply believe that this death is the only one possible for a character who had shown more interest in the safety of the man who watched her in the bath than for his actions . The function could relate biblically to assumption to heaven , an idea linking to the biblical tragedies that would bring about Macondo 's destruction . It is almost certain that was influenced by stories told to him in his native where he lived with his grandparents in a house rumoured to have been inhabited by ghosts . The ascending may simply be a copy of a story told to himself and many other magical instances throughout the novel could represent images has developed and acquired during his lifetime . Finding a function for all the magic in the novel may be , to a certain extent , unnecessary . "" Magic realism "" maybe tool for describing the approach to Macondo of modernity . The narrator exaggerates the excitement of such things as ice and yet fails to develop a shocked tone at the emergence of a magic carpet . Things that we find impossible and fantastical , the people of Macondo find normal and not at all irregular and this tone succeeds simply to help the reader understand the towns people 's shock and ore at their discovery of ice . In this respect , magic has the function of reversing reader expectations and the astonishment at the fantastic ( to the reader , commonplace ) inventions brought by the gypsies is understood . Father Nicanor had been brought to the region by and like him , was not accustomed to the ways of the people of Macondo . Whilst everyone was watching , he drank some chocolate and ' rose above the level of the ground . '(85 ) may have many different reasons for this showing of magic , the first simply to integrate the priest into the town . However , it is possible that this magic trick is positioned by the author for the benefit of , so the reader can understand how unimpressed is with the event . is far more interested by a ' scientific basis,'(86 ) and is able to outline the ominous approach of modernity in through . There can be no discussion of magic in ' of Solitude ' without mentioning one of , if not the most important character in the novel , . The old gypsy appears in the very chapter and his legacy is key to the story until the very end . To describe as simply a supernatural being would be to simplistic and probably would n't represent the aim of . Magic and however are very closely related and their relationship is fundamental to the story . It has already been noted that brought the magic potion to cure Macondo of the insomnia plague and this act highlights the importance of his character as the holder of ultimate power over the future and history of . Melquiades is able to visit after his foretold death , has the ability to converse with characters throughout the story after death , and his room is free from the dust and ruin of time . These magical abilities given to by give him a certain hold or control over time , a control he needs to write the parchments that in essence tell the story . His ability to live in a time after he has died emphasises this power . His room never ages , as his time is not linear , a concept necessary in order for him to write the story of many generations even before they have be born . Nature plays a very important role throughout the novel , at times mirroring the isolation and grief of the inhabitants of . The of major forces of nature to arrive in is rain , not a rain shower but a highly improbable downpour for , . '(320 ) Rain , normally seen as a regular and natural occurrence , takes on a more supernatural and extreme purpose as uses this incredibly long lasting event to highlight the deterioration of . The onslaught of modernity reached its high - point with the arrival of the banana company , the prelude to devastation and the rain which followed the massacre simply washed it all away . The inhabitants had no where to go , no where to turn to but solitude . The rain lasted so long that it assisted in the break - up of the house , a representative for the rest of Macondo in terms of the desolation that would remain when the shower finished . could have included these supernatural occurrences to function as biblical references . The idea of a great flood created by the rains could relate to a famous flood from the bible that destroyed land and life . Similarly , is wiped off the face of the earth , ' by the wind and exiled from the memory of men . '(422 ) may believe that the destruction of his town should take on biblical significance and that a hurricane of biblical ( and supernatural ) proportions should function well as the extinction level event that destroys forever . To decide upon the overall function of the magic used by is simply an impossible task . The factors involved are too many in number and probably to complex in reason . In writing a literary masterpiece , may have appealed to a particular audience , concerning social events and myths which are beyond our knowledge . Although much of the magic in this novel may be written to develop understandings of the story itself , it is important to realise that may just be describing the fantastical to allow the reader their own desires for exotic and unbelievable events . Magic used within of needs no profound meaning to function , it can serve simply as a vehicle of cultural escapism , but whether acting as fantasy , for metaphorical purposes or a mixture of both , its inclusion is valuable and well presented .",1 "< heading > Referral information Source of referral and a summary of key information Mrs was admitted to ( ) at Hospital , following a collapse at her nursing home on . < heading > History All relevant information gathered from the patient about the presenting illness , co - existing problems , current treatment , significant past medical history and the social and family background . The patient 's view of the nature of the problem and their expectations for treatment . < /heading> Presenting Complaint Mrs was found unresponsive by the carers in her nursing home whilst lying in her bed . < heading > History of Presenting Complaint Mrs had been responsive and talking the day prior to her collapse and had not been complaining of feeling unwell . previously on , had been admitted to the following a fall at the home . She was admitted for and was subsequently discharged . On arrival , was able to maintain her airway . She was dyspnoeic and tachycardic with an adequate blood pressure ( ) . Mrs was moving all limbs and localising sources of pain , she was not responding to a commands . Mrs had not been incontinent whilst in her bed or on her arrival to the . There were no obvious signs of trauma . < heading > Past Medical History COPD - on home oxygenHyperparathyroidismAtrial fibrillationPrevious MICongestive Cardiac FailureRecurrent UTIsPoor mobilityNo history of diabetes , rheumatoid arthritis , epilepsy , asthma , , stroke or . < /list> Medication Ramipril - 2.5 mg odLactulose - 20ml bdAspirin - 75 mg odDigoxin - 125 µg odFurosemide - 40 mg odAmitryptiline - 10 mg odNefopan - 30 mg tablets tdsCombivent inhalers No known drug allergies < heading > Family History There is no significant family history . < heading > Social History Mrs lives in a nursing home . Mrs is an ex - smoker of . Mrs has poor mobility . Her family live nearby and visit regularly . Mrs is widowed . < heading > Analysis of history The most likely single cause of the presentation , other possible causes and reasons for these choices . The findings to be looked for on physical examination to help decide the cause. Based on the acute symptoms presented with , the differential diagnoses of collapse , verbally unresponsive in a COPD patient are : secondary to CO2 retention : given 's history of COPD , her dyspnoea , drowsiness , tachycardia and confusion fit with this diagnosis . secondary to Stroke / TIA : the risk factors of her age and previous coronary events coupled with her acute presentation and weakness could be indicative of a stroke . Lower respiratory tract infection Failure On physical examination , it is important to assess the level of 's responsiveness from the assessment . Her vital signs should be assessed , particularly her oxygen saturations and blood gases . An examination should assess her cardiovascular and respiratory status , listening for crackles and air entry . < heading > Physical examination and mental state examination Highlight the findings most relevant to your clinical problem solving by underlining them On general examination , was drowsy and non - rousable . She did not respond verbally but would respond to painful stimuli with moans . She would open her eyes after persistent commands . Mrs had cold peripheries and her capillary refill was . There were no signs of jaundice , clubbing or lymphadenopathy . Mrs was very pale and was cyanosed . response ( localising response to pain ) , response ( incomprehensible speech ) , opening ( eye opening in response to speech ) = < list> Cardiovascular Examination Pulse regularBP 154/72Heart sounds I + II + 0No pedal oedemaTemperature 35.4Glucose 7.3 Respiratory System Respiratory rate breath sounds present . Bilateral crackles at the lung bases . Saturations on O2 on admission rising to in . < /list> Gastrointestinal System Abdomen generally soft . Faecal load felt in lower right quadrant . Abdomen non - tenderNo organomegalyBowel sounds present . < /list> Analysis of history and examination Reasons for your choice of the cause of the patient 's problem(s ) and any other cause that still needs to be considered at this stage History and examination confirm the initial possible causes of 's presentation . A collapse secondary to an infective exacerbation of COPD leading to Type II respiratory failure and CO2 retention is the most likely diagnosis . Her O saturations indicate she has poor respiratory function and an will help determine her respiratory state . , confusion , drowsiness and central cyanosis all support this diagnosis . The presence of crackles bilaterally would indicate a possible respiratory tract infection which may have precipitated 's collapse . < heading > Formulation of the patient 's problem(s ) Encapsulate this in physical , psychological and social terms ( the triple diagnosis) Physical - Mrs found it difficult to mobilise herself prior to admission . She has had repeated falls , one of which she was admitted for . She is becoming progressively more unsteady on her feet . This is putting her at increase risk of further falls and consequently reducing her physical state further . As a result of her COPD , Mrs is unable to walk without O ; this further limits her physical ability . Her immobility increases the risk of retaining respiratory secretions predisposing to chest infections . Psychological - On admission , was verbally unresponsive but following admission and some degree of recovery she became upset regarding about her poor mobility and loss of independence . Mrs exhibited a fear about her death . social situation is stable and well supported . She gets full - time care from her nursing home and requires help dressing , washing and some support mobilising . < heading > Management Use the framework of RAPRIOP to structure your proposed management . to the guidelines to the writing of portfolio cases for the details of the issues to be addressed under each heading. Investigations Mrs 's results on were as follows : < table/>The pH level of indicates an acidosis , a raised pCO 2 of illustrates pCO 2 retention and a pO of6.70 confirms the presence of hypoxia , indicating Type II respiratory failure caused by alveolar hypoventilation . These results support 's clinical picture . Chest No indication of infection seen . < heading > Reassurance and Explanation To appropriately reassure Mrs and her family I would say : "" As you know , has been suffering from COPD for now making it difficult for her to breathe . There are a number of reasons why she may have collapsed and we would like to investigate them all . It is most likely that she has collapsed as a complication to her COPD and we will carry out some tests to find out exactly the best way to treat her . At the moment we will give her restricted oxygen ( - 4L ) , antibiotics and fluids . As Mrs has been deteriorating recently and has been in hospital a number of times now for a similar admission we are not sure how she will respond to this admission "" . To explain the nature of the disease:""COPD is a disease of the airways and it becomes increasingly more difficult for you to get oxygen in to your lungs , which limits the amount of oxygen getting to your vital organs and muscles . As your condition gets worse it is more difficult for you to expel CO 2 , which can cause the problems you have experienced when it gets retained in your blood "" . To describe the management plan : "" We will keep in hospital and monitor her blood gases and oxygen saturations closely giving her oxygen and fluids . We will get a chest X - ray to look for any signs of an infection . We will have to wait and see how well she responds to her oxygen and fluids "" . < heading > Prescription / Medical Intervention Mrs was prescribed augmentin for a possible chest infection on admission . She was given oxygen via a face mask . A urinary catheter was fitted . < heading > Observation Following admission from , was transferred to a ward where her saturations were monitored . Over she became more responsive and was helped to sit in a chair whilst on oxygen . < heading > Referral and Team Working Mrs was not referred to any further care once she was admitted . The team based on the ward of nurses , doctors and care assistants need to liaise with each other regarding the progress of . Each of these teams also needs to relay information back to the family so that they can remain fully informed about Ms 's health . < heading > Advice and Prevention Advice should be given with regards to looking after the terminally ill family members . The family may also require advice on bereavement and counselling services . < heading > Outcome A description of the progress of the patient as far as possible . This should include consideration of further issues to be resolved . Where appropriate you should contact by telephone patients who have been discharged home. Mrs was admitted to the ward and began responding verbally but remained unable to mobilise . Sadly , Mrs passed away after her admission to the ward . < heading > Evidence based care and issues for research A brief consideration of the evidence base required for the diagnosis and management of the patient 's problem(s) Respiratory failure occurs when there is an inadequate gas exchange , which results in hypoxia ( pO < 8kPa ) . Respiratory failure is subdivided into types according to the pCO 2 . Type I Respiratory Failure is defined as hypoxia ( pO < 8kPa ) with a normal or low pCO 2 . It is primarily caused by a ventilation / perfusion mismatch . Type II Respiratory Failure is defined as hypoxia with hypercapnia ( pCO 2 > 6.5kPa ) . It is caused by alveolar hypoventilation with or without ventilation / perfusion mismatch . ( ) The management of respiratory failure includes the administration of supplemental oxygen , the control of secretions , the treatment of any underlying pulmonary infection , the control of any bronchospasm and measures to limit pulmonary oedema . The management principles are : treat the underlying disease physiotherapy oxygen therapy - try to maintain pO > 8 kPa bronchodilators and steroids if there is airways obstruction in some circumstances , respiratory stimulants such as i.v . doxapram 1 - 4 mg / min , may be indicated if the pCO 2 begins to rise if arterial O 2 continues to deteriorate or fails to improve then some form of respiratory support should be considered long - term management should be aimed at the underlying cause of the condition e.g. COPD < heading > Oxygen Therapy in Respiratory Failure: Type 1 failure - treat with unrestricted oxygen therapy i.e. ; blood gases should be repeated after mins to ensure correction of and absence of a significant rise in PaCO 2 . Type failure and COPD - give O2 . Monitor PaCO closely by blood gas measurement ; if it rises by 1 kPa , consider ventilation . The concentration of oxygen is important to patients with chronic bronchitis and chronically elevated - as these patients rely on hypoxic drive to maintain respiratory effort , it is dangerous to give supplemental oxygen without careful observation as hypoventilation or apnoea may result . Blood gases must be monitored regularly . < heading > Commentary A commentary on issues of health care delivery , ethical issues or disability relevant to the patient and/or problem An important issue raised in this case was the issue of resuscitation in the event of a cardiac arrest . Mrs had been deteriorating steadily over and her respiratory function is poor . On previous occasions her family had been notified that it was difficult to predict whether she would recover . On her admission this time , was in a similar position and at risk of a cardiac arrest and it was a sensitive issue that needed to be discussed with the family . This case highlighted the issues of health care delivery to patients who may not benefit from further medical intervention and how to approach this issue with the family . Mrs was fully dependent on care , had restricted mobility and struggling with a progressive terminal illness . The decision was taken not to resuscitate in the event of a cardiac arrest on the basis of a reduced quality of life . < heading > Impact on your learning Describe what you have learnt from this case","< heading > Referral information Source of referral and a summary of key information Mr was referred to Hospital , on the by his general practitioner ( GP ) . The referral was made on the basis of worsening pain In Mr 's right - side chest wall . < heading > History All relevant information gathered from the patient about the presenting illness , co - existing problems , current treatment , significant past medical history and the social and family background . The patient 's view of the nature of the problem and their expectations for treatment . < /heading> Presenting Complaint Mr had a history of pain in the right - hand side of his chest , which had been getting progressively worse . < heading > History of Presenting Complaint Mr had been experiencing this pain for and described it getting worse . The pain was localised at the "" top "" of his chest and it radiated down to his waist . Mr described the pain as a dull ache , which was always present . Mr graded his pain ( worst pain ever experienced ) . Nothing relieved the pain but he had not taken any analgesics . Mr became more aware of the pain when he was moving and if he coughed or sneezed the pain became more severe . Mr had not experienced this type of problem before . There was no associated nausea or vomiting . Mr was breathless on exertion ( on the flat ground and going up the stairs ) and did not have a persistent cough . There had been no haemoptysis . Mr did not have a wheeze and did not use inhalers . There was no paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnoea or orthopnoea . Mr felt lethargic over . There was no dizziness or loss of consciousness . Mr did not have any palpitations . Mr opened his bowels regularly , he had lost in and his appetite was good . There was no constipation , no diarrhoea and no malaena . Mr micturated frequently but there was no pain on urinating ; he had a history of an enlarged irregular prostate . < heading > Past Medical History Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus - 2003Alopecia - 2003 - unknown history of thyroid problems , rheumatoid arthritis , epilepsy , asthma , myocardial infarction , stroke or . < /list> Current Medication Paracetamol - 1 g qds mg odFinasteride - 5 mg odISMN - 20 mg - 2.5 mg odAspirin - 75 mg odAmylodipine - 10 mg odRosiglitazone - 4 mg odLiquifilm tears No known drug allergies . < heading > Family History There was no significant family history . < heading > Social History Mr lived with his wife in a house and is an independent , mobile man . Mr has children whom he has regular contact with . Mr is a retired electrical engineer . There was no exposure to asbestos or other occupational hazards . Mr was an ex - smoker of , when he smoked for . Mr drinks on average - 8 units of alcohol per week . < heading > Analysis of history The most likely single cause of the presentation , other possible causes and reasons for these choices . The findings to be looked for on physical examination to help decide the cause. Based on the symptoms Mr presented with , the differential diagnoses of right - sided chest pain , worsening over and on exertion are : Pleural Effusion : fluid in the pleural space , which can be divided into low protein content ( transudate ) and high protein content ( exudates ) . They are often asymptomatic but patients can experience dyspnoea and a pleuritic chest pain . Transudates are due to an increase in venous pressure ( such as from cardiac failure , constrictive pericarditis or fluid overload ) . Exudates are most likely due to an increase in the leakiness of pleural capillaries secondary to malignancy , infection or inflammation . Neoplasm : with clinical symptoms of a persistent cough , haemoptysis , dyspnoea , chest pain , anorexia and weight loss . Recurrent slowly resolving pneumonias are also a common feature . Pneumonia : consider atypical pneumonias , for example mycoplasma . ; rib fracture : Pulmonary Embolism : a clinical picture of acute breathlessness , pleuritic chest pain , haemoptysis , dizziness and syncope . PEs usually arise from a venous thrombosis in the pelvis or legs . Clots break off and pass through the venous system and the right side of the heart before lodging in the pulmonary circulation . On physical examination , a full respiratory examination will be carried out ; assessment of respiratory rate , oxygen saturations , breath sounds ( bronchial breathing is often heard in pleural effusions ) . Listening to air entry and the presence of added sounds ; crackles indicating infection or wheezes suggestive of airways disease . It is also important to look for signs of trauma and palpate for tenderness over the chest wall , which would be present if there was a rib fracture . An overall examination of Mr will help build a clinical picture that may indicate a malignancy ; palpating for lymphadenopathy should be carried out . < heading > Physical examination and mental state examination Highlight the findings most relevant to your clinical problem solving by underlining them On general examination , Mr was alert and orientated . There were no signs of clubbing , cyanosis , jaundice or lymphadenopathy . Mr had pale conjunctiva . Capillary refill < . Reduced skin turgor and dry mucus membranes . < heading > Respiratory System Cardiovascular System Pulse 104 irregular - indicative of atrial fibrillationBP sounds I + II + 0JVP no raisedNo pedal oedema . Temperature oC Gastrointestinal System Abdomen soft and non - tenderNo masses felt . present - 3 finger widthsNo splenomegaly . PR - sphincter tone normal , impacted stools , no malaena . < /list> Analysis of history and examination Reasons for your choice of the cause of the patient 's problem(s ) and any other cause that still needs to be considered at this stage Following examination , the most likely diagnosis for Mr 's presentation is a right - sided pleural effusion , possibly secondary to a neoplasm in light of the presence of hepatomegaly . The effusion could also be complicated by a chest infection suggested by the crackles heard on examination . The pleural effusion will need to be aspirated and sent for histology to determine whether it is an exudate or a transudate fluid . Exudative effusion ( protein / dL ) can be caused by infection or malignancy . Malignant cells can be seen on cytology . It is important to rule out a malignancy as a cause for the effusion and Mr requires a chest X - ray followed by a if a lesion is found . < heading > Formulation of the patient 's problem(s ) Encapsulate this in physical , psychological and social terms ( the triple diagnosis) Physical - Mr is physically able and independent . Since his chest pain started he has been finding it more difficult to carry out his usual tasks of living . His difficulty breathing also makes mobilising more difficult . Psychological - Mr had become worried about his chest pain as it had been continuing for so long . He went to his GP because he was worried he was having a heart attack . Social - Mr had support from his wife and family and was an independent man . < heading > Management Use the framework of RAPRIOP to structure your proposed management . to the guidelines to the writing of portfolio cases for the details of the issues to be addressed under each heading. Investigations < /heading > Mr 's blood results following admission on were as follows : < table/>Mr 's biochemistry results following admission on were as follows : < table/>CA19 - 9 ( upper cancer marker ) - normal , marker - normal . Antibody screen - negative Mr was cross - matched for a blood transfusion ( normocytic , normochromic anaemia ) . Mr 's urea and creatinine results indicate he is in acute renal failure . < heading > X - Ray Chest""Large area of shadowing in lower right lung "" . < heading > Pleural Fluid Analysis LDH - : Total Protein exudative . Aspirate analysis : "" , scanty mesothelial cells , no malignant cells seen "" . < heading > Reassurance and Explanation To appropriately reassure Mr , I would say : "" As you know , you have been experiencing some chest pain for a little while now . There are a number of reasons why you might have this chest pain and we would like to do some investigations whilst you are in hospital . The type of pain you are describing indicates to us that you may have some fluid collected in your lungs , which can be the result of a number of things . of the things that can cause this problem is cancer in your lungs and we would like to investigate you for that possibility whilst you are in hospital . You do not seem to have any current risk factors for a lung cancer but you were a smoker in the past , which could have a role to play . We would like to carry out some blood tests , organise a chest X - ray and a CT scan . At the moment we will give you some oxygen to help with your breathing "" . To explain the nature of the disease : "" Following your blood tests and X - ray , they confirm that you have a collection of fluid in your right lung . This is the most likely cause of your chest pain and breathing difficulties . Your blood tests also show us that you are very anaemic and we would like to give you some blood to help improve this . Having such a low haemoglobin level may also be another cause for your breathlessness . Your blood results also indicate that you have an infection , which is also most likely to be in your lungs . The cause of the fluid in your lungs could still be a result of a malignancy and we would like to investigate you further t rule this out "" . To describe the management plan : "" Whilst you are in hospital we are going to carry out some tests to find a reason for the fluid in your lung . We would like to get an ultrasound of your tummy and a CT scan of your chest . We are going to aspirate your chest to get the fluid out of your lung , which we hope will reduce your pain and ease your breathlessness . We feel that your diabetes is not very well controlled so we are going to put you on an insulin drip and ask the diabetic nurse to talk with you about how to help you best control your sugar levels . Once we have the results of all of the tests we will be in a better position to tell you what has caused the fluid to collect in your lungs "" . < heading > Prescription / Medical Intervention Whilst in hospital , Mr had a chest drain to remove the fluid in his right lung . He was transfused to improve his haemoglobin levels and he received fluids to treat is acute renal failure . Mr was put on a sliding scale of insulin to better control his diabetes . Mr was prescribed antibiotics to treat a suspected chest infection . < heading > Observation Following admission , Mr was monitored for any further deterioration in his breathing and general health , for example the onset of a fever . His blood levels were monitored to check his haemoglobin levels were rising and his blood glucose was closely monitored to achieve a better diabetic control . Long - term observation will include diabetic follow - up ; if his blood glucose has been uncontrolled in the past , it is possible it will decline again when he leave hospital . Observation in the primary care setting will be needed . < heading > Referral and Team Working Mr was not referred to any other team during his stay in hospital . Team - working between the team looking after him in hospital and the diabetic nurses will be necessary to get improvement in his blood glucose control . < heading > Advice and Prevention Mr should be advised with regard to his blood glucose control once he is at home . He should be given advice about his diet and when to take his medication . He should also be given information about the complications of diabetes if blood glucose is not well controlled . With regards to his chest pain , he should be advised to visit his GP if he experiences any more problems . < heading > Outcome A description of the progress of the patient as far as possible . This should include consideration of further issues to be resolved . Where appropriate you should contact by telephone patients who have been discharged home. Mr remained an inpatient for whilst the necessary investigations were carried out . Mr had a confirmed diagnosis of a right - sided pleural effusion , most likely to be a reactive pleural effusion to a right lower lobe pneumonia . No malignant changes were identified . < heading > Evidence based care A brief consideration of the evidence base required for the diagnosis and management of the patient 's problem(s) Pleural effusions The pleural cavity is a potential space which normally contains little fluid . A pleural effusion is an accumulation of fluid within this pleural space . The fluid may be either transudative or exudative : a transudate results from an alteration in the hydrostatic forces operating across the pleural membrane an exudate results from a change in the permeability of the membrane due to inflammation A pleural effusion will only be detected : < list > on a chest radiograph when the volume of the effusion exceeds ml clinically when the volume exceeds > Clinically Symptoms: may be asymptomatic dyspnoea - dependent on size of effusion dull chest pain Signs : there may be a displacement of the trachea and the lung apex away from the effusion if it is very large there is reduced movement of the affected side the site of the pleural effusion is dull to percussion ; classical stony dullness is not a constant sign there is reduced vocal fremitus over a pleural effusion breath sounds are reduced or absent over a pleural effusion towards the upper part of an effusion there may be signs of consolidation i.e. bronchial breathing and bleating vocal resonance . Malignant pleural effusions indicate a late stage of lung cancer using the staging strategy . Under the classification , tumour staging at implies a tumour of any size which is invading surrounding structures but not involving the heart , great vessels , oesophagus or vertebral body or a tumour within of the carina but not involving the carina . T4 classification implies a tumour of any size which is invading any of the structures excluded from and the presence of a malignant pleural effusion . ( 1 ) < heading > Management The effusion should be investigated by diagnostic aspiration and the fluid examined for protein content , cell type and bacteria . If the effusion is an exudate then a pleural biopsy is useful . If there is a large effusion then symptomatic relief can be achieved via aspiration of the effusion . A chest drain is an alternative to repeated aspiration - this must be able to drain the base of pleural effusion ( ) . A systematic review on the effectiveness of management for malignant pleural effusion investigated the best ways in which to carry out pleurodesis for malignant effusions . It concluded that bleomycin was effective in reducing recurrences and tetracycline ( doxycycline ) was not superior to bleomycin ( ) . The study also looked at strategies such as rolling the patients after instillation of the sclerosing agent , protracted drainage of the effusion and the use of larger chest tubes , which were not found to have any substantial advantages ( ) . < heading > Commentary A commentary on issues of health care delivery , ethical issues or disability relevant to the patient and/or problem An important issue raised in this case includes the issue of breaking bad news with regards to a terminal diagnosis . There was no terminal diagnosis in this case but it was necessary to discuss the possibility that Mr had a lung cancer . < heading > Impact on your learning Describe what you have learnt from this case Differential diagnosis of chest pain . Investigations in chest pain . Management of pleural effusions . < /list >",1 "< heading > Introduction There has been a steady decline in the dairy industry since ( FAWC ) . This has lead to an increasing intensification of dairy farming in the and also increased production demands . These increased demands are leading to welfare issues that are associated with this intensification . Since , there has been an average increase in milk yield from litres per cow , to litres per cow in ( Lymbery 2001 ) . The average milk yield is still continuing to increase . In order to achieve this increased milk production , there needs to be greater feed conversion efficiency . This means that the cows are able to utilise more feed and to metabolise the feeds at a greater rate . However , high metabolic turnover in cows can be associated with a greater risk of : < list > MastitisLamenessInfertilityOther production diseases This therefore means that the cows require better care to maintain a good standard of welfare ( FAWC ) . High yielding dairy cows in modern farming practices are pushed to their limits through a combination of high protein feeds , selective breeding and the latest technology ( Lymbery ) . These factors help to lead to the increased yields associated with intensification of the dairy industry . This report will focus both on the benefits and the issues that are associated with high yielding dairy cows , to try and reach a conclusion on this subject . < heading > The Five Freedoms and High Yielding Dairy Cows High yielding dairy cows can have additional issues which are associated with them being farmed more intensively with greater production expectations . The freedoms are used as general guidelines for keeping all animals in a welfare friendly manner . The following table will show how these freedoms relate to dairy cows . < list> Table 1 Five Freedoms Freedom : In relation to dairy herdsFreedom from hunger and thirst : Suitable amounts of feed and water are available : Requires adequate management and stockmanship : Freedom from discomfort : Provide artificial protection from weather : Well ventilated housing , comfortably bedded , dry area : Freedom from pain , injury and disease : Improved environment , bedding and nutrition can help to reduce problems : Lameness and infectious diseases are common problems in dairy herds : Freedom to express normal behaviour : Provided when a cow is at pasture : When housed , building design and good stockmanship help : Freedom from fear and distress : Stockman can minimise fear and distress : Move cattle carefully and quietly around the farm(FAWC > The freedoms mentioned in the above table highlight the issues that are faced by dairy farmers , with regards to the welfare of their livestock and ways in which they can try and ensure that the welfare of the dairy cows is not compromised . These freedoms do not just relate to high yielding dairy cows . However it is important with high yielding dairy cows that there is a very high level of stockmanship , good management and housing to try and avoid any welfare issues that might arise . < heading > Issues with High Yielding Dairy Cows In the average life span of dairy cows has reduced and it is often lactations ( FAWC ) . This issue can be associated with high productivity that is related to high yielding dairy cows . High production can lead to increased levels of metabolic stress which in turn will lead to earlier culling . Culling is also increasing and occurring more frequently due to an increase in lameness and infectious diseases that are associated with the high intensity milk production systems . On many dairy farms , culling rates exceed of the herd per annum ( Jones 1999 ) . The following graph highlights the main reasons for culling . < figure/>The factors mentioned in the above graph are commonly associated with high yielding dairy cows and are issues that will need to be addressed should the yields of dairy cows continue to increase . There are other main issues that can be associated with high yielding dairy cows which include : < list > MastitisLamenessInfertilityOther production diseases These factors will be looked at in detail to discover whether the policy of promoting yet higher yields in dairy cows should be stopped . < heading > Mastitis Mastitis is an inflammation of the udder that is usually caused by a bacterial infection , although it can also be triggered by stress ( FAWC ) . is a problem that is often associated with high yielding dairy cows . The pathogens of mastitis are usually either environmental or contagious . Contagious pathogens spread from infected areas to healthy areas of the same or other cows , such as from the milking machine or the herdsman ( FAWC ) . Environmental pathogens are usually associated with dirty wet bedding or poor ventilation in housed areas . Mastitis results in reduced quality and quantity of milk and therefore can have a negative effect on the economics of milk production . A point plan was introduced in to try and combat mastitis . It recommended : < list > treating and recording all clinical casesdipping teats in disinfectant after ever milkingdry cow therapy at the end of lactationculling chronic mastitis casesregular milking machine maintenance ( and Edmondson 1995) Since the recommendations there has been great uptake of the plan and it has lead to a decline in contagious mastitis . However , there has been no change in the incidence of environmental mastitis ( and Edmondson ) and this is mainly due to the increase in herd sizes which is related to higher milk yields . This is mainly due to the increased milking speeds , which are leading to ' a 12 fold increase in mastitis susceptibility ' ( and pg ) . This suggests that the policy of promoting yet higher yields in dairy cows should be stopped unless further preventative action for environmental mastitis is introduced . < heading > Lameness The problem of lameness in dairy cows is unacceptably high and it is now a greater problem than it was ( FAWC ) . Lameness is seen as a major welfare issue because it affects the cow 's ability to fully interact with the environment , and also causes unnecessary pain and distress ( FAWC ) . Factors that cause lameness include : < list > Inappropriate housingPoor hygienePoor quality walking surfacesGenetic selection concentrating on high productivityPoor diets(FAWC 1997)'High yielding dairy cows appear to be more vulnerable to lameness , probably for metabolic reasons associated with high milk production ' ( FAWC ) . This means that very high standards need to be adhered to in high yielding dairy herds to try and reduce the incidence of lameness . If this can not be tackled then promoting yet higher yields should be stopped . < heading > Infertility and Other Production Diseases Infertility is a major problem in dairy herds and can have serious economical impacts on the farm . Poor nutrition , metabolic stress and poor heat detection have been associated with causes of infertility . While infertility itself is not seen as a major welfare issue , many infertile cows are prematurely culled which is seen as a welfare issue . It is ' Cows with the greatest milk production that have the highest incidence of infertility ' ( ) . This therefore suggests that although infertility is a problem experienced by all dairy farmers , it is more significant in high yielding dairy cows . Other Production Diseases can also be associated with high yielding dairy cows , such as an increased incidence of ketosis . This usually occurs in early lactation and is a result of an overworked metabolism , which results in the cows having to use their own energy resources to continue producing milk ( Lymbery 2001 ) . Ketosis can be caused by an imbalance of nutrients in the diet , but also if other diseases have occurred which lead to a reduction in appetite and therefore feed intake ( Andrews 2000 ) . There are many diseases and illnesses which seem to be linked to high yielding dairy cows . However , there are some factors that might lead to a reduction of these issues in high yielding dairy herds . These will be looked at next . < heading > High Yielding Dairy Cows It can be argued that the policy of promoting yet higher yields in dairy cows should not be stopped . There are many economical benefits and greater specialisation and expertise that can be associated with high yielding dairy cows . High yielding dairy cows are more efficient , in that higher yields can be achieved with fewer cows being milked per litre . There is also a greater emphasis on animal husbandry and welfare , because the high yielding dairy cow is a greater asset to the farmer . There will be superior expertise involved with such herds , this could include : < list > more knowledgeable labour which will help to improve welfarestate of the art buildings and machinery to increase comfort and efficiencycleaner and more hygienic milking machines to reduce infections such as mastitis These factors will all help to improve the welfare and comfort of high yielding dairy cows and ensure that they are treated to the highest standards . < picture/>The welfare of animals is protected under . This act covers all farm animals and therefore includes high yielding dairy cows . The act states that it is an offence to ' cruelly beat , kick , ill - treat , over - drive , over - load , torture , infuriate , or terrify any animal ' ( Defra 2006 ) . This demonstrates how high yielding dairy cows are well protected under current legislation , and therefore there is no real reason why the policy of promoting yet higher yields should be stopped . Economic benefits are an important aspect for high yielding herds . The following table demonstrates some of these benefits . < table/>Table shows how as yield per cow increases , the gross margin per cow also increases . This demonstrates how the higher yielding dairy cows are more efficient and therefore bring about economic benefits to the farmer . The price per litre for milk is lower with the higher yields , which is most likely associated with slightly lower quality of this type of milk ( eg : butter fat content etc ) . Selective breeding is also an important aspect for high yielding herds . The freisan makes up of all dairy herds . They are highly efficient cows , which better utilise grass and produce high yields . < table/> Conclusion There are many arguments both for and against promoting the policy of yet higher yields in dairy cows . Many of the welfare issues mentioned in the argument against higher yielding dairy cows are common both in average yield dairy cows and higher yielding dairy cows . However , these issues do seem to be more severe and frequent in higher yielding dairy cows . There is also greater culling in higher yielding dairy cows which is associated with the increased production diseases that are prevalent in the higher yielding herds . Greater and earlier culling is also associated with a reduced average life span in higher yielding dairy cows , which is seen to be a welfare issue . There are factors such as selective breeding which can help to improve the condition of higher yielding dairy cows , but these factors alone can not significantly contribute to reducing factors such as lameness and infertility which are commonly associated with the higher yielding dairy cows . This therefore indicates that although steps are taken to ensure that higher yielding dairy cows do not have their welfare compromised , there are still issues that do affect them . does help to ensure that the welfare of such animals is not threatened , but these intensively farmed animals are still put under significantly more pressure and stress than other dairy cows . High yielding dairy cows do produce higher gross margins per cow and per hectare ( see table ) . However , these gross margins do not take into account factors such as the stress and production diseases or issues that can be associated with the higher yielding cows . Therefore although there are steps in place to ensure that the welfare of higher yielding dairy cows is not compromised , so far I feel that there still many issues that surround the higher yielding dairy cows and as a result the policy of promoting yet higher yields in dairy cows should be stopped .","< heading > Introduction to Tuberculosis Tuberculosis is an infectious disease that ' affects man and a wide variety of warm blooded animals ' ( , RW pg1 ) . Tuberculosis is caused by an organism known as the tubercle bacillus . These organisms occur in groups on the infected body and try to surround each area of tuberculosis and therefore form an abrasion known as the tubercle . does not form spores and can only survive if passed directly from one host to another , or can only survive indirectly for a matter of . can not survive for long periods in the soil ( , RW ) . The organisms of tuberculosis usually enter the body either through the nose or mouth ( , RW ) . The method by which the organisms enter the body can have an effect on the places where the lesions occur . Tuberculosis is a slow developing disease , with symptoms often only showing later on in the disease and often has few clinical signs because usually only small lesions occur . In cattle , lesions do not start to appear until after the initial infection , and it will often be before the disease becomes apparent . Over there has been the development of varying strains of tuberculosis ( ) due to the constantly changing bacteria . The following are the main strains of : < list > , RW pg 1) This report will be focusing on as this is the strain of the disease that most commonly occurs in cattle and badgers . < heading > Bovine Tuberculosis Bovine Tuberculosis is usually a slow developing disease . However the rate of development is dependant on the following : < list > Infectious doseGenotypeImmune status of the hostStress(Defra Disease Fact sheet 2005) is a zoonotic infection with a wide range of host organisms . Mycobacterium Bovis ( M. bovis ) is the bacteria responsible for tuberculosis in cattle . Cattle are the main hosts of this bacterium but in it was concluded that badgers were a major reservoir of M. bovis for cattle as well . ( Dunnet , G M et al.1986 ) . This meant that badgers were carriers of the strain of that infects cattle . Now that badgers have established M. bovis , it is more difficult to control or eradicate the disease . The signs of in cattle depend on the organisms that have been affected by the disease . Possible signs in cattle include weakness , loss of condition and appetite , swelling of various lymph nodes , persistent cough and respiratory distress ( Defra Disease Fact Sheet 2005 ) . Badgers affected by and that are in the more advance stages of the disease show signs such as lameness , staggering movements above ground during the day and lack of fear of humans ( Wildlife Link Badger Working Group ) . of the main ways of bovine tuberculosis spreading is between herds when infected animals are introduced to non - infected herds . However , not all cattle spread the disease , it is dependant on them ' shedding the organism ' ( Coetzer , Jal . pg ) . Other possible routes of infection with between cattle are : < list > RespiratoryAlimentaryCongenitalCutaneousVenerealVia teat , . pg 1974) The other main route of infection is through badgers . In badgers , the lesions that result from infection occur mainly in the urinary systems and respiratory systems ( Dunnet , G M et al ) . This indicates that the main ways that infection is spread to other animals is through urine and sputum . However , infection can also occur when bacteria from open lesions are transferred into the surrounding environment . The lesions that are found on badgers are similar to those found on cattle , but ' one of the most important differences is that much greater numbers of bacilli are found in badger lesions ' ( Dunnet , G M et al pg ) . The transfer of from badgers to cattle in field conditions is often described as ' circumstantial ' . This is because the transfer is reliant on the live bacteria being inhaled or ingested by the cattle ( Dunnet G M at all ) . Badgers often urinate on pastures which will then be used for grazing cattle and this urine can often contain high quantities of tubercle bacilli . The infection of in this manor often leads to infection in the lungs . For the tubercle bacilli to produce infection in this way , there needs to a much larger dose than if infection was to occur through the respiratory tract ( Wildlife Link Badger Working Group ) . < heading > The Current Situation In the the problem of bovine tuberculosis has become an issue of increasing concern . This is partly because the disease is no longer so localised to certain areas of the country . However , the main problems still persist in the south west and western areas of the country ( Defra 2005 ) . The amount of culling of cattle that is now taking place has therefore increased significantly , and the problem seems to generally be worsening . is also now a significant burden on the taxpayer . In the cost of the disease was £ ( Defra 2005 pg ) . Expenditure on Bovine TB is rapidly increasing and is likely to continue to do so unless further measures are taken to try and prevent the continual spread of the disease . There has been a new compensation system introduced to try and balance out the payments tax payers make and the compensation farmers receive for cattle that have been infected with . This is because it was thought that previously farmers were at times over compensated for the value of their animals ( ) . The following diagram shows the geographical distribution of bovine outbreaks in and . It demonstrates that there has been a significant increase in the areas affected by the disease . < figure/> Badgers and Bovine Tuberculosis Badgers have been known carriers of the M. bovis strain of that affects cattle for . This was after the discovery of a dead badger on a farm that had been infected with . However , there has been an ongoing debate around the transmission of this disease between these hosts ( ) . In there was significant evidence reported by group that showed ' in , badgers were a significant source of infection in cattle ' ( , J ) . There is also evidence which shows that badgers are more significant hosts of M. bovis than many other types of wildlife . The following table demonstrates the different levels of infection of in a variety of wildlife species : < table/>There have been a variety of methods that have been suggested or used to try and reduce the spread of . As much of this spread is linked to badgers being one of the main hosts of the disease , the culling of badgers has been a method used to try and reduce the amount of infection transferred to cattle . A randomized ( RBCT ) was set up in , as a response to the evidence reported in scientific review . The trials ended in with full results being published . However , the results seem to suggest that the culling of badgers does not affect the control of bovine tuberculosis in ( . ) . There have been other suggested methods to try and control in cattle and badgers . In the each herd of cattle has to be tested for , with any infected cattle being removed from the herd . This method has been fairly successful but in in the there has been an increase in the number of infected animals which means that further things need to be done to try and combat the disease . On the th this year a pre - movement testing for bovine tuberculosis is to be carried out on all cattle aged over before moving off farm . There will be a tier to this scheme which will start on the st , and will involve the testing of all cattle aged over 6wks ( Defra 2005 ) . This is because it will again help to reduce the spread of the disease between herds and also reduce spreading at livestock markets and also to areas which are currently less affected by the disease ( Cooper , O ) . It is expected that this movement will prevent up to new incidents per annum ( ) . The use of a vaccine in both cattle and badgers has been suggested as this would help to control the M. bovis infection in the main host reservoirs . However this method of control would cause questions with regards to appropriate methods to vaccinate badgers . There would also need to be thorough research into the effects and organisms of the different strains of the disease in order to develop an appropriate vaccine . It is thought that a vaccination alone would not be sufficient in controlling the disease , and therefore other methods such as the culling would still be needed ( ) . < heading > Conclusion The issue of is a growing problem and is particularly linked to cattle and badgers as these are the main host reservoirs for the disease . There have been various attempts to try and combat the disease , but in the disease has continued to spread and now covers a much larger area . It is argued that badgers are the main spreaders of the disease , which in turn affect cattle and then lead to cross infection between other herds . The government is at present trying to combat all areas of possible infection and therefore has introduced various measures to aid with this . These include the culling of infected badgers ; however the success of this method has been questioned due to the recent . The government has also just introduced the pre - movement testing of cattle to try and prevent the cross herd spreading . The idea of this seems logical ; however the effects of it will not be recognized for a while . There is also currently discussion of possible vaccines against the disease but these will not be immediate and it is also thought that vaccines alone will not be sufficient in controlling the disease . is likely to continue to be an issue among badgers and cattle . The effects of the disease will hopefully start to decline as methods of prevention and control are discovered and used .",1 "Since , the merger and acquisition has been a trend and popular operation of media industry , including international publishing to expand its business and markets . Big media giants , such as , are all built on a principle that size matters in media businesses . < heading > The fate of ( TWBG ) < /heading > At the beginning of the new millennium Online ( ) announced a $ ( £ ) merger . represented the Internet media , represented the traditional media , including publishing . This ' millennium marriage ' aimed at creating the world 's biggest online media company by bringing together dominant players from the worlds of old and new media . However , with the Internet bubbles burst , the shining star , , like a comet , dropped off from ' the heaven ' sooner after the merger . Its market value was deadly shrunk , which led the new company in a heavy debt . Balancing the debt became of main tasks after the foundation of new company . TWBG became an earlier disposal section . From the earlier of 2003 TWBG was posed to sell and this deal was not traded until . Before further discussing the future of , it is necessary to review why this merger got an unexpected result from the view of international business : The culture clash : New - media and old - media grew up from different environment of economy and technology , which resulted in different operational idea and behaviour , i.e. featured as over - enthusiastic , aggressive but was staid , persistent etc . was a rocket company with few tangible assets while was a long - term accumulated company with real , calculable assets such as a cable network , a film library , publishing , and television stations . The article attached shows that traditional media has sustainable and profitable form of content than anything to be found online . The book , Merger of , Clash of Culture , also presented a very detailed analysis of this case . ( , p20 - 20 , p1 graph1 ) New media dominated operation was risk - taking . bidding with other companies for rights of memoirs by , the chief executive of , at an advance of ( ) . ' The deal is thought to be the biggest signed for a non - fiction book ' ( The times , Jul ) . Lack of an overall strategy for development of various business divisions with synergies of internal resources . TWBG ' ... has not spelt out how it could use . While much has been written about the impact of online distribution on the publishing world through websites such as , ... ' ( The , pg . ) . The bad business led discrepancy and frequent change of senior managing staff . This is why Mr. , a veteran corporate raider , keeps accusing of various issues on business strategy and management and giving his suggestions to top managers in . < heading > The future of in Hachette Livre With the announcement of , Chairman and CEO of , will join the which is a wholly - owned subsidiary of , of based companies . It mainly publishes in key languages , i.e. , and . TWBG will become a subsidiary of the newly formed corporation , . TWBG and businesses will become subsidiaries of Livre . Compared with working under the shadow of spinning off , joining would be , theoretically , good to TWBG . The reasons are : Both sides can benefit each other . is ambitious to be one of leading international publishing groups and overtake its rival - Random House in . The acquisition of will increase its core competition and market share in , and also provides a platform to expand in market . Under the support of new parent company , will recover its strengthen as of leading trade publishers ; and enhance its market reach and finance in order to exploit the greater potentiality of brand . A friendly and loose working can be secured environment . There are not any significant changes as a result of deal . has a reputation for benign parenting . has a policy of operating its worldwide businesses in a devolved , federal structure , supportive of existing management and staff . ( interview with , , ) Business is based on the continuation of Imprint individually . But it calls for competing over books . Possibly this will be a way to encourage staff working innovatively . Administration and logistics will be controlled centrally . This is taking into account of Economies of scale . is a - based company , but is and - based companies . Culture difference exists avoidably . Facts show that legal system is different from - Saxon system , which results in a big difference on copyright law . From this point of view , it is wise for to take the federal structure in order to secure the development of business and reduce the ineffectiveness from culture clash . TWBG has been changed its parent companies twice passively . Once his direct parent took him into a new company , it looked safe and secured ; however , he was spun off by the company partially created by its parent . Now he was adapted by his step parent . Who can predict its future ? Times are changing . It is not the time to judge successful or unsuccessful operation according to the size in media business . This is why took initiatives in splitting its company into parts . Just as Mr Redstone said : ' Sometimes divorce is better than marriage ' ( Economist , , pg68 ) . No matter which model is chosen , no matter it is bigger or not , as long as it is suitable to develop the relevant business with sustainability and make profits , it will be good .","In Oct Google launched Google Print , currently Google Book Search ( GBS ) , which aims at service of book searching and its excerpts displaying . Google works with main and libraries , , etc , to digitize books in their collections and make them accessible via GBS . Google plans to digitize and make available through GBS service volumes within . Up to now this ambitious plan and its actual action have brought about a long controversial dispute , even lawsuit , involving authors , publishers , librarian , internet users and politicians all over the world . Copyright and relocation of its related profit , publication security as well as culture identity are the core issues concerned by various interest groups . GBS is a plan at its stage . It is too early and too hard to predict what will happen to it in the late of its . But , GBS and its related debate are displaying a phenomenon , i.e. Non - publishing companies are expecting to make profit through publication - related business . They may be the new entities and will change the business model of publishing . Its uncertainty leads that different interest groups have different attitude to it . Moreover , in the same interest group , they may have contradictory opinions , while others hold an ambiguous attitude . Publishers : After the lawsuit of ) on behalf of major publisher members , there is a continuation of accusing GBS of copyright violation . Some publishers , e.g. , strongly disagree what GBS has been doing . They are calling on internet users to boycott Google . ( The , ) However , other publishers , e.g. and HarperCollins , have put titles into ( , , ) . Authors : Authors Guild , representing writers , at joined individual authors in a class - action lawsuit alleging violated their copyright . However some authors , e.g. , expressed their firm support to this project . Government : GBS has hit a particular nerve in . The response from leading politicians , technology companies and the book world has as much as do with culture . They suspect whether , a - based company 's project , can well manage culture . As a result , a move of ( ) was put forwarded and supported by people , including Mr. , president , who is already backing another Google rival in the form of - a multimedia search engine . is planning to make m books , films and other files digitising and accessible through the portal by . "" It is clear that the 's tract , which paints the digitisation debate in terms of fighting hegemony""(Financial Times , ) GBS is a new thing facing international publishing . It is not because of digitisation of publications itself ( there are some similar projects , e.g. , OCLC Bibliography service etc ) but the feature of the "" practitioner "" , is an internet searching service company whose business is based on money earning through advertisement matched with the relevant searching results . Its operational idea and business model is totally different from what publishing industry is like . Moreover , its ambitious plan is so big to not only involve all publishing - related people , but also include some in - copyright books . So it is difficult to be accepted . However , it contains possibilities to be : a channel for book publicity and promotion and sales a channel for online publication service for publications in public domain a way publishers benefit from the book promotion through GBS . What the publishers gain is not only the increase of sales but also a portion of revenue from advertisement . Normally , publishing is a business of money - spending on Ad or promotion . But is a new business model which is based on splitting advertising revenue with publishers . Possibly , this will be a force pushing publishers to involve in GBS more than before . In digital age , the way of information dissemination is changing the business model of publishing , which avoidably lead to reconsider the following issues : < list > Copyright and security of publication in digital ageThe permission and the technical standard of digitising of publicationsWho should be the owner and practitioner of digitised publicationsNew business model , e.g. the cooperation of publishers and non - publishing partners ; selling advertisements next to classic works is good or not etc. Google was found in and headquartered in . Now it has grown up as one of global leading internet searching service companies with employees working in overseas offices in the world . As a multinational enterprise , is featured as : Mission Statement : Organize the world 's information and make it universally accessible and useful . Expansion of business is based on persistently pursuing innovation of technology and bettering the organisational structure and intercultural . It 's business philosophy contains aspects . "" Focus on the user and all else will follow "" comes at the first . Possibly , this is why it can make a quick response to issues aroused GBS and took a effective solution to the relevant issues , e.g. starting to use the name of GBS with more precise business orientation ; extending GBS from Book Library Project ( ) only to including and "" Google Books Partner Programme - for publishers ' service "" "" Do n't be evil "" is 's business ethics . Basing on this motto , Google respects the local culture and ethics , e.g. Google enters into some countries ( including , , ) with contents not conflicting the local cultural and governance . This is why Google can win bigger markets than its competitors . GBS , as a new business model of Internet searching engine , as a new channel of international publications , as a new service for Internet users , is worth of further attentions .",1 "The law of tort , as suggests , is a civil wrong independent of contract . is the cornerstone of tort liability and a key factor in most tort liability and a key factor in most personal injury and property damage trials . It involves duty , breach of that duty , causation , and damage which together forms any successful claim . Until , damages as a result of the ' negligent performance ' of a contractual relationship are not compensated for parties . Using the case v as an example , Lord said that ' the breach of the defendant 's contract with A to use care and skill in and about the manufacture or repair of an article does not of itself give any cause of action to B when he is injured by reason the article proving to be effective . ' This general principle was overturned by the case of . Mrs. , appellant , drank a bottle of ginger beer bought by her friend at a café of which , later , to her horror found the decomposing remains of a snail slithered into her glass . As a result , she became ill with gastro - enteritis and took legal action against the manufacturer of the product . The verdict was that did owe Mrs. a duty of care and was liable for the breach of the duty . Following the landmark case , a new general principle called the neighbour principle is formulated by Lord Atkins . The rule is to treat those people around us , who are closely and directly affected by our actions , with care and always to have them in contemplation when we are directing our mind to the acts or omissions which are called in question . The neighbour principle had provided a legal remedy against and obvious social wrong , thereby giving legal expression ' to a general public sentiment of moral wrongdoing ' . Markesinis and 's Tort Law 5th ed , , , p.76 pp - 1 . In v Merton London Borough Council , the principle has been reaffirmed and consequently a - stage approach was formulated by Lord . This stage - test approach made problem appear much simpler than it is . The stage corresponds to Lord 's neighbour principle , but the stage tends to obscure the fact that considerations of policy are inherent in the neighbour principle itself . , Textbook on Torts , , ed , p. , pp . - 1 . However , Lord Keith dissent the - stage test because the ' determining of the existence of a duty of care in negligence has been elevated to a degree of importance greater than it merits . ' Thereafter , the - stage test in is not to be regarded as in all circumstances a suitable guide to the existence of a duty of care . For the benefit of the future , criteria for the establishment of duty of care have been laid out by Lord in . This case concerned a claim for financial loss which resulted when an investor relied on published report that had been prepared negligently by the defendant . The criteria are : the damage must be foreseeable ; there must be a sufficiently proximate relationship between the parties ; it must be ' fair , just and reasonable ' to impose such a duty and the question of duty has got the lawyers on a debate marathon . The negligent operation of a power shovel outside the claimant 's steelwork resulted in a power cut which halted their non - stopping operation for . The appellant has admitted their negligence for the devaluation by $ and the consequent loss of profit of $ for the melt . The debate was solely on the liability for negligence on the account of the other melts . They strongly deny that they are liable for the $ loss for the other melts . They say that was purely economic loss for which they are not liable for . The appeal was allowed by Lord Denning on the basis of policy considerations to which Edmund Davies LJ dissented as unjustifiable . According to Lord Denning , economic loss of this sort should be borne by the whole community . It is unfair and unreasonable for the defendant to bear a disproportionate claim of liabilities . In my point of view , a duty is prima facie owed to the claimants whose power is supplied directly by a power station via a cable . Before work begins , the defendant has a duty to check the location of the cables under their site of construction in order to avoid any damage to the cables and also for their safety sake . Yet with plans being shown and enquiries done , their statutory undertaker negligently damaged the cables . Therefore it is clear that they have breach that duty towards the users affected by the damage . That damage has cause physical damage to the claimant 's property and also the loss of profit as a direct consequent . While the liability of care for the melt is uncontested , the other melts will have to be tested with the - stage duty test for it to be convinced that liability exists . It is foreseeable that if the cable is damage the factory work will be halted and hence the damage from it . There is physical damage on the furnace and the melt which was , at the time of occurrence , in it . Like Edmund Davies LJ agreed on , it is common ground that both types of loss were equally foreseeable and equally direct consequence of the defendant 's admitted negligence . After plans were shown and enquiries made by the claimant and appellant respectively , there is proximity between both parties as the claimant has rightly rely on the technical profession of the statutory workers in the handling of the cables beneath the road . I think the reason for not giving in the liabilities for the other melts lies with the stage duty test . Duty is likely to exist when it is believed to be in the public interest . In , public health considerations and lack of legal remedy has obliged the court to impose a duty . , Law for business studies , , , edition , p.143 from the point JUSTICE and REASON . For the present case , the fear of inviting a flood of litigation or to fraudulent claims has prompted Lord Denning to draw an arbitrary line to liability before it just out of control . In the case Muirhead v , the claimant is not entitled to recover for profits lost during the time that the lobsters ' production was suspended or cost of replacing pumps which was purely economic loss . Likewise , the melts in the present case should not be recoverable because it is purely economic loss . At bottom , I think Lord Denning has made the right decision to act independently ignoring the duty test by considering the relationship in hand . In , the claimant failed in his attempt to recover the expenses lost due to the delay of his construction of the water tunnel of which he has a contract with another party . For the same reason , the present case and the latter is not granted for their claims for liability . They are all purely economic loss which is by law and practice not recoverable . Be it ' remote ' , or ' no duty ' is owed , the volume of the damage is too huge and had it been permitted , in future , with cases involving the interruption of supply of water , gas or power , who should the lawyers go after . Thus , I give credits to Lord Denning for his brilliant judgment for being able to balance and weigh on the damage done on to the claimant and also the liability for which the appellant has to bear .","published his by subscription in . Described by 's advocate , as ' dead born'1 , the publication essentially went unnoticed . It was only in , after 's death that ( later Lord ) obtained a copy and , amazed by it contents , brought it to the attention of the leading mathematicians of the time . on , Green 's results are still frequently used by mathematicians and physicists alike ; not only in electrical engineering , but also in a diverse range of modern applications from the theory of quantum electrodynamics to the study of the Mandelbrot set . The ran to nearly pages - we shall consider just a few of the preliminary results from the section , analyse the proof given for the theorem and then go on to discuss why this work was so remarkable . Green began his by considering a single body through which electricity is arbitrarily distributed and a point p located outside of the body . He denoted by x ' , y ' , z ' the rectangular co - ordinates of a particle within the body , by ρ ' the density of electricity in the particle , and by r ' the distance between the particle and p. He then defined a function V representing the ' sum of all the particles of electricity divided by their respective distances from this point [ p ] ' , FORMULA His opening claim , based on a result from 's Mécanique céleste , was that V satisfies the equation FORMULA which he abridged to . Green 's next step was to consider the same function for a point p located within the body . He showed that in this case FORMULA . Green then used this equation to demonstrate that in a perfectly conducting body all of the ' electric fluid ' is carried to the surface . In other words , that  = for all points p inside such a body . It was in presenting this result that coined the term ' potential function ' - a particularly intuitive name for a function that describes the forces impelling and repelling particles ( in this case ' of electricity ' ) in a given system - the introduction of which describes as 's ' deepest insight'3 . This demonstration was immediately followed by a theorem : < quote>""Let U and V be continuous functions of the rectangular co - ordinates x , y , z , whose differential coefficients do not become infinite at any point within a solid body of any form whatever ; then will the triple integrals extending over the whole interior of the body , and those relative to d , over its surface , of which d  represents an element : d  being an infinitely small line perpendicular to the surface , and measured from this surface towards the interior of the body . "" This theorem is now known as 's theorem and was one of 's most significant accomplishments ( along with what are now called 's functions ; introduced later in the Essay ) . Essentially it relates the properties of the functions inside the body with those on the surface . Green began his proof by considering the triple integral FORMULA for which integration by parts gave FORMULA FORMULA where , V ' and , V '' were used to denote the values of U and V at the lower and upper limits of the integral respectively . He then observed that , since d  was defined to be perpendicular to the surface , he could make the following substitutions FORMULA at the upper limit in x FORMULA , at the lower limit in x and analogous substitutions for the other limits , giving rise to the expression < list > FORMULA { bawe_formula < /list > Green also noted that the integrals with respect to d  ' , together with the integrals with respect to d  '' cover the whole surface of the body , and hence reduced the expression to . Finally , by noting that inverting the roles of U and V would not alter the value of the expression , obtained the equation FORMULA completing the proof of his theorem . is remarkable for a variety of reasons . of the most significant is 's modest education . Green was born in the son of a baker . At he was sent to Academy in Nottingham . describes as an enthusiastic science teacher 4 and this may well have fuelled 's interest in physics . However Green only remained at the academy for terms at which point he returned to work at his father 's bakery . He was to receive no further teaching until his move to in , after the publication of his . In , when was , his father built a windmill at , then a village from Nottingham . He left the bakery to help operate the mill and it is likely that this is where he would have spent calmer studying mathematics . However , it is not known how Green came acquainted with the advanced mathematics he appeared to be studying - there were still no public libraries at this point . theory is that may have known , a graduate in mathematics living in and an avid promoter of mathematics ; < quote>""There is no proof that was mentor but circumstantial evidence suggests strongly that he was guiding him in the new mathematics and helped him with the he undoubtedly acquired in order to read the works of other mathematicians , such as , and . ""5 The opening of ( later the Nottingham Subscription Library ) in was undoubtedly a tremendous boost to 's resources . Green joined the library in and there he would have had access to a modest collection of textbooks and scientific journals . These journals would have included abstracts from papers published in foreign journals and hence would have given access to some of the new being developed abroad . Green 's essay was also strikingly original . mathematicians were still relying on methods . Their research centred around traditional concepts such as mechanics , optics , astronomy and planetary motion . calculus , on the other hand , was very analytical - reflecting a sound understanding of methods recently developed in by the likes of and - and his examples were based on the new physics of the time : electricity and magnetism , ' the most interesting of physical sciences'6 . It could perhaps be argued that 's methods were not always particularly rigorous and the notions of ' electric fluid ' and ' particles of electricity ' he used seem somewhat vague compared to our modern terminology of charge and electrons . However his ideas were particularly original and expressed with exceptional clarity . Most striking of all however , is the longevity if his results . The fact that mathematicians and physicist are forever finding new applications for 's techniques is evidence of just how flexible and powerful they really are . , , th",0 "< heading > PART 1 At the dawn of , nations are more economically integrated than at any other point in human history . This presents businesses with unprecedented opportunities and challenges . The opportunity to sell to global markets rather than a single national market increases the potential profitability of business activity . , every organisation wants to have presence in the foreign markets , either to expand its operation and make use of economies of scale production or to protect the home market from domestic and foreign competition . There are different ways in which a company can do international business such as exports , licensing , joint ventures , mergers , , etc . Many nations now consider international trade essential for economic growth and development . As a result , most of the countries have lowered most of their trade barriers to have an open economy for trade . Export can be considered as a step to enter any foreign market . Now even small businesses do engage into exporting activities and there 's lot of support been given by many governments . But at the same time , there are difficulties associated with exporting . The following explains some of the difficulties that overseas firms face when exporting to and discusses their possible solutions : < heading>1 . Market Knowledge : < /heading > Before entering a new market , a detail market analysis of the suitability of the product is required to be done . For foreign firms being away from the market and no experience of operating in , to do the correct market analysis is difficult . Sometimes , even after lot of market research , firms do commit some basic blunders . Like , "" failed in because the percentage of homes with toasters was significantly lower than in , and the product was too sweet for tastes . "" [ 1 ] So , the exporters need to have the knowledge about the consumer tastes and preferences and should modify its product to suit the market . way tackling the problem is by hiring a consultant having sound knowledge of the market . < heading>2 . Branding : < /heading > Branding plays a key role in the purchase decision of the consumer . [ ] They are very conscious about the brand of the product they use as people in very much relate themselves to brand and consider it as a status symbol . So , for any exporter to be successful in the market will have to create its good brand image . This incurs huge marketing expenses which have to be included in the product cost thereby losing the cost competitiveness . of the ways in which a foreign exporter can hope to sell its product successfully in the market is by joint venturing with an existing local firm , who already has a very good brand image . , an automobile manufacturer launched its most successful car in the car market by partnering with M G Rover . In spite of designing the car for customer needs , it was unsuccessful as the customers saw it as a cheap import . < heading>3 . Labelling and Packaging : < /heading > Exporters should be mindful that , in addition to the mandatory and voluntary schemes , national voluntary labelling schemes might still apply . [ ] These schemes may be highly appreciated by consumers , and thus , become unavoidable for marketing purposes particularly for food products . The labelling guidelines are very comprehensive and are required to be adhered very strictly in the . Especially , food packaging needs to have information like nutrition value , salt content , and portion sizes , etc . For example , Pataks , a leading importer of foods and spices in , have planned for changes in the product labelling in order to serve the customers in a better way . All Pataks branded products will carry ' Big 8 ' nutrition information and will include a highlighted panel communicating the fat , calories and salt per serving by . [ ] An exporter has to comply with these s requirements and often does not have adequate resources to test product to include the nutritional information , etc and may lose the order . This difficulty can be resolved either by taking resource and technology help from the importer or by investing in resources . Also it involves using different packaging for products made for market which again add to the production costs . < heading>4 . High Product and Process Quality Requirement : < /heading > As in most developed nations , the product or service quality expectation of the consumer in is fairly high and stringent . They even put lot of emphasis on the production process quality . So the exporters to the have to adopt and follow the high quality standards . , an injection moulding company in , used to supply cars through ( ) . A very high quality standard was expected from the supplier . When the final samples for product approval were submitted , there was a quality issue of noise during fins movement . The noise was such that it could only be heard if the ear is placed very close to the vent . The project was delayed for due to this problem . This would have never been an issue if it was for an customer . Even for parts segregation , parts identifying machine was used which otherwise could have been done manually . Since , quality requirement is customer given , customer 's support in implementing product and process quality standards will be helpful . Also individual agencies offering technical support can also be used . [ A ] < heading>5 . Promotion : < /heading > An exporting company that sells products with its own brand names runs an additional risk of managing its promotional activities in the foreign market . Different countries have different advertising rules . regulations on advertising are stringent compared to others like . Exporter needs to be wary of using the same promotional strategy in the as in their home country . "" oversees the practices of the advertising industry and enforces the provisions of ( CAP ) . "" [ ] "" 's strict rules banning product placement would not allow to use its name during the show "" "" on even though was the sponsor of the programme and its products were used in the recipes . has to be content with sponsor 's credits at the start and finish of the show and a £ 2 m campaign promoting the programme in supermarkets with special labels on tins . "" [ ] The exporter has to understand the advertising regulations of . An external advertising agency or consultants managing the promotional activities of the exporter can ensure that such mistakes are avoided . Alternatively the exporter may choose to partner with the distributor to manage product launches . < heading>6 . Marketing Communication : < /heading > Promotional communication of the product is an important element of the marketing mix . Branding , product names , advertising , punch lines are aspects that have to be carefully considered by an exporter in a foreign market . There have been instances of misinterpretation of language and communication , ending in disasters for the company 's marketing efforts . made an error when they launched , a spin - off of the company 's popular cereal . "" Coco rocks "" is a street slang used to describe dark brown crack cocaine made by adding chocolate pudding during production . The company later realised its mistake and re - branded the cereal "" 's coco pops coco rock "" . [ 6 ] < heading>7 . Seasonality : < /heading > Seasonality affects customer purchasing in . [ ] The consumer purchasing of clothing and footwear is directly affected by the different weather conditions . "" The consumer increasingly regards an item of clothing or footwear as a disposable item , rather than an investment and this coloured their approach to purchasing decisions . Quality remains important , as an item must be fit for use but fashion styles play a much greater role in everyday purchasing than previously , so that a piece of clothing may not be expected to last longer than one season . "" [ ] So , it becomes difficult to forecast market trends for . A peculiarity of the is that there is a considerable difference in seasons with each season lasting . A product has very limited time in the market . At , old stock has to be cleared , as there is little chance that the same product will have the same kind of sales in . This increases the risk in keeping inventory . Particularly for an exporter who is new and away from the market , these changes are difficult to predict . The exporter can overcome the seasonality problem by following the domestic competitor and having better consumer understanding using market reports , etc . < heading>8 . Risk : < /heading > In almost every business there 's some risk involved . But , particularly in export risk is comparatively high as compared to working locally , as customer is far from home country . Risk includes many factors like financial stability and credibility of the customer , transportation uncertainty leading to delivery failures , etc . ) , when entered into exports of automobile components to , had set up a fully dedicated automated injection moulding plant for exports , investing a large amount on the infrastructure and manpower . But , when M G Rover gone burst , which was very unlikely for such a big group , the production at stopped and ran into huge losses . This kind of risk can be reduced by investigating the present and future financial stability of the customer . [ A ] < heading>9 . : < /heading > Every country has its own way of doing the business , which is the characteristic of its national culture . Hofstede study classifies different countries based on cultural differences along dimensions . There 's major difference between and working culture . people , like other westerners are more tasks oriented and believe in individual work and success . On the other hand , for people while doing business relationship and loyalty to group is critical . [ 7 ] This poses problems due to difference in the way of conducting business and can be resolved by hiring people having international work experience . < heading>1 0 . : < /heading > The is the world 's largest economy with foreign trade accounting for of GDP . [ ] The market is a mature market with major multinational companies having their presence . This makes the market competitive , making difficult for new players to enter the market . Breaking into the market is one of the major challenges faced by new exporters . < heading>11 . Health : < /heading > The government and consumers in the are health conscious . This explains the need for specifying nutrition details on food packages . The government has made a great deal of effort to improve the diet of citizens ; there has been a major escalation in concern over the health of citizens . "" and salt content in food has come under particular scrutiny , and soup makers including and received very unwelcome press coverage suggesting that the salt content in some products was roughly equal to that of sea water . "" [ ] Foreign firms while exporting must be careful in adhering to the requirements set by the government . < heading>12 . Exchange rate fluctuations : < /heading > Exchange rate is the price at which currency is bought and sold for another . There exist both the positive and negative effects of exchange rate volatility on the trade flows for the exporters . To assess the potential effects of exchange rate fluctuation , consider if the value of pound depreciates with respect to the home currency of the exporter and gets the payment in pounds then the exporter will be incurring loss or get less money for the trade . Also if the exporter is paid in its home currency then the importer is at loss . "" As a result , risk - averse exporters may be expected to reduce their trade volumes , in response to uncertainty generated by greater exchange rate variability , since profits from trading internationally decline in line with unanticipated exchange rate changes . "" [ 9 ] Also the customer will always prefer domestic supplier to avoid the exchange rate uncertainty problem . Thus it is difficult for the exporter and importer both to settle on pricing terms . The study done by , E. [ ] , explains how exchange - rate volatility affected 's export to its most important trading partner , , from . Normally , the pre- fixed international trade contacts are long term and for constant volume . So , if the currency value changes , it is difficult for the exporter to change volume . Also if the credit period for payment is more , the fluctuation will have more negative effect . For example , the exchange rate between pound sterling and dollar changed from in to in . This shows that with respect to dollar , pound fluctuates considerably and any exporter from will have to consider this volatility while exporting to . way of solving the problem is to work on short term , renewable contracts , or on single shipment one . Also the exporter should try for short credit period . This will reduce the exchange rate uncertainty effect on export to a large extent . < heading>13 . Tariff Barriers : < /heading > Tariffs or Import duties are the taxes on the imported goods . They raise the price to customers and make them less attractive . "" The EU Common Commercial Policy constrains any unilateral protectionism on the part of the members . As a member of , the treats countries imports under . There are no duties on goods from other countries and on industrial goods from member states of . The , like the rest of the , levies tariffs on the cost insurance freight ( CIF ) value of imports . The rates vary depending on the product and the country of origin . import duties ( ) apply to goods shipped from world countries to the . "" [ ] Thus , the international trade policies of are such that the importer will prefer to buy from the supplier rather than going outside , unless the price offered from the country supplier is less after including the duties and taxes or the product quality and technology is better . Also , has no special import incentive scheme . Importers of capital goods to the can only hope to exploit the interest subsidies , by the export credit agency of the foreign supplier 's country . [ ] All this makes it very difficult for the exporters from the non countries to enter the market and compete with the competitors . Thus , tariff barriers increase the cost of trading . For example , a tariff would mean the exporters will have to price the firms and consumers more for the export of raw materials or consumer goods , making themselves less competitive . There 's nothing much that can be done to avoid tariff barrier as these are governed between countries and individual businesses have no control over it . < heading>14 . : < /heading > In accordance with the negotiated reductions , has lowered tariff on wide range of manufactured goods but however non - tariff barriers to import has proliferated and tends to be targeted more on sensitive imports like textiles , etc . "" According to , non tariff protection has been increasing much faster in the than in other developed countries . "" [ ] As follows trade policy , this increase in non - tariff barriers applies for also . The non tariff barriers make it difficult for the exporters to trade with as to overcome requires lot of extra work to be done and sometimes not possible . Some of the non tariff barriers for the market are as follows : < heading > a. and Embargos : < /heading > The Multi Fibre Agreement has been a major discussion point at talks . It restricts the import of textile products into the . Exporters from developed countries face the problems of discontinuous demand due to such quotas . [ ] < heading > b. Anti dumping laws : < /heading > The has been protectionist in applying the anti dumping laws . While dumping in itself is unfair practice , the administration of anti dumping laws may make export unattractive . The future uncertainty due to such measures may result in disinterest in exporting . Recently , has been accused of flooding markets with cheap products , threatening local producers who have a more expensive workforce and higher costs . A rise in imports had been expected but dumping , however , is a more serious situation whereby producers sell their slippers and shoes at less than cost price in order to win market share . Some leaders have asked for anti dumping duties to be placed on footwear . An increase in duties makes the product uncompetitive in the market hence resulting in a loss for the exporter . [ 12 ] Therefore , the exporter should try avoiding such unfair business practices . < heading > c. Import permits : < /heading > For certain category of products , obtaining import permits is rather difficult and arduous task involving many government departments and excessive documentation . [ ] Thus , from above it can be concluded that even though economy is considered very open for international trade , still foreign firms have to face many difficulties while exporting to the . The difficulties may be market related or trade related . Some of these difficulties can be overcome easily by doing market research or by consultation while some like import taxes and duties can not be solved . This requires national government to completely open the doors for trade which will lead to the economic growth and development of all nations . < heading > PART 2 While planning the marketing strategy , the marketing managers have to take some major marketing decisions . These decisions play a very important role in the success of the strategy and are generally referred to as the marketing mix decisions or the 4 P 's of marketing . The decisions that the marketers take can be classified into one of the following categories : < list > ProductPricePlace Promotion The firm always attempts to generate a positive response in the target market by blending the above marketing mix variables in an optimal manner . During , the marketing mix decisions taken by our team had a significant impact on our business operations . The following discusses in detail , the importance of those decisions during of business . < heading > Product : < /heading > The product is the physical product or service offered to the consumer . Product decisions include aspects such as function , packaging , appearance , warranty , etc . In this game , decisions to be taken were on product features such as number of special commands [ C ] , error protection [ E ] and ease of learning rating [ L ] . To decide on the product features , a target market segment is to be chosen . From the market analysis report , we got the rough idea of the average profit per unit in each market segment and the most profitable market segments that could be targeted , if we sell the product to the customer at their perceived value . We wanted to aim the segment which none of our competitors choose so as to get its major market share . In , since we were not aware of which market segments our competitors are aiming , we decided our product features to be C - 10 , E - 4 , L - 5 , so as to play safe and decide later on the target market . This decision paid off and we made the highest profit . The importance of playing safe at the start was we got the reasonable amount of market share in each segments due to our product features nearly appealing to maximum customers . Also competitors marketing decisions also helped to achieve the good sales and profit . For , we decided to target the typists with product features as C - 12 , E - 6 , L - 7 in and C - 12 , E - 8 , L - 8 in . This was because typists market was of total and we had already achieved maximum market share in in the typists market which was found from the market share by segment report . Thus , we took the decision to make the product which is ideal for the typists . < heading>2 . Price : < /heading > Price decisions should mainly take into account the profit margins , the probable pricing response of the competitors , discounts , etc . In the game we priced our product high , as compared to the ideal price perceived by the target customers . The whole sale price of the product was $ in , $ in , $ in . If we had reasonably priced our product , we could have achieved better sales . But at the same time in , and 4 we spend considerable amount in sales promotion which helped us to increase our sales during that periods . < heading>3 . Place : < /heading > Place decisions are those associated with the channels of distribution that serve as the means for getting the product to the target customers . Distribution decisions include market coverage , logistics , channel member selection and service level . In of the game , since we were not sure of the target market segment , we decided to give equal importance to both the channels of distribution with sales representatives giving the little exclusive distribution exposure level in each channel . In , we added more sales representatives in channel to move towards intensive distribution . In , the target market decided was typists who preferred to buy more from channel one ( ) than channel ) . Also other buyer segments like writers , managers and parents preferred channel one . So , we decided to make the distribution more intensive in channel one and more exclusive in channel to get better sales results . Therefore , sales people were transferred from channel to channel in . So , in the exposure goal was in channel and in channel . This finally resulted in achieving higher sales . Also the commission to sales people was kept constant at for in order to motivate them to work more efficiently and achieve better sales results . < heading>4 . Promotion : < /heading > Promotion decisions are those related to communicating and selling to potential consumers . It is very useful to know the value of the customer in order to determine whether additional customers are worth the cost of acquiring them . Promotion decisions involves advertising , personal selling , public relations , etc . Starting with advertising , if used properly , it is the most effective way of making the consumers aware of the product features and driving them to buy our product . So , to increase the sales we spend $ in and $ in on advertising . Also we used pioneering advertising in to build primary demand and also to create awareness about the product among different users . Since word processor awareness was already created in , we focused on direct competitive advertising in to get immediate increase in sales . Also advertising expenses were increased to further increase the sales , which is evident from results . We also started with sales promotion in with $ and $ in channel and respectively . This was mainly done to have more sales through channel . But later on , we realized that majority of out customers like buying through channel so we decided to have $ 20 K and $ K worth of sales promotion in channel in respectively and none in channel . Thus , promotion decisions helped us to achieve better sales . From above it can be concluded that a good combination of marketing mix decisions can lead to good sales and profits . We made profit in but we could have still made more sales and profit if better marketing decisions were taken . There are many combinations of marketing mix decisions possible ; the aim of strategic marketing is to find out the optimal combination . The marketing game which we played is a simulation model based on the real marketing environment wherein we as marketing managers had to take several decisions based on the data available as which is normally the case in real business settings . The decisions taken affect the short or long term performance of the company . Since the scenario of the game resembled the realistic one , many good practical lessons were learned . The main learning points of the game are as follows : < heading>1 . Importance of Marketing Mix Decisions : < /heading > While planning the marketing strategy , decisions taken about the product features , price , distribution and promotion affects the business performance . The marketing mix variables should be properly controlled to best satisfy the customers in the target market . < heading>2 . Understanding Customers : < /heading > In the game we knew the ideal product requirements for each market segment . This information helped us to make informed decisions for making the product modifications to suit particular customer needs . So , for any successful marketing strategy , understanding and satisfying the customer requirements are of prime importance . < heading>3 . Understanding Competitors : < /heading > In a competitive business , only knowing the customers is not sufficient , understanding competitors strategy is also very important . A successful marketing strategy should also consider the competitors information 's like which market they are targeting , how much they are spending on promotion , what distribution channels they are using , what is their market share and profit , etc . A detailed analysis of such factors should be done before developing the final strategy , as competitive forces also determine our sales and market share . This can be inferred from the fact that the profit made by our company in was mainly due to our competitor 's strategies . < heading>4 . Importance of Market Reports : < /heading > Information present in the market reports can be very useful in making strategic decisions . Like the report on market share by segment can be used to get an idea of the company 's market share in each market segment and decision regarding which market segments to target can be made . < heading>5 . Distribution channel selection : < /heading > The channels which are preferred by the target customers should be used for distribution of products . If the customers require more support and personnel attention while buying the product more intensive distribution channel should be used by employing more sales people and vice versa . Like more sales in typists , writer and managers segment can be achieved by employing more sales people in channel . < heading>6 . Team working : < /heading > In the game , we worked as a team to make business decisions , like what happens in real business settings . I learnt the importance of team working . Also how team working helps to generate different solutions for the same problem . We used brainstorming technique to analyze each possible solution and finally arrived at the best possible one through discussions and debates . Since the team members were from different cultural background having different experiences a wide array of perspectives were discussed . I also realized that conflicting thoughts can be used effectively to come up with optimal solution for the problem . < heading>7 . Time management : < /heading > Working in team with conflicting ideas takes time to resolve and come to final solution . Most of the time our group was late in submitting the market strategy plan which was due to slow decision making . In real scenario , late formulation and implementation of marketing strategy may result in loss of opportunities . Also we might not get the complete benefit from the strategy .","As already sketched by the title , work Wrapping Culture : politeness , presentation , and power in and other societies leads a discourse of the themes that reappears in the society on various levels - the concept of wrapping and more importantly about the ' intercultural communication and the possibilities for misinterpretation of familiar objects in an unfamiliar context . '(Hendry,1993,pp.2 ) Due to the limited scope of this review , the following paragraphs will briefly summarize the main issues and arguments about the element of wrapping in material as well as linguistic context and further comment on the value of this ethnography , as well as its contribution to the study of the culture . Where possible , further comparisons with the Western model will illustrate the similarities and differences between and occidental societies . The ethnography is organized into sections each focusing on a different level of the concept of wrapping . Starting from the more material perspective , the analysis gradually moves towards symbolic and abstract ' layers ' of discourse . The chapter dealing with the general purpose and meaning of wrapping thus sets the basis for further development of this multi - layered symbolism . It is therefore important at this point to take notice of several facts : A gift expresses different things about the relationship between people . The attitude towards wrapping may have a great significance because it reveals a major difference between the Westerns and the . ( Hendry,1993,pp.13 ) While the focus of the former is on the object inside , for the the wrapping itself may be of far greater significance than the actual object being wrapped . < fnote > Matinez , ( ) The Worlds of popular culture : , shifting boundaries and global cultures . As points out , true nature of anthropology , whether from structuralist or postmodernist perspective , is to observe and study ' the interaction between the apparently separate realms of the material and the symbolic ' ; ' materials produced by a society are also capable of having symbolic value ' and this is what is clearly the focus of work , too < /fnote> Hendry , ( ) . regard wrapping as a means to obscure the object , while perceive it a means of refinement - adding layers of meaning , which it could not carry in its unwrapped form . pp . . In gift - giving , unlike Western , the element of surprise hardly figures ; it is often more important to chose an object of an appropriate value , and the main thing is to recognize the fact that the gift has been presented in a certain way , appropriate for the status ( i.e. elaborately wrapped for a person of formal relationship , unwrapped as for offerings to the deceased , or minimally wrapped in a cellophane for an intimate friend ) appropriate to the occasion ( i.e. welcoming of , when presents represent the continuation of the relationship rather than true affection ) , with the appropriate words ( i.e.yoroshiku onegaishimasu when welcoming new neighbours while presenting a minimally wrapped towel ) etc . pp.8 - 26 < /fnote > It is easy to notice , that the significance of status and reciprocity , discussed in the lectures ( Sadgwick,2005 ) , plays a key role in this context . of all , it is unthinkable for a to stop the habit of exchanging presents once it has been established , as this would send a clearly negative signal about the relationship . ( Janos,1998,pp.40 ) To compare this with the Western attitude in such a situation , one might feel slightly disappointed at nonappearance of an expected present , but perhaps the impact of such an occasion , if explained would not be so grave ( despite or maybe even because of 's point that the focus is on the object , not so much the event in the West).(Hendry,1993,pp.13 ) < fnote , ( ) . As points out , although gifts are in theory voluntary , they are often subject to strict bonds of obligation , pp.23 < /fnote > The status , age , and gender of the parties involved , as discussed by in chapters , would certainly be other important determinants of the style in which the presentation would be made . Moving to a more abstract ' layer ' of analysis , recognizes the significance of keigo as a means of wrapping - both of the gift which must be presented using specific words at different occasions , and of true intentions which are to be properly wrapped in keigo , taking an appropriate form depending on status , age , gender ... (Hendry,1993,pp.53 - 58 ) Thus one can see , that in this respect , society is classed by clear boundaries based on these and many other aspects . It is true to say , however , that even in some western societies , like , or , distinct grammatical forms are used to distinguish the status and age of the speakers . < fnote > in the olden Slovak language , one had to distinguish grammatically between age categories : lower or same as the speaker 's status would be addressed as ' ty ' ( you ) , slightly older ( i.e. addressing one 's mother ) would use ' vy ' (= equivalent of vous ) , and the oldest or highest in status would be addressed as ' oni ' (= they ) and would be addressed in the person of plural implying a great psychological distance between the speakers < /fnote > An interesting feature of wrapping words is sketched here . Not only does the use of keigo represent a way to conceal the negative aspects of what is to be said and thus expresses care for the addressee , but it can also act as means to segregate classes of skillful and less skillful users , obviously giving the former ones an upper hand . As mentioned , the mechanism of suddenly raising the level of keigo as a means to discourage unwanted advances , or the "" polite rudeness "" can find parallels in the world , though not quiet matching the version.(Hendry,1993,pp.56 ) In fact , there is a nice saying in , which states that '' the way diplomacy works is by use of language that will not only send the unwanted advancer ' to hell ' , but it will even make him look forward to it '' . This would however not work under all circumstances , because as pointed out in lectures , stress on logic and explicitness in Western culture would most probably obstruct a person getting away with much of the abstract demagogy embodied in such wrapping of words ( Sadgwick,2005 ) . It is thus easy to deduce that when a encounters a person , misunderstandings are more than likely to occur.(Janos,1998,pp.34 - 37 ) Referring back to the idea of ' upper hand ' , it is possible to argue that one can find similarities in the 's theories applied in West . < fnote , ( ) . , just as the elaborate wrapping of gifts , can be a sign of refinement ; it can also be described as a kind of armour , to wrap up and protect the nerves which may be lurking underneath , thus also protect the one who is a potential target of one 's anger , and finally to put some deflecting distance between oneself and a threatening world which may encounter ' out there ' . Just as too formal gifts create a distance between the giver and receiver , the exaggerated use of keigo serves as an effective barrier from strangers , pp.62 - 63 Furthermore , skilful use of keigo may be seen as to define people as members of a type of elite . Those who are polite are able to operate in a formal context , to deal with wrapping in its various forms . pp . - 161 < /fnote> Fulcher J. and ( ) . According to 's language theory , the distinction between ' restricted ' and ' elaborated ' codes of communication determine the pupils ' s academic performance and subsequently his social class , greatly contributing to the class reproduction of the society . < /fnote > The account of female wrapping of speech presents yet another evidence of the strong divisions within the society and this book is a useful ethnography acknowledging this element : Because women are socialized into being polite and feminine in their language , the ' possibility of being assertive is radically reduced ; women are more polite because they are less secure about their positions than men and language becomes more important for establishment and maintenance of their status . '(Hendry,1993,pp.157 ) On the other hand mastering of keigo also gives them the power to impress , influence and manipulate.(Hendry,1993,pp.157 ) To put this into perspective , in emphasis is being put on the egalitarianism of men and women and assertiveness is certainly a feature that is not necessarily male any more and thus there is a significant difference between the and , although in , too , much change is taking place in this context.(Lebra and W.P.,1996 ) In either way , from day - to - day observations , it is possible to say , that in , too , women tend to be very powerful with their use of manipulative linguistic skills . When it comes to minor traffic infringements , for example , women may be relatively more successful to talk themselves out of potential fines than men . < fnote > URL The proportionality of men and women in important government positions is in the process of being institutionalized ( ) < /fnote > The other aspects that were discussed by the book , but which were not touched upon in this review dealt with further layers of the ' wrapping symbolism ' - the wrapping of body , space , social and temporal wrapping . But as we have seen , for the main demonstration of the concept , and more particularly the interaction between the material and symbolic ' layers ' , which is foremost for 's book , gift wrapping and linguistic packaging are sufficient examples . We have observed how the book skillfully accounts for the differences emerging not only on the intra - cultural but also inter - cultural level . This ethnography thus clearly shows that society can not be considered as a homogenous body , but rather as constantly separated by divisions based on status , age , gender , class etc . Comparisons were made with the Western culture , but differences , too , are present , providing anthropologists and sociologists with many questions about inter - cultural understanding and communication .",0 "< heading > Introduction < /heading > The following case study is based on male client with no close family and a history of repeated suicide attempts and delusional thoughts . The client is not someone that I have nursed and so any hypothesis or conclusions which I have reached during this assignment are based on the limited information that I have about the client and the application of my knowledge and reading around the subject of law and ethics . Mental health nursing involves a greater awareness of the law than general nursing , since at times we are treating people without their consent ( Hendrick 2000 ) , this factor will be explored in relation to John later in the case study . I have presumed that , as is the accepted practice when writing a case study , is not the client 's real name but been changed to protect his identity . Ethics can be defined as a generic term for the various ways of understanding and interpreting moral life ( ) . Our system of law and legal frameworks are built on what is commonly held to be right or just and designed to prevent injustice against the individual or society and maintain order . Medical ethics are a combination of what is required by law and the rules that various professional bodies have designed to help practitioners with difficult decisions . Beauchamp and Childress draw on historical ethical works along with their own observations from the healthcare environment to formulate their ethical theory which is known as biomedical ethics and has main principles : Beneficence , the principle of doing good , non - maleficence , the principle of doing no harm , respect for autonomy and justice . All of these principles will be discussed in relation to John within this essay . < heading > Part 1 - John 's Community Psychiatric Nurse ( ) and General ( GP ) are considering whether to compulsorily admit to hospital under ( ) . What are the legal and ethical issues they should bear in mind ? < /heading > Before compulsory admission into a psychiatric hospital is allowed to happen , it must be proved that an individual is suffering from a mental illness . Defining a mental disorder is always difficult since no one is ever a text book case ; this is one of the reasons why most compulsory admissions require the agreement of medical practitioners ( Jones 1996 ) . The case study that we have about John does not tell us whether he already has a diagnosis of a specific mental health problem , although it does tell us that as well as a history of repeated suicide attempts , he also experiences auditory hallucinations and persecutory delusions . ( DOH ) states that a person may be compulsorily admitted into hospital where it is in the interests of his or her own health , or in the interests of his or her own safety , or for the protection of other people . If John were detained , the reason used would be that it is in the interests of his own safety since he is a risk to himself ; the professionals would cite his past suicide attempts and his current low mood and suicidal thoughts to illustrate this . is a legal document based on considered opinion of medical professionals and is designed to protect the best interests of the ill person ; it is therefore both a legal and ethically binding piece of work . Since it is likely that John is already known to the services ( the fact that he already has an appointed tells me this ) , he should have a plan of care where the risk of deterioration of his condition and any possible consequences have already been explored at a time when he was not quite so ill . The plan of care involving the service user is based on ( DOH ) , referred to hereafter as CPA , which encourages collaboration in order to better meet the needs of the service users and to empower them to express these needs ( ) . Psychiatric nursing , perhaps more so than any other branch has to take a holistic view of the person that they are treating , not just the illness or the healing of a wound . It is essential that we try to understand the values that an individual holds and try to accommodate these into the plan of care . As professionals , we would not want John to feel he was being bullied into a hospital admission and become more agitated - there are ways of explaining a situation to a client without being threatening and this must be attempted even if one thinks that the client is too ill to comprehend what is going on . ( ) suggests some ways that we can assist clients to make decisions about their future care , as well as personalisation , he prioritises information giving and mentioning opportunities . It must be remembered when using 's work that his subjects were older adults in care homes and so the results may not be directly applicable to a patient of John 's age . could be admitted into hospital using a section 2 , or 4 , the implications of these sections and the persons involved will be discussed in the next few paragraphs . The application to admit must be made by either his nearest relative or an approved social worker ( ) since these are people who are seen as acting in the best interests of the client . Since we are told that John has no relatives , the application would have to be made by an . For admissions under both sections and , there is a need for the opinion of doctors , of whom must be section approved which means that they are registered with the home office as a specialist in mental health . The opinion doctor could be John 's GP . It is likely that John 's would also play a part in the admission by acting as an advocate for John and to co - ordinating the planning of assessment . If is not deemed to be in immediate danger , it is likely that he would be admitted using which allows detention for assessment and if necessary , compulsory treatment for . He could be admitted using section 3 of the Act ( admission for treatment lasting ) although this stipulates a condition that medical treatment is likely to alleviate , or prevent a deterioration in his condition ( Thomas et al ) which , since he has been treated with ineffective medication in the past can not be proven to be true leaving a possibility that John could contest his admission on these grounds . It is likely that if John begins to respond to treatment whilst on the section 2 , this would be converted into a section 3 to allow him to complete his treatment in hospital . John could also be admitted to hospital using section 4 of the act if the and think that he is in immediate danger and that he needs to come into hospital straight away then he can be brought in with just the 's recommendation and application by the nearest relative or . This section can . There is no information about whether has been admitted into hospital before but if he has recently been admitted using a section 2 then the healthcare professionals would be likely to admit him using section 3 of the act if the presentation of his illness has not changed significantly . There are cases of patients who lack the capacity to consent and are admitted into hospital voluntarily ( ) , these people are outside the capacity of the mental health act and so in some respects , the nurse may be acting in the patient 's best interests by allowing them to be sectioned rather than an informal admission . A section gives the patient clear rights whereas a patient who has been informally admitted may be unsure of their rights and see the possibility of being sectioned as a punishment for bad behaviour . < heading > What are the effects of admitting John under ? < /heading > John will not able to vote because he is deemed to be living at the hospital 's address for the duration of his detention period and the address is not classed as residential . A sectioned patient who has gone absent without leave can be compulsorily returned to hospital . Section 2 allows treatment without consent and section 3 of the Act allows treatment without consent for a period of after which permission must be granted by the patient or a opinion must be obtained from another doctor . Section 4 does not allow compulsory treatment for the period of detention . The patient has a right to appeal to detention under section . The detained patient may appeal to the hospital managers and/or a tribunal committee consisting of independent individuals . Section 4 can not be appealed against due to the short duration . The patient may be granted section leave by ( ) ; specifications may or may not be placed on this leave including time limits , escorts or places ( ) . It is again , the nurse 's role to ensure that the correct section leave is written up for a patient before they are allowed to take it , the leave should also be recorded by the nursing staff to ensure that it is complied with . By admitting a patient into hospital under a section you are removing their choice in the matter which could be considered unethical since they are no longer autonomous . says that he has nothing to live for and wants to die which may be interpreted as a suicidal thought , however the team must be very clear about this , using his presentation and knowledge of his illness ( or symptoms ) to guide them - they will ask searching questions to deem whether he is a suicide risk and may also use a tool such as ( Beck ) to rate his depression and suicidal thoughts . 's personal values must also be considered when thinking about compulsory admission into hospital - the professionals involved would have to consider whether taking control of the situation would worsen John 's depressive state and make him more suicidal . If we look at the principles of biomedical ethics ( ) we could say that by detaining John in hospital against his will , we are removing his autonomy but we would say that the action is non - maleficent since to leave John in the community may mean that he does harm to himself . The action of detention would also be considered just in the eyes of the law since the policies and procedures set down by will have been followed but it would also have to be proved that John was treated justly as a person - that he was fully informed of all of the facts about his detention and the consequences of being on a section as well as his right to appeal . The final principal that must be mentioned is beneficence - the concept of doing good for or more others , in John 's case the healthcare professionals would say that by admitting John into hospital they are doing good for him by preserving his life . Beneficence can at times lead to paternalism , the concept of "" we know what 's best for you "" ; it should be remembered that mentally ill adults still have a decision making capacity and although their illness may prevent them from seeing all things clearly , we should still value their opinions and wishes wherever possible . < heading>2 . has now been admitted to hospital but continues to refuse any treatment . The ward team is considering giving involuntary treatment to John . What are the legal and ethical issues they should bear in mind ? < /heading > Depending on what section John has been admitted on , there is every possibility that it would be legal to treat him with medication against his wishes , however this is a practice that is a last resort and the client will very often be "" encouraged "" to comply with medication rather than have it forcibly given ( this is usually administered as an intra - muscular injection ) . Having medication forced upon oneself must be a very unpleasant and frightening experience , it could be said that the client 's body is being violated and indeed many patients do regard non - consensual ( ) injections as assault ( cited in pp46 ) . The practitioner would in all cases try to convince the client to admit themselves into hospital as an informal patient . The case study tells us that trials of various medications have proved ineffective for John 's condition , so perhaps it can be deemed not unreasonable that he is currently refusing to agree to treatment . Psychiatric medication can have various unpleasant side effects and if John were experiencing any of these , combined with the fact that the medication was not improving his symptoms then we should ask ourselves if it is right to subject him to forced treatment when we do not know how effective it will be . Another treatment method which may be considered is ( ) . is at times prescribed for clients exhibiting a severe depressive state , it is usually after trials of various drugs have failed to alleviate symptoms and it is a commonly held view that it is a last resort since although it can yield excellent results , physicians still do not know exactly how it works and it can also have some unpleasant side effects . In all cases consent is sought from the patient prior to the treatment . The rules and regulations surrounding this treatment are different to those dealing with drug administration since it is viewed by the government and as an invasive treatment ( ) and as such it is not automatically covered as a treatment which may be administered without consent on a sectioned patient ; instead the must apply to a tribunal for permission to treat . < heading > What consequentionalist arguments for treating John could be put forward ? < /heading > Consequentionalism can be defined as follows : "" whether an act is morally right depends only on the consequences of that act or of something related to that act , such as the motive behind the act or a general rule requiring acts of the same kind . "" ( ) . and were both pioneers in this school of thought , believing that a person 's rules / laws or code of conduct could be broken or ignored if the act that they carried out had a result of yielding the greatest good for the greatest number of people , this concept is also known as Utilitarianism and is the most well known consequentionalist school of thought . The consequentionalist argument for treating John without his consent would be that by doing so , his suicidal ideas may subside and he would be less of a threat to himself and less of a worry to the staff on the ward . Although Consequentialism , does value a person 's autonomy and strongly objects to paternalism , proposed a strategy of temporary intervention which states that intervention is justified to ascertain whether a person is acting autonomously ( Mill ) . On the subject of suicide , he proposes that if the suicide was autonomous and the individual had the capacity for autonomy then no further action is justified ( The internet encyclopaedia of philosophy ) . The consequentionalist argument could be used in another way by the hypothesis that if John is treated with medication against his will , it could be the case that the medication does not work and possibly has nasty side effects and the fact that he had not consented to treatment may potentially cause him to become more ill and reinforce his persecutory delusions - perhaps in this case , the consequentionalists would not treat John without his consent . < heading > What duties are involved in considerations of treating John involuntarily ? < /heading > The idea of duty in ethical theory comes from the work of ( ) . His theory of ethics , known as deontology is obligation and rules based and proposes that a person 's intentions are crucial in determining the moral worth of his or her actions , it is not concerned with the consequences of an action as are the . Kant proposes that persons are autonomous , that is self governing , personhood , that is humanity has primary value . No individual 's personhood has more or less intrinsic value than the personhood of any other individual , and so every individual 's humanity should be respected equally ( Olsen ) . As healthcare professionals , we are bound by a duty of care , for nurses this means adhering to NMC guidelines and the rules laid out in for the treatment of patients , but not Paternalism . We must maintain respect for the individual at all times and as such respect their opinions . Coercion is a strong theme with since he proposes that coercion negates a person 's autonomy . Yet another duty that the healthcare professional must bear in mind is Standard 7 in health - preventing suicide : the government has set a target of a reduction by ( DOH 1999 ) and it is likely that health trusts would be keen to help the government achieve this and therefore encourage their staff to be extra vigilant . As professionals , we may feel we have a duty to try to treat John 's illness , otherwise it appears that we are detaining him for no reason . Health professionals who do not take reasonable precautions to safeguard a suicidal patient who then goes on to kill themselves may be sued for negligence in the civil courts ( et al ) . Moral philosophers may be content with the way they think about right and wrong but those who want to use a system of ethics need to be concerned with what that system actually does ( Jones no date ) . In the real world we are often forced to choose between principles and this is the case with John . The nurse has a duty of care towards John who is considered ill enough to be in hospital . If we look once again at the principles of biomedical ethics ( ) , the deontological approach would see us with a conflict of interests - by treating John without his consent , we would be removing his autonomy and this is one of the things as nurse 's that we are supposed to be promoting . < heading > What are John 's best interests ? What are his wishes ? How do these principles conflict ? < /heading > There is a clear conflict between beneficence and autonomy here for the professional since John 's wishes to kill himself and refusal of treatment are not going to result in an improvement in his condition whereas we know that if he consents to treatment then there is at least a chance he will begin to improve . An ethical question that we must ask ourselves though is who is the physician to say what will be the best outcome for John ? John 's wishes appear to be that he does not want to take medication and he does not want to come into hospital . It is indicated that he feels suicidal from the statement which we are given "" he says that he has nothing to live for and wants to die "" . It would be important for the healthcare professional to try to talk to John about what he really wants and to find out if these suicidal thoughts are the only ones that he has about the future . ( Seedhouse 2000 ) is a useful tool which can be used to help practitioners decide on the best course of action in difficult situations by combining external factors with their own internal thoughts about a subject . < heading>3 . What are the implications of the legal and ethical issues that you have considered in this case for your own practice ? < /heading > I found it interesting when researching this assignment to realise that sectioned patients actually have clearer rights than informal ones . I found the nurse 's role in scrutinising medical recommendations such as section ) and making sure that all is correct particularly relevant since an example of this happened incorrectly whilst I was in practice . Section papers were accepted by nursing staff and it was later found that neither of the doctors was section approved and therefore the section was invalid . This had major implications since meanwhile the patient was restrained which they could have used as grounds to sue the trust . I was also unaware that post registration , each practitioner is personally responsible for ensuring that practice meets legal requirements and maintaining professional competence , which means keeping up to date with new procedures and policies ( ) . An ethical issue that has come to the forefront whilst writing this assignment is the helplessness felt by some sectioned patients and in future I will be much more aware of the fact that we are treating vulnerable patients and the balance of power is strongly in the professional 's favour so this must not be abused . Ethical frameworks within nursing are tools to promote discussion . There is no categorical right or wrong and every situation must be judged separately . Personally I feel that it is important to have a set of professional conduct rules such as the NMC guidelines , but to stick to these rules religiously and to interpret them literally could potentially lead to nursing practice becoming dehumanised ( ) . Ethical theory is based on other people 's interpretation of the best way to deal with a situation and in writing this case study , the thing that has become clearer to me is that we must also try to empathise with the service user . I have read many accounts during my research for this essay by "" survivors "" of the mental health services in , all of whom have identified a feeling of helplessness whilst being treated . I have spoken at length in this essay about over - ruling a person 's autonomy when they are mentally ill and this seems to be what users find most abusive about in - patient treatment . Whilst I am training and after I qualify , I am going to attempt to involve users more in their treatment plans and better understand the CPA model which I have heard being referred to in practice but never actually observed procedure being adhered to as it should - by collaboration with the client .","The above statement is of recommendations made by the report in . The report was commissioned in in response to a feeling that there was a need to address and attempt to reduce the many inequalities within the NHS at that time ( Acheson cited in ) . Fairness or Equity has been an underlying principle of the since its foundation in ( ) . It has always been understood that resources are limited and have to be allocated in a way that was deemed "" fair "" , and although this allocation could , in fact be referred to as a rationing of services ; politicians prefer to use the term priority setting ( ) . In this essay I will discuss the concept of equity in healthcare focusing on areas : variations and inequalities - what causes these and why are they there ? Equity in primary healthcare and whether the government is doing enough to ensure that this is happening ; and finally the equitable ( or not ) treatment of the disabled and chronically ill . For each area I will be exploring the provision of and access to care and resources and the experiences of the general public . Where possible , I will be citing examples from field to illustrate my points as this is where my experience lies . To put these ideas into perspective , I will begin the essay by giving a brief historical overview of the history of the NHS and how we have arrived at the point we are at with the service . The was established in with cross party support to provide a comprehensive health service , free at the point of delivery which was available to all no matter what their circumstances ( : ) . The creation of the was part of the Labour government 's plan to provide a "" "" which would tackle the problems of poor education , health and poverty by providing finance and expertise from a central location . This spirit of collectivism lasted until the election of a government in by which time the was perceived to be in crisis due to funding issues and problems with the structure of the service as a whole . The embraced a philosophy of individual responsibility , encouraging government services such as the NHS to be run more like businesses and for the public to take responsibility for maintaining their own health . This government devised financial incentives for healthcare workers who met their targets and they used the achievement of these targets as performance criteria . There was also a move away from providing care within hospitals to care in the community , the belief at the time being that this was a more cost effective way to manage illness . There were some thoughts that this may be the beginning of the end for the NHS , emphasis was now on efficiency , effectiveness and accountability and levels of funding were adjusted accordingly ; the service was now to be funded via contributions rather than direct taxation . Although the Conservative government 's approach did make some contributions to improving health by educating the nation and encouraging personal responsibility , the net result was still that the gap between the rich and poor of grew . "" New Labour "" when they came to power wanted a "" new a system based on partnership and driven by performance - they called this the "" way "" ( Secretary of for Health cited in : ) . This "" way "" did not intend to return the NHS to the centralised command of , but neither did it want to continue with the bureaucracy which had developed in the - it took ideas from both collectivism and individual responsibility and added something of its own . New labour have called their approach "" Communitarianism "" and promise to provide the "" world view "" for health , healthcare and the experience of health and illness deep into ( : ) . < heading > Variations / inequalities < /heading > The historical overview of the mentions that during the gap between the rich and the poor widened , there is also a direct correlation between poverty and ill health ( fund ) and so this variable was affected too , as the rich got healthier , the poor became less healthy . Before we begin to look at the factors which may contribute towards variations and inequalities in health , it is important to look at what we mean by "" health "" since it can be a very subjective experience and therefore difficult to measure . Mildred Blaxter ( ) notes that there are models of health - the biomedical , based on scientific knowledge and the more holistic , less scientific model sometimes referred to as lay concepts(cited in : ) . Blaxter noted that the middle classes were more likely to describe health as a positive attribute and that the working classes tended to associate health with illness and ailments , however the studies that she cites are not fully described and so the results could have had something to do with the interviewing technique . The information that we have about the health of the nation is collected via hospitals , GPs and surveys ; mortality rates are also considered . When the was established there was not the wealth of information that we have about hospital admissions and waiting times , what we do know though , is that there was already a divide with some prosperous regions with almost twice as many hospital beds per head of population than other regions ( ) . The public document to identify these inequalities was produced in and has come to be known as the Black report . The report measures the inequalities in health between social classes and uses mortality as a measure of health , its findings were clear - mortality rates were higher amongst the lower classes in both childhood and adulthood . The fact that certain parts of the population were dying more quickly than others , did not fit with the concept of equity which underpins our . There are other factors which contribute towards differences in health which should also be mentioned , these are gender , ethnicity , marital status and geography ( course team ) . Mortality rates have shown us that women tend to live longer than men but do not explain why , some explanations have cited hormonal differences , different amounts of social pressure , greater use of dangerous drugs and alcohol amongst men and reactions to stress ( course team ) . It is also true that women are more likely to consult their GP during the early stages of an illness and therefore arrive in time for treatment to be effective ( Banks 2000 ) . The government 's response to the findings of the Black report was to try to improve health education by placing health promotion leaflets in ' surgeries and schools , however since literacy was a problem amongst the lower social classes , this again , only addressed the needs of the higher social classes . Later government reports , ( ) and the report reinforced the findings that there was an association between health and social class but also went on to note that during the gap between rich and poor got wider as did the difference in mortality levels ( Philmore et al 1994 cited in ) . The report prioritised the need to address the problems of the living standards of the poor although it still appears to be a problem , . It has been found that something called the inverse care law ( ) exists , which states that "" the availability of good medical care tends to vary inversely with the need for it in the population "" . Effectively this means that the needier members of society tend to get served by the medical professionals who can not get jobs in the more affluent sectors , probably because their standards are not as high as those of their colleagues . This means that the lower socio - economic classes are definitely disadvantaged by the current system and are obviously not receiving the same standard of service as their more affluent counterparts . The concept of individual responsibility has become popular within the healthcare setting and it should be questioned whether this is in some way linked to the inequalities and lack of equitable treatment that some people receive . example of a group of people who may receive different treatment when they become ill is smokers . Smoking is seen as a lifestyle choice and there is now plenty of free support available for people who want to quit ( doh website ) so healthcare professionals have begun to stipulate that heavy smokers must quit before they will be allowed to have certain operations . The treatment of smoking related illnesses cost the NHS around 1.5 billion pounds every year ( website ) . There are wide differences between the different socio - economic groups ; of men and of women in professional groupings smoke compared with of men and of women in the unskilled , manual categories ( website ) , so by placing these stipulations about giving up smoking , the medical professional is making it harder for the lower classes to receive equitable treatment . 's obesity problem is also greater amongst the working classes and this is because high calorie , high fat foods have become cheaper and more readily available over and it is only now that the government are beginning to realise that may have an obesity problem on its hands and that they are going to have to take strict measures to control it . It has also been found that there is a correlation between social class and mental illness ( et al1996 ) . High levels of suicide amongst working class men prompted the government to set a suicide reduction policy in its health of the Nation report ( ) , is also times more common among the working classes than among those from other backgrounds ( cited in et al ) . < heading > Primary care < /heading > With the election of a government at and a shift towards individual accountability for health , the focus moved away from secondary care in hospitals and a big drive to treat people in the community emerged . Local primary care trusts were established that managed their own budgets and financial incentives offered for successful management . This , however , reinforced the inverse care law where the successful practitioners who managed their budgets were rewarded and the less successful had to manage with a smaller allocation of funds . During , the has also become the largest provider of private health care ( Adams et al ) , trusts have been allowed to rent out their facilities to private patients which in some ways could be considered hypocritical , especially when we see situations such as the NHS dentist in , who recently opened and had a queue of over people wanting to register ( The Times 22.2.04 ) . The government 's aims were for local doctors , nurses and health authorities to ensure that the local is built around the needs of patients and these were outlined in the whitepaper "" The new NHS - modern , dependable "" ( Secretary of for health cited in ) . In this same white paper , reference was made to how ( ) would be used to ensure consistency of service and quality across the country . No budget was allocated to fund the new supposedly "" person centred "" primary care services which were to allow the patient as much access to and choices about their treatment as is possible , however , it appears that some regions are able to provide this better than others in what has been dubbed "" the postcode lottery""(Press Association ) . When we look at the areas that are best served by the NHS with more choice and lower waiting times , the pattern emerges that it is the more affluent areas where you will receive the better treatment . The new is about encouraging individuals , community and the government to work together and become involved in promoting health as part of the 's "" way "" . Studies have shown that by promoting social inclusion and encouraging individuals to take an active part in the community , mental and physical health can be improved ( cited in , ) . This is quite pertinent for the care of the mentally ill within the community , a group that until recently had been excluded by being locked in asylums with no hope of social rehabilitation . The move towards community care has on the whole been a good thing for the mentally ill , preventing people from becoming institutionalised but resources were very scarce at and it is only now that more money is being invested in services outside of institutions . In a government white paper was published , "" Saving lives our healthier nation "" set goals for achievement of healthcare targets for which included a reduction in the death rate from suicide , a large problem amongst working class males . Suicide is usually preceded by a depression and a lot of treatment for depression is managed by the GP and it is now commonplace to find leaflets on dealing with depression in Doctor 's waiting rooms since early treatment by GPs may stop suicide attempts and hospitalisation . On the flipside of this , a recent report by the Independent ( 2004 ) states that Mental health conditions account for in visits to GPs , but doctors do not have the resources to deal with them effectively . "" Patients can be left untreated , put onto medication or referred for secondary treatment that is not appropriate , "" says , the senior commissioning manager for mental health and community services in the Heart of Birmingham Teaching Primary Care Trust ( ) . "" Someone who has suffered a bereavement may be put onto antidepressants when what they need is specialist counselling . "" NHS Direct is another primary care initiative worth mentioning , launched in is designed to deliver healthcare right into the home via the phone or the internet . The 's NHS plan ( DOH 2000 ) also talks about health education being available via digital TV in the future - although forward thinking , these ideas really cater for the middle classes who do have access to multimedia and inaccessible to those who do not have internet access or digital television . Some would argue that a shift towards primary care has meant that a lot of in - patient services are now poorly managed ( ) , citing incidences of cutting non - essential inpatient services , in hospitals caused by poor adherence to proper principals of infection control because of the emphasis on paperwork and target achievement are being blamed . Closer scrutiny of expensive secondary care means nurses become bogged down with paperwork ( The Times ) . This has been addressed by the development of "" modern matron "" role - what some may call a "" backward step "" for healthcare .. The government has also recognised that the media has a part to play in health education , particularly prime time "" soaps "" . Health issues , both mental and physical are now tackled fairly regularly on television programmes and will usually be followed by a method of receiving further information , whether this is a phone line or a web site address . Health promotion advertisements such as anti smoking and drink driving campaigns also receive a lot more prime time television coverage than previously since it has been realised that this is where most people will receive the information . < heading > Disability / chronic illness In this part of the essay , I will look at whether the provision , access and experience of the healthcare system is the same for chronically ill and disabled people as it is for the rest of the population i.e are they treated equitably ? ) has defined disability as "" any restriction or lack of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being . "" ( WHO cited in ) . Many disabled people have dismissed this definition as too medical and not taking into account the role of socio - cultural factors , since regarding disabled people in this way reinforces the stigma which many people already have about them . Disability and chronic illness is seen as a drain on resources by many of us ( Jones ) and this is where some of our stigma comes from . ( ) defines stigma as "" the situation of the individual who is disqualified from full social acceptance . "" It is worth bearing in mind that although we consider ourselves a tolerant society , we do not readily accept deviations from the norm - indeed , until , homosexuality was still treated as a mental disorder . breaks stigma into categories , separating physical deformations into one group and mental disorder into a group he calls "" blemishes of individual character "" . By doing this , I believe he has actually stigmatised mental illness by placing it in a category along with factors such as imprisonment which implies that the individual is responsible for their affliction . Historically mental illness has always been stigmatised since people have not understood it , the "" mad "" , have been seen as dangerous , sub - human and irrational ( cited in et al 1996 ) and so punishment and imprisonment were justified . Mental illness is one of the only ailments where the stigma was so strong that the patients were locked away in their own communities called asylums outside of town and their basic human rights were infringed . ( ) governs the admission of people to psychiatric hospital against their will , their rights while detained , discharge from hospital , and aftercare - this was the first piece of legislation which provided representation for the mentally ill person . Statistics have shown that unemployment among disabled people is over twice as high as for no disabled people ( statistics ) - yet another factor contributing to their social exclusion . The media very often portrays mental illness in a sensationalist way , a headline which sticks in my mind is for "" Bonkers Bruno "" ( The Sun 2003 cited on Mind web site ) - an outcry from public and MIND had this headline changed to "" Sad Frank ...... "" What is more concerning about this article , though was that a lot of supposedly confidential information about a patient was leaked to the press and can only have come from inside the hospital - we must ask ourselves whether this level of leak would have occurred in a traditional hospital ? Do mental health workers also stigmatise their clients ? ( ) describes the way that the stigmas that we may hold about illness or disease are very often passed on to the relatives or close friends of the sufferers - he calls this this stigma . There is an interesting article on courtesy stigma for Alzheimer 's disease . ( cited in ) which could be used as an example of the stigma we see with a lot of psychiatric conditions . The subject in the article compares her experience of dealing with her mother 's diagnosis of Alzheimer 's disease to the treatment of other physical illnesses where the family would be offered counselling and support by the nursing staff whereas she was given no explanations or support . The attitudes of public sector healthcare workers are also sometimes at fault ( ) and we are encouraged to lead by example in the struggle for equality for disabled people , to become their allies rather than their carers . < heading > Conclusion In this essay I have examined some of the factors involved in how healthcare funds are allocated to try to ensure equal care for all . The fact of the matter is , there will never be enough money to please all of the people all of the time and so it is inevitable that somewhere along the line , tough decisions are going to have to be made which will be considered unfair for those people that feel the effect . It seems that the medical profession have forgotten who their customer is when making these decisions - why should they be the experts on what is fair ? Some would say they are "" playing God "" . Perhaps a more user friendly way of making "" rationing "" decisions would be to assemble a body of lay people to consult as part of the decision making process . It is easy to criticise these decisions once they have been made , but the main criticism is that there has been no explanation of how the decisions are reached . I feel that there are still many faults with 's healthcare system but it appears that over time , it has started to become more accountable to us , the customer , and hopefully this trend will continue .",1 "'s "" "" is an epic poem detailing the founding of by the refugees who escaped from before its destruction which is centred on Roman mythology and foretells the glory of the contemporary Emperor through allegory and divine prophecy . It also presents us with a new type of hero , a Roman hero , in contrast to the Greek heroes of 's epic poems "" The "" and "" "" . Aeneas ' heroism can be defined as "" Roman "" due to a number of characteristics that we see through his actions in the poem , the most obvious of these being the quality of pietas that frequently associates him with in his epithets , for example : "" "" and "" Dutiful Aeneas "" . is in itself a quality that seems to encompass many of the good Roman values that attempted to promote along with his "" Golden Age "" and thus it is complex as describes , < fnote > Aeneid Bk8 l84 p191 translated by West < /fnote> Aeneid Bk6 l175 p138 translated by West < /fnote>""The quality of being pius ... may be shown by subordinating one 's own desire to various other loyalties : ( i ) to the gods and their requirements ... ( ii ) to one 's country ... ; ( iii ) to one 's family , a form of devotion to others which the specially esteemed ; ( iv ) to one 's friends ; and ( v ) to one 's subordinates . "" R.D. Williams "" Aeneas and the Roman Hero "" p30 < /fnote > Aeneas ' pietas is obviously associated with his compliance with the wishes of the divine and his constant adherence to ritual sacrifice and worship in order to appease the gods which was a key value in Roman society . Indeed Aeneas is often given the epithet "" Father Aeneas "" which portrays him as the paterfamilias of the remaining and thus also the paterfamilias of the entire Roman race . His religious pietas can also be seen when he mourns those who died in , even though he himself wishes he had fallen in battle against the Greeks and tells of his uncontrollable rage when trying to save which can be read as a kind of patriotic sentiment for his homeland and therefore also as notes , < fnote > Aeneid Bk8 l28 p190 translated by West < /fnote>""When Aeneas speaks of himself also as acting ' more from blind impulse than from reasoned hope ' in the furious resistance which he makes for as long as resistance is possible he is not confessing a failure of self - control but describing a reaction that to a Roman would seem proper and natural in a man whose country was falling in ruins about him . "" "" "" p26 < /fnote > Furthermore , we see Aeneas ' religious piety when he obeys the commands of and by leaving Carthage to continue his journey towards and when he leaves the underworld resolved to finish his quest to found the future city of because he understands that there is more at stake than simply his own future . He is told that if he does not leave then he will be depriving his son of greatness and contemporary would have completely understood his feelings due to the importance of the family in Roman society . In fact , pietas towards his family is the quality that Aeneas was by far the most famous for in and the image of him carrying his father on his back either with the gods of Troy or his son Ascanius in the other hand is the archetypal image of the ideal pious Roman caring for his family and it was thus displayed on the coins of Caesar . The family was a very important institution in obviously because of the importance of inheritance from father to son but it was also seen as a simple moral to show respect to one 's elders which is exactly what Aeneas does for the majority of the poem . The bond between and his father Anchises is very strong in regard to the love that the son has for the father ( which can be compared to the relationship between and his adoptive father ) , and it is the pietas inherent in this bond between father and son that allows Aeneas to face the terrors of the underworld and return from below as a new man who is determined to fulfil his destiny not because it will benefit him in any personal way but because it is in his pious nature as a Roman to toil for the greater good . It is after the death of Anchises that we see another element of the Roman heroism evident in Aeneas through the sorrow that surfaces when his father is no longer with him . It could be argued ( as does ) that Aeneas becomes weaker and more vulnerable after his father 's death and that this weakness could be the reason for the extent of his stay in . However this weakness also acts as means of humanising Aeneas , portraying him as an imperfect and perhaps flawed hero who can not always cope on his own with the burden he must carry , as remarks , < fnote > W.A. Camps "" "" p6 < /fnote>""We realise at the outset that the hero of the poem is not someone of superhuman strength who can retain his confidence in all adversity , but rather a brave man near the end of his tether . "" < /quote> R.D. Williams "" Aeneas and the Roman Hero "" p33 < /fnote > However , in the poem we see the evolution of Aeneas from lost prince into Aeneas the Roman hero essentially through labor , a value that was central to culture and heroism . On his journey to found a new home for the , Aeneas must overcome great adversity through hard work , selflessness , and determination , things that many would have had to deal with during the hard times of civil war and thus would consider to be relevant in a so - called "" national poem "" that dealt with the origins of their great race . Furthermore , the basis of was still agriculture , and the crucial aspects of labor were also of great importance to the farmers of the time who were singled out by as the that all other should aspire to be like . As details , < quote>""The new Golden Age , identified with the existence of the farmer , is full of stress and depends on ongoing effort ; it is not finite and god - given , but needs to be worked for every day anew . Fulfilment comes in large part from the incessant effort to reach that goal rather than from actually arriving at it . "" < /quote> K. Galinsky "" "" p121 < /fnote > It is through labor that further humanises Aeneas showing him struggling against great hardship and not always reacting the right way , for example , when he reaches Carthage he would most probably have preferred to stay simply because it was the easier option and that would have been the end of his troubles . However , is a Roman hero and therefore he will endure and he will not give up until he has established a new city in even though at times it may seem impossible to do so . Aeneas is not the invincible superhuman hero that is , neither is he the resourceful and cunning Odysseus , instead he is a Roman . He is a figure that every Roman can identify with because he is flawed , he is human , in the same way that every other Roman is . Thus when finally reaches he must face the polar opposite of everything that he embodies , represented by the hero Turnus . Turnus is reminiscent of the Greek / Homeric heroes of "" The "" and "" "" in regard to the fact that he is associated with furor rather than pietas causing him to be a far more primitive character than Aeneas as he simply can not control himself and his emotions . In contrast to Turnus , Aeneas is a far more controlled fighter who shows clemency ( another ideal ) to all those who he feels deserve it , tries to shed as little blood as possible in an effort to obtain peace rather than war ( another very virtue , a love of peace ) , and he cares for his men in a far more personal way than Turnus . The idea of furor would most probably have brought to mind memories of in the majority of contemporary and thus they would most probably also be able to see the parallel between ( then known as ) and his battle with which was also a battle that was seen as a conflict between furor and pietas . And of course , pietas won out in the end leading to the establishment of "" of peace and prosperity and thus when Aeneas defeats Turnus and founds the city that will later become it is seen as milestone in Roman history that "" of should be compared to . Returning to the subject of the virtue of clemency ( which was very highly respected by and the ) , it would be unjust to mention clemency without discussing the death of Turnus which is a key example of Aeneas not displaying the clemency one would expect from a Roman hero . Many classicists such as say that Aeneas ' brutal slaying of is poetically just considering that Turnus broke the treaty agreed between himself and Aeneas to stop the fighting and therefore he does not deserve to be granted clemency when he has been defeated . This view is based on the fact that the considered the keeping of treaties and promises to be a virtue of great importance and thus is trying to say that Aeneas reaction of furor is necessary in order for Aeneas to be a true Roman hero as he must punish the one who instigated the bloodshed in . However , I am more inclined to side with the idea that Aeneas kills Turnus not through heroism but purely through uncontrollable furor and that concludes the poem this way to prevent anyone from labelling the poem as , "" ... a commissioned piece in support of the Augustan agenda . "" Aeneas ' uncharacteristic lapse in self - control once again shows us that Aeneas is mortal , he is a real Roman rather than a mythological superhuman who is invincible and unchanging and hence it should have been easier for the of the Augustan age to relate to Aeneas since it would seem more likely that someone like him really did exist at one time . < fnote > W.A. Camps "" "" p29 < /fnote> S. Wiltshire "" Public and Private in 's Aeneid "" p138 < /fnote > In conclusion , Aeneas ' heroism is Roman because he embodies all the virtues of the Augustan "" Golden Age "" of peace and prosperity such as pietas , labor , clemency , and love of peace , but his heroism can also be defined as Roman because it is flawed and far more human than the Greek heroism of the Homeric epics . We see Aeneas commit a number of atrocities such as human sacrifices and the murder of Turnus , however despite these problems we still see him as a hero because we feel emotionally attached to him having followed him through so much hardship and sorrow and through his moments of frailty and imperfectness we discover his determination to put his own feelings aside for the good of others which makes him a true Roman hero as comments , < quote>""The task he has undertaken , that of setting going the Roman way of life in a hostile and alien world , is almost too great for his strength . But he does not give up - this is the essence of the new kind of heroism . "" < /quote> R.D. Williams "" Aeneas and the Roman Hero "" p34 < /fnote >","< quote>""Life 's race - course is fixed : Nature has only a single path and that path is run but once , and to each stage of existence has been allotted its own appropriate quality ; so that the weakness of childhood , the impetuosity of youth , the seriousness of middle life , the maturity of old age - each bears some of 's fruit which must be garnered in its own season . "" Sen.10.33 from Lecture 1 Handout : Introduction - Stages of Life < /fnote > The idea of a set life - cycle permeated every area of the state from the military and politics to business transactions and the family . Henceforth it was a topic of considerable interest to the Roman people . There were a number of different ideas about what the human life cycle consisted of in ancient , for example , the astrologer believed that there were seven ages of man which were connected to the planets , thought the human soul and life - cycle to be tripartite in nature , and the Roman poet Horace saw life as a progression between distinct stages that he called aetates . These theories have their various differences ; however all of them seem to agree on the characteristics that should associate with the period that comes just before adulthood , namely the period known as either iuventus or adulescentia which we would call youth or puberty . < fnote > Ptolemy 4.10.203 - 7 < /fnote> Aristotle Rhetoric 2.12 - 14 < /fnote> Horace Ars Poetica 156 - 8 < /fnote > The beginning of this stage of life was marked by an important ceremony that took place in both the privacy of the family home and in public to signify the start of a young man 's journey towards adulthood and responsibility . A description of the private part of the ceremony can be found in who recalls how he , like every other Roman boy , placed his bulla and toga praetexta to one side and dedicated them to the household gods since he no longer needed the protection that his locket and the purple stripe of his toga bestowed on him . After these dedications the young man would don his new white adult toga known as the toga virilis and would accompany his father to the forum for the public part of the ceremony . The public part of the ceremony emphasized the filial duty of son to father and thus in the Augustan Age it took place in the Forum of Augustus in front of the Temple of Mars the Avenger ( dedicated by Augustus to ) . The ceremony was seen as a highly important rite of passage for youths since it was in essence that their childhood would end and their adulthood would begin . With the advent of adolescence there was also an added sense of freedom from the control of their parents but more especially from their pedagogue who no longer accompanied them everywhere since they were not thought to need the protection that they had needed in their childhood . < fnote > Horace Satires 5.30 - 38 < /fnote > Not surprisingly , in complete contrast to the magnitude and grandeur of the celebration of a Roman male 's transition from childhood to adulthood and the freedom that came with it was the way in which this transition is celebrated for Roman females . From the evidence we have available to us ( that is mainly literary evidence ) , it would seem that as soon as a girl reached puberty she was married off if she was from a wealthy family and if this did not happen she spent her time preparing for marriage with the women of the household , away from her male relatives . The control exercised over her by her parents would also increase since her father 's reputation would be at stake when she would eventually marry and if she was found for example , to not be a virgin , her father could be ruined . In essence it would seem that the adult life of a female began on her wedding night and she did not have a stage of iuventus so to speak . She more or less changed from someone 's daughter to a wife and mother in an entirely different household . I feel that it should be noted here that the evidence we have of youth in ancient consists of mainly literary sources written by the male elite , we have no female opinions on this matter and therefore we have little to no information concerning the youth of females and also how the youth of males differed between the rich and the poor . Indeed , points out that , < quote>""There is no record of any puberty ceremony for girls at , although it is quite possible that the occasion was celebrated by women but not mentioned ( or perhaps even known ) by male authors . "" This stage of life was seen to be the critical stage of a young 's life since it was where he would eventually have to choose whether to lead a good and noble life or whether to lead a life of vice and excess , as says , "" ... the road forks , and minds wandering in ignorance of life are led in fear and confusion along branching paths . "" Youth was seen as a disease of sorts that had to be battled with until one reached the and were miraculously cured and thus the immoral behaviour commonly associated with youth was to some extent tolerated by the majority of because they believed that it needed to be worked out of the system and would in the end result in the creation of better citizens . The male body was seen as containing an innate heat by Roman medicine and it was at its hottest in youth cooling gradually as they aged . Thus it was simply part of life that they were literally seen as hot - headed and impetuous . Youth was seen as very much a temporary stage of life in which everything bad and un - Roman was let loose in a semi - controlled environment before these youths became married men and were expected to serve the state either in the military or in politics . As remarks through the mouthpiece of a young Roman , < fnote > Horace , Satires 5.30 - 38 < /fnote> K.Cokayne per comm . Lecture : "" Transition into Adulthood "" < /fnote>""I am having the fun allowable at my age ; I am taking advantage of the law for young men . As soon as I have got through this normal and indeed almost obligatory apprenticeship , I shall return to good ways . "" Youths were seen as highly impressionable and easily led astray by older men with charisma , fame , and fortune . As said , they were "" ... soft as wax for moulding to evil . "" This resulted in them commonly being associated with scandal , sedition , and conspiracy . For example , was described as , < fnote > Horace , Ars Poetica 156 - 8 < /fnote>"" ... a man of both physical and mental qualities including an ability to endure cold , hunger or a lack of sleep - all areas which youths in military training were beginning to experience for the time . He is said ( Sall . Cat.14 ) to have sought out the youths of the city of and brought them round to his cause ... With the influence of an older man , such as , these young minds were directed towards crime ( Sall . Cat.16)."" Harlow p70 . < /fnote > For this reason and due to their mental and physical instability , they were seen by the more mature not only as a danger to public property and general safety but also as a threat to the state itself . who frequently indulged in behaviour such as this were not seen as safe to play a major part in the running of the state and therefore the Lex annalis was passed in to prevent the rash and overly ambitious youth from holding any significant amount of power in Roman politics . It restricted the age at which a citizen could enter politics by specifying that the position of quaestorship could only be obtained after military service thus making the minimum . An overreaching ambition was a common trait of the inerbus iuvenis ( "" the unbearded youth "" ) as called them , and they sought success in everything they did , as says , "" They are ambitious for honour , but more so for victory ; for youth desires superiority , and victory is a kind of superiority . "" This sense of victory encompassed all areas of their lives , politics , love , and business and coupled with an extreme ambition , could get them in a lot of trouble very frequently . Consequently was introduced in aiming to prevent the exploitation of minors because it was believed that they were too trusting and simple - minded to not be deceived in business transactions and therefore could lose a great deal of money and unknowingly commit crimes . The law eventually allowed the minor to cancel any transaction he had made and thus he was well protected against any deceitful men . However , this meant that doing business with a young man always carried a huge risk with it , as observes , < fnote > Horace Ars Poetica - 158 < /fnote> Aristotle , Rhetoric 12 . < /fnote> Lecture 12 Handout , Age and Politics < /fnote>""In theory a minor 's full legal capacity was not restricted , but in practice a young man quite understandably had difficulty in finding someone who was willing to do business with him : this emerges from , where a desperate young man cries out : ' But , oh dear me , I 'm done for by that law regarding minors ! Everyone 's afraid of giving credit!"" E.Eyben , p8 < /fnote > The life of a Roman youth was stereotypically about indulgence and excess , the youths would roam the ( a seedy district of ) in groups in order to pick up prostitutes and satisfy there uncontrollable desires for sexual gratification . associates this stage of life with the planet , since it is governed by a lack of control , burning passion and frenzy . Youths were said to attack people in the dark alleys of the and to frequently drink themselves senseless yet this was tolerated by the older as it had been a common way of life as such for generations , as says , < fnote > Ptolemy 4.10.203 - 7 < /fnote>""Indeed , nature herself is generous in supplying them with sexual appetites - and if their outbreaks do not ruin anyone 's life or destroy anyone 's home these are usually regarded as reasonable and tolerable . "" Cicero , < /fnote > To try to avoid this type of behaviour and to discipline themselves many young men enlisted in the military after donning the toga virilis or became an apprentice to a military commander associated with his family and accompanied him on campaign . It was seen as the duty of the old to guide the young at this difficult time , known as the lubricum aetatis ( "" the slippery age "" ) . Through their experience and wisdom the old were supposed to direct the young away from excessive indulgence and to help shape their character so that they would come out of adolescence in the best way possible . To a certain extent the elderly also relied on the young . For it was the young who were charged with defending by channelling their youthful courage and violence into battle and despite the fact that the old always complained that the young did not respect them , it is clear that they would at least follow their orders in battle : < fnote > Harlow , p71 < /fnote>""Old age is readier to give counsel , youth to fight ; the one age advises war , the other wages it . "" Ovid , Fasti , - 6 in , p47 < /fnote > It is clear from the evidence we now possess that the ancient authors most certainly saw youth as a distinct yet transitional stage of the life - course in which a child grew into a man over a period of approximately ten years . In this period we can see through the sources that mistakes are expected to be made and Roman society accounted for this by remaining largely tolerant of the excesses associated with youth . This tolerance of indulgence in sex , violence , and scandal is tolerated because the understood that through their experiences of wrong doing lessons would be learnt that would most probably result in the youths becoming good Roman citizens . However , despite the initial freedom that youths receive with the presentation of the toga virilis , they still remain marginalised in comparison to the middle age of adulthood in which political power can be achieved and thus like the old , they are still dependent on those in the prime of life for among other things , money and guidance . As says , < quote>""The seemingly natural categories of child , adolescent and elderly are all terms that identify individuals as not adult . They all signify states and stages of dependence , whereas an adult is seen as independent of their parents , and only becomes dependent upon their children in old age . The categories of the dependent and the independent individual seem to characterize age in order to assert the power of the adult over both young and old . "" M.Harlow , p5 < /fnote >",1 "< heading > Introduction and Aims Iron is the most abundant metal on and is essential to the human bodies . It is also a typical transition metal that possesses different oxidation states - Fe 2 + and Fe 3 + . The aim of this experiment is to determine the iron percentage in iron tablets , as a dietary supplement with Fe 2 + , by a redox titration : equations ( i ) FORMULA - oxidation ( ii ) FORMULA reduction Overall equation : FORMULA The manganate(VII ) ion oxidises iron(II ) to iron(III ) ion . < heading > Hazards KMnO4 ( 0.005 M ) - oxidant without serious hazard , but avoid ingestion H2SO4 ( ) - corrosive , use only in fume cupboard Avoid skin and eye contact < heading tablets were weighed accurately . The mass recorded . The tablets were transferred and grinded by a pestle and mortar with a little hot 1 M H 2SO 4 The paste was transferred into a graduated flask All the apparatus used were rinsed with small amount , which was then added to the graduated flask 1 M H 2SO 4 was added to the flask until - mark just reached The flask was stoppered and shaken well to ensure the solution is well mixed was filled with . Note the initial burette reading . solution pipetted out from graduated flask into a conical flask The solution was titrated with KMnO , meanwhile the flask was shaken and swirled along with KMnO addition . Addition stopped and tap of the burette was turned off once the end point - permanent pink colour was observed . Note the final burette reading . A rough and further titrations were carried out , until consistent results ( ) were obtained - results for titrations agree to within . At , the solution turned colourless as it reacts . The end point was the trace of permanent pink in the solution showing a tiny excess of manganate(VII ) ions . Tightnesses of the burettes taps vary : the tighter the tip , the slower the run down , the more time consuming of the practical , vice versa . < heading>2.3 Results FORMULA FORMULA < table/ > FORMULA FORMULA < heading>2.4 Calculations < /heading>2.5 Questions ( p.4 & 5) Discussion The methodology and apparatus used show a fairly high degree of accuracy ( with difference of results within ) and minor sources of errors . The main source of error is probably the personal judgement with naked eyes of end point ( also see p. ) - the solution in conical flask changes from colourless to the permanent pale pink by - drop addition , which is always difficult to control , from the run down of KMnO . On the other hand , the consistency of pink colour can be obtained quantitatively by measuring absorbencies of solution in the conical flask after each titration . An accurate photospectrometer set at an appropriate wavelength can be used . It is expected that the higher the absorbance value the higher the pink intensity , thus a positive correlation . The major source of error could be transfers of solutions , thus it is practically hard to not lose any tablets contents . After transfers , the wet surfaces of containers sufficiently mean some loss of iron . Ideally , the number of transfers and apparatus should be kept at minimum . The mortar can be used in weighing as well as grinding iron tablets . The number of transfers is therefore reduced by not using a weighing boat . It is however good to have rinsed the apparatus after transfers . It is preferred to vortex the solution of 2SO 4 to ensure it is "" thoroughly mixed "" and to avoid "" undissloved solid "" in the flask . A shaking time could also be set . It is important to keep the consistency : A clean dry conical flask should be used for each titration . It is crucial to keep the burette straight , parallel to the clamp stand and perpendicular to the bench , when reading the burette volumes . A piece of white paper can be cut and placed behind the burette of dark purple , for easier burette volumes readings . The Fe tablets are weighed accurately by using - decimal - place electronic scale , in order to obtain more reliable and valid results . It is good laboratory practice to have rinsed the weighing boat , pestle , mortar and the funnel after each transfer , and then the washings were added to the flask . Other accurate apparatus is used e.g. 100 cm Graduated flask and 3 - burette ( calibrated to cm ) . < heading > Conclusion From Calculations and 2.5 Questions ( p. & 5 ) , the percentage of iron in iron(II ) Sulphate tablets has been estimated as16.3 % , which is of the claimed content ( ) by the manufacturer . This practical has helped to further familiarised with the titration techniques .","Both succeed in representing a contemporary moment ; each efficaciously captures the zeitgeist of their age but in highly divergent ways . Ostensibly worlds apart , many thematic similarities emerge between the texts , leading us to question how and what we define contemporary . Religion , gender and identity have remained prominent concerns across the ages and each author is unique in their depiction of how these issues impact on their contemporary society . But , the limitations of language often force the writers to resort to increasingly innovative strategies of rendering these concerns . Religious ambivalence permeates both texts . In , capitalizing ' He ' has religious associations if ' He ' is seen to represent God . Stealing ' His ' identity allows to become her own God ; free to lead an existential life as self - governed and judged by herself alone . supports this believing ; ' The modern novelist sees man making his own world . "" Existentialism seems to engender spiritual and physical liberty ; ' sounded so good in the sunshine I stuck out my arms and started spinning round slowly . "" appears most positive when communally external and submerged in nature , angered and distressed only when others impose on her world . Nature imparts the freedom and exhilaration she seeks , literarily making her feel high ; ' The land was flattening out I was getting so high up and a hot haze had appeared in the clear bright light , ' where as alcohol and substance abuse often leaves her feeling ; ' queerish . "" 's belief that 's ; ' .. youth culture is not the downtrodden city youth .. but the ebullient resistance to such as a position , ' can supported by 's almost return to childhood happiness and innocence through nature . Incongruously , is drawn toward religion when in the midst of uncertainty and disappointment as in she ; ' screwed my eyes shut tight and had a little prayer . Outside it was daylightish . ' 's explicit dependence on routine and fascination with the religious precession suggests she craves the security and structure offered by faith , but by walking ; ' towards strobe of the nightclub , ' she unequivocally turns toward a different leading light for direction . < fnote > , ( : Vintage , 1996.)p1 < /fnote> Ibid . ,p.2 < /fnote> McEwan , N. The Survival of the Novel : in the Later Twentieth Century ( : , ) p.7 < /fnote> Warner . Op.cit . ,p.89 < /fnote> See p105 - 107 where confesses her betrayal leaving irate and sobbing . Here capital letters to convey her anger and make it appear that she is shouting . < /fnote> Ibid . ,p.89 < /fnote> Ibid . ,p.35 < /fnote> Ibid . ,p.78 < /fnote> See p. - 2 where infantilises and as they play like children in the water , laughing and contented i.e ; ' Cowardy ben , ben bawled to egg me on . ' ( p.102 ) < /fnote> Without constraint or imposed direction she quickly becomes ; ' dizzy'(p.89 ) which may imply free - choice is dangerous , as the absence of guidance leads to confusion and apathy . 's actions rarely engender consequences , making her life a moral wasteland bereft of legal and moral obligation . The peril of believing nothing is wrong foregrounds the novel 's preoccupation with both the extreme and the liminal . The reader must therefore question the necessity , definition and stability of certain boundaries . < /fnote> Ibid . ,p.165 . < /fnote> Becoming light suggests religion offers escape from her bleak nihilistic existence where ; ' The dark sky above the port was empty of any little star . ' ( p.26 ) < /fnote> Ibid . ,p.154 < /fnote> The ridged order followed by the worshipers may be used to demonstrate the stifling restriction and entrapment of religious routine making the club 's unpredictability and excitement appear preferable . , like refuses to provide a straightforward depiction of religion . < /fnote > Like language in the contemporary world , nothing in the novel has one stable meaning , a principal faucet of much post - structuralist and post - modern thought . strategy used by to reflect this is making all images and acts explicitly subject to manifold interpretation , a motif encapsulated by the dismembered corpse . On level , ' His ' interment implies there is no God , but severing the unified body may also be demonstrative of contemporary religious multiplicity , as many reject the notion of God and draw spiritual guidance from various religions . Religion , like the symbolic purpose of the body , is multiple . Ripping ' Him ' apart may also illustrate the destruction of patriarchal dominance . Repeatedly referring to her dead boyfriend as ' He , ' appears to mock the anachronistic insistence on obeying a man like a God . ' He , ' is denied an identity and consequently an existence , which suggests that masculine and religious hierarchy have become obsolete in the contemporary world . If so , society may be in need of establishing new ideological frameworks . 's buoyant optimism when burying ' His ' dissected remains , could be read as a celebratory rejection of imposed hierarchical masculine inflexibility and as an indication to embrace multiplicity , a quality often connoted to the female . may be implying that future frameworks should be based on more feminine characteristics such as being open and adaptable , values necessary for social advancement . If so , libratory free - choice in both life and religion seems to be the key to freedom and contentment . < fnote > If female is multiplicity then man is unity according to much feminist criticism . 's essay ' Sorties ' in Literary Theory : An Anthology , edited by and ( : , . ) further explores the nature of this binary divide between the male and female . < /fnote> Irigaray 's essay ' and in Literary Theory : An Anthology , edited by and ( : , . ) further explains the fundamental morphological difference between men and women and why the female is characterized by fluidity and multiplicity . She claims the female style of writing is ' always fluid .. Its "" style "" resists and explodes every firmly established form , figure idea or concept . ' P.572 < /fnote> Movern is often happiest when immersed in water , a fluid and heterogeneous force often connected to the female as previously explained in Irigaray 's essay . Regularly seen swimming ; ' let out a wee laugh , turned and swam on further out . ' p208 < /fnote > It could be argued that utilizes the variability of ecriture feminine as a method of reflecting the volatile , insecure nature of language and life in the modern world . Ecriture feminine is often deemed unpredictable and flexible , which is essentially what contemporary language has become if fixed meaning is redundant . The fluidity of an ecriture feminine may therefore offer a more realistic way for to reflect his contemporary world . 's description of the novel as a ; ' stylistically delirious and telepathic account of contemporary social derangements , ' supports this suggestion , as emblematic divisions and boundaries often overlap , generating the impression of a more female writing style . Repeated images , places and phrases create a cyclic structure that opposes stereotypical male linearity , while the surreal compendium of hallucinogenic images produces an anarchic teleology that makes the text unstable and erratic , prominent characteristics of the ecriture feminine . < fnote > For further definition regarding the nature and purpose of the ecriture feminine see 's essay ' Sorties ' in Literary Theory : An Anthology , edited by and ( : , . ) where she examines the importance of ensuring that the female voice no longer adheres to circumscribed boundaries ; ' She lets the other tongue of speak - the tongue without barrier or death .. Her tongue does n't hold back .. doesn't keep in . ' p584 < /fnote> Pope describes the archetypical characteristics of ' manly writing ' as ; ' tightly controlled .. orderly and linear progression of topic and a man - centred focus on external actions and public relationships . ' ( , The English Studies Book . ( : Routledge , ) < /fnote > 's inconsistent femininity leads me to agree with that ; ' writing about women does not necessarily make a writer ' feminist . '' 's feminine style is used to reflect the nature of language as opposed to make a statement about the position of women , something seemingly resistant to definition in contemporary society . Although the novel is laced with anti - patriarchal nuances , remains reliant on a man , as it is her boyfriend 's money that liberates her . Repeated descriptions of 's underwear sexualise and somewhat reduce her to the position of a fetishized object ; ' I licked my fingers to roll the stockings up . ' supports this interpretation ; < fnote > Anderson , C , ' Listening to in the . , Old Dreams ed . and , ( , 1994)p.170 < /fnote> Warner . Op.cit . , p.14 < /fnote> The body as a site of gender expression has engendered much contradictory literary criticism , making it highly difficult to ascertain a definite sense of what is trying to imply by reducing to a visual object . See Mulvey ' Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema ' in Literary Theory : An Anthology , edited by and ( : , 2002.)for further discussion regarding the female as object especially in relation to the male gaze ; ' Woman stands in patriarchal culture as signifier for the male other .. in which man ... through linguistic command imposes on them the silent image of woman still tied to her place as bearer of meaning not maker of meaning . ' The connection between women and silence is further explored later . < /fnote> In working class writing by men , despite often sympathetic portrayal of women ... female identity is subjected to male desire and fantasy , or their agency subordinated to the protective male embrace . < /quote> Kirk , writing and , < /fnote > This last point is contestable as is seldom a passive female ; she elects her sexual partners and controls the action ; ' I reached down between my legs to move his fingers correctly . ' Contradiction pervades each act of gender significance . Returning home pregnant with the ; ' child of the raves , ' fortifies the novel 's cyclic structure , suggesting will be trapped in a domestic maternal role . But , as the father 's identity remains undisclosed the male again appears insignificant , thus reinforcing the permeable implication that men may be unimportant in the future . < fnote > Warner . Op.cit . , p.135 < /fnote> Even more complex is her insistence ; I 'm not a man , ' ( p.172 ) while resorting to stereotypically masculine violence with Creeping Jesus as it suggests that only by adopting male behaviour can a woman be heard and empowered . < /fnote> Ibid . , p.229 < /fnote > Gender in contemporary society is hugely nebulous ; how it is represented often proves as problematic as how it is defined . argues that now ; ' There is no proper gender , ' believing all gender to be performance . Discourse is a highly formative part of this performance ; while 's routines are explicitly those of a female , the extent to which a man can genuinely appropriate a woman 's voice is questionable . belief that ; ' gender is constructed through language and is visible in writing style ; ' using direct , pithy end - stopped sentences rarely coloured by emotion make appear more masculine , as conventional male language is seen as ordered and rational . If male and female speech are at opposite ends of a gendered linguistic divide , their voices can not be unified without antithetical fracture ; the credibility of 's female voice is therefore always contestable , as its core is essentially male . A similar conflict emerges in the Scarlet Letter . As men , and are socially and linguistically dominant ; if has never been externalised by his gender , he can not empathise with 's peripheral position , therefore can not authentically render her voice . < fnote > Butler , Gender Insubordination in Literary Theory : An Anthology , edited by and ( : , < /fnote> see p.188 for an example ; ' I would start waxing legs and bikini line .. but you only wax to save time shaving them . ' < /fnote> Humm , M. A Reader 's guide to Literary Criticism ( : , < /fnote> Pope believes ; ' The general characteristics of such ' womanly writing / speech ' are reckoned to be long and loosely co - ordinated sentences , fluid changes of topic , a resistance to ' linear ' logic and , implicitly , a woman - centred focus on inner feelings . '(Pope op.cit . , p.121 ) thus supporting the notion that is more masculine in her speech and narration . < /fnote> Many of these notions are examined in 's A Woman 's Place where he provides a model of what he considers to be the nature of female speech in conversation and how it differs from that used by the male as he sees female speech as hesitant , illogical and disordered . < /fnote> Here vehemently emphasises the parallels between himself and Hester in an attempt to make her story of ' human frailty and sorrow ' ( Hawthorne , N. The Scarlet Letter , ( : Penguin , 1986)p.76 ) his own to narrate . Hawthorne continually attempts to distance him the hypocritical men he depicts by emphasizing his comparative understanding and compassion , stereotypically female characteristics he accentuates in what often seems like an attempt to validate his ability to assume and manifest the female voice and persona ; ' I experienced a sensation not altogether physical .. of burning heat ; as if the letter were not of red cloth , but red - hot iron . '(Ibid . , p.62 ) < /fnote> Anderson can be used to support this ; ' If male authors have had to contend with difficulties generated in part by a problematic relationship to national identity , language and literary tradition , for women this experience is compounded by gender . ' ( , op.cit . , p.171 ) < /fnote > If language is an essentially masculine medium from which woman is excluded , the female remains outside of language and is therefore silent , as was ; ' I never spoke for . "" Such comments confirm Mills ' belief that ; ' We are still trapped within the notion of woman 's language being deviant , powerless and submissive . "" If so , women must find and create their own language . Interpreting stealing ' His ' voice as an empowering reversion of female subordination challenges Mills , yet , it conversely supports hegemonic notions of language as masculine , as only through a male voice , that of and her boyfriend , is ever heard ; ' His name on the page of that novel : By . "" Without graphological speech marks to accompany her words is essentially silent , admitting herself ; ' I 'm a right queer - case for not talking . I 'm taciturn . "" But , this is complicated by also expressing male speech without quotation marks . The reader is therefore led to question whether an author can or should appropriate the voice of another person . If a male writer can employ aspects of the ecriture feminine and the female has access to ' masculine ' dominant discourse , then the notion of gendered language seems defunct and outdated , as in the contemporary world gender boundaries , like gendered language , overlap . Supposed ' male ' and ' female ' language are no longer straightforward binaries , as both and are published in spite of ' stealing ' the voice of another sex . The relevance of authorship therefore becomes debatable , as ownership over discourse seems impossible . The literal death of the author prefigures symbolic death of authorial control ; the originating conscience of the creator no longer exists making 's plagiarism questionable , as technically no one owns the text . < fnote > Showalter confirms the existence of such opinions by stating in ' The rise of gender ' in Speaking of , E ( London : Routledge , ) ' all speech is necessarily talk about gender .. and the masculine is the linguistic norm . ' p1 This helps illustrate how accepted and ingrained such estimations have become . < /fnote> Warner . Op.cit . , p.39 < /fnote> Mills , S Feminist Stylistics ( London : Routledge , 1995)p.48 < /fnote> Warner . Op.cit . , p.84 < /fnote> This is not only because a man can not assume a female voice but because a woman 's voice can not be authentically rendered through a discourse that privileges the male . < /fnote> Warner . Op.cit . , p.36 < /fnote> The author of the text is an ambivalent concept in the novel . argues ; ' It would be just as wrong to equate the author with the real writer as to equate him with the fictitious speaker ; ' p112 which suggests that the contemporary author , like gender is now a problematic , multiple concept that resists definition . < /fnote> Barthes can be used to support this ; ' To give a text an is to impose a limit on that text , to furnish it with a final signified , to close the writing . ' p1469 < /fnote > Movern concurrently rejects both moral and linguistic codes . Ignoring established grammatical rules allows her to narrate in her own sociolect , comprised of compound neologisms , syntactic inversion and unique phonetic spellings that foreground the thematic centrality of manifesting one 's identity , see ; ' her mouth seeming right deep and darkish cause of the whiteishness of faces . ' The poet also manipulates language but in making it his own , is seen to violate ; ' mugging is the story of my life . "" Dismantling and restructuring language enables those like who are outside of the dominant discourse , to articulate their ' story ' with realism and authenticity . Substituting ' No ' with ' Nut , ' and colloquialisms such as ; ' wee ' , autographically inscribe 's accent and culture in the novel . This demonstrates both the mutability of language and importance of marking out as devolved from , a prominent concern for contemporary . unsettles notions of as substandard by revealing what is often considered the contrastive , inferior other to be disturbingly similar to the dominant . Exposing the supposed cosmopolitan antithetical as inarticulate and inept , demonstrates the equal value of discourse as they ; ' talked so constant you found their blethers made less sense than locals back in the resort . ' < fnote > Warner . Op.cit . , p74 < /fnote> This generates an authentic voice that accurately captures her way of speaking and thinking . Making language comply to her own specific rules allows to express precisely what she wants to say how she wants to say it , thus creating a confident , unapologetic and defiant tone to her voice . The notion of other as subordinate is contested throughout the novel ; assuming the role of centralised ' I , ' allows a control over narrative direction that enables her to reverse the conventional marginality engendered by her sex and nationality . < /fnote> Agard , J. ' Me not no Oxford Don ' ( lecture handout ) l. - 13 < /fnote> Agard attempts to prove this is something positive to embrace and not be threatened by ; ' I only armed wit mih human breath . ' ( ) He needs no weapons , as language itself is more influential than violence . The multiplicity of language varieties have made it an increasingly fluid and unstable medium , it is both evolutionary and vulnerable to change . Linguistic variation and assimilation allows language to be used as a method of rebellion against enforced colonial discourse , a prominent theme in the work of post - colonial poets such as and who integrate dialect in their verse in order to realistically impart their voices . < /fnote> Warner . Op.cit . , p31 < /fnote> Ibid . , p.19 < /fnote> The often uneasy amalgamation of idiolect and may reflect the conflict inherent in establishing parliamentary autonomy . Division is a key theme , emphasised by the recurrent image of 's toe divider , which helps to visually demonstrate how separate entities can remain connected . < /fnote> Warner . Op.cit . ,p160 < /fnote> Very little disparity emerges between the behaviour and club scene in ; without explicitly marking place names and use of dialect , could be depicting the underclass of any society . Here they generate a firm insistence on place and identity that relays a desire to be heard , confirming 's belief that fiction is no longer ' immured in ignorance and neglect - unpublished , unread , untaught . ' ( , G. The Scottish Novel Since the . , Old Dreams ( Edinburgh : , ) < /fnote > Eliot 's contemporary moment was also dominated by conflict . asserts ; ' No poem seemed to express more of its time than . "" Adopting a cultural materialist reading of the poem seems unavoidable as much of its structure and imagery is utilised specifically to capture social disjunction . Amalgamating assorted metrical and rhythmical patterns generates an intentional chaos that reflects the uncertainty and insecurity following . Abrupt syntactic shifts convey the turbulence of an era characterized by sudden change and decaying social constancy . Fusing varied poetic forms may be representative of the difficulty inherent in establishing the desired unity craved by many . writers began to pioneer new strategies that enabled them to express the unique concerns of the post war world , a new era unlike any other where previous literary forms began to seem inadequate . The poem 's ostensibly random assimilation of images rejects order and boundaries , reflecting the zeitgeist of writers and painters engaged in a similar process . 's radical deployment of literary and mythical allusions , severs the once coherent and admired words of others in order to demonstrate the destruction of stability and tradition engendered by war . A ; ' heap of broken images , ' without obvious connective associations dislocate history and geography , leaving the reader like those in the wasteland , disorientated and bewildered . The difficulty of deciphering complex allusive networks enables the reader to undergo a crisis of understanding that engenders a sense of humiliation . The overwhelming impossibility of understanding the allusive context of each image allows the reader to share the futility and failure plaguing the characters and age ; ' We who were living are now dying/ with a little patience . ' < fnote , ' New Modes of Characterization in The Waste Land ' in Eliot in his Time ed ( , ) p.95 < /fnote> The Waste Land seems on occasion an expression of discomfort with what art called itself , as proceeding structural limitations were challenged and transcended by artists and writers engaged in attempting to render coherent forms to an incoherent world . < /fnote> Eliot , .. The Waste Land and Other Poems . ( : Faber and Faber , . ) p23 l.22 < /fnote> Ibid . , , l.229 - 330 < /fnote > Cyclic images convey the repetitive ennui plaguing ; ' crowds of people , walking round in a ring . "" The poem 's lack of structural progression suggests there is no escape from this perpetual psychological wasteland . Entrapped in the eternal present , past and future become indecipherable . is the ; , ' as the confusion between ; ' memory and desire , ' leaves the inhabitants of post - war wishing for the merciful oblivion of a ; ' forgetful snow ' . Man seems incapable of progression ; superficially successful city workers are imprisoned by their pursuit of monetary gain , as capitalist advancement leads to reversion and decay in the ; < fnote > Ibid . , p.24 , l.56 < /fnote> Ibid . , p23 l1 < /fnote> Ibid . , , l.3 < /fnote> Ibid . , p.23 , l.6 < /fnote> Unreal City Under the brown fog of a dawn A crowd flowed .. I had not thought death had undone so many . < /quote> Ibid . ,p.25 , l.60 - 4 < /fnote > Pathetic fallacy animates the murky gloom shrouding a capital dominated by pessimism . Mass urbanization appears to have deprived workers of their identity and humanity , leaving them apathetic and isolated ; ' , short and infrequent , were exhaled,/ And each man fixed his eyes before his feet . ' < fnote > Ibid . ,p.25 l.64 - 5 < /fnote > Man 's emotional paralysis is exposed through 's perturbing portrayal of relationships . Even when seemingly united , characters remain alienated . Alternate rhyming couplets provide a surface impression of harmony between the typist and clerk , but as the rhyme 's mechanical predictability becomes apparent , an impression of monotonous indifference is created . ' Hardly aware of her departed lover ' , reinforces the distance between them ; they are physically but emotionally disconnected . Characters often appear imprisoned in their minds , doomed to continual misunderstanding in being unable to use language effectively . Ornate , decorative language in the ' Game of Chess , ' generates an artificiality that exposes the essential emptiness of modern life . The woman is ; ' troubled , confused and drowned the sense in orders , ' as too is the reader , lost in the convoluted syntax , enjambment and sparse punctuation used to illustrate her claustrophobic hysteria . The omission of inverted commas in the man 's responses and absent question mark in ; ' Speak to me . Why do you never speak , ' suggests that we overhear only his thoughts . The position of women here lacks the ambivalence of , as they are explicitly passive . Disturbing allusions to imply male dominance , as refusing to speak gives the man power to prolong the woman 's anxiety . Women also remain controlled sexually by men . is ; ' so rudely forced , ' as too is the typist describing the clerk 's caresses as ; ' assaults , ' that are ' unreproved , if undesired . "" Movern can be deemed as equally subservient if her voice and actions are seen to be subject to masculine regulation . To an extent , like she is trapped by pregnancy , although 's life is not devoted to fulfilling the sexual needs of a husband who ; ' wants a good time . "" Ascertaining how much the position of women has changed is highly problematic ; although they appear stronger in , women remain far from free , condemned to remain governed by their biological function to a degree . < fnote > Ibid . , p.32 l.250 < /fnote> Ibid . ,p.26 , l.88 - 9 < /fnote> Ibid . ,p.27 , l.112 < /fnote> Ironically , her speech discloses a fear of the death and decay that already traps her . The gruesome image of ; ' pressing lidless eyes and waiting for a knock upon the door , ' ( p.28 , the impossibility of escaping or ignoring the omnipresent inevitability of death . The barman 's impatient call reminds us that time dictates and controls all people and classes , making the ' Game of Chess ' a metaphor for life . < /fnote> Ibid . ,p26.l.100 < /fnote> Ibid . ,p32 , l.239 < /fnote> Ibid . ,p.32 , l.238 < /fnote> Ibid . ,p.28 l.148 < /fnote > Nameless and faceless characters pervade , as unsure of themselves as we are of them . No central voice dominates narration ; continual changes in pronoun and tense leave the reader doubting each character 's gender , nationality and perspective . also depicts fragmentary characters whose personalities are often encapsulated by their nicknames . Differing concepts of identity were emerging during the period , forcing writers to resort to new modes of characterization . Like gender and language , identity has become polymorphous and heterogeneous . Chameleonic identities and the limitation of subjectivity are often seen as more post - modern concerns . Bertens claims ; ' the .. stable subject of modernity has been replaced by a postmodern agent whose identity is largely other - determined and always in process , ' but here Eliot demonstrates that attaining a definitive sense of identity was also concern in the era . What we define contemporary again becomes contestable , as certain dilemmas are not new or exclusive to one era . Jain contests this to a degree , interpreting the poem 's hetroglossic pollyvocality and dislocated vocalization as demonstrating that ; < fnote > see p.14 Warner.op.cit . , for examples such as ' Overdose ' . < /fnote> Lanbaum views this as a ; ' reaction against belief in the individual as the reality you could be sure of , ' which may be why no stable identity exists in . < /fnote> Bertens , H. The Idea of the ( : Routledge , . ) p.19 < /fnote> Eliot perceived the divisions and tortured convolutions of consciousness .. as symptomatic of , and resulting from the historical and cultural circumstances of his time . < /quote> Jain , of the Selected Poems of ( : , ) < /fnote > The infiltration of foreign languages supports this by creating a sense of displacement that reflects the absence of geographical stability . Ironically , the more languages and voices used in the poem , the less understanding seems to exist . Discontinuous , depersonalised voices often merge , as dialogue , monologue and fragmented streams of consciousness coexist confusingly . Language almost becomes a barrier that prevents communication ; < quote > I could not , and my eyes failed , I was neither Living nor dead , and I knew nothing . < /quote> Eliot , op.cit . , p.24 l.39 - 40 < /fnote > Structuralist theory supports the notion that language can not convey meaning ; if the perceptual image engendered by each signifier is different to each individual reader , then we can never truly communicate with accuracy . As in many of the relationships depicted , verbal interaction appears pointless , as ascertaining a definitive sense of what someone else means through their language alone seems impossible . Experimental strategies such as objective correlative and sensory manipulation therefore become paramount in evoking elusive states of mind that language alone can not convey . Auditory descriptions such as ; ' drip drop drop drop drop , ' employ repeated harsh plosive phonemes in order to emulate the abrasive and hostile nature of the dystopian future presented . Drawing our focus to only the aural properties of water make it a physical sound alone , like the deluded traveler we can only hear it as ; ' there is no water . "" Certain inexpressible emotions are fundamentally vague and can only be realistically depicted through obscure methods such as imagery . Nature becomes a metaphor for contemporary humanity , ' sunken ' and ' limp , ' desperate for both literal and spiritual regeneration . Scientific progression and industrial growth led to an increased focus on the material which disturbed established notions of morality and engendered religious doubt . Infinite death appears to replace the promise of eternal life . The response to the unanswerable question ; ' Who is the who walks always beside you ? "" is formed by a figurative image of the grim reaper ; ' There is always another one walking beside you/ Gliding wrapt in a brown mantle , hooded . "" Powerful visual images become a substitute for a language that is unable to articulate the horror of a modern world where hope is nonexistent . < fnote > Saussure asserts ; ' A linguistic system is a series of differences of sounds combined with a series of differences of ideas , ' ( Sassure , F. ' Course in General Linguistics ' in Literary Theory : An Anthology , edited by and ( : , 2002.)p.88 ) thus supporting the suggestion that the perceptual concept signified by each signifier differs among each individual , making attempting to explain the complex processes of our minds impossible and therefore futile to an extent . < /fnote> Ibid . ,p37 l.356 < /fnote> Ibid . ,p37 l.358 < /fnote> Ibid . , p.38 l.397 < /fnote> Personification illustrates the unbearable thirst suffered by both through images of topographical aridity ; ' Dead mountain mouth of carious teeth that can not spit . ' ( l.339 ) De - familiarization is also employed ; making the conventional appear alien efficaciously demonstrates the absence normality and reliability in Eliot 's chaotic society . Water becomes a paradox , connected to both sterility and fertility , as repeated depictions of polluted , dirty water manipulate its symbolic properties ; ' The river sweats/ oil and tar . ' ( p.33 l.266 - 267 ) Explicitly perverting water 's regenerative properties reflects the seemingly absent promise of salvation through eternal life . This fortifies the despondency engendered by images of false prophets and spiritual impotence that trap ; ' hooded hordes swarming over endless plains , stumbling in cracked earth . ' ( p.37 l.368 - 70 ) < /fnote> Ibid . , p.37 l.359 < /fnote> Ibid . , p.37 l.362 - 3 < /fnote > Tobain supports this argument ; ' For Eliot , these visions of contemporary society are inseparable from the loss of faith . Man no longer believes . "" But this is contestable if we believe the thunder offers a way forward , as the poem 's focus on religious futility may be an attempt to capture a moment of extreme potential . Change is desperately needed ; in unifying Buda and , may suggest an amalgamation of and wisdom is the answer . As is possibly implied in the novel , nature may hold ' the key ' to spiritual advancement as the elements replace God , as in the ; ' empty chapel , only the wind 's home . "" By leaving the decision to follow or reject the thunder 's advice in the reader 's hands , Eliot refuses to provide a conclusive resolution , a common feature of writing . The sinister repetition of ; ' is falling down falling down , ' infers that man is destined to deteriorate further if he ignores this advice . The poem purposefully lacks closure ; ending without a full stop implies that there is no one solution to the problems presented . I believe encapsulates 's intention effectively ; < fnote > Tobain , D.N. The Presence of the Past . ( : ) p.23 < /fnote> See the conclusion of part III where and seem to come to an understanding , if not a solution . < /fnote> Eliot , op.cit . , p.48.l.411 < /fnote> Ibid . , p.38 l.388 < /fnote> Ibid . , p.39 l. < /fnote> the absence of a bona fide meaning .. might be what was aiming to achieve : a proof that the absence of meaning is not meaningless but an authentic and verifiable state of psychological being , certainly for the modern instant , but perhaps for most of human experience . < /quote> As in , people are constantly seeking new ways of understanding the self ; dissociation from others is central in both texts , but how or whether we can reconcile this remains open to contention . Particular dilemmas continually affect humanity making it appear as though nothing is new , a key component of post - modernist thought . Both texts to an extent support 's belief that ; ' contemporary fiction is a barometer of the nation 's intellectual health , ' but what is unique to our era is made complex by the impression that similar preoccupations will always dominate the contemporary moment . Certain questions remain irresolvable as no author or age appears to have the solution , an unsettling implication that forces the reader to address the inadequacies of both man and language . The thing seemingly set to change are the strategies used to manifest these concerns , as both and show language to be as unstable and mutable as our concepts of identity , gender and religion . < fnote > Monteith , and : Hodder Headline , ) p.2 < /fnote >",0 "had a large variety of effects on society , which I have split into very generalised groups . of all I will look at the direct economic effects of the war , and show how these caused problems . Then I will move onto the socio - political effects of the war , and examine how the conduct of politics and fear of revolution split society . Because religion and politics were not mutually exclusive I will move from the effect of the war on politics to its effect on religion , and discuss the decreased tolerance of impiety and introduction of new gods . I will then show how these effects of the war affected the works of poets such as and , before moving on to look at how society changed in the aftermath of due to wartime events . To begin with then , I will look at the economic effects of the war on . Because of the cost of funding the war , ' resources began to dry up , and the city was forced to look for new sources of income . method that was used was the introduction of a new tax of on imports ( . ) , yet this was not enough . Therefore Athens became increasingly dependent on the tribute it received from its allies , since it was this that enabled her to continue fighting , and thus any opportunity for economic gain was taken . An example of this is the dialogue ( . - 118 ) , where attempted to coerce the into becoming allies of , giving the reason that "" you , by giving in , would save yourself from disaster ; we , by not destroying you , would be able to profit from you "" ( Thuc . ) . Therefore we can see that placed a heavy burden on the economy , which led to ' increasingly brutal treatment of its allies in order to secure their tribute payments . The economic effects of the war were also directly felt by the population . referred to rising prices in in a line from The , where , upon being told to pay the ferryman 's fare , remarks that it is "" amazing what you can get for obels these days "" ( Ar . Frogs pp . ) . The ferryman 's fare was traditionally one obel , so we can see this quote as a reflection of how prices were increasing in during the war . This was because had to increasingly rely on imports due to the occupation of her land by ( Thuc . ) , which had decreased the supply of produce to the city . The effect of this was intensified since "" the mass of the people had had little enough to start with and had now been deprived of even that ; the richer classes had lost their fine estates "" ( Thuc . ) . Therefore the economic gap between the rich and poor became larger . < fnote > All references to will be given the abbreviation Ar . < /fnote > The large gap between the rich and poor in turn caused the war to have political effects on . has pointed out that "" long invasions created internal pressures , partly because they did not affect all those alike ... and partly because in a city under siege there was considerable scope for treacherous action and suspicion of treachery "" ( : ) . As time went on and the gap between rich and poor widened , political tensions developed between the groups , with the poor backing a democracy while many of the rich favoured an oligarchy . Thucydides remarked that "" society had become divided into ideologically hostile camps , and each side viewed the other with suspicion "" ( . ) . has provided evidence for this split by pointing out that the revolution of the was mainly backed by wealthy citizens ( : ) . Therefore , although this division between democracy and oligarchy had existed before the war , we can see that helped to intensify the split between the groups and create a divided city . < fnote > Cited in Foxhall 1993 : < /fnote > The split between and oligarchs was did not stay as a purely ideological conflict , since it was to lead to real consequences . Thucydides tells us that many feared a revolution which would overthrow the democracy , and thus "" they were consequently always in a state of fear and apt to look at everything suspiciously "" ( Thuc . ) . This led to politicians accusing those who stood in their way to the top of plotting to overthrow the democracy in order to stir up public opinion against them . For example , Thucydides tells us that was accused of mutilating the Hermae in because his political enemies were able to use this as evidence of a plot to overthrow the democracy ( . ) , and were so successful that was forced to abandon the city ( . ) . Another example that shows how created an atmosphere of fear in is the trial of . has argued that was tried due to his connections with the oligarchic , and thus the restored "" could not feel safe until he was out of the way "" ( Guthrie : ) . Therefore we can see that caused to become a suspicious , politically divided society in fear of revolution . The trial of Socrates can also be used to show the effect had on religion in . says that the charge brought against , that of impiety , was not just a simple cover for political motives but actually carried some weight of its own . For example , his links with ( an atheist ) and ( who was suspected of sacrilege in regard to the mentioned above ) were good grounds for a case of impiety in the court ( : ) . Dodds makes a valid claim that the reason for this new intolerant attitude to impiety can be put down to war hysteria , because "" to offend the gods ... was risky enough in peacetime ; but in war it was practically treason - it amounted to helping the enemy "" ( Dodds : ) . Dodds also mentions that other notable intellectuals , such as , Anaxagoras and possibly , were also prosecuted for religious offences during the war for their progressive views ( Dodds : ) . In my opinion this was because feared that impious behaviour by individuals would cause the city to lose the gods ' favour , which would in turn lead to defeat . Therefore an intolerant attitude was shown to people whose impiety had previously been allowed . also indirectly gave a boost to religion through the plague . The population density of was greatly increased due to people moving from the countryside and taking protection inside the city , and this in turn was partly responsible for the spread of the plague that occurred in . has argue that "" in a sense the plague strengthened the faith of the , if it is right to see , for instance , the purification of and the introduction of Asclepius as responses to it "" ( Parker : ) . Asclepius was a healing god who originated in Epidaurus . Before the plague he was a minor deity who was not a part of religion , yet after the plague he became a major figure of worship and was adopted into religion . Therefore we can see that , because of the intensity of the plague that was due to , society turned to a new god , thus helped to alter religious practice . also led to a number of theatrical works being produced that took the effects of the war on as a major theme , since poets carried a dual role in , "" to amuse ... citizens , and to advise "" ( Ar . Frogs p.181 ) . The problems caused by the war gave the poets a number of issues to rise in their plays and encourage debate about . The plays of in particular discussed the war and its various effects . theme that occurs in ' comedies is an opposition to leading politicians and the conduct of politics in general . Many leading who turn down peace in favour of war are personally named and taunted in ' work . For example , in , a who had urged the to vote in favour of massacring and enslavement of the population of , is likened to a pestle "" who churned up all "" ( Ar . Peace p.29 ) . Another example of this is the attack on , a who argued in favour of the execution of the generals , whom remarks that "" among the dead men he 's the prince of crooks - it 's the way they do things now "" ( Ar . Frogs p.172 ) . Therefore we can see how took a negative stance to the leading politicians of . also expressed a wish for peace and unity amongst the Greeks , both of which were lacking due to the war . As well as attacking men who pursued the war , the play Peace is all about the struggle of a group of Greeks who try to save the goddess Peace from . The disunity between Greeks that had resulted in the oligarchic coup of the Thirty and which I have written about above prompted to write the lines : < quote>'Tis history now- their folly they regret ; The time has come to pardon and forget ... Come wise , swallow down your pride ! We need these loyal kinsmen on our side . ( Ar . Frogs p. - 2). Aristophanes used his work to tell that they needed to work together for their common good , or else face defeat . other issue that the poets raised in their plays was that of religion . In Peace , has Hermes say that the gods were angry with the Greeks for going to war whenever they tried to create peace , and therefore "" where they used to live they installed war as residence , handing you [ the Greeks ] over to him to do exactly as he liked with "" ( Ar . Peace p.23 ) . Euripides also reminded the Greeks of the danger of neglecting the gods in The Bacchae , in which brutally punishes the king Pentheus for refusing to recognise him as a god . Therefore we can see that the effects had on caused a number of plays to be produced that discussed the issues relating to the war in an attempt to advise the on what they should do . The plays can also be seen to reflect views on the effects of the war . The Bacchae and both won place , while Peace came , in each play 's respective festivals . This success must mean that the plays were popular , and thus the issues they raised must have had some standing with the people . had a number of long term effects for . The of these was the separation of the office of General into separate offices . and have pointed out that "" from the time of one finds the beginnings of a greater specialization of the functions ; the ' demagogues ' in formulated the policy of the state , while its execution was entrusted to others . The strategoi became more frequently military specialists "" . ( . : ) . Whereas had been both a political and military figure in , by there were clear differences between orators ( such as Demosthenes ) and strategoi ( such as Iphicrates ) . Another long term effect of was the improved techniques involved in warfare . et al . have pointed out that light armed infantry were often overlooked before the war , but their success during the conflict led to them being developed into professional soldiers called ' peltasts ' ( . : ) . During these troops were effectively used in land warfare , for example a group of peltasts defeated a hoplite battalion at Lechaeum . Therefore we can see that led to new developments in warfare and methods of government . had many effects on . The cost of the war placed an economic strain on the city , and this in turn led to division between the rich and poor . This division also helped to create a fear of revolution against the democracy and created an atmosphere of suspicion and treachery in the city . The war had effects on religion , and can be used to explain the intolerance of impiety in the latter and the introduction of new gods . The above changes caused the poets to write works which dealt with issues raised by the war in the hope of helping to address the problems facing them . Yet developments in the government of the city and its methods of warfare show that even after the conflict had ended , the effects of continued to be felt in ,","< heading > Introduction The whole process of presenting , from choosing a story to tell to finalizing our product on stage , is like a journey of treasure hunt to me . The more I look back on the journey , the more I grow fond of being a storyteller . To be a better storyteller , each review right after the performance is indispensable and invaluable as well . Therefore , the aims of the following reflection are , , to deepen my understanding of storytelling and , clarify some important points of presenting on stage . This reflection will be divided into parts : why was chosen as a story to tell , how she was characterised and what can be done to make the presentation better . < heading > Why Mulan ? < /heading > Women consist of of the world 's population . To glorify the importance of his opposite sex in , Chairman also said , "" Women hold up of the sky "" . Ironically , beyond the praise lies the reality that it is men who have been dominating in most of the places and most of the time . The proof can be easily found in the written records , be it in the or the West . There has always been a tendency to marginalize or belittle women in history . As points out in her book , for instance , women are few in the hero myth and "" most of those few function only in the domestic sphere "" ( , p. ) . She also argues that the records of the hero story can be seen as a "" conscious campaign to marginalize women "" ( , p. ) . Only when a woman engages herself in the public affairs - men 's domain usually , can her words or deeds leave a mark in history . In many stories , women are always depicted with negative character traits . Most of them are wicked stepmothers , evil witches , undutiful daughters , or bad - tempered princesses . Tatar refers to these female characters as "" disagreeable "" ( , p. ) in whom typical sins can be found - disobedience , stubbornness , infidelity , arrogance , curiosity , laziness and gluttony . These prevailing stereotypes of women in fairy tales and folklores serve a vital function of social conditioning . This is by no means uncommon in traditional stories . Most female characters in folktales and legends are either evil spirits leading men astray or pathetic victims only succumbing to their destiny . Disproportionately , the stories of heroines can be counted on one 's fingers . Thus , after reading most sexually biased stories , boys may reinforce their stereotypes about their opposite sex to a further degree . What 's worse , girl readers may unconsciously or subconsciously internalize this fixed image that women are secondary or inferior to men . of our purposes of doing is to counter that negative effect on both male and female readers . Concerning the meaning of a story , it should be the core issue worthy of a storyteller 's attentive consideration . According to Cassady , a story "" should help the listeners in some way to appreciate life , to understand a particular facet of living , and to rejoice in life 's richness "" ( , p. ) . Lavender also claims that myth , legend and lore can give us "" a sense of our own identity and a sense of security - a sense of belonging to the world , to mankind , and to the wisdom of accumulated experience "" ( , p. ) . In addition , Cassady suggests that folktales and myths are more appealing to children from ten to early teens than other types of stories . Since our target audiences are early - teenagers , the legend of may catch their eye and be meaningful to all listeners , especially girls . It is a story about a girl , who takes the initiative and plays a key role in her time . Different from those unfavourable female images in most stories , is an admirable heroine because she shoulders her father 's responsibility to fight for their country and eventually has a remarkable achievement . Even in a modern perspective , what has accomplished is beyond our imagination , let alone for those living in ancient . Notoriously , had had a long history of the practice of foot binding , which was an inhumane means of domesticating women and depriving their freedom by causing their disabilities . In such a society , 's story has still been kept , passing down from generation to another . There is no doubt that many people , especially females , must be mentally inspired by 's deed even though they are physically confined . < heading > How to Characterise Mulan ? < /heading > Like all the other legends , 's story has proliferations and reproductions . These phenomena identify with 's comments . He states that a legend , usually based upon an actual event , may be "" told in many different versions depending on the social and temporal , p. ) . In the ballad version , is portrayed as a brave and dutiful daughter disguising herself as a man to join the army for her father . But this version does not include any specific descriptions about her characteristics and upbringing . In 's , we see clearly that has been molded as a western liberal feminist . She fights not only for the honour of her family but also for equality and individuality in an explicit manner . Undeniably , has become a household name worldwide due to 's adaptation and its global circulation network . However , not every audience appreciates 's because there is too much distortion of reality in it , such as the revelation of 's true identity in the army , her saving of the emperor , the confusion of mingling with culture . Besides , the dragon is downplayed as a jester , Mushu , in that cartoon . Unwilling to accept these misrepresentations , we 'd like to shape up our own , who is the very embodiment of traditional virtues combined with modern values . To truly present our ideal , we 'd like to borrow the thorough analyses from ( ) . Based upon his suggestions , the role of can be analysed and characterised as follows : Important traits and background lives in a country embroiled in the turmoil of war and in a time women can only depend on men . Adept at martial arts , horse riding and archery , she hardly has the approval from her mother , who is worried about 's lack of essential skills for an ideal wife - to - be . may appear to be as pretty , smart , and patient as her elder sister , but she is not self - assured . As a matter of fact , she is overshadowed by her sibling . Although she possesses some precious qualities such as bravery , perseverance and humbleness , she can not see these traits in herself in the beginning until she starts her journey in the army . Motives Cassady emphasizes the importance of figuring out the characters ' motives , most of which derive from the characters ' backgrounds , because their motivations are highly related to their relationships with other characters and the purpose of the story . So what motivates to stand up against barbarians in place of her father ? Filial piety and the defence of family honour are the answers to the question . It has long been the tradition to emphasize the paramount importance of family and filial piety . For example , in his book on thought , Greel ( 1954 ) claims that filial piety , for , has been not merely a moral but even a legal obligation since B.C. These explanations of 's motives play significant roles in our characterisation of . As they are the traditional virtues , we want to show them to our audience . Emotions Determining the emotions of the character can help establish the story 's framework . In order to understand the feelings has gone through , the emotions line in the major scenes of the story is shown as follows : < table/>Theme is what the story conveys to the audience as a whole . As mentioned , of the themes of is to uphold the traditional virtue of filial piety . The other theme is to encourage our target audience to be who they really are and what they truly want to be . Like , some early teens may feel frustrated at not being able to find their self - identity . , however , finally gains confidence in being her true self when she stops imitating her sister and starts to do what she is really good at . This is also the message we want to get across to our audience . Mood It is also essential to decide the overall feeling of a story , its mood . Although the story of carries some moral messages , we do not intend to preach at our audience . On the contrary , we want the predominant mood in to be comical and light - hearted , which can not only serve one of the main function of storytelling - to entertain but also help pass the story themes to the audience in a less dictatorial way . For the creation of the brisk mood , we develop some funny scenes to show 's kung fu , cunning , bravery and intelligence . An uplifting marching song is also sung twice in the performance . Except for the story analysis above , there are still some important points to be considered in terms of presenting the story of . Take the characters ' names as an example , has pointed out , "" it is always tiring to listen to a story which is cluttered with unknown names , especially if they are in a foreign tongue "" ( , p. ) . She suggests that minor characters can be referred to as "" the king his brother "" , "" a nymph "" , etc . In , the characters ' - sounding names can be confusing to our audience , who are not familiar with background . Only the protagonist , , is addressed with name lest the audience might get lost in the similar pronunciations of the other characters ' names . All the other characters are simply 's father , mother , sister , comrades , etc . The style of presenting the story is another major consideration . To manifest the style of the story , we incorporate many typical gaits , gestures and movements of opera into our performance . The ways males and females walk in opera are very different from each other . The male characters usually swagger with upturned feet ( see Figure ) and the female ones need to move with small steps . Besides , the hand positions are equally important in characterisation . Riley ( ) has noted that the most female hand positions in opera are related to the imagery of flowers . The orchid hand ( see Figure ) and cloud hand are widely used by female characters . Regarding the hand sign for sword , the actor should straighten the fingers to make a pointing gesture with the thumb holding down the rest of the fingers against the palm ( see Figure ) . In our performance , we also adopt the fight routines of theatre , which , according to Riley , "" express total exploitation of the concept of roundness "" ( , p. ) . < picture/> What Can Be Done to a Better Play ? < /heading > It was a nice experience of telling 's story . The audience seemed to enjoy our presentation very much and many of them were still singing the marching song after the performance . We are delighted with the success of the presentation , but we also know that there is always room for improvement . To begin with , I think we should polish our gestures , gaits and movements of opera to make them look more professional - like . I learned opera at primary school , which was indeed a long time ago . All the gestures we had in our presentation were drawn from my memory so they were not strictly precise . It would be better for us to consult someone with sufficient knowledge of opera . In addition , we should increase the fluidity between scenes . For instance , the connection between the battle scene and 's glorious return to the palace was not smooth enough and neither was the one between the palace scene and 's journey back home . Lastly , the pacing of the story also needs to be improved . In the middle of the story , the pacing dragged a little bit , which made that part of presentation weak . To conclude , we are all looking forward to another chance of presenting after the necessary improvements are made .",0 "< heading > Transect of Kames Bay sandy shoreline sided - quadrate samples were taken of the sand at sites on a transect of the beach . was taken above the high - tide mark , the was taken on the tidemark , the and samples were taken lower each time and the final sample was taken at the lowest line of the tide ( ) . The species collected at each site were counted and of each species was identified using a marine fauna key ( Table 4 ) . The average gradient of the beach was ( Table 2 ) It was found that there were clear zones down the beach . Closer to the low tide line progressively more molluscs ( Angulus tenuis ) and more worms were found , also higher up the beach less samples were found ( Fig 4 ) . Site A ( Supralittoral ) above the tide line showed no results and site on the tide line showed only a single Diptera larvae , which are predominantly terrestrial or freshwater and not marine , it is therefore an indication of site B on the transect line having very little exposure to the sea . Different zones support different marine life due to their physical and biological differences . Lower down the beach tends to be wetter and is covered by the tide for longer so the sand is easier to move through . Also organic particles in the sand such as diatoms , which provide food to the filter feeding animals like bivalves get their nutrients from cycling seawater , so have food for longer lower down the beach . An important aspect of the zonation on beaches is the variation in the meiofauna that lives in between the sand particles . This was not included in our survey and would be an important aspect to look at in the future as it is very abundant and plays a large part in the overall ecology and chemistry of the beach . < heading > Transect of Lady 's grave rocky shore . < /heading > The Lady 's grave rocky shore is on the north side of ; it is fairly sheltered by other islands around it along with the mainland . In order to map the rocky shore sites were measured using a theodolite , these were placed at intervals of m down vertically . The average gradient of the beach was ( Fig 1 and ) . square quadrates were taken at of these sites ; firstly at m intervals the additional sites were added to include areas of interest to the zonation study . High tide was between Site C and Site D and low tide was at 3 and 3 show the zonation of species clearly . These are divided as they have varying tolerance to exposure and seawater , which depends on the tides . At the top of the shore plants that can cope with drying up for are present ; these include lichens and some rhodophyceae such as channelled wrack . Midway down the shore Beadlet anemones and small periwinkles are present , also more algaes occur . Nearer the low tide mark where it is only exposed for , common periwinkles and dog whelks replace the small periwinkle and there are green algaes ( Chaetomorpha ) present . These zones are occasionally altered by the occurrence of rock pools and crevices that provide more shelter from exposure but generally the zones can be clearly distinguished .","The most plausible account of meaning would be an atomist view that originates with a form of causation , but one that also accepts the influence and effects of the community and society on language . This essay will examine some of the various accounts of meaning , assessing the positive and negative aspects of the theories and will ultimately draw conclusions as to what I find to be the most plausible . The theories that this essay will primarily address are : The Griceian theory , The verificationist theory , externalism and the causal theory . There are many terms and distinctions made by these accounts and these will be explored with the theories . It is my opinion that a large number of problems in debating meaning stems directly from the problems of language . The fact that words have multiple uses and ' meanings ' , and that there are not words for some actions or objects , cause problems . Even the term ' meaning ' is affected by this confusion of meanings : < quote > "" ' meaning ' itself has many meanings or senses . So it is important to distinguish between these various senses in order to be able to focus""(Martinich , A. P. 2001 ) < /quote > The various accounts of meaning are so incompatible , because they are in fact accounts of different types of meaning , whether it propositonal , utterance or individual word meaning . While it is accepted that philosophers have made these distinctions : "" philosophers of language have found it necessary to distinguish between sentences , meanings , statements and propositions , among other things ... "" ( , 2001 ) the level of compatibility / incompatibility is not always fully discussed . made a distinction between senses of the word meaning . There is a sense that to ' mean ' is to indicate : "" Those spots mean you have measles "" ( , p. ) . There is however another sense that is more important to that he labels ' non - natural meaning ' . This is the actual meaning of a sentence or utterance . This ' non - natural meaning ' is abbreviated to ' meaningNN ' . 's attitude is that meanings are ' in the head ' , that intention is essential for an utterance to be meaningful . 's theory is essentially : < quote > "" we must say that ' A meantNN something by x ' is roughly equivalent to ' A uttered x with the intention of inducing a belief by means of the recognition of this , p.380 1957) This description mentions nothing about using a language that is recognised by a community and so at this point is susceptible to criticisms concerning communities communicating without a common language . Grice purports that , to say "" x meansNN that so - and - so "" is derived from "" A meantNN something by x "" . That , speaker meaning is derived from utterance meaning . < quote>""That is , an analysis of utterance , word , and sentence meaning will contain the concept of utterer 's meaning in the analysans . ""(Martinich , 2001) This is to say that meaning comes from , or is at least influenced by the community using it . With this attempt to constrain his theory , I believe that has found an important aspect of meaning . However , issues remain with this theory . The case given by ( ) in what is a speech act of an soldier speaking words with the intention of making soldiers believe that he is , clearly show that this model for meaning may be applicable to utterance meaning , but is not widely acceptable . In fact ( ) even talks about other ' acts ' such as deliberately frowning to convey displeasure that also fit this model and are acceptable . I would argue that has provided an adequate theory of utterance ( or some kind of communication ) meaning that is able to explain features of language that other accounts of meaning can not such as sarcasm and metaphors . Its detection of intent , and detection of recognition of intent are important to communication , but this account of meaning does not cover a more fundamental account of meaning that must be understood before these complexities should be attempted . I would argue that sentences could be understood in a literal sense before even considering the intentions of the speaker . This difference of meaning is well illustrated by ( ): "" You know , I have n't the least idea what he means , unless it could be that he simply means what he says . "" An utterance may have meaning that is different to the words , but the meanings of the words themselves are also essential . Another account of meaning that I consider to be successful , but slightly misguided is that of the or Logical Positivists . That this account is only applicable to propositions is initially concerning as it would seem to be very limited . For a proposition to be meaningful for the verificationists , it must be empirically verifiable or an analytic truth . A proposition does not need to be true , but its ' truth - value must be ascertainable . Problems exist when trying to define what makes a proposition verifiable . Must the truth - value be conclusively provable ( if this is even possible ) , or would a high probability be acceptable . Many of the objections to this theory are because it poses as an account of ' meaning ' . I do not consider this to be so . This theory is able to uncover senseless propositions , but to imply that anything other than empirically verifiable propositions are meaningless is surely mistaken . A moral statement 's meaning may be questionable and something more subjective , but could it really be described as meaningless ? Linguistic externalism moves away from this view of meanings being in the head , but to a view that is less plausible . The argument for this externalism as championed by is dependant on a distinction between ' extension ' and ' intension ' . The Externalists believe that extension plays a role in the meaning of a word . believes that his ' twin thought experiment ' proves extension to play a part in meaning . A planet that is the same as earth in every way , with the exception of the substance that we call on earth ' water ' and know to be described by the chemical formula , is in fact something else on ' twin earth ' . It is described by the formula ' ' but is referred to by the same name of ' water ' . concludes that water does not have the same meaning on both planets . This is a supposed proof that extension is involved in meaning . It is not clear that this is so . Aside from the very implausible coincidence of a world identical in all respects ( including language ) with the exception of the chemical composition of the ' water ' on ' twin earth ' , there is no reason that we should compare these planets . As we are to presume that they are independent , we should not expect language to be identical . 's argument that psychological states do not play a part in meaning is even at fault ( though I also believe that they have no effect ) . Putnam ( ) asserts that people on earth and twin earth would use the term ' water ' with the same intention ( and so , psychological state ) , but he believes with different meaningsNN . We allow for different languages and communities on earth using the identical with different meanings or different words with the same meaning , and this is another example of different communities using different languages . does make reference to an idea that I would consider very important to meaning . In discussing who can actually identify water , mentions that societies often refer to experts : < quote > "" the way of recognising possessed by ' expert ' speakers is also , through them , possessed by the collective linguistic body , even though it is not possessed by each individual member of the body,""(Putnam , H. p.292 ) < /quote > The community therefore becomes linguistically deferential to the experts . I would argue that this is not merely something that applies to the realms of science and technical definitions . In the same way that a child generally is linguistically deferential to adults , the majority of the population is deferential to experts in the field of language . If a person does not know the meaning of a word or would like a more accurate definition , they will use a dictionary to find the meaning of the word . The dictionary becomes the source of meaning . The question of meaning then becomes , "" how does the lexicographer know the meaning of the word ? "" < quote > "" The lexicographer is an empirical scientist whose business is the recording of antecedent facts . "" ( , > The lexicographer is merely presenting the language as used by a community . After objects , actions and concepts have been named , ( thus receiving their meaning causally ) , this is the way that I see communities learn meaning , and how meaning is able to change . A dictionary is effectively a catalogue of meanings of words produced by a community . It makes maintaining a ' causal chain ' from the naming simpler . Dictionaries are however subject to change , new words are added and meanings updated reflecting the language that is also changing . If a word is misused , or used differently to apply to something new and this word becomes used commonly by a community , it will be incorporated into that communities ' language and will therefore be added to their dictionary . The view of meaning is that words simply stand for the object that they refer to . The theory applies to both nouns and adjectives , but I see no reason that it not be extended to all words . Kripke asserts that the linking of a word to an object comes from a naming ceremony ( though this need not be formal ) . The meaning is passed on through communities and eventually people who were not present at the ceremony will come to understand the meaning of the word . This according to is as follows : < quote > "" A speaker , using a name "" NN "" on a particular occasion will denote some item x if there is a causal chain of reference preserving links back from his use on that occasion ultimately to the item x itself being involved in name - acquiring transaction such as an explicit dubbing or the more gradual process whereby nick names stick . ""(Evans , . 1973) This account of meaning does not consider meaning to be internal or external . Names are arbitrary and attached to certain objects or actions or concepts . This ' causal chain of reference ' maintains that words are used in the same way as was intended in the original naming . I would argue that it also accounts for how a name might change over time . If a name is used incorrectly , and this use is overheard and assumed to be the correct usage this could create a new ' causal chain ' . There will even be a time when users of the word may not know the origins of the word , but understand the meaning . An atomist view of meaning does not necessarily accept all words to be the same and subject to the same rules . actually makes distinctions between different types of names : general and singular , and concrete and abstract . For the general - single distinction , gives the example of "" man "" and "" John "" ( , J.S. ) . Man can be "" truly affirmed in the same sense , of each of an indefinite number of things . "" ' Man ' expresses certain qualities , and these qualities are true for all cases of ' man ' . This is not the case for ' John ' . While it is the name of many people , it does not indicate any qualities common to all bearers of the name . The meaning of ' man ' could be found easily in a dictionary and the attributes described would describe all cases of ' man ' . The meaning of ' John ' however would not , and would need to be an exact description of this person . A description featuring : birth date , fingerprint , DNA , brief aesthetic description should be conclusive . It is conceivable that people may exactly fit the above criteria ( identical twins would share birthday and have identical DNA , and could possibly have finger - prints similar enough to be confused ) but these cases will be very rare and further criteria may be added to further distinguish ( i.e. ' was born ' ) . I would argue that these ' singular names ' are subject to very different rules to the majority of language , but they do not pose a problem to a causal atomist view of language and meaning . This essay has discussed some of the most popular accounts of meaning assessing positive and negative aspects of each and concluding that the most plausible account of meaning I have found is . Some accounts were dismissed , as they did not completely fit the criteria of a theory of meaning . Accounts that only considered propositions were obviously limited to only explaining the meaning of propositions . Accounts of utterance meaning though also somewhat successful in their own right were also dismissed , as I believe a more basic account is requires . avoids the idea that meaning is derived from intention or that it is affected by the extension of a word . It is also able to give an atomic view of meaning which is something that I consider to be most important . The continued influence of society must also be considered as language and meanings are not fixed and are liable to change .",0 "The objective of this experiment is to determine the reducing sugar content of Jam . Jam contains both reducing sugars ( invert sugar ) and non- reducing sugar ( sucrose ) . < heading > Method A metal dish containing sand and glass were weighed . A minced beef sample were added and re - weighed accurately . The sand and meat were mixed and kept ( with the lid off ) in oven at C for . It was allowed to cool and re - weighed . The dried minced sample were transferred into an extraction thimble and place it in the extractor . A dry extraction flask was weighed and a few anti - bumping granules were added . The flask was connected and the extractor with petroleum ether ( b.p 40 -60ºC ) until the solvent siphons over into the flask . Sufficient solvent were added to fill the extraction flask . The heater was turned and were set , so that the solvent boils gently under reflux ( - 3 drops per ) . It was kept for hrs for extraction , due to time limitations of the practical , but the proper procedures is to extract for . < heading > Results Soxhlet extraction Calculations
According to the data obtained the net weight of the fat at the run is equal to g. The weight of our meat sample equals to 3,0532 g. By dividing the net weight of fat by the weight of our meat sample we can calculate the percent of the fat in our sample . As a result , the percent content of the fat in our sample is equal to FORMULA When we did the similar calculations for the run , we conclude that the percent content is equal to . < heading > Discussions Sinar et al ( ) have suggested limits for fat and moisture content of minced beef . These authors advanced an opinion that the fat content of minced beef should not exceed . Minced meat is defined in "" The and Minced Meat Preparations(Hygiene ) Regulations ( which implements Council Directive / ) as being "" meat which has been minced into fragments or passed through a spiral screw mincer and includes such meat to which not 1 per cent salt has been added "" . These Regulations set compositional requirements for total fat content of pre - packed minced meat of different species sold using specific designations ( see ) . They only apply to products that use the exact wording of the Regulations . The Regulations do not apply to minced meat sold loose in butchers ' shops . There are no statutory limits for the fat content of mince sold as "" lean "" or "" extra / super lean "" . < table/> Fat by acidic extraction3 g of meat were accurately weighed and transferred to a quick fit conical flask of 100ml . of water were added . drops of ammonia solution were added in the fume cupboard and a few boiling chips were added . The mixture was boiled gently until the meat dispersed . of hydrochloric acid were added and it was heated and boiled for and kept for cooling . After that 20ml of ethanol were added and mixed well . The liquid was transferred into a separating funnel . The funnel was stoppered and shaken well for . 25ml of petroleum ether were added and shaken again for . The organic ( upper ) and aqueous ( lower ) were separated . The lower layer ( aqueous ) were ran off and the upper ( organic ) layer collected in a conical flask . The aqueous layer were transferred back into the separating funnel and re - extracted with of petroleum ether . Again the ( aqueous ) into a conical flask . The organic extracts were combined in the separating funnel and washed with of water . The water layer ran off and the organic layer was washed with 25ml of salt solution . The lower ( aqueous ) layer ran off . The organic solution were transferred into a conical flask ad it was shaken with g of anhydrous sodium sulphate to dry it . The organic extract was filtered through a fluted filter paper into a weighed round - bottomed flask . The solvent was evaporated by using a distillation unit with "" tap - off "" and finally the residual solvent was evaporated by using a rotary evaporator until it reached constant weight . The flask was weighed and the percentage of the fat was calculated . < table/>From the results we see that the net weight of fat in our meat sample is g. We have already mentioned that the sample we weighted is g. As a result , we can conclude that in g of the sample the content of fat is 22 g. So the fat content in our sample is . < heading > Determination of fat content of milk ( Gerber method)10 ml of sulfuric acid were put into a milk butyrometer and of milk were added and also of isoamyl alcohol . The butyrometer was stoppered by using the keys . It was placed in the protected stand and inverted . The butyrometer was centrifuged in a Gerber centrifuge at speed ( ) for . After that the butyrometer was placed in a water bath at for . The percentage of fat was directly read off from the scale . < heading > Whole - fat milk
Semi - skimmed did not do any calculations since it the result was straightforward and clear perc by reading the percentage from the scale . < heading > Discussions < /heading > Readings to an accuracy of are usually adequate for routine purposes . As it is difficult to separate the small fat globules in homgenised ( eg.sterilised ) milk , it is advisable to re - centrifuge after warming in the bath until it reaches a maximum .","< heading > Summary of the experimental conditions used Dehydrated beans were provided . They were soaked in water . It was drained and weighed . ( Weight 1900 grams approx . ) The beans were blanched in hot water for . of types of basic sauces was prepared by using the given recipe . The beans were filled into the cans by using different weights g and g respectively . cans of each were filled both recipes of sauces . It was clinched ( sealed ) and exhausted for mins . The cans were sealed by suing the can seamers and checked for seal integrity . The cans filled with peas and sauce was then transferred to a simple vertical batch retort for sterilising the cans . The aim of sterilising is to achieve commercial sterility . A temperature of was carefully maintained for was achieved . The key features are that the temperature and pressure are independently controlled , and that a mechanical fan provides for continual mixing and circulation of the mixture of steam and air within the retort cycle . The input of steam is used to control temperature and the input of compressed air controls pressure . The action of the fans effectively draws the steam - air mixture through the crates of cans before re - circulation around the inner walls of the vessel . of the keys to reducing the thermal damage to products during manufacture is the shortening of the heating and for that matter cooling , times associated with the process . It is clear that the current trend is to minimise the thermal impact of food processes . The heat process is however still and essential element and likely to remain so . This has led the growth in products that have been specially formulated to require a reduced , pasteurisation heat treatment to render them commercially sterile . < heading > Raw material Quality Raw material yields are reduced by the removal of defective and unacceptable product . During the preparations , the raw materials are vulnerable to microbial contamination and growth , which results in spoilage and lowering process . Raw materials should be protected from contamination by human , animal , domestic , industrial , and agricultural wastes that may be present at levels likely to be a hazard to health . They should not be grown in areas where the water used for irrigation might constitute a health hazard to the consumer of the final product . Control measures involving chemical treatment , physical or biological agents should only be undertaken by or under direct supervision of a personnel who has a direct understanding of the potential hazards to health , particularly those that my arise from residues in food . Harvesting and production equipment and containers should be constructed and maintained so they do not constitute a hazard to health . Raw materials that are unfit for human consumption or unacceptable for canning should be segregated at the harvesting and /or production sites and disposed of in a manner to avoid contamination of the raw materials or water supplies . They should be stored under the conditions that provide protection against contamination or to the objectionable substances and minimize damage and deterioration . All steps in the production process should be performed as rapidly as possible and under conditions that will prevent contamination , and deterioration , and minimise the growth of microorganisms in the food . Effective measures should be taken to prevent contamination of by direct or indirect contact with material at an earlier stage of the process . < heading > Product attributes Size and shape Shape , uniformity of shape , freedom from surface irregularities , and size are important processing attributes , especially in high speed mechanised processes . < heading > Colour Raw material colour is a prime attribute ; however it is not always a suitable index of suitability for canning . For e.g. some varieties of apples and pears develop a pink tinge on canning , rhubarb and some cherry varieties become bleached due to migration of colour into canning syrups , and chlorophyll is converted into brown - green phaeophytin during the heat processing of green vegetables < heading > Texture and functional properties < /heading > The texture is very important . The raw material should withstand the mechanical stress incurred during the preparatory and processing operations as well as yield a final product of the desired texture . < heading > Maturity < /heading > The degree of maturity at harvest is the prime factor that influences the quality of the canned product . Penatrometer tests and measurement of the dry matter - acid ratio are acceptable means for determining optimal maturity . Maturity is important in controlling both the quality of the final product and effectiveness of processing . Over maturation results in a high proportion of reject material , excessive product damage , and spoilage during storage . < heading > Mechanical damage ( e.g. ; punctures , abrasions , etc ) < /heading > Mechanisation can cause excessive product damage . Damage increases the risk of mold and rot infections , infestation , and acceleration of enzymatic and chemical spoilage . < heading > Insect , animal , fungal and microbial damages < /heading > All lots should be inspected for evidence of spoilage or insect infestation at the time of delivery . Such problems should be dealt with before the product is brought into the plant to avoid contamination of the raw product . < heading > Extraneous matter < /heading > The cleaning equipment should be sufficiently flexible to allow for the wide variability in the extent and types of contamination encountered in raw materials . Mechanical harvesting has increased the extraneous matter in raw materials . < heading > The role of syrups , brines and sauces < /heading > Water , sugar syrups , and juices are used as a packing media for fruits . The determination of the concentration of sugars in the syrup should take into consideration the quantity and nature of sugars that will be contributed by the fruit and the proportion of fruit to syrup in the container . ( Orial , ) . Both syrup and fruit are generally consumed ; it must have pleasing organoleptic properties . The viscosity is an important factor in the thermal processing as well as organoleptically . The syrup can also be the carrier and supplier of substances to improve the or alter the colour , flavour and texture of the product . Glucose syrups which are products of starch hydrolysis have advantages over syrups made from sucrose only . They are measured according to their dextrose equivalent . ( ) . is a measure of the degree of the conversion of starch to reducing sugars . There are advantages in using a combination of sucrose and glucose syrups over using sucrose alone . The rheological properties can be maintained without excessive sweetness , especially in fruits that have low acid levels . The physico- chemical and organoleptic qualities can be better maintained in glucose syrups then they can in sucrose as they can not be hydrolyzed further even in the presence of very acidic fruits . They have a favourable effect on the product , prevent the flow of aromatic compounds from the fruit to the syrup and moderate the acid taste better than does a sucrose at a given sweetness level . A strong sucrose concentration in the syrup creates a higher gradient between the syrup and the fruit , and favours diffusion of fluids from the fruit to the syrup . During storage , the dry extractable matter diffuses from the syrup into the tissues , which results in an increase drained weight up to the establishment of the final equilibrium . Therefore the yield ( drained weight ) is dependent upon the packing medium composition , the particle size , and the shape of the fruit . < heading > Blanching < /heading > Blanching is carried out in hot water or steam followed by rapid cooling to given to vegetables and some fruit . Blanching removes gases from within the tissue and softens the product . Blanching makes the product easier to fill into the can and obtain the correct weight . The removal of the gas also reduces the oxidation of the product , maintains vacuum in the can , and prevents corrosion . Blanching gives the product another washing treatment and inactivates enzymes which may cause deterioration of the food . Enzyme inactivation is not as important to canned foods as it is for frozen foods , as canned foods receive a far greater heat treatment during thermal processing of the can . Typical blanch times in near boiling water are to secs for small objects , such as green peas and diced carrot , and min for larger peas . Water blanching is of simple design , robust and least expensive to buy . The water flows counter - current to the product flow and is continuously recycled . The water heated by the hot blanched product in the cooling section is cooled in a heat exchanger which in turn is used to heat the water in the preheat section , providing economy in the use of water and energy . is quite common since almost all the canneries have an adequate supply of low - pressure steam . The simplest design has a metal mesh conveyor that moves through a tunnel with steam jets located under the conveyor . To minimise the e loss of steam the ends are closed by curtains . This method is inexpensive and easy to manufacture but they are prone to temperature variations due to the effect of air currents . Blanching under higher steam pressures increase the temperature , improves steam convection , increases the blanching rate , decreases steam loss , and produces higher reduction in the microbial contamination . Airlocks limit the loss of steam and further heat loss by radiation is minimised by appropriate insulation . < heading > Filling < /heading > The primary role of the filling operation is to place a specified quantity ( e.g. weight , number , or volume ) of the product in the container . The quantity that can be added is primarily dictated by the size of the container . Precision and accuracy are dependent upon the type , state , shape , and size of the product . For solid products , the particle size has a direct influence on the fill precision ( i.e. reproducibility).For many products and container types ; an appropriate head space is a critical factor in the attainment of the required vacuum in the sealed container . Excessive head space can result in an excess of air in the final product , which can result in an excess of air in the final product , which can accelerate product oxidation and eventually cause internal container corrosion . Insufficient head space can lead to permanent deformation of the container ends possible leakage due to the expansion of the product and contained gases , which would render the product unsaleable . During thermal processing , the product is in continuous contact with the hot cover liquid osmotic exchanges take place . Therefore , the solid components of some products during thermal treatment and to a lesser degree during storage are going to either take on or lose weight . weights must compensate for any gain or loss . < heading > Exhausting < /heading > Oxygen remaining in the head space of cans accelerate of the tin plate in the head space area . To prevent this occurring , the volume of the gas between the product and the lid of the can ( known as head space ) must contain a partial vacuum . The conventional system of exhausting the can is to clinch the lid on the can . Clinching is a partial , operation seaming roll which holds the lid loosely on the can . Exhausting carried out by passing the filled cans with clinched lids through a steam filled compartment for several mins to heat the can contents and displaces the air in the can with steam . This is immediately followed by completion of the seaming operation . < heading > Sealing Double seam integrity is of paramount importance and the minimum levels of acceptability are essentially the same for both round and irregular shaped cans . identifiable seals are provided within the double seams . The primary seal is produced by embedding the body flange of the can ( referred to as body hook ) into the sealing compound or gasket within the end curl . The secondary seal is created by overlapping of the body hook and end hook within the double seam . The principal aspects of seam formation which provide a leak - free double seam are referred to as the critical parameters of acceptability . These are < list > Body hook butting ( Primary seal formation)Actual overlap ( Secondary formation ) Tightness rating Ensuring the seam is held under sufficient compression ) and finally the seam must be free from visual defects . < /list > Typical critical parameter dimensions for tinplate ends and bodies ( ) minimum for actual overlap , minimum for body hook butting , and minimum tightness rating . However , with the aluminium cans the tightness rating should be minimum . In the canning industry , visual external assessment is an ongoing process with cans from each seaming station . A full tear down of the double seam will be assessed for acceptable seams . < heading > Retorting It is important to distinguish between acid and low acid food .In microbial terms , foods may be readily classified into high acid foods , such as fruits which have pH values of , and low - acid foods which have pH values or greater . Low - acid foods will support the growth of heat resistant , spore - forming , pathogenic organisms and therefore require a relatively severe thermal process to ensure microbial destruction . Process temperatures will be in the region of -130˚ C , where as acid products may be simply pasteurised at temperatures of or even lower . The most heat resistant of the pathogenic organisms is botulinum , and by convention thermal processes are defined in terms relative to the destruction of this organism . Our product cans were loaded by putting in steel crate . The lid was closed and the steam was turned on . Steam is an excellent heat medium because of its ability to condense on container surfaces releasing large amounts of latent heat . The main enemy of efficient heating in a closed vessel ( ) using saturated steam is the presence of entrapped air especially that trapped in the small spaces between containers in the load . Even a small quantity of air has a significant effect upon temperature . For e.g. any given location of air by volume will reduce the temperature by , which will have a dramatic effect on product sterilisation . This means that in order to bring about efficient and uniform heating , air must be purged , or vented from the retort at the start of the process . It was achieved at the start of the operating cycle by introducing high velocity steam into the retort . This steam was allowed to pass through the vessels at the bottom and exit through a vent at the top since the retort was a vertical orientation type . In practice , the efficiency of the venting process can be monitored by measurement of the temperatures in various locations throughout the retort , and the time required to remove all the air is determined experimentally . At the end of the venting time the vent valve was closed and the retort pressurised until the desired temperature was reached . During the hold phase there must be a means for the water generated as steam condenses to escape from the retort , because immersion of the lowest containers in the vessel could result in under sterilisation . This is normally achieved either by a condensate bleed that is permanently open or having the drain cracked slightly open . In either case the absence of water in the base of the retort can be detected by a free flow of steam . On reaching the intended holding temperature the requirements are for a narrow spread of temperatures throughout the vessel and stable control at the intended temperature . For a properly vented steam retort a temperature range of less than 0.5˚C is achievable , and this is a good target for all retort systems , though difficult to achieve in some types . < heading > Cooling < /heading > Once the desired hold period , ( in our case mins ) the retort was cooled . The start of the cooling phase was most critical for ensuring the continued integrity of the processed containers . Water used to cool containers after sterilisation or pasteurisation should be consistently is of low microbial content . For e.g. with an aerobic mesophile count of less than 100c.f.u./ml . Records should be kept of cooling water treatment and its microbiological quality . Although containers may normally be considered hermetically sealed , a small number of containers may allow intake of water during the cooling period mainly due to mechanical stress and pressure differential . To ensure disinfection , chlorine or an alternative disinfectant must be thoroughly mixed with water to a level that minimise the risk of contamination of the contents during cooling . Excessive chlorine level can accelerate corrosion of certain metal containers , so the detectable amounts of residual free chlorine should be within the range of to 2 parts per . The effectiveness of the thermal process to achieve commercial sterility depends upon many factors , including the initial microbial population within the food , the time and temperature of the sterilising process , and a number of product related factors which effectively determine the heating processes which occurs within the can . In microbial terms , food may be readily classified into high acid foods , such as fruits , which have pH values of , and low - acid foods which have values of or greater . Low - acid foods will support the growth of heat resistant , spore - forming , pathogenic organisms and therefore require a relatively severe thermal process to ensure microbial destruction . Process temperatures will be in the region of 115 - 130˚C , whereas acid products may be simply pasteurised at temperatures of or even lower . The most heat resistant pathogen is botulinum , and by convection thermal processes are defined in terms relative to the destruction of this organism . When subjected to heat micro - organisms die in algorithmic manner . The time taken at constant temperature to reduce microbial population to of its former value is itself constant and is known as the decimal reduction time or D value . The D value varies with temperature . As temperature increases micro - organisms die more quickly and the D value decreases . A further parameter , the z value , is used to describe the rate of change of D value with temperature . A rise in temperature of z˚will , by definition , causes a tenfold reduction in the D value . The z value for botulinum is generally recognised to be 10˚C and the D value at ( 250˚F ) , D , is . < heading > Factors affecting heat penetration and severity < /heading> Process - related < /heading>1 . Retort temperature and profile : The higher the temperature the faster the heating rate . Depends on sterilizer type : in static retorts and hydrostatic cookers , the temperature rises slowly and there is a lag in heating the cans ; in rotary cookers the heating starts instantaneously . . Process time : The longer the process time the greater the heat penetration and the nearer to processing temperature the contents become . . Heat transfer medium : The external heat transfer coefficient , h governs the temperature at the surface of the container . Steam has a very high h , but h for water or steam - air mixtures depends on the velocity and geometry factors . . Container agitation : Agitation and rotation improve the internal heat transfer , depending on the amount of headspace , and degree of agitation and rotation . < heading > Product- related < /heading>5.Consistency : The composition , consistency and rheological behaviour control the rate of heat penetration . For products of a thin nature or in thin covering liquid , convection heating occurs , whilst for thicker products heat transfer is mainly by conduction . Some products ( broken - heating ) show both types of heating . . Initial temperature : The higher the initial temperature of the contents the shorter the processing . The process is very sensitive tot the initial temperature , especially for conduction - heating products , which often do not reach process temperature by the end of the process . . Initial spore load : The severity of the process depends on the initial spore load ; good factory hygiene keeps this low . 8.Thermophysical properties : The thermal diffusivity is the controlling factor . This approximates to that of water for most products , but is lower for those which are oil - based and those of low water activity . . Acidity pH : The severity of the process depends on the pH of the product . Products with pH>4.5 require to the severest processes , whilst products with pH<4.5 can be pasteurised ; this includes acidified products . . Additives : Certain additives . E.g. nisin , nitrite , salt , and sugar , reduce the process time . < heading > Packaging - related . Container materials : These include ; tin plate , aluminium , glass , and plastic and laminated materials . The thermal conductivity and thickness of the material determine the rate of heat penetration . The lower the conductivity and the thicker the material , the slower the heating . Container shape : The external surface area and thickness of the container determine the heat penetration rate . The most rapidly heating packages have the highest surface area and thinnest profile . < heading > Heat transfer in canned foods < /heading > Thin liquid products which heat extremely rapidly due to internal convection . E.g. fruit juices , beverages , milk , and thin soups . The thicker the consistency becomes , the slower the hating rate . Liquid products containing solid food . The liquid portion heats rapidly by convection and transfers the heat into particulate by conduction . For products such as peas in brine and strawberries in syrup , the process is determined to a large extent by the solid - liquid ratio and packing style . For larger products such as whole potatoes or celery hearts in brine , heat penetration into the product centre of the product is necessary to ensure an adequate process and sufficient cooking . Solid products in thick covering liquids , such as beans in tomato sauce and thick soups . Depending on the formulation , heating is by convection and then , after thickening by starch gelation , by a conductive mechanism . These products show a heat penetration curve with tow different rates of heating , known as broken - heating curve . Thick products which heat by conduction , and whose thermal diffusivities are about the same as water , there being insufficient or no covering liquid . This covers a wide range of products thick sauces and gravies and solid pack products . Products which start by heating with a conductive mechanism and then , because of thinning due to structures and rheological changes , heat by convection , e.g. some thickened puddings and some tomato juices . Again this produces a broken - heating type of heat penetration curve . Thick products which heat by conduction but have thermal diffusivities less than water , i.e. they have a high fat or sugar content . e.g. fish oil - packed products contain very little water . Sufficient to produce enough steam inside the can to heat the product , e.g. corn on the cob , whole - grain corn and some vegetables . < heading > Safety ( microbiological ) and quality issues involved in canning < /heading > Micro - organisms that contaminate the raw products used in canning directly affect the safety and preservation of the final product . The prime microbiological concerns of canners are : < list > Micro - organisms that may survive the final thermal treatment and subsequently adversely affect the quality and /or safety of the final product;Micro - organisms that can cause adverse changes ( e.g. incipient spoilage ) of the raw products prior to their use in the canning process;Micro - organisms that can contaminate the processing plant environment ( , food contact surfaces , food handlers , finished product handling equipment , etc . ) and may gain entry into the finished product ( post process contamination ) , which affects the quality and/ or safety . < /list> Effect of heat processing on sensory quality < /heading>
",1 "< heading > Introduction In order to communicate successfully , speakers of must be able to distinguish between the sounds of the language . For instance , they must be able to produce and hear the difference between minimal pairs such as tap and tab , or tap and bap . For these pairs it is necessary for the listener to be able to distinguish between the bilabial plosives // and //. , fricatives and plosives are considered to be obstruents and they are thus called because during production there is an obstruction of the airflow in the nose or mouth which causes friction or closure ( Giegerich ) . They can be voiced or voiceless and so pairs can be distinguished by the absence or presence of vocal fold vibration . This can be said to explain how speakers of distinguish between tap and tab , or tap and bap . However , in ' phonologically voiced stops are rarely voiced phonetically , and when they are , they are very rarely fully voiced ' ( Shockey 2003 : ) . The same can be said of all voiced obstruent phonemes in . So if voiced obstruent phonemes are sometimes fully voiced , sometimes partially voiced and sometimes voiceless , is it correct to distinguish pairs of obstruent phonemes by the phenomenon of voicing and moreover , how are speakers able to tell the difference if pairs of obstruent phonemes are not distinguishable by voicing ? < heading>1 . and Lenis In , / / are always voiceless , as are / /. However , / / which are described as being voiced , are not fully voiced in all contexts and indeed there can be very little voicing , particularly in word initial and word final position ( , ) . It can therefore be understood why linguists might find the terms voiced and voiceless as unsatisfactory . Word medial obstruents can be voiced ( for example // in table ) but there is only partial voicing if the phoneme occurs before or after a pause or next to a voiceless phoneme ( O'Connor : ) . In fact , ( : ) marks the chapter headings in her book as ' "" voiced "" ' and ' "" voiceless "" ' , placing them in inverted commas to indicate the phonological difficulty that exists with these terms . The terms fortis and lenis have been suggested as an alternative and instead of concentrating on the voicing phenomenon , this concentrates on the force of articulation . Fortis sounds are said to be produced with greater force and no voicing , lenis sounds are produced with less force and are ' potentially voiced ' ( Collins and Mees 2003 : ) . However , as ( ) highlights , it is very hard to measure and therefore prove force of articulation and so we can only accept that this alternative term might be applicable . Giegerich ( ) does not think that the terms fortis and lenis are an ideal alternative and prefers the terms [ voice ] . This is because , much as the terms [ voice ] do not fully describe what is being produced in all contexts , neither do the terms fortis and lenis . No matter what terms we use to describe these differences between obstruent pairs , speakers of do successfully communicate , although native speakers do not necessarily realise how they are doing this . As changing a phoneme might change the meaning of a word it is important that there is no confusion between // and ( for example pea and bee ) or // and ( for example tied and died ) . In , there are alternative ways of differentiating between // and , even when // is not fully voiced , ( Shockey ) and other pairs of obstruents . These ways can explain why Giegerich ( ) feels that the terms fortis and lenis are not a suitable substitution for the terms [ voice ] in all contexts , because they do not describe the full picture ( or sound in this case ) . < heading>2 . An Phenomenon The lack of a constant voicing contrast between obstruent phonemes is not a feature common to all languages . A , // for example is always fully voiced , where ' vibration commences prior to release and continues into the articulation of the following vowel ' ( : ) . An // can be neutral , ' where closure release and the onset of voicing coincide ' ( : ) . However , this is the same as for a // and so confusion for a non - native speaker of would not be surprising . In // is always voiceless unaspirated ( as in peau ) and // is always fully voiced ( as in beau ) ( : ) . In // is sometimes fully voiced , partially voiced or devoiced and whereas // is always voiceless , it is accompanied by aspiration in syllable initial contexts ( Shockey ) , which is vital for speakers to notice . This comparison highlights why the term [ voice ] is inadequate and why only obstruents have the fortis - lenis distinction applied , as there is the need for a term which accommodates the phenomenon for potential voicing present in . < heading>3 . Syllable initial obstruents3.1 and or fortis obstruents ( that is to say , plosives , fricatives and affricates ) are always voiceless in word initial position . However , the manner of articulation can vary . The plosives / / are heavily aspirated in syllable initial position in ( O'Connor ) . For example , strong plosion during the post - release phase of the // in [ ] allows a listener of to hear the word pin and not the word . Likewise , we can compare the minimal pair pay and bay . // is often either voiceless or partially voiced in this context , as is the // in pay but aspiration after the // means that the words can be distinguished because there is weak plosion after //. The terms voiced and voiceless do not describe the difference between syllable initial / / because both are voiceless . The difference here is aspiration , which and view as a ' delay in the resumption of the voicing position by : ) . However , in // + / / clusters , this contrast is neutralised ( compare [ ] and [ ] ) and / / become unaspirated and sound similar to / / ( Roach 1991 : ) . However , / / can not be preceded by another consonant and are produced with less force of articulation and so therefore confusion is avoided ( ) . Similarly , if syllable initial / / are followed by of / / ( CCV ) then there is some devoicing of / /. For example the // in light is more voiced than in plight and without this devoicing the listener would hear the word blight ( ) . The same problem applies to the affricates // and // as illustrated by the minimal pair chap and Jap . Again , a small amount of aspiration following the voiceless sound allows the listener to hear [ ] and not [ ] ( Gimson 1994 : ) and thus avoid confusion . < heading>3.2 Fricatives < /heading > Voiced fricatives are only fully voiced when adjoining sounds are voiced . In word initial position there is partial or complete devoicing of / /. How then is it possible to distinguish between van and fan if /f/ is voiceless and /v/ devoiced and therefore pronounced [ ] ? Here , the fortis and lenis difference is important as / / are ' stronger sounds , with more obvious friction , than / / ' ( O'Connor : ) . , ( ) highlights that it is not only the force of closure that makes the pairs sound different , but also what follows the consonant . following the fortis phonemes are longer ' in all contexts than the lenis ' ( O'Connor : ) . For example , compare again fan with van . This is particularly noticeable in long vowels and diphthongs ( ) . < heading>4 . Syllable final obstruents Again , all voiceless obstruents are voiceless in word final position , but voiced obstruents show little voicing , unless the neighbouring sound is voiced ( Ladefoged 1982 ) . In order to tell the difference between minimal pairs such as safe and save the preceding vowel sound is important . This is because ' vowels are shorter before all voiceless consonants than before all voiced consonants ' ( Ladefoged 1982 : ) , otherwise known as pre - fortis clipping . This can be illustrated in the following diagram : FORMULA FORMULA The same applies to all plosives , fricatives and affricates termed to be voiced , but which may be fully voiced , or partially voiced in syllable final position ( 1994 ) . The plosives / / might not always be fully voiced , but the preceding vowel keeps its full length . Compare for example bung and bunk and notice that there is pre - fortis clipping in bunk but that bung retains a full vowel length . With voiceless plosives this observation does not only apply to vowel length . When of / / are followed by of / / , / / will be shortened ( ) . An illustration of this is mall and malt . Pre - fortis clipping is not the only phenomenon for distinguishing phonemes in word final position . The voiced affricate // in cadge for instance will not only be preceded by a longer vowel length than its voiceless counterpart // in catch but it will also be produced with fuller voicing ( Brown : ) . This is a similar case for plosives . The // in [ ] is preceded by a longer vowel sound than in bit . However , here the // is produced with tight voicing and there is also some glottalization before the // which is not present in bid ( : ) . This glottalization only appears with voiceless plosives in syllable final position ( Giegerich ) . It is both glottalization and pre - fortis clipping which distinguishes // from ( [ ] vs. [ ] Harris ) . < heading > Conclusion As discussed , voicing ' ... is not a feature that can be entirely and exclusively relied upon in the determination of obstruent phonemes ' ( Giegerich : ) as it does not provide a true description of what happens in . As discussed , voiced obstruent phonemes are always voiced and voiceless obstruents are always voiceless . However obstruents labelled as voiced are not always fully voiced and are sometimes even voiceless . listeners rely on features such as aspiration , pre - fortis clipping and glottalization to tell the difference between pairs of obstruent phonemes in syllable initial and final position . For example , it is not voicing that the listener relies on to distinguish plosives , but aspiration ( syllable initial position ) and pre - fortis clipping ( as also applies for fricatives and affricates ) and glottalization ( syllable final position ) . Whilst the feature of fortis and lenis is particularly useful for distinguishing voiced and voiceless fricatives in syllable initial position , it is not a suitable alternative for the terms voiced and voiceless in all contexts , as the listener of relies on other features as mentioned above . However , the feature of voicing is not a constant contrast either and yet this is the term used to distinguish obstruent phonemes . In conclusion , as O'Connor states , the listener of ' should n't concentrate on feature ' ( : ) for all contexts . It should also be noted that these findings are based on accents of . In and accents for example , / / are barely aspirated and so it is in fact very hard for listeners to hear the difference between / / and / / ( O'Connor ) .","< heading > Introduction In approaching this question I shall be focusing on the issue of instruction and I feel that this is a particularly central issue with regards my experience of learning . This was not an ideal learning experience , and I shall examine what instruction was missing from it and what instruction would have helped to make it more successful . I shall examine therefore , how instruction affected my learning experience . There are several different methods of instruction , all of which focus on a particular area of language learning theory and suggest particular methods of teaching , some more controversial than others . By focusing on instruction , I will be looking at what I was getting from the environment , that is to say , from the coursebook and tape . Hence , my aim here is to conclude which language learning theory ( or theories ) the coursebook and tape is most closely focused on , the limitations and benefits of these theories and what would have enhanced my learning experience . < heading>1 . learning experience : I I will examine here the type of instruction received . A fuller analysis of the coursebook can be found in appendix . < heading The introductory section was a section which relied almost solely on the cassette and involved listening to and repeating words in order to get used to hearing and pronouncing sounds . This was an important section as my aim was to learn how to speak and listen to , but not to write the script . However , there was no supporting visual aid to this section , which meant that while I was able to repeat the sounds that I was hearing , I did not know what the corresponding written form of the sound was . It was a lengthy exercise , with long periods of sitting and listening but no active participation on my part . Knowing what words I was pronouncing would have added meaning to the task and would have been a good introduction to some basic vocabulary which could have then been more formally introduced in the initial sections . Therefore , when it came to continuing with the course , I did not have a useful model of pronunciation to listen to on which to base words I was coming across in sections to 6 . It was not just pronunciation difficulties which arose . Lessons tended to jump into dialogues and straight back out again . These dialogues were relied upon to create some contextual embedding but perhaps a more detailed introduction to the topic area would have prepared me more for the dialogue . What I was learning were isolated decontextualised pieces of language and I found the exercises where I had to construct new sentences ( for example exercise of lesson in Rafiee 2005 : ) very hard . This is because I only felt that I had learnt complete structures and I did not know how to break these structures down in order to create new sentences . More instruction might have better prepared me for these types of exercises . of my biggest failings was memory . Whilst learning is down to me ( i.e. nobody can do the learning for me ) , instruction would have made my task easier . I found that in a lot of the exercises where the student has to practice the forms and vocabulary presented , new vocabulary was expected to be used . As I was not yet comfortable with the original forms and vocabulary , the introduction of new vocabulary in the practice exercises was stressful . A greater number of exercises which practised solely forms and vocabulary already met would have been beneficial , especially as items were generally only presented once and it appears to have been assumed that if an item had been presented , it had been understood and learnt . Finally , and most importantly , feedback was only supplied in the additional micro - teaching sessions . More feedback would have led to correction of pronunciation , a review of my performance and would have allowed me to check my grammar comprehension . < heading>2 . What is necessary in order to learn an L2 ? < /heading > According to ( : ) , ' any theory of language learning that leads to a single method is obviously wrong ' and methods which support a single theory can only be correct ' with certain interpretations under certain conditions ' ( : ) . Spolsky therefore devised a general theory of language learning comprising necessary conditions which a learner needs to be able to learn a L2 . I will focus on these conditions when assessing what was missing from my language learning experience . They are as follows : Analysis : Learners need to be able to break down and analyse a language . Recombination : Learners must be able to take elements learnt and put them together in different ways . This is more difficult for beginners , particularly in informal situations . Contextual embedding : Learners need to see how things work in a context and how items learnt fit into a bigger picture . Isolated pieces of grammar and vocabulary are not very beneficial to the learner . Matching : Learners need to match what they are producing against some kind of target , such as a native speaker . This allows them to hear discrepancies and overcome differences in production . Memory : The ability to retain things is an important part of learning a language . Practice : Repeated output is needed in order to achieve a certain level of fluency . ( Spolsky ) Of course , some things are more difficult to teach , such as accent and intonation , but all of the above conditions can be enhanced through formal ( classroom ) or informal ( natural ) instruction . In a natural learning environment , the conditions of matching , recombination and contextual embedding will dominate ( Spolsky ) . In a classroom environment , these conditions will be present , but not so predominantly , because there will be less native speakers ( usually only the teacher ) , limited recombination as the teacher chooses the focus , and contextual embedding will usually have to be imagined in tasks ( Spolsky ) . However , in formal instruction the condition of analysis dominates as there is often some focus on form , even in communicative approaches . Using 's general theory of language learning it is possible to see what aspects were missing from my experience of learning Whilst there was an attempt at analysis in the coursebook , 's necessary condition , there was a tendency for whole structures to be taught , with some analysis but no complete breakdown of structures . This made recombination difficult , stressful and frustrating . Hence , 's condition could not be fully met . Greater thought was needed to contextualise the material , and so the condition was not fully met either . I have also already made mention of the pronunciation difficulties which arose and whilst the cassette was used for the dialogues , it was not used extensively , especially when other new vocabulary was introduced . As a beginner , greater use of the cassette in the course would have given a target to focus on and 's condition of matching would have been more fully met . Finally , as already suggested , there were not enough exercises focusing on the practice of new forms and so I was not confident in using them or new vocabulary . A greater focus on this condition ( number ) , perhaps making use of the cassette , would have also helped with 's condition of memory . So whilst the coursebook does show elements of 's necessary conditions , it does not meet them fully and therefore there were limitations in the success of the instruction received . < heading>3 . Types of instruction The coursebook is not based on 's general theory , but is most likely closely linked to ideas of instruction based on one ( or more ) theories of language learning . Form - focused instruction refers to ' any planned or incidental instructional activity that is intended to induce language learners to pay attention to linguistic form ' ( Ellis 2001:1 - 2 ) . Having examined a general theory of what is necessary in order to learn a L2 , I will now examine principal types of form - focused instruction , and an example of language teaching theory relevant to each type . < heading > Focus on forms In this method , structures , words and grammatical rules are broken down and taught to the learner . With the help of teaching materials and the teacher , the learner then puts these parts back together again ( Long and Robinson ) . Teaching follows a more traditional approach and the language is studied as an object , the aim of a lesson being to acquire a particular form , preselected by the teacher ( Ellis ) . An example of teaching which follows this type of teaching is ( GT ) method , where the aim of teaching is to illustrate a grammatical point ( ) . However , here I will examine the theory of cognitive code which can be described as approach to the method ( ) . < heading>3.1.1 Cognitive Code Cognitive Code relies on task - based teaching . A grammatical form is explicitly taught , what calls declarativization , where the teacher explains how ' some aspect of language "" works "" ' ( 2001 : ) . This is the presentation stage . The next stage is proceduralization , whereby the new rule is practiced ( in for example , gap filling and memory exercises ) by at giving it concentration and then slowly introducing other items until the rule is no longer directly focused on in tasks , and the learner is able to produce it with ease , otherwise known as progressive form defocus ( or ra - 1 , where ra = required attention ) ( Johnson 1996 : ) . This progressive automatization is especially important so that items are not proceduralized incorrectly . It is for this reason that ( ) highlights that both stages are necessary in the DECPRO model , that is to say the process of going from declarative knowledge ( knowing about the language ) to procedural knowledge ( being able to use the language ) . This model for learning is therefore very similar to Palmer 's PPP model of Presentation ( declarativization ) , ( proceduralization ) and Production ( proceduralization by progressive form defocus ) ( 1996 ) . The traditional method was strong on and controlled , but there was little Production , and so items were not produced automatically . Task - based teaching often only focuses on the proceduralization stage , but declarative knowledge is vital too and ( ) stresses the importance of a learning model which includes both . This is because fluency depends on procedural learning , whereby the learner stores information in their working memory in order to concentrate their efforts on ' comprehending and conveying meanings clearly ' ( Johnson 1996 : ) . However , in order to work through hesitations , the learner is relying on declarative knowledge , held in their long term memory . Successful instruction must therefore take into account this learning theory . < heading>3.1.2 Limitations Often , DECPRO learning can lead to declarative knowledge disappearing . For example a person might only be able to remember a telephone number by actually dialling the number , a type of habit formation consistent with behaviourist theory . However , when a learner encounters a new verb , they still need to be able to rely on declarative knowledge in order to be able to conjugate it . It is therefore necessary to ' develop teaching strategies for maintaining declarative representations when they are in danger of disappearing ' ( Johnson 1996 : ) . This is because ' if exercises to help embed declarative knowledge in the mind are rushed , declarative knowledge can not be developed ' ( Dekeyser 1998 : ) . In the DECPRO model , the learner must be consciously aware of rules for proceduralization to take place . Instruction is therefore important but explanations should not be too long , as they can prove complicated for the learner and can get in the way of acquisition and ' hinder performance ' ( 2001 : ) . A way around this might be to simplify rules initially in order to allow for DECPRO , and then introduce more complexity at a later stage . Declarative knowledge should be practiced and developed in order to lead to proceduralization and this production stage is difficult to achieve in the instruction environment ( ) . It is necessary for the learner to practise their production in the real world ( Ellis , ) and for classroom input to be meaningful ( Carroll ) . < heading > Focus on form In focus on form , new rules are still seen to benefit from instruction . However , this type of instruction contrasts with focus on forms because it is not pre - planned but is ' learner - initiated ' ( Long and Robinson 1998 : ) whereby any focus on linguistic items occurs as they arise in the class and the learner ' focuses on form by comparing their output with the input ' ( Long and Robinson : ) . The aim is to enhance communicative based input in order to increase salience so that certain forms stand out to the learner , known as the noticing hypothesis as put forward by ( , in Ellis ) . The learning theory behind this method , based on general cognitive theory , is that ' acquisition occurs as a result of frequent exposure to a target feature ' ( Ellis 2001 : ) . In instruction therefore , tasks are similar to communicative tasks , but they are more focused so as to concentrate implicitly on a particular form . Focus on form can also be more explicit . A communicative task can be set and then focus on form occurs when student or teacher has noticed a problem or potential problem ( Ellis ) . < heading > Noticing Hypothesis Focus on form instruction is at the centre of the noticing hypothesis ( Ellis ) . Learners do not learn rules , as in focus on forms instruction , but are exposed to raw data , which contains examples of the rules . Thus , language is an object which is used to ' fill - out , tune or reset an already existing set of linguistic principles and parameters ' ( Sharwood Smith : ) . The difference between ' acquiring knowledge and acquiring control ' ( Sharwood Smith : ) is noted , whereby a learner acquires new vocabulary and rules ( knowledge ) but will not immediately have the control to be able to use this knowledge fluently . Proficiency will come as the learner acquires greater control through input enhanced instruction ( Tonkyn 2005 ) . There are types of input enhancement : positive input enhancement makes the correct forms salient and negative input enhancement highlights incorrect output produced by the learner ( Smith ) . Teachers can either give the correct form , or highlight the incorrect form . For instance , teachers can flag errors in their feedback , often through stress or intonation , allowing the learner to self - correct . < heading>3.2.2 Limitations With focus on form instruction , acquisition can not be assumed . Input from instruction ' may or may not be registered ' ( Sharwood Smith : ) and therefore the learner may still not produce the correct output . This is because when processing input , learners either take note of meaning ( short term memory ) or form ( long - term memory ) . Teachers must be aware of the difference between input ( what the learner is exposed to ) , and intake , which is what is actually taken in by the learner ( Smith ) . Just because a form has been made salient does not mean that the learner has either noticed it , or , if they have noticed it , acquired it . They may be able to use a particular form in ideal conditions , but this is different from using it in the real world ( Johnson 1996 ) . For this reason , it is important to start with rules in their simplest forms and bring in more complex parts as simpler rules are mastered ( Tonkyn 2005 ) . < heading > Focus on Meaning In focus on meaning instruction , the L2 is learnt incidentally , much like in . Languages are treated not ' as an object of study ' but as ' a medium of communication ' ( Long and Robinson : ) . Unlike focus on forms and focus on form instruction , input is not modified in advance , but instead the internal , natural syllabus of the learner is relied upon . Acquisition is therefore unconscious as learners ' attend only to the content of what they want to communicate ' ( Ellis 2001 : ) . < heading>3.3.1 Monitor Theory Krashen 's Monitor theory ( appendix ) views instruction as a source of comprehensible input a little beyond the level of the learner , particularly beginners , with little or no formal grammar instruction ( Chaudron ) . Krashen and and ( ) are methods of meaning focused instruction based on this learning theory . Both methods are based on the idea that formal grammar instruction is a fairly recent phenomenon and that there are in fact very few ' learnable rules ' ( Ellis 1994 : ) . Formal instruction therefore has a limited place in these methods , and learners should favour comprehensible input from the real world over instruction . Both and 's methods rely heavily on comprehensible input as the main form of instruction and the primary focus is not on form , but meaning . In the stages of 's method the learner receives comprehensible input through the aid of physical activity but is not expected to speak . L2 acquisition is treated in the same way as L1 acquisition and learners are initially only expected to physically respond to commands ( and ) . When the learner is ready , they will produce output , in the form of - word utterances . Finally , and again only when ready , the learner produces short phrases until they are at the stage to benefit from real world input ( Krashen ) . The belief is that the language classroom ' can not provide all acquirers with the specific kinds of input they need to function in the outside world ' ( Krashen : ) . follows a similar pattern . Skills are acquired in the order of listening , speaking , reading and writing , much as they would be acquired in the L1 and to do this the teacher provides comprehensible input in the L2 ( Krashen and Terrell ) . The level of response expected from the student is gradually raised ( responses are not expected to be verbal in the very early stages ) . As the goal is communicative , the syllabus is organised by topic , not grammatical structures based on the theory that ' if goals are grammatical , some grammar will be learned and very little acquired ' ( Krashen and Terrell : ) . That is not to say that grammar does not have a place , but conscious learning of the rules is considered to be of little benefit to the learner ( Chaudron ) . < heading>3.3.2 Limitations Meaning - focused instruction is not well suited to older learners as they do not have the same ability to learn through exposure alone as they did when they acquired their L1 . They are therefore able to become fluent but will struggle to become native - like ( Long and Robinson ) . In fact , both adults and children can struggle and often would benefit from increased salience , especially in the area of grammar . This is because if communication has been successful , errors in grammar are not corrected ( Krashen and Terrell ) but there is then a risk of fossilisation and even after real - world exposure , learners may continue to make the same errors . Meaning - focused communicative approaches can not therefore easily lead to native speaker proficiency ( and ) . < heading>4 . learning experience : II As a result of this examination of types of instruction , each based on a different theory of language learning , I can now view my learning in a more informed light . On the surface it appears to focus on meaning because it is organised by topic and aims to teach colloquial , including culture , with little focus on the written language . However , in the focus on meaning method of instruction , emphasis is on comprehensible input , which was not the main method of the coursebook . The dialogues in each lesson were a way of introducing new raw data for the learner , and so in this way , one might conclude that instruction focuses on form . However , in the coursebook , instruction of forms is pre - planned , suggesting a focus on forms approach to teaching . So , upon closer analysis it becomes clear that generally speaking , the coursebook used focuses on forms . Each lesson has a clear grammatical item or structure as its central core and some of the exercises used are similar to those highlighted by ( ) such as fill in the gap exercises . However , 's method stresses the importance of a balance between declarative knowledge , prominent in the coursebook , and procedural knowledge , which is the coursebook 's weak point . There is little attempt at progressive form defocus in the exercises enabling confident use of structures . This lack of emphasis on proceduralization is , I believe , the course 's biggest failing . Had exercises been less rushed , declarative knowledge would have been developed and new information activated . More time spent practising would have led to forms being proceduralised and the inclusion of production , perhaps by making greater use of the cassette , would have enhanced the learning experience . The micro - session with the native speaker was extremely helpful for this exact reason , as it prepared students for real world communication , and because it allowed learners to match their production against a native speaker , which is 's necessary condition for successful language learning . The micro - teaching sessions also acted as revision sessions , which stopped each lesson from becoming an isolated unit of work . A strong point of the course is that it does not allow declarative knowledge to disappear , a point which ( ) stresses to be important . Exercises introduce new verbs and vocabulary so students have to draw on declarative knowledge in order to complete the exercises . However , these s types of exercises should come after a greater number of practice exercises , in order for some proceduralization to have taken place . Similarly , paradigms and structures should be broken down and analysed in greater depth in order for the student to be able to call on their declarative knowledge when asked to do exercises which ask them to recombine knowledge and form new sentences . ( ) also emphasised the importance of analysis and recombination in successful language learning . Whilst Rafiee ( ) does explicitly present the grammar , it is not explicitly taught through the exercises and cassette tape . Greater focus on practice , important for successful language learning according to ( ) , and production using the available materials ( especially the cassette ) would also have improved the success of the course and led to improved automatisation according to ( ) . In the focus on meaning approach , presentation of a rule is enough and there is no need for it to be explicitly taught , but here , instruction focuses on forms and presentation is not sufficient . The aim of this course is to communicate successfully in , but there is in fact very little practice at communicating and pronunciation errors may fossilise . < heading > Conclusion Many questions remain to be asked about the issue of instruction in language teaching , which I have not addressed here . Studies investigating whether or not instruction can alter the course of language acquisition , the effect of instruction on language acquisition ( see Harley for a more detailed discussion ) and whether instruction can make a difference ( see Long ) have often concluded that instruction is beneficial . Similarly , research into what types of instruction are the most beneficial is still ongoing . However , more research is needed in this broad area in order to really reach a conclusion about the benefits or otherwise of formal instruction and answering these questions is not the aim here . The type of instruction received in the coursebook had its limitations , and by relating this to theories , this explains the difficulties faced in my language learning experience . The instruction in my learning experience focuses largely on a focus on forms method , but also in part focuses on meaning because the overall aim of the course is verbal communication in colloquial . Whilst ( ) writes that a theory should not focus on method , I think that as a beginner learning , the hardest thing was that lessons appeared to focus on methods : focus on meaning and focus on forms . Concentrating on very different methods makes it difficult for a learner to concentrate both on meaning and on forms , particularly when learning a language so very different from any they have met before . Difficulties also arose because of the emphasis on declarative knowledge and the neglect at transforming this knowledge into procedural knowledge . Explicit focus on forms which is declarative biased does not lead to acquisition according to 's DECPRO model ( ) and based on my language learning experience I would be inclined to agree .",1 "< heading>1.0 Introduction1.1 Essay aims In this essay , I will begin by defining what a ' phonological process ' is . I will then look at phonological processes in more detail , discussing their use in language acquisition and examining the various factors influencing phonological processes before evaluating the theory of phonological processes as a whole . < heading>1.2 Definition of a phonological process Within language acquisition , ( ) writes that there are common theories of child language perception and production . Global perception theory , which suggests the child can not perceive many adult speech sounds and so uses their own system of language . Complete perception theory which suggests the child can perceive all adult forms and that variations in pronunciation are due to the child 's production ability not being as developed as its perception ability and partial perception theory which suggests the child can perceive all but the most difficult sounds . Stampe ( ) writes that there is "" abundant evidence that the child 's representations closely conform to adult speech "" and that this claim is "" essential "" to the theory of phonological processes . Furthermore , he writes the "" no evidence whatsoever "" has been advanced to suggest that child has a phonetic system of its own . These statements show that is clearly taking a complete perception stance in relation to the theory of phonological processes . Furthermore , the global perception theory is being rejected outright . Stampe ( ) states that "" A phonological process is a mental operation that applies in speech to substitute , for a class of sounds or sound sequences presenting a specific common difficulty to the speech capacity of the individual "" and that "" A phonological process merges a potential phonological opposition into that member of the opposition which least tries the restrictions of the human speech capacity "" . What is suggesting is that when a child is unable to produce a sound , they will employ some form of substitution to the word to make it producible . However , is keen to stress "" These substitutes are not merely random or occasional , but are regular and unexceptional in the child 's speech . "" It is also important to note , that Stampe believes children do not use phonological processes because of a physical inability to create a sound , but rather due to a mental inability . As he writes "" It is not uncommon to produce a sound correctly at and later submit it to substitution "" which suggests the child is physically able to make the sound . A similar view to the theory of phonological processes was put forward by smith ( ) who proposed a set of "" realisation rules "" for explaining ' errors ' in his sons speech . Smith writes these rules are "" strictly ordered and any adult form will be subject to any rules which is applicable "" This viewpoint differs slightly from ( ) who writes "" different children acquire sounds and sound - patterns in quite different orders "" although he does admit "" This is not to deny that certain orders of acquisition are fixed "" Even Smith ( ) later admits "" there are a few exceptions "" . This would seem to suggest that there are some aspects of variation between children that phonological processes and complete perception theory as a whole can not account for , but I shall return to this point later . < heading>2.0 How children use phonological in Fletcher and ( ) , and state that "" In several ways children 's words carry less phonological information that the corresponding adult targets "" This would seem to suggest that in order to communicate , the child is changing the adult form into a form that they can produce . Menn and agree and also suggest that "" children usually have systematic ways "" of reducing these forms . Stampe ( ) writes that children have an "" innate phonological system "" and that the child 's task in acquiring adult pronunciation is to "" revise all aspects of the system which separate his pronunciation from the standard "" and that this is done by removing those phonological processes that are not compatible with the adult form . There are main categories of phonological processes identified by Ingram in Fletcher and ( ) that the child may use to simplify the adult form to aid with production . Due to the space constraints of this essay , I will not go into detail , or attempt to list each one but I feel a brief summary of some common Phonological processes would be beneficiary to help understand the ways in which children change their production of speech using phonological processes . < heading>2.1 Substitution processes Ingram writing in Fletcher and ( ) , states that often a child will substitute the accepted adult sound for a different type of sound . In Fletcher and summarises the various types of substitution processes as the following . < heading>2.11 Stopping Ingram defines stopping as when "" fricatives and occasionally other sounds , are replaced with a stop consonant "" an example of this would be if a word like ' ( f)eel ' was pronounced ' ( p)eel ' . An important point about stopping that notes is that "" While stopping is common , the actual patterns of its application by individual children are not "" . This is interesting , as again it suggests a large amount of variation between each child 's language acquisition which would seem to favour the global perception theory of language acquisition . < heading > 2.12 Fronting Ingram defines fronting as when "" Velar and palatal consonants tend to be replaced with alveolar ones "" examples of which would be if ' ( c)ar ' was pronounced ' ( t)ar ' or if ' ( Sh)oe ' was pronounced ' su ' . Ingram also makes that point that often children may front velar consonants but not palatal consonants or vice - versa . Furthermore children may also combine fronting with stopping such as if ' ( j)am ' was pronounced ' ( d)am ' . Yet again , this demonstrates the individual variation between children . < heading>2.13 Gliding Ingram defines gliding as when "" a glide [ w ] or [ j ] is substituted for a liquid sound , i.e. [ l ] or [ r ] "" an example of which would be if ' ( r)ed ' was pronounced ' ( w)ed ' . Ingram comments that children substitute glides very differently to children . He then suggests that "" the substitutions used in phonological processes may be highly influenced by the child 's phonological system , not just by universal tendencies "" . < heading>2.2 Assimilatory processes Writing in Fletcher and ( ) Ingram states that children often have "" tendencies to assimilate segment in a word to another "" . This is known as an assimilatory process . In Fletcher and , Ingram summaries the various types of assimilatory processes as follows . < heading>2.21 Voicing Ingram writes that "" consonants tend to be voiced when preceding a vowel , and devoiced at the end of a syllable "" This can be illustrated with the example given by Ingram of ' ( p)i(g ) ' being pronounced ' ( b)i(k ) ' . Similar to the point discussed in says that voicing of prevocalic consonants has only been documented as occurring in . This suggests a child 's phonological inventory may have an influence on its phonological processes . < heading>2.22 Consonant Harmony Ingram writes that consonants often assimilate to a neighbouring consonant in predictable ways . This can occur when a consonant assimilates to a velar or labial consonant as well as when a nasal consonant denasalizes in the neighbourhood of a non - nasal consonant . < heading>2.3 Syllable structure processes Ingram states that there are "" specific phonological processes which are directly motivated by the tendency of young children to simplify syllable structure "" and that most children aim for a basic consonant - vowel syllable structure . Writing in Fletcher and summarises the following syllable structure processes . < heading>2.31 Cluster reduction Ingram defines cluster reduction as when "" A consonant cluster is reduced to a single consonant "" . Examples of this are given as when ' play ' is pronounced ' pe ' and ' train ' is pronounced ' tren ' . Ingram also states that this is one of the most commonly observed processes in children and that not only is it predictable , but also the "" direction of deletion "" is , in most cases predictable . This shows that this process at least , is highly regular . This would therefore be a very strong example of 's definition of a phonological process . < heading>2.32 Deletion of final consonants Ingram defines this process as when "" a ( consonant - vowel - consonant ) syllable is reduced to a ( consonant - vowel ) by deleting the final consonant "" . Ingram gives examples of this as when ' bib ' is pronounced ' bi ' and bike is pronounced ' bai ' . < heading>2.33 Deletion of unstressed syllables Ingram states that this process is when "" an unstressed syllable is deleted , especially if it precedes a stressed syllable "" . An example of this is given as when ' potato ' is pronounced ' dedo ' . < heading>2.34 Reduplication Ingram states reduplication is when "" In a multisyllabic word , the initial syllable is repeated "" . Examples of this include when ' cookie ' is pronounced ' gigi ' and when ' daddy ' is pronounced ' dada ' . Ingram states that this is an early process and as such is lost relatively early in the child 's development . Ingram also makes the comment that "" children vary greatly in their tendencies to reduplicate "" . This is again showing the variation between individual children , suggesting that reduplication processes of this kind are often not easily predictable . < heading>3.0 Factors influencing use of phonological processes3.1 Language acquisition Within various languages there is a huge amount of variation between what constitutes a recognisable member of a language 's phonological inventory and therefore a large variation between the various sounds that occur in each language . Stampe ( ) writes "" non - occurrence of certain sounds in the underlying representation of a language is attributed to a process in the phonological system of the language "" . What is suggesting is that there are variations in phonological processes between languages and that these are due to variation in the phonological system of the language used . Writing in Fletcher and ( ) Ingram suggests that an example of this is denalisation which defines as when "" a nasal consonant will denasalize in the neighbourhood of a non - nasal consonant "" . Denasalisation is very rarely found in but is very common in children . Ingram writes that in , there is a tendency to have initial stress of a word , where as in there is not . Ingram therefore concludes that "" a specific language may have phonological characteristics that bring out certain processes "" . As well as the examples given in this essay ( and ) , this example seems to agree with Stampe in that both believe children 's phonological processes are influenced by the characteristics of the language they speak . < heading>3.2 Context dependency Stampe ( ) states that phonological processes are either context free or context sensitive . Stampe writes that context free processes "" respond to the inner complexities of single segments "" whereas context sensitive processes "" respond to the complexities of sequences of segments "" . This is summarised well by and writing in Fletcher and ( ) who write context free rules "" apply to a given sound or class of sound in all cases "" while in context sensitive processes ( or context dependant processes as and call them ) "" the fate of the target sound depends on its position in the word or syllable and/or on other sounds in the word "" To illustrate these types of processes and give examples . The is when the child replaces all adult /l/ 's with /w/. Here , the process is only concerned with /l/ and /w/ and none of the other segments around it . Furthermore , as this happens in all cases it is a context free process . The example is when ' cookie ' is pronounced ' tUki ' . This is an example of when velars are produced accurately except when found in word initial position , when they are replaced by alveolars . This is an example of a context sensitive ( context dependant ) process as the process is clearly influenced by the surrounding segments . more point and make is that context dependant processes are much more common than context free ones . This would seem to suggest the child is n't simply learning the sounds of adult speech but also how they are combined in sequence . Menn and acknowledge this and write "" we consider children as learning to master adult sound sequences as well as adult sounds "" . Furthermore , this is proved by the observation that "" a child may well be able to make all the individual sounds in a sequence , yet be unable to combine them and produce the sequence itself . "" < heading>4.0 Evaluation of the Phonological processes theory Through - out this essay , I have given several examples of cases of variation between children . This is the most obvious and main criticism of the phonological processes theory - the fact that the theory seems to underestimate the influence of individual variation between children . Writing in Fletcher and ( ) , Ingram suggests that phonological processes fail to take into account the influence of the phonological preferences of the child . Ingram defines a phonological preference as "" a preference by the child for a specific articulatory pattern "" such as class ( fricative , nasal etc ) or syllable structure ( reduplication etc . ) . Ingram goes on to note that a child may also be influenced by factors such as the place of a sound in a word , or may even avoid using a sound they are unable to produce rather than attempt to modify it by a phonological process . As a result , Ingram states "" the output from child to child may be quite different "" However , also states that "" some children keep very close to adult models and use only the most familiar phonological processes "" if this is the case for the majority of children ( notes there has not been enough research to conclude if this is the case ) then it may be the phonological processes theory holds correct for the majority of children , although it must still acknowledge that some variation exists . Stampe ( ) does make some attempt to account for this variation , suggesting that "" where processes overlap "" the child will attempt to either suppress or limit a certain process which he then claims is what leads to individual variation . Ingram ( ) writes that this claim is "" one of 's major ways of accounting for individual variation between children "" . The problem with this idea is that it still does n't explain why child limits a certain process that another child may suppress entirely . Indeed by admitting individual variation but being unable to account for it in a way that the idea of phonological preferences can would seem to give support to the global perception theory discussed earlier . It would however be foolish not to acknowledge the relevance of 's phonological processes as common across child acquisition . Ingram ( ) writes that "" general patterns do occur "" and Smith ( ) states that of A`s vocabulary can be explained by his realisation rules , although concedes that there are exceptions where "" the rules make the wrong predictions "" Other theories such as and recounted in ( ) have suggested that making predictions of language acquisition based on a phonological theory of the adult language is not the best approach to take . Instead , they emphasise individual variation across children . This criticism of 's theory does n't seem to hold up to close scrutiny . It is quite obvious that when acquiring language the child 's goal is to emulate adult speech and therefore a method that evaluates child language in terms of the adult language system ( such as 's ) would be preferable . Furthermore although I have already shown a problem of the phonological processes theory is the lack of acknowledgement of individual variation between children , I have also shown that there are general patterns that are common across children . Therefore it would not seem correct to view the child 's acquisition solely in this way . < heading>5.0 Conclusion In this essay , I have outlined the phonological processes theory , demonstrated how the a child acquiring language would use it taking into account various influences such as the child 's first language , explained 's distinction between context free and context sensitive processes and provided an evaluation of main problem of the theory - the idea that it does n't take the individual variation of the child into account . In the previous section , I showed that although the phonological processes theory does not entirely explain how children acquire language it does give a large amount of insight into a child 's language acquisition . The main critique of this theory is that it is too limiting in its approach . Writing in Fletcher and ( ) Ingram suggests that the idea that a child 's form is made up only of the adult form with phonological processes is unable to explain the massive variation between and immense complexity of children 's acquisition of language . Ingram suggests that a better approximation is the adult form with the phonological processes but with the addition of the child 's spoken form . He argues that it is important to acknowledge that children "" actively operate on adult forms "" based on the discussion in this essay , I would agree . Furthermore , writing in Fletcher and ( ) , and also acknowledge "" the child must construct its own version of the adult system for word pronunciation "" What this leads me to conclude is that although the theory of phonological processes ( and complete perception theory as whole ) is too narrow in its approach to child language acquisition , the same can be said for approaches within global perception theory . However , as both theories have important points to make it would seem the best theory of language acquisition would rest somewhere within the partial perception theory school of thought .","< heading > Introduction1.1 Aims In this project , I aim to construct corpra from a selection of political speeches made in and abroad and compare them to examine how use of the ' we ' and ' I ' pronouns in these speeches show both his own and his audience 's membership to a particular social group or groups . < heading>1.2 Questions to be asked In this project , I will address the following questions - 1 . Is there a way each pronoun is used to signify membership to a particular social group ? . Is there a difference in the way each pronoun is used depending on whether the speech is in or abroad ? . Is the use of the ' we ' and ' I ' pronouns representative of planned speech in general ? With the answers to these questions , I will be able to formulate an answer to my main question - "" How does use of the ' I ' and ' we ' pronouns in his political speeches demonstrate his own and his audiences membership to a particular social group or groups ? "" < heading>2.0 Method2.1 Planning the Corpra When deciding how to construct the corpra and the larger corpus they combine to create I decided to take things into consideration - making sure I had a corpus size I could work with and making sure I had a corpus suitable to answer the questions put forward in . < heading>2.11 Suitability of the Corpus It is clear from the questions put forward in that this corpus is for a very specific purpose . Ghadessy , and ( ) write a specialised corpus is "" delimited by a specific register , discourse domain or subject matter "" . From that definition it is clear the corpus I aim to construct for this project is a specialised corpus . Clear , writing in states "" The more specific the purpose we have in mind for a corpus the better directed will be our data gathering "" . With this in mind , I felt the objectives of this project were clear and specific enough to begin constructing a specialised corpus . < heading>2.12 Size of the Corpus I decided that regarding the size of my corpus , I would concentrate not in terms of the number of words but the number of speeches I would use . Haan writing in ( ) agrees with this method writing "" The suitability of the sample depends on the specific study undertaken and there is no such thing as a best or optimum sample size as such "" . With this in mind , I decided I wanted to create a representative sample of 's speeches throughout his time in office . I therefore chose to use home speeches and foreign speeches for has been prime minister . This gave me a total of six - eighteen for both the home and the foreign samples . Although this is an extremely large sample for the purposes of this project , I decided I would take a representative sample of each pronoun from both the home and foreign speeches to anaylse . The names and dates of the speeches chosen can be found in the bibliography section . This supplied me with corpra - one of foreign speeches sized word tokens and of home speeches sized to form a larger corpus of speeches of word tokens which although is perhaps slightly to many for a project of this size , It is enough to provide me with a representative sample . < heading>2.2 Corpra construction To construct the corpra , I used the concordancer program to determine the size of my sample by creating a wordlist before using the same program to construct the concordance lines , creating the following concordances from the corpus of speeches at home - < list>'we ' pronoun in home ' pronoun in home speeches And the following concordances from the corpus of speeches abroad - < list>'we ' pronoun in foreign ' pronoun in foreign speeches Finally , I chose the concordances from each sample for anaylsis as I felt this would give me a large enough sample to answer the questions posed in without distracting from the main objectives of the project . Although is a freeware program I felt it had enough features for a project of this size and type to perform adequately . < heading>3.0 Evaluation of results3.1 The ' we ' pronoun3.11 Use of the ' we ' pronoun in home speeches All data referred to in this section can be found in of this project . The use of the ' we ' pronoun in speeches at home is interesting , as it is used exclusively to signal membership to a group . This is perhaps to be expected given the nature of the ' we ' pronoun in general but what is interesting is that in the home speeches ' we ' is being used to refer to multiple groups , both of which the speaker is a member of . Examples of this are lines , and 6 where the speaker is talking about problems faced by and suggesting that he faces them as well as he also is . However , lines , and are examples where the speaker is putting himself forward as a member of the government . What is interesting about the pronoun usage referring to the government is that it is used to suggest the government is either acting in a positive way or has acted in a way that has yielded positive results in the past . Examples of this can be seen in lines , and . This would suggest that the speaker is choosing very carefully when to display membership to this particular group so that he is seen in as positive a light as possible . Switching the reference of pronouns in this way allows the speaker to simultaneously access identities and use the positive connotations associated with each ( in this case citizen and government member ) . ( ) writes that language "" constitutes a resource that may be drawn upon in interaction with others "" . In this case , the speaker is well aware of this and how and when to do so . Another interesting way in which the ' we ' pronoun is used in this sample is as a way of suggesting the audience should be acting in a particular way . This is illustrated by lines and 25 . Here , in both cases the speaker is talking about protection using the ' we ' pronoun . What this is suggesting is that the speaker personally is acting and that as the audience is a member of the same group as the speaker ( in this case ) they should be acting in a way similar to the speaker if they view themselves as sharing the speaker 's group and membership . Using language in this way can be seen as an example of the ' us - they ' distinction . This is identified by ( ) who writes language can either "" express a we - type solidarity among participants "" , and therefore be suitable for "" in - group and informal activities "" or be "" they - oriented "" and therefore be considered "" appropriate to out - group and more formal relationships , particularly of an impersonal kind "" . < heading>3.12 Use of the ' we ' pronoun in foreign speeches All data referred to in this section can be found in of this project . The use of the ' we ' pronoun in foreign speeches is interesting as it shares may features with the use of the pronoun in home speeches . Again it is used exclusively to signal membership to a group but also , like the home speeches sample the ' we ' pronoun is used to refer to groups the speaker is a member of . In the home speeches it was and the government , in these speeches it is and . Most interestingly of all however is that in this sample the pronoun is used to refer to in much the same way as it was used to refer to the government in the home speeches - to refer to some kind of positive action or process undertaken by that group ( examples of which can be seen in lines and ) . This is again an example of the speaker choosing carefully when to display his membership of a group . Here , as in the home speeches with the government group the group is a group that most of the audience is not a member of . Indeed , it may be that the speaker is the only member of the group in the room he is addressing . If so , then the speaker is seen as the representative of the group and therefore could be in danger of face threatening attacks upon his group . ( Face is defined in ( ) as "" referring to a persons self image "" ) . What the usage of the ' we ' pronoun to refer to and in each of the speech samples suggests is that appealing to any shared identities the speaker and the audience may have is an important strategy in speeches of this kind . In both samples , the speaker is trying to place himself and the audience in a shared group ( see examples in the previous section and lines , , and for examples in this section ) . Therefore , by including the audience in the ' us ' group the speaker is aiming to enforce common ground and shared identity . A different group membership can be seen in lines , and . Here , the speaker is using the ' we ' pronoun to refer to the government . In this situation , the speaker is under even more threat from face threatening acts as it is an even smaller group he is signalling his membership to . Therefore it is interesting to note that those lines consist entirely of the speaker listing positive achievements of the group that would also be seen as positive from the shared values of the audience that is being addressed . This suggests that the larger the shared group and the more of the audience is in the ' us ' group then the less the speaker feels in danger of face threatening attacks . More use of the ' we ' pronoun in foreign than home speeches ( to ) . What this seems to suggest is that the speaker is using more shared group references abroad than at home . This would in turn suggest that the speaker has more difficulty being seen as a member of the ' us ' group abroad ( ) than the ' us ' group at home ( ) and therefore uses more ' we ' pronouns in an attempt to project themselves as part of that group . < heading>3.2 The ' I ' pronoun3.21 Use of the ' I ' pronoun in home speeches All data referred to in this section can be found in of this project . The ' I ' pronoun appears to be used in quite a different way to the ' we ' pronoun in the context of home speeches . While the ' we ' pronoun was used to attempt to gain access to a shared identity , here the ' I ' pronoun is not . Instead of being used to emphasize the speaker 's membership to a particular group it is being used to emphasise the speaker 's ability , experience and actions . Lines , , and are examples of this . If the ' we ' pronoun is used to show the similarities between the speaker and the audience the ' I ' pronoun is used for the opposite reason . In this case , the speaker is keen to show that he is a strong leader and suitable for being in charge of the country . If this is the standard way in which the pronoun is used , then there is another non - standard way that appears in several places across the sample . This is best illustrated by lines , , and . Here , the speaker is using phrases like ' can I just say ' and ' I hope you will forgive me ' . These phrases could quite easily be shortened or even removed all together to make the speech more direct but they are not . Mesthrie ( ) writes that phrasing a request indirectly as the speaker is doing is an example of "" negative politeness "" which is defined as "" not imposing on others or threatening their face "" Furthermore , the fact that this usage is not the standard suggests it is a conscious decision for the speaker to use language in this way . Mesthrie ( ) points out researchers have "" distinguished between ' unmarked ' language choices , in which the language used is one that would be expected in that context and ' marked ' choices , in which the language used would not normally be expected "" . In this context , it is clear that the use of the ' I ' pronoun in this way would be a marked choice . Furthermore , also states that "" marked choices may function as attempts to redefine aspects of the context or the relationship between speakers "" . This may explain why the speaker is using the pronoun in its marked form . The unmarked form is impersonal , focusing solely on the speakers own actions and achievements . If the speaker wanted to create a more personal atmosphere by making the audience feel more involved then switching to a marked choice like this would be helpful as by using negative politeness towards the audience the speaker is suggesting that their opinions matter to him and that he does not wish to impose upon them unnecessarily . This marked use of the pronoun is quite different from the unmarked choice , which is quite impersonal and distant . However , by making the choice to combine the the speaker is again drawing upon the positive connotations of both styles . < heading>3.22 Use of the ' I ' pronoun in foreign speeches All data referred to in this section can be found in of this project . The use of the ' I ' pronoun in foreign speeches shares a similar unmarked usage to the home speeches sample . There is a lot of emphasis on achievements and past actions . Examples of which are lines , , and . However , the purpose seems slightly different . While in the home speeches it was to demonstrate the speaker 's suitability as a leader of , here it seems the speaker has to actively convince the audience that he is a committed member of their ' us ' group ( in this case ) . Indeed , sometimes ( such as lines , , and ) the text reads like a of past actions designed to signal shared values with the audience . This is different to the unmarked use in the home speeches which seems a lot less forceful . Also , there is less use of politeness and more direct speech . In - fact there are examples ( lines and 40 ) - ' I just say this ' and ' I therefore particularly welcome ' . These are much more direct than any of the examples in the home speeches . This would suggest that the speaker is less concerned with an informal speech style and more concerned with projecting a strong image of himself as a decisive leader and diplomat . Lines and support this , as in these examples the speaker is stating that he wants what he believes is best for , regardless of the feelings of the larger ' us ' group which is a direct face threatening act towards them . < heading>4.0 Comparison to larger corpra To determine if the results of my project are representative of planned speech as a whole , I decided to compare my findings to a larger corpus . As , the size of this project is limited , I decided to limit my investigation to a small , but representative sample . As the speech used in my project is planned speech I felt it would be best to compare my data to other planned speech . To do this , I used a sub - corprus of the corpus titled "" written to be spoken "" compiled of planned speech . I used the internet tool to search for the ' I ' and ' we ' pronouns and took a random sample of concordances from each pronoun for evaluation . < heading>4.1 Comparison of the ' we ' sample to ' we ' sample All data referred to in this section can be found in of this project . In this sample , the pronoun is used mainly to signal shared group membership . Lines , , and are good examples of this , and similar to my findings from the speeches they are emphasising either past actions and achievements or an intention to act in a positive way in the future . Another example of how the ' we ' pronoun is used can be seen in lines and 10 . Here , ' we ' is being used by a ' spokesperson ' speaking on behalf of a group of people . This is different from the usage identified in 's speeches , as although could be seen as representing the group , his speeches are not as direct in their representation as in this sample . This could possibly be due to the massive difference between group sizes and therefore the difficulty in directly representing every member of a group as large and diverse as the public . < heading>4.2 Comparison of the ' I ' sample to ' I ' sample All data referred to in this section can be found in of this project . In this sample , although the ' I ' pronoun is often used to emphasise personal experiences it is done in a different way than was discussed in the evaluation of the sample , as while there the ' I ' pronoun was often used to place emphasis on positive achievements here it is not . Lines 2 , , and are all examples of negative experiences which were not a feature of my sample of 's speeches . There are also examples of uncertainty on the part of the speaker , examples of which are lines , and 11 . This was not a feature of 's speeches , possibly because in the context of politics uncertainty is a highly undesirable trait . Also , as the text in this sample comes from a variety of contexts of planned speech it may be that some are aimed at a different audience where values perceived as negative in political speech ( e.g. tentativeness and uncertainty ) may be more highly valued . < heading>5.0 Conclusion In this project , I have successfully constructed a corpus for the task of determining specific patterns in the use of the ' I ' and ' we ' pronouns in speeches relating to membership of various social groups . I have also related these findings to a larger corpus of planned language and evaluated the similarities and differences found between the . In conclusion , I have shown there are very specific ways in which these pronouns are used in speeches . This shows the speaker 's awareness of his audience , as well as their attitudes towards him and the social groups he belongs to . Some features are shared by planned speech in general , although there are some features that appear only in the context of the political speeches made by . If I were to perform a follow up study , it would be interesting to compare 's speeches to the speeches of other politicians to determine if the features identified relate to political speeches in general or are specific to the speeches of . < heading>6.0 Results6.1 Concordances for 's home speeches6.11 First 50 of Concordances for the ' we ' pronoun
6.12 50 of Concordances for the ' I ' pronoun
6.2 Concordances for 's foreign speeches6.21 of Concordances for the ' we ' pronoun
6.22 of 421 Concordances for the ' I ' pronoun
6.3 Random samples for the written to be spoken sub - corpus6.31 sample of concordances for the ' we ' pronoun
6.32 Random sample of concordances for the ' I ' pronoun
",1 "< abstract> Project Summary Nocturnal primates of the family Galagidae have recently been under great taxonomic revision due to new discoveries concerning their behavior and morphology . Effective conservation work is dependent on an updated taxonomy in order to acknowledge the width of the biodiversity one is trying to save ( et al . , ; , ) . The proposed investigation concerns a taxonomic study of as yet scientifically unnamed primates of the genus Galagoides and Sciurocheirus , with focus on the suggested species Galagoides cf . cocos ( et al . ) . The research will be carried out in several steps and with different methodologies appropriate for descriptions of species ( International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN , ): An exhaustive literature study where previous descriptions of the target taxa will be researched . The information gathered will provide important background information vital for both the choice of scientific name and for the species description museum specimens for each species to conduct morphological research . New specimens of primates rarely occur in museums due to export regulations for endangered species ( Baillie et al . , ) , however , the presence of these potentially new species often exist in museum collections under erroneous names ( , pers . comm . ) Comparative analysis of recent field data including vocal recordings , behavioral data , biogeography , morphology and genetics ( i.e. karyotyping ) . Much focus of the study will be directed towards the important , but neglected , area of karyotype analysis though it is a vital diagnostic tool in species recognition . The study 's main objective will be to compile sufficient amounts of character data , i.e. behavioral , morphological and genetic data , to enable the endorsement of species status independent of species concept ( see , , for overview ) applied with the specific aim as to publicly name these species in accordance with the regulations of ICZN ( ) . The data collected will also create the body of a comprehensive database over the known information of the family Galagidae . : < /abstract> Section 2 : About the Applicants Is an organisation associated with the project ? < /heading > Yes , , , , origin can be traced back to when was founded . Many different academic transformations later , the current name and curriculum was founded in . Presently there are academic schools active with undergraduate and postgraduate subject areas ranging from law , medicine and language to arts , biological and social sciences . Under and , operates . The department , rated "" excellent "" for teaching by , includes an academic staff of and offer undergraduate course in and postgraduate courses in Anthropology , and Global Japan : Culture , Business and respectively . < heading > What other organisations / groups / individuals will be involved in this project ? < /heading> Individual advisors: Professor , Retired ; visitor at , , U.K.Leading taxonomist with special interest in primatesDr , , , U.K.Discovered new species of in . Dr , , , Working at the field location of the species of investigation . Collects and provide tissue samples for genetic analysis . Professor , , , , . Leading geneticist with karyotyping of primates as a specialty . Runs a laboratory for genetic research. Organisations : < /heading > National History Museum , , U.K.Host collections of specimens . , , . Host collections of specimens . , , . Host collections of specimens . , , . Host collections of Galagidae specimens. Section 3 : Project aims and background Briefly state the aims of your project The speed at which new species are discovered has outraced the systematic species description and several species of the nocturnal primate family Galagidae are yet unnamed ( Grubb et al . , ) . This study aims to fill in these gaps in Galagidae taxonomy and name these species according ( ICZN , ) regulations . The basis for the general description of their ecology , behaviour , geographical distribution and morphology will come from previously published and unpublished material . Since some of the new species exist as museum specimens classified under erroneous name ( , pers . comm . ) , a positive identification of these mislabelled individuals will enable complementary morphometric measurements and description as well as the setting of a holotype specimen . Further investigations will look for interspecific differences in pelage ( often their face masks ) , penile morphology , hand pad size and placement , vocalisation and chromosomal set - up ( i.e. karyotype ) . Further , the study aims to create a database for the family Galagidae . The database will contain information on the most recent nomenclature , morphological characters ( external and internal ) , distribution , behaviour , ecology and karyotypes available for the taxa . The database will be publicly accessible through the Internet and its intent purpose is to serve as a comprehensive information source for any future comparative studies of Galagidae taxonomy . < heading > What threatened flagship species ( include scientific names ) or their habitats are targeted by this project ? Include current global or CITES category . < /heading>
Why do you consider the species to be a flagship ? < /heading > The issue of this project is the lack of scientific names for populations of primates identified as new species . taxa has a suggested name based on its current lower taxonomic categorisation , Galagoides cf . cocos , but the other potential taxon to be targeted for this projects are known under the names sp . nov . , sp nov . , sp . nov . and Sciurocheirus sp . nov . . The most eminent threat that any of these suggested new species is under , resides to sp . nov . . It has been recognized as of "" by . sp . nov . eminent threat to its existence should be beyond doubt with its listing on , but no official recognition ( recognition of threatened species ) of its , or the other unnamed taxon , conservation status exists . Reason - no name no face . The protection endorsed to these primates comes from recommendations from by recognizing their habitat in western and central as of the world richest in biodiversity . Special attention is given to G. cf . cocos and sp . nov . habitats which borders inside of and Coastal Forests of and "" - assessed as one of the world 's biodiversity hotspots . hosts the most recent discovery of a new monkey , the highland mangabey kipunji ( Jones et al . 2005 ) . With further recognition of , , new species of galagos within the same area , the focus on that particular ' biodiversity hotspot ' will be considerable . These species will be a living evidence , flagship species , raising public awareness for a region of the world that need all the attention it can get . More attention is likely to revenue in more income for the ' host countries ' which will act in favour for the conservation concept and encourage the creation of more ' biodiversity hotspots ' . < heading > What main problem or threat is this project intending to address ? < /heading > The past few decades has drastically changed the earlier perception of nocturnal primates as quite simple , solitary , forest dwelling creatures of the dark to very complex creatures with very elaborate behavioural and social attributes . Nocturnal primates rely more on vocal and olfactory cues than vision for social communication . In other words , nocturnal primates differ from their diurnal relatives in that voice cues are used for conspecific recognition rather than visual cues . Evolution has favoured variation in voice rather than face , so to speak , which makes the nocturnal world harder for us diurnal primates to understand . This might seem quite intuitively self evident but the resistance amongst diurnal primate researchers has been surprisingly resilient . Once specific vocalisation was established as a fact , the use of calls as species identifier has revealed a diversity of almost unprecedented magnitude . So many species are discovered that the knowledge of their existence can prevail for without being given a scientific name . A situation that hardly exists amongst primates that is diurnal , as us . This study aims to set the naming of nocturnal primates in the room in an attempt to let taxonomy catch up with current species knowledge . < heading > How was this problem or threat identified and by whom ? < /heading > A recent upsurge in studies of nocturnal primates has discovered a wider diversity within the taxon than previously thought ( Bearder et al . , ; Nash et al . , ) . Researchers that have set out to study a specific species has ended up with data on never previously described species ( , ) . This phenomenon is especially true for studies conducted on the taxon . From species described before ( Schwarz , ) , to in the 80 's ( ; Nash et al . ) , to the current number around described species ( Bearder et al . ; et al . , ) . The number of new taxon discovered has gained such rapid momentum that several taxon still remains unnamed ( Grubb et al . , ) . We know that they exist but will face serious problems if their habitat becomes threatened by means of human exploitation ( logging , human settlement , farming etc . ) . A species not officially described is , in theory , a species not existing , and any attempt save an area from exploitation on the grounds of high biodiversity ( measured in number of species ) is seriously hampered . This is a major problem that has been highlighted by the leading researchers in the field ( Bearder ; ; et al . , ) . We are facing an eminent risk of loosing newly discovered species just because we did not get the chance to name them . < heading > Is the project a recommendation of an Plan or national priority activity ? < /heading > No , this project is not associated with any program under the helm of . Since action plans are "" Species - Based Actions "" , has identified the problem for unnamed species and emphasise the protection of populations within certain distinct regional communities with high levels of species richness and endemism . taxon under investigation , Galagoides cf . cocos and sp . nov . , resides within an area of special attention ( , ) . < heading > How does this project relate to previous work in the area or on the same species ? < /heading> Research on species Living in a nocturnal world has forced galagos to develop other senses than vision for social communication . Their evolutionary history equipped them for a life in darkness through promotion of senses not dependent of light , i.e. vocal and olfactory senses ( Bearder et al . , ; , ) . It is recognized that each taxa of has its own species specific vocal repertoire with very little interspecific overlap ( Zimmermann et al . , ; et al . , ; , ) . Once researchers discovered this phenomenon , more and more evidence of the species rich diversity emerged from the dark . The use of vocal cues for species recognition has been an accepted and used method for research for other taxon e.g. birds ( , ) , amphibians ( Grafe , 2005 ) , insects ( , ; , ) and mammals including several primate taxon ( , ) , but it was a novel approach to nocturnal primate research . Once the difficult process of how to recognise nocturnal , cryptic species was made relatively easy through vocal recognition , research efforts could be more focused on behavioural , genetic , morphological and ecological studies since the study object could be identified momentarily when encountered . The importance of vocal field identification of galagos can not be understated . Since the interspecific variability is marginal and only associated with certain types of alarm calls ( Bearder et al . , ) it can also be considered as a very important character for taxonomic species description ( , ; , ; Ambrose ) . Somewhere around 13 - 14 new species has been recognized on the basis of their vocal repertoire over ( Grubb et al . , ) and more discoveries are most likely to occur as more field research is conducted . of the most recent discoveries and subjects for this study , Galagoides cf . cocos and G. sp . nov . were identified as separate species on the basis of their vocalisation ( et al . , ) . Regarding of the other potential targets of this study , sp . nov . and sp . nov , vocal recordings are absent or inadequate to be used for analysis but are highly sought for to complete species descriptions ( et al . , ) . Genetic studies provide important information on species phylogenetic relationships and are very useful as diagnostic tools for species descriptions . The most widely used methods involve analysis and comparing of specific regions of mitochondrial or nuclear DNA - strands . This is an advanced method for assessing genetic differences within and between species , but the scarcity of available data and relatively high costs for analysis restrains it use for comparisons between species in order to assess taxonomic rank for this project . A more useful genetic method in this respect is analyses of karyotypes , i.e. the chromosomal make - up . The reasons are , ( ) Galagidae species show great interspecific variation for this trait ( , ; , ; et al . , ) , making its use for species description is very candid , and ( ) it is a relatively cost effective genetic analysis . Unfortunately , karyotyping has fallen out of ' fashion ' in favour for the more elaborate molecular methods . Looking back in time , no new taxa within the family has been karyotyped , in spite of its known value as diagnostic tool in species descriptions . Field researchers have , albeit , often collected genetic material of their new discoveries , it is just a matter of analysing it ( e.g. Perkin , ) . The most established way to taxonomically distinguish taxa is through morphological comparisons . The most pertinent evidence of that fact within the family comes from ( ) morphological analyses of museum specimens . His research resulted in a suggested existence of more than twice the known number of species from ( Nash et al . , ) . There is little doubt to the importance of morphological characters importance in species descriptions . However , the diagnostic value of a certain morphological trait for species specification varies between taxa . In diurnal species , where vision plays a major role for social interactions , it is likely that pelage colour and pelage patterns is species specific and hence , useful as species descriptors ( Jones et al . , ; Sinha et al . , ; , ) . For nocturnal species , where vision plays a minor role for social interactions , the traits of most importance as diagnostic tools have to be found on a different functional level . For members of the taxa penile and hand pad morphology has been shown to be highly species specific traits ( , , ; et al . , ) . The latter trait can be retrieved from well preserved museum specimens ( , ) but soft tissue parts , such as penises , are rarely intact on these specimens . New data on penile morphology could , however , be retrieved from ongoing field research . < heading > Research on location Areas in central and western are regions of high species diversity ( Baille et al . , ) and house many of the Galagidae taxon . The coastal regions of and ( The Eastern Arc Mountains ) are designated as one of the world 's biodiversity hotspots ( Baille et al . , ) and are also the home of this projects targeted taxon : Galagoides cf . cocos ( Perkin et al . , ; , ) and sp . nov ( Groves , 2001 ) . These are both taxon that previously was considered subspecies but recent field research has given strong incentives to elevate their taxonomic status ( et al . , ) . The discovery of these new species of galagos in addition to the recent discovery of the monkey kipunji ( Jones et al . , ) highlights the importance of further research within these relatively unexplored biodiversity hotspots . With the full recognition of these new galago species through designation of scientific names , I am certain that future research efforts concerning galagos will gain much more attention . < heading > How will this project address the identified problem and its causes ? < /heading > The main issue addressed by this project is the problem of keeping current taxonomy up to speed on newly discovered Galagidae taxon . In a scientific competitive climate the most ' sexy ' projects are the ones most likely to get a piece of the scarce funding cake . Projects ' involving taxonomic topics lies quite far from the main stream interest of funding agencies and , hence , get set floating behind . Field researchers , the discoverers of new species , are allotted a certain limited budget that will cover the costs their project was set out for , but will not allow for extra - curriculum activities , such as description of an ' accidentally ' discovered new species , provides . The stiff competition for extra funding and the likeliness of application failure shifts the researchers focus and efforts towards projects more likely of success . This project aims to aid with the catching up of the taxonomic lag and try to emphasise the importance of taxonomy as a scientific field and conservation tool . < heading > List any other important impacts of your project , other than on the flagship species or its habitat ? < /heading > With additional knowledge about an areas ' biodiversity , measured as number of species , protection and conservation efforts aimed to preserve its pristine state are more likely to gain impetus toward its cause . Awareness raised by discoveries of new species is highly variable . A new charismatic primate is more likely to boost conservation efforts compared to the discovery of a new species of earth worm or caterpillar , irrespectively of the taxa 's importance for the ecosystem . To have or more phylogenetically closely related taxon living sympatrically with such delicate habitat niche division as is very interesting when approached from an evolutionary perspective . What evolutionary forces and mechanisms has put this group of nocturnal primates to inhabit the same habitat without apparent interspecific conflicts and interbreeding ? The novelty and diverseness of behaviour and taxonomy are most likely to raise many more questions of scientific character and hence , attract students and researchers from many different scientific fields to study this extraordinary primate family and its vast character assortment . < heading > Section 4 : Planned activities and methods Please list the major activities planned within your project , along with an approximate time - scale for these activities . Explain exactly what you plan to do and why it is needed . < /heading > To describe a new species and to name includes several procedures and process that has to be completed . The work conducted can be divided into theoretical and practical methods with overlapping momentums . For the theoretical section , information on appropriate nomenclature and its etymology , biogeography , morphology and behaviour will be collected . The practical section will be examining morphology , vocal repertoire and karyotype of the taxon under investigation . All data collected will serve its purpose in description of the new taxa and guide the researcher towards a correct assessment of holotype ( type specimen ) . However , to establish the uniqueness of the taxa under investigation , comparisons have to be made with established taxon . Preferably , the taxa / taxon used for comparison should be as phylogenetically closely related to the taxa under investigation as possible . Research done on each theoretical method listed below ( except Nomenclature and Etymology ) and the practical method "" "" also applies for the taxa / taxon chosen for comparison . < heading > Theoretical methods This section will be conducted using resources from , , , , and Internet . < heading > Nomenclature and Etymology There are recommendations and guidelines on the appropriateness and availability of names ( International Code of Zoological Nomencalture - ICZN , ) . If the proposed taxa is / have been known at a lower taxonomic level or renamed at some point in time , that allotted name would be used which also mean that the authorship of that name is dedicated the original descriptor . Establishment of the original nomenclature source is found in historical literature . < heading > Biogeography Historical and present geographical distribution and detailed habitat use of the taxa in question will be collected from literature . This data are of most importance as diagnostic variable ( "" unit of evolution "" ) for assessing phylogenetic relationships ( , ) . < heading > Morphology Measures have been conducted on taxa , cf . cocos , in several studies under the assumption that it was a different taxa under investigation ( , pers . comm . ) . Hence , there ought to exist data on the species in the literature on body weight , body length , tail length , hind foot , ear height , cranial and skeletal measurements , hand pad morphology , and pelage colour patterns . If this situation applies to other unnamed taxon is unknown but will be investigated . < heading > Behaviour and Diet In light of the information presented above in the "" Morphology "" section , it is equally likely that data on social group size , social behaviour , reproduction , vocalization , diet , locomotion , and activity patterns is available on cf . cocos in published materials . < heading > Practical methods and materials Morphology It exist museum specimens of cf . cocos in museum collections under false label ( , pers . comm . ) making measurements and description of cranial and postcranial skeletal elements , pelage colours and patterns and hand pad morphology possible . Skeletal measurements and pelage descriptions will be taken in accordance with established and previously used standard measurement procedures for prosimian primates ( Nekaris 2005 - Module Handbook ; ) . Assembling of hand pad morphology data will follow ( ) collection methods . The skeletal elements will be measured with a calliper and a measurement tape to the nearest . Each measurement will be averaged from consecutive measurements of each skeletal element . The pelage colour and quality will be described for head , trunk and extremities . Colour patterns will be as elaborately described as possible , especially facial masks . Description will be complimented with colour digital photographs taken with an Olympus C740UZ including a colour chart next to specimen to enable correct colour identification . Details of hand pad morphology will be recorded with the aid of a video recording camera . To enable correct measurements from recordings the specimen extremity capture footage will include a millimetre scale enabling postscript measurements . Video images will be digitized using a PC or with an image grabber board . Individual hand pad measurements , area of each hand pad and their relative position to each other on the sole of hand and foot will be recorded for left side extremities . Analysis of measurements will be conducted using proper image analysis software . The lopsided measuring of hand pads is an arbitral choice of side to avoid pseudoreplication . < heading > Behaviour The most useful behavioural method for galago species identification involves their vocal repertoires . The reliability of interspecifity in loud calls used in social contexts is well documented ( see , for a review ) and , hence , more and more used in Galagidae taxonomy . Vocal recordings are available for cf . cocos ( , pers . comm . ) and will be analysed for intra - and interspecific variability with Avisoft - SASLab ) . The vocal parameters that will be used for comparisons are in accordance with other similar studies ( ; Zimmermann ): < list > Frequency rangeCall series durationFrequency modulationPeak and minimum frequenciesIntonationRelative sound intensityUnits per phraseInterphrase interval Genetics Karyotyping is a very useful and powerful diagnostic tool for species denomination . There are tissue samples available for chromosome extraction ( , pers . comm . ) and karyotyping for several taxon , cf . cocos included . of the leading scientists within the field of karyotyping , Professor , , , , has confirmed his assistance and use of laboratory for this purpose . The exact procedure used at this laboratory for extraction and analysis of chromosome material for karyotyping is not yet established due to lack of information on laboratory facilities . However , confirmation of karyotyping procedures will be received once Professor returns to his office from a field trip ( th of ) . < heading > Timeline An approximate timeline for each major activity can be found in . The proposed time for writing up the MSc thesis encompasses before and after the timeline given in . To validate the research effort and officially name the taxa / taxon under investigation , time will be set aside during and after to compose manuscripts for peer reviewed and publications . < heading > Statistics Control for body size ( either measured as body weight or head - body length ) for each variable will be done using major axis regression analysis ( Andersonal . 2000 ; ) . Morphological data , hand pad area and vocal parameters that are measured on a continuous scale will be analysed for intraspecific variation using . Post hoc analysis will be pair - test . Morphological data , hand pad area and vocal parameters that are measured on a continuous scale will be analysed for interspecific variation using nested . This will allow for parting of data on species and population level . Post hoc analysis will be pair - test . Additional cluster analyses will be conducted for confirmation of specificity of collected data . Morphological data , hand pad area and vocal parameters measured on a discrete scale will be analysed for intra - and interspecific variation using . Post hoc analysis will either be adjustment , test or what is considered appropriate after consulting statistical expertise . < heading > Other Part of the goal with the project is to create a factual database over the family Galagidae . The free software computer software Taxis ( URL ) will be used for this purpose . < heading > Section 5 . Local involvement How will local communities / organisations / individuals be involved in the project ? < /heading > The cooperation with respective field 's scientific authorities is essential for a wide spanning project as this . The project outcome is resting on these peoples and organisations shoulders and their integrative contribution will add the extra information not available in literature . On - going field work by Dr provides new and diagnostically valuable behavioural , genetic and distributional data on this study 's target species . The leading primate taxonomist Professor will assert his guidance and knowledge which will be of invaluable importance in interpreting and assessing the collected data . With many years of experience in the field of taxonomy and naming of new species , Professor ' knowledge will help this study to avoid the most obvious fallacies and pitfalls made in taxonomic research . Several museum collections will be investigated and utilised for this project . Without their professional expertise and kind compliance , the foundation of species description , collection of morphological character data , will be severely weighed down . principal component of this study is the analysis of the target taxon 's karyotype . Examination of genetic material requires special laboratory equipment and expertise knowledge to interpret the results . With the kind offer from Professor , , , these requirements are more than fulfilled . The laboratory under Professor ' lead has many years of experience in karyotyping of nocturnal primate taxon . Their contribution is of outmost importance for this study 's success . < heading > In what ways will local communities , organisations or individuals benefit from this project ? < /heading > The species identification process is of interest for many different individuals and organisations . This is especially true within the scientific community and within conservation agencies . When a new taxa is discovered the general knowledge about its behaviour and geographic distribution is bound , by virtue of its novelty , to be limited . However , certain traits of the taxon are relatively easy to collect ( e.g. vocalisations ) and their diagnostic value for species description is comparatively high . To further ascertain vocal repertoires importance in the species denomination process will speed up the process of specific identification and description for new taxon . Positive identification will enable and interest other researchers to confirm the new findings in independent studies . More information is collected and the actual process of naming the new species is made possible . A common way for conservation agencies to speak for preservation of pristine habitats is through emphasis of their high biodiversity . Biodiversity can be measured in several ways ( , ): < list > The amount of phenotypic ( external ) or genetic found within a certain area . The level of species Evenness within an area , i.e. if species are found in an area and of the individuals found belong to the same species it will not be considered particularly diverse . The Number of species resident within a certain area . < /list > When lobbying with governmental officials for conservation of habitats , the last measure ( Number ) is likely to be the most effective and is the most commonly used feature for describing species richness . Hence , addition of new species names will have a positive effect for any conservation effort taken . < heading > Section 6 . Evaluation and dissemination How do you intend to monitor and evaluate progress during the project and how will you determine the eventual success of this project ? < /heading > Since the process of naming a new species includes several obligatory predetermined steps , the evaluation of the project progress is more or less integrated in the work process . The steps involved are : literature review , morphological analysis and description and intra- and interspecific character analysis and comparisons . The literature review of each species will sort out what type of research that has been done and enable a ranking of the probability for successful species specific description , e.g. if the species only has been seen once and of vocal recordings are available , one is most likely to fail in any attempt to validate its taxonomic status at species level . Once the cut is made , progress of the project will be monitored and evaluated by means of each predetermined analysis completion . Following the completion of the various intra - and interspecific analyses the picture of the projects overall success will gradually emerge . The project will be considered a success if a new species can , unambiguously , be labeled with a binominal name . The process of writing up a paper for publication for the project outcome is then merely a matter of labor . However , if the interspecific comparisons reveal that we are not dealing with a new species , any data that has been extracted on the species from the project in terms of biogeography , morphology , behaviour or genetics is considered as partial project success . Any character description derived will be incorporated in a database and will most likely be use for future taxonomic surveys . < heading > How do you intend to disseminate your results at the end of the project ? In particular , how will you ensure that information from and about this project reaches local communities and/or organisations ? < /heading > An integral part of the process of describing new species includes publicly presenting your results . This means that the results should be readily available in scientific literature according to the rules of ( ICZN , ) to be valid . The information about the new species name will thereby be accessible for anyone interested , however , most likely only raise attention in the scientific community and within conservation agencies . Since researchers and conservation agencies often are active in the species habitat countries it is most likely that their awareness of the new species will channel the news of its presence to the local governments . Hopefully , the response from the government will lead to increased habitat protection , i.e. raise awareness of the new species recognition within rural communities . The discovery of new primate species , per se , is also an event opting to attract media attention . < heading > Section 7 : Budget
What other bodies or organisations have you approached for funding and with what results ? < /heading > I have approached the following grant agency : Grants - in - Aid of Research , The Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology . Result of application is pending . < heading > What personal financial contribution to the project will you or your organisation make? The University covers costs related to computer software usage and support . Costs exceeding external funding sources will be covered by personal financial contributions .","Nocturnal primates of the family Galagidae have recently been under great taxonomic revision due to new discoveries concerning their behavior and morphology . New species are appearing at such a rapid rate that the important process of scientifically identifying and naming species has been put on the backburner . Effective conservation work is dependent on an updated taxonomy in order to acknowledge the width of the biodiversity one is trying to save ( . ; , ) . The proposed investigation concerns a taxonomic study of up to as yet scientifically unnamed primates of the genus Galagoides and Sciurocheirus . The study 's main objective will be to compile sufficient amounts of character data , i.e. behavioral , morphological and genetic data , to enable the endorsement of species status independent of species concept ( see , , for overview ) applied with the specific aim as to publicly name these species in accordance with ( ICZN , ) regulations . The data collected will also create the body of a comprehensive database over the known information of the family Galagidae . The research will be carried out in several steps and with different methodologies appropriate for descriptions of new species ( ICZN , ): An exhaustive literature study where previous descriptions of the target taxa will be researched . The information gathered will provide important background information vital for both the choice of scientific name and for the species description . Characters previously used as means for species description for nocturnal , cryptic species such as penile morphology , facial masks and vocal repertoire will be of special interest but general morphological , behavioral and distributional data will also be investigated . Localize museum specimens ( if available ) for each species to conduct morphological research . New specimens of primates rarely occur in museums due to export regulations for endangered species ( ) , however , the presence of these newly discovered species often exist in museum collections under erroneous names ( , pers . comm . ) This means that valuable material is available for descriptive morphometric analysis and historical distribution . Comparative analysis of recent field data including vocal recordings , behavioral data , distribution , morphology and genetics ( i.e. karyotyping ) . Special emphasis will be put on vocal analysis and karyotyping since these features have been shown to be highly significant as diagnostic tools for species specification within the family ( Bearderal . ; , ) . Vocal recordings and tissue samples from the targeted species are available for analysis ( , pers . comm . , ) . < table/> Funding agencies Primate Action Fund Conservation International Awards of US$ 1000 - 5000 The principal objective of is to contribute to global biodiversity conservation by providing strategically targeted , catalytic support for the conservation of endangered nonhuman primates and their natural habitats . Information about application process is given by Dr at a.rylands@conservation.org < heading > ASP General Small Grant American Society of Primatologist Awards amounts range from Grant proposals are invited for general research projects , with preference given to training initiatives , start - up funds , supplementary funding for students , and innovations in animal care and research technology . Information about application process is found on URL < heading > Awards for Graduate Student Research Society of Systematic Biologists Awards range Systematics is interpreted broadly to include questions below and above the species level , molecular and morphological approaches , and issues of pattern and process . Funding is not limited to any particular aspect of research , but rather is available for field , museum / herbarium , and/or laboratory work . Information about application process is found on URL < heading and amounts up to a maximum of £ Provide small grants to support research in the field of systematics . Information about application process is found on URL < heading > Grants - in - Aid of Research The Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology Awards amounts up to a maximum of US$ The Grants - in - Aid of Research program was established by the in to provide small awards to graduate students in support of their research in the fields of integrative and comparative biology . Information about application process is found on URL ",1 "< abstract> Abstract Previous research has more than adequately shown that the presence of others affects our behaviour ( most influentially , ; Zajonc , ) . Specifically , studies have concluded that the competitive nature of human beings is provoked when in the company of other people ( Triplett , ) . This experiment aims to investigate how much of an increase in group size is necessary to make a difference to an individual 's performance . In this experiment , participants took part in a task where they were asked to put sets of words in alphabetical order . They did this either alone , in the presence of other person , or in the presence of other people , who also performed the task . A significant decrease in the amount of time taken between each of the conditions as the group size increases was predicted , as well as a decrease in accuracy as response times decreased . The results were analysed using way , and showed a significant effect of speed but not accuracy as a function of group size . These findings could affect performances in a variety of capacities , including in professional roles and home and academic life . < /abstract> Introduction The effect of the presence of others on individual performance , decision making and behaviour has been a major focus of research since the pioneering study of in . Substantial evidence since has illustrated that individuals behave differently when they are in the company of others than when they are alone ( most notably , ; Allport , ) . This change in behaviour can be positive , yielding more productive results from the individual ( Triplett , ; Zajonc , ) or negative , fostering apathy and using the members of the group to defer personal responsibility , or social loafing ( and , ) . The presence of others on competitiveness and task performance in individual behaviour is the most extensively researched topic , and has been definitively traced back to the work of ( ) . In of his most quoted studies , he found that cyclists raced faster when they raced against other people than when they were alone . This gave rise to his dynamogenic theory , which proposes that the presence of others gives rise to competitive instincts . These studies held major implications for competition and competitive behaviour , and encouraged extensive further research on the topic ( Aiello and Douthitt , ) . Research on the effects of the presence of others surged after the work of ( ) , as for , researchers tried to explain this phenomenon . This began in , when coined the term social facilitation . He conducted an experiment based on of 's earlier studies , and noted that children reeled in a fishing line more quickly when they were in a pairs condition than in an individual condition . Social facilitation focuses on the impact of social presence on individual performance ( and Douthitt , ) , and is one of the most effects most expounded when such effects occur in an individuals behaviour . Allport ( ) hypothesised that competition between people energises and improves performance , especially in motor tasks . Since then , Zajonc 's drive theory ( ) has emerged as one of the most popular explanations for behaviour , only to the work of ( ) and ( ) . The theory suggests that the mere presence of others gives rise to instinctive arousal , which motivates performance and behaviour ( Zajonc , ) . This influential theory proposed that other people increase the general drive and activation level of the actor ( , ) . The concept of a mere presence effect was studied further , suggesting that individuals are affected even when an audience is only physically present , and is passive and unresponsive ( Cooper , ; , Gilovich , and , ) , and that the effect is more pronounced if the audience turns out to be incidental rather than if the participants are aware of its presence ( Markus , ) . The research of ( ) , proposes that an element of self - presentation is involved when the individual is placed in a social context . He cites this as the main concern in individual performance . Evidence from Geen and Gange ( ) , , , and Loh , ( ) and , , and ( ) , shows that conservation of risk taking increased when participants perceived themselves to be in small groups than when they were alone . This illustrates the natural inhibition which arises from contact with others . Later in , Sanders , and put forward distraction - conflict theory , which suggests the provocation of attentional conflict , as both the activity at hand and the presence of co - actors compete for the person 's attention . This theory works on the assumption that others are distracting , so they are placed in a state of conflict which elevates drive . While this is not widely recognised as a drive theory , it still supports 's basic contention . Baron ( ) developed distraction conflict theory further . He suggested that attentional conflict between the task at hand and the presence of others is a partial cause of effect on performance , but that distraction can occur for other reasons as well . He highlights the variability of the social facilitation effect , and states that while evaluative or competitive pressure can heighten social facilitation , mere presence effects can produce social facilitation effects even in the absence of such evaluative and competitive pressure . However , he does not believe that processes involved with social facilitation such as distraction and attentional conflict will invariably be influential and lead to drive like behaviour . Such variability has lead to social facilitation research being questioned . Researchers have argued that social facilitation effects are firstly , not always produced , and do not always occur as a function of people present . Blascovich , , and ( ) suggest it is the ease of the task that affects performance , not being in the presence of an audience . Their biopsychosocial model indicates that performance is only affected when a goal related challenge is threatened , whether this is real or perceived , regardless of whether other people are present . Henchy and ( ) , criticise 's drive theory , and state that performance does not automatically change in the presence of co - actors , it only changes if the person is worried about being evaluated , that is they suffer from evaluation apprehension ( Hogg and Vaughan , ) . and Jaccard ( ) , have refuted social facilitation theory . They instead state that participants perform better when in pairs than in isolation , based on research on participation in a concept attainment task . Performance has also been explained in terms of non - drive theories by and ( ) . Measuring the Palmar Sweat Index ( ) of participants , they found that values decreased from baseline values on performance and presentation of the task , as compared to when the participants actually do the task . They believe this to be due to the activation of inwardly directed attention , which occurs when the person has a task to complete . They believe this to be a normal part of task concentration . This negates the presence of others as an influential factor , and instead proposes extreme attention on oneself and ones performance . Duval and ( ) state that the involvement in a task automatically leads to a comparison between the actual self , how one is performing , and the ideal self , how one would like to perform . This research postulates that the competitive feelings which are experienced may occur as a result of competition with oneself rather than with other people . Geen and ( ) suggest that tasks can inspire an intense preoccupation with oneself , to the extent that other stimuli are ignored , including other people . They too propose an intense , inward direction of attention , rather than a social facilitation and mere presence effects . Despite these concerns , research on social facilitation has been extremely extensive and well supported . It is the pioneering work on the topic , as well as research on evaluation apprehension and mere presence effects that has given impetus to this study . element of this phenomenon has received surprisingly little empirical attention - how many people are required to make a difference on the individual 's performance . Though it is known an effect is definitely produced , the aim of this research was to uncover what actually makes performance change . 's studies on competition may have yielded different results if the children were paired not only with other child , but with , or more children . This experiment aims to investigate the effects of social facilitation on different group sizes in order to determine how many people are necessary for social facilitation to have an effect . Much research on the mere presence effect has suggested that the presence of another is all that is needed in order to affect performance . We wanted to examine the very crux of social facilitation theories , specifically at which point the element of competition and the influence of others arises , how this varies as a function of group size , and what exactly is involved in asserting the affects that are asserted . The aim of this study is to attend more specifically to the phenomenon of competitiveness via theories of social facilitation , and to discover how many people are necessary to produce such effects . In order to investigate our hypothesis , a cognitive task would be used rather than the physical tasks that were used by ( ) and ( ) . This study has basic hypotheses . The main hypothesis was that there would be a significant difference in time taken to complete the task as a function of group size . In accordance with drive theory and the mere presence effect and non - drive theories , the more people present , the faster the task should be completed . The hypothesis is that there will be a significant difference in how accurately the task was completed as a function of group size . This aspect has , in the past , seldom been tested . In light of previous research , we hypothesised that accuracy would decrease as the audience and speed of completion increase . Social facilitation has indeed provided much scope for thought and further research . It is hoped that this study will provide some insights into whether the effects of social facilitation vary in terms of group size , and that it will support the wealth of research that already exists on this phenomenon . < heading > Method Participants60 participants volunteered to take part in this experiment . They were taken as a random sample of the population , and predominantly consisted of undergraduates at , aged . There were some exceptions . < heading > Materials Participants filled out a consent form , and then completed the task on a typed sheet which contained instructions , the sets of neutral words to categorise alphabetically , and spaces for their answers . Stopwatches were used to measure their response times , and these scores as well as the accuracy of the responses were recorded on a separate sheet of paper . Accuracy was measured by totalling the number of correct responses out of . The computer programme SPSS for Windows 11.0 was used to analyse results . < heading > Design This was a between subjects experiment - different participants were used for each condition . The independent variable was the condition , whether the subject was alone , with other person or with other people . Conditions are named in terms of the amount of people they contain , so in this case , 2 and 5 . The dependent variable was the response time and the level of accuracy on completion of the test . The conditions were kept quiet in order to prevent distraction . < heading > Procedure Participants were allocated at random to of the conditions . They were given the consent form to sign , which included instructions and informed them of their right to withdraw . They were all asked to read the instructions which told them that they were to place the sets of words in alphabetical order . They were asked to write down their answers on this same sheet of paper . The experimenters timed them as they completed the task . They were then debriefed , and thanked for their participation . The experimenters recorded which condition they were in , their response times and their accuracy scores . < heading > Results
The data was screened to uncover any outliers and to verify that it conformed to test assumptions . A histogram illustrated that speed violated the homogeneity of variance assumption , and box plots showed any outliers in the speed and accuracy data . A way on the untransformed data yielded F(2,57 ) = ; p < . However , considering the outliers , and a scatterplot of the overall means and standard deviations which showed a positive correlation , the data was transformed . way was performed . There was a significant main effect of speed , ) = , p<0.05 . There was no significant main effect of accuracy , ) = , p>0.05 ( ns ) . was carried out and verified that speed yielded a significant result ( X ( ) = ; p<0.05 ) , and accuracy did not ( X ( 2 ) = ; p > 0.05 ) , and that there was no relationship between the . However , tests showed significant differences were found between conditions and 2 , ( t = ) and conditions and 5 ( t = ) , but not between conditions and 5 ( t = , ns ) . < heading > Discussion The results partially confirm the original hypothesis - there was a significant main effect of speed . The results illustrate a decrease in time taken to complete the experiment between conditions , and 5 . There are significant differences between conditions and and 1 and 5 . However the non - significant difference between conditions and does not follow the traditional trend of social facilitation theory , though the difference in means between the conditions is still notable . While there is an increase in time taken to complete the task , the result is not significant . This means that the presence of other person has more of an effect on participants , as can be seen by the significant difference between conditions and , than the presence of other people when participants are in pairs , as can be seen by the insignificant difference between conditions and . The accuracy mean being the lowest in condition also supports this . Such results confirmed our hypothesis , which stated that the time taken to complete the task would be significantly different as a function of group size . There was a main effect of speed despite the non - significant difference between conditions and . The hypothesis was not confirmed however , as results show no significant effects of accuracy , or a relationship between accuracy and speed ( , figure ) . The results broadly support previous research . As a whole , they can be explained in terms of traditional drive theories , ( Zajonc , ; , ; and , ; , , and ) research on mere presence effects ( and , ; , ; , , and ( ) , and research on competitiveness ( Triplett , , Allport , ) . The results remain within the general framework of social facilitation theories , namely drive theories , ( Zajonc , ; and , ; , , and , ) , and has shown a quicker response time in completing the task as a function of group size . The quickest response times occurred in condition , as well as the highest mean of accuracy . The non - significant difference between conditions and is inconsistent with traditional social facilitation theories . Furthermore , there was no main effect of accuracy , despite our predictions , and a non - significant correlation between speed and accuracy . This could have been for several reasons . , the questions may have been too easy . A large percentage of participants got and points for accuracy , which is perhaps indicative of the fact that a task involving arranging words in alphabetical order was too simple to test what needed to be tested . If the questions were at an acceptable level of difficulty , one would expect longer response times to accompany the high accuracy scores that were produced . In fact , the highest means of speed and accuracy co - occurred in condition . The results show little correlation between speed and accuracy ( , figure ) , and it may be for this reason that that is so . Another way to explain it is in terms of research which proposes that the presence of others leads to the activation of extreme inward direction of attention ( , Staff and Shaver , ; Carver and , ; , ) . This overpowers the influence of the presence of others , and therefore an inward direction of attention would not compromise accuracy scores . , Staff and ( ) also purport that the presence of an audience makes the subject inhibit themselves , in order to present themselves in the best light . They argue that a potentially threatening social sting may enhance conservative tendencies , so this would therefore preserve the accuracy of the participant . Accuracy would not be affected , as the participants would be anxious about achieving an impressive final score in order to avoid looking inferior . In this case , the presence of others would actually lead to an improvement in performance . Baron ( ) and ( ) also propose that maintenance of social approval is an important concern when performing a task in front of others . Given the eagerness of participants to compare and correct their answers on completion , it is possible that social approval is a prominent concern . Fear of negative evaluation would explain the high accuracy scores . There are other experimental concerns that may account both for the non - significant main effect of accuracy , and the lack of a significant difference between conditions and . concern is the small sample size , at participants per condition . A larger sample may have given rise to a significant difference between conditions and . As both of these conditions contained person , the effects of the presence of the other participants may have not have been as clearly defined as the difference between conditions and 5 and 1 and 2 , where a contrast between individual and group performance is more obvious . It may have been wise to test more people , as the disparity between conditions may not be as pronounced . The significant difference between conditions and shows the onset of the mere presence effect , and testing a larger sample size may have done the same between conditions and . Another concern is that the majority of participants were undergraduates from an intensely competitive environment . This reflects a competitive selection of the population , as undergraduates accepted are often ambitious , driven people . This aspect could have affected the results . It may be that people who do not work in such environments may produce different results . Lastly , research on social facilitation uncovers a circularity problem with validity - one can not test the effects of social facilitation without being present . Therefore , all experiments will suffer from this confounding variable . In this study , the experimenters were present and active , as they were timing the participants . Evaluation apprehension and mere presence effects could thusly have affected the results . There are other ways to explain the non - significant main effect of accuracy . Social facilitation research in the past , including the inaugural study , involved physical tasks . For example , ( ) and Carment ( ) , found that in a muscle endurance task performed alone , in pairs or in groups of , greater endurance was shown in the pairs or groups of than in the individual performance . Physical tasks have no need to be measured in terms of their accuracy , so it could be that social facilitation only involves an increase in speed , not in the quality of the task . This is perhaps why sporting events are so successful , and work so well - participants are able to directly view the calibre of their competition . The non - significant accuracy result can , therefore , still be supported by research . This experiment involved a written task , but may have provided different results if answers were made more public , for example if participants had to call out their answers , or if they had to respond to an audio stimulus . One could object , however , that performance in a very simple task such as the one used in this experiment can not possibly be a predictor of people 's complex and varied behaviour in real life . Equally , though , this can be countered , as one could argue that if the effects of social facilitation demonstrate themselves at such a simple level , the repercussions for more complex behaviour could be far greater . Something to consider may be to enlarge the differences between the group sizes in order to obtain a more pronounced effect . Instead of , and people in each condition , perhaps doubling the number each time , for example testing , and people would demonstrate a more definite relationship between response times as an effect of group size . It is possible that after a certain level is reached , social facilitation and mere presence effects no longer have influence behaviour . The research also has practical implications . If an inward direction of attention is the case , group work could prove effective in academic and working life . Group work can intensify people 's contributions and lead to healthy competition which could ultimately produce better results . Competitive approaches tend to produce a better result from people , whether their motivation is social preservation , positive appraisal or purely the desire to perform better than their co - actors . What this experiment ultimately illustrates is a fast and accurate performance when in the presence of other people . This simple finding alone can have far reaching implications for relationships , professions , businesses , the military , school and university life and sectors of life generally which centre around the production of a successful output . While we still may not know what exactly produces the effects of social facilitation , it does seem that in this case the effects have a positive outcome , which can be applied to many sections of life . There is still much debate surrounding the phenomena of social facilitation , despite the wealth of research on the topic . This research has demonstrated that the simple number of people that are present when the task is being performed is not the only thing which has an effect on how the person will perform in a task . The theme that previous research has illustrated is that many processes are activated when people are put in even the mildest of competitive situations . Some research suggests that the processes involved are highly contingent on personal attributes . For example , ( ) placed subjects alone or with a stranger and instructed them to play and comment on a computer game . It was found that ' high computer experience ' subjects generally performed better and viewed computers positively . Performance anxiety and general reactions to computers of subjects high in computer experience did not vary as function of gender or mere presence . This only occurred for ' low computer experience ' subjects . This , therefore , gives diminished importance to the effects exerted by the presence of others . ( ) , in a review of empirical studies on social facilitation , concludes that we are still uncertain about what mediates social facilitation and mere presence effects at a physiological level , but that there is definite evidence for the effects of the passive presence of another , even if they do not watch or evaluate . He believes that other people pose an inherent threat , leading to social facilitation effects . He however believes that research on mere presence should be conducted without evaluating the performed task , despite his concurrence with the claim that being watched and being evaluated gives rise to social facilitation effects . He states that the omission of task evaluation will make social facilitation research more accurate . Further , Blascovich , , and ( ) found that the presence of others during a well learned task was associated with a challenge pattern of cardiovascular activity , but the presence of others during unlearned task is associated with a threat pattern of physiological reactivity , suggesting that it is individual skill and confidence levels which affect performance , not the company of co - actors . ( ) , found that the presence of a co - actor inhibits performance , but that co - action and feedback facilitate it , in contrast to traditional research . He also hypothesises that evaluation apprehension could be nothing more than anxiety related to a test situation which has been misconstrued . In conclusion , it seems that explaining variance of performance as a function of group size is not sufficient . Many other factors and theories which have been discussed throughout must be taken into account . Overall , it does seem that the presence of more people improves performance with minimal detriment , but the generalisability of this finding is limited , given the wealth of research which implicates other factors and indeed other theories as the cause of accelerated performance . As the topic is so well investigated , it is difficult to suggest many more ways of developing and extending research besides the few that have already been mentioned . Indeed , a crucial question is why the presence of others does have such a large effect on us even though we are around other people for most of our lives . It seems that mere presence effects will always be an issue ; it is simply not feasible for an individual to go about life solitarily . Sometimes groups are necessary , even imperative , so there seems good reason to continue the study of social facilitation . The answer is perhaps not to conduct more research , but to adopt a more integral approach , incorporating different elements of research in order to more accurately predict the effects other people have on an individual . Therefore , explaining social facilitation in terms of group size is useful , but is by no means comprehensive enough to be the sole , attributable cause of this phenomenon .","Figures have shown that the amount of time children spend watching television has increased ( , ; and , ; and , ) . Children are considered inhabitants of a world inundated by mass media ( and ) . A controversial issue is when the content of the viewed material contains violence and aggression . The frequency of this content in television programmes and in films was quantified concisely by and ( 2005 ) . Results from the UNESCO Global Television Violence study show that of programmes investigated contained violence , of which portrayed violence in a realistic setting . They also report that in of these instances , characters showed no remorse for their actions and received no criticism for them . of aggressive acts reported were associated with humour . Over 1000 violent murders , rapes and assaults are shown on television ( , ) . These statistics are worrisome when viewed in light of theoretical approaches . The is 's social learning theory , which has given impetus to the television violence debate . hypothesised that behaviour can be learned through observation , particularly when the behaviour is aggressive . He believed the child 's attention to be specifically captured by the violent act , leading them to retain it for the future and to conclude that this aggressive behaviour is acceptable , based largely on whether or not the character is punished . ( , ) . Viewed in this light , the statistic that characters receive no criticism for their actions of the time becomes dangerous . The concept of learning aggression by observation holds important and worrying implications for this debate , as it suggests that children have the potential to imitate anything they see on television . The theory is the principle of operant conditioning first investigated by ( ) . Operant conditioning suggests that positive and negative reinforcements following behaviour will accordingly increase or diminish the chance of a behaviour being performed again . The above statistic again becomes worrying , as it suggests that if aggressive acts are not always chastised , children will believe them to be acceptable modes of behaviour . The exposure of vulnerable and inexperienced young audiences to aggression has been cause for concern ( and , ) . This , coupled with the theories mentioned , suggests that it is necessary to examine the relationship between viewed aggression and aggression in action and cognition . Research on violence in the media and its effects has been ongoing in and since the 's ( , , p.415 ) . Since then , a plethora of research has attempted to link television violence with aggression in real life , with children being a focal point of study ( , Archer and , ; , ; and ) . This view has also been opposed - some researchers dispute any real life consequences of viewing aggression ( , ; and , ; and ) . Methodological concerns about this research have also been raised ( Savage , 2004 ) . These contrasting findings illustrate the contention surrounding this area but also suggest a possible basis for concern . This essay will take the form of delineating and examining research which does and does not link violence on television and films to the cognitions and behaviour of children , in order to determine whether concern over this issue is justified . Many studies suggest strong links between viewed aggression and aggressive tendencies . A primary concern is the affect of the media on the cognitions of the child . It is feared that consistent exposure to violent media will numb the child to the consequences of aggression , desensitising them to the real world ( and , ) . and ) , examined the effects of television violence on adolescent cognition , and identified a model of adolescent media practice . The main assumption is that teenagers interpret what they are seeing based on who they are and their interests . This makes the viewed media personally relevant to the teenager , increases the chances of them using it as a guide for real life . As such , and ) believe that viewed aggression can effect the teenager 's perceptions of personal safety , desensitise them and incorrectly promote violence as a way of resolving conflict with minimal repercussions . and ( ) studied and concluded that they see the media and television as a definite influence on their socialisation and cognitive development . Taking a wider view , they suggest not only violence , but the effects of substance use and materialism could have damaging effects on the child 's behaviour and cognitions . Furthermore , influence is not just exerted by television and films , but also by video games , which are seen as a source of encouraging aggressive behaviour , hostility and negative thoughts ( Gentile , , and , ; and , ) . A concern is that viewed aggression will cause violent behaviour , in line with the work of ( ) . Research has tended to focus on the general effects of viewed aggression on real life aggression ( , ) , establishing general links between media violence and increased aggression in the child 's unconstrained social behaviour . However , other research uncovers the influence of individual differences such as gender , socio - economic status and personality traits on how young children perceive aggression on television and in the media , and how they subsequently act . This research helps to dispel the vague claim that all children 's lives are always influenced by televised aggression - this is not always the case ( Carruthers and Taggart , ; and Thomas , ; , ) . It examines what can specifically make viewed aggression demonstrate itself in behaviour . For example , research has been conducted on the relationship between trait aggression and viewing aggression on television and in films . and ( ) , studied children aged . They were given personality questionnaires , and viewed a series of violent film excerpts on which they were asked to comment . Children rated high on measures of irritability , proneness to verbal hostility , and in screening or blocking out aggressive stimuli made more violent comments than children who were rated low on these items . In addition , children consequently behaved in a more aggressive manner . This demonstrates that whether or not violent images produce violent tendencies can be contingent on the traits of the individual child . and Weaver ( ) support this . They found that children who displayed high trait aggressiveness displayed more antisocial and violent behaviour after viewing aggressive material than children with low trait aggressiveness . Further , they state that aggressive dispositions influence the impact of violent imagery and the likelihood of the child generalising this imagery into real life circumstances . Similar studies reiterate these findings ( , ; , ) . More specifically , some illustrate sex differences , and have evidence for the higher susceptibility of males to subsequent aggression after viewed aggression than females ( and ) , in some cases by times ( Rich , , , ) . This suggests that aggressive imagery watched by young boys could potentially be a larger cause for concern than that watched by young girls . Such evidence does suggest that concern should be shown about the relationship between viewed aggression and aggressive behaviour . While it illustrates the short term effects of children viewing aggression , other studies have implied that negative consequences in the long - term are more a cause for concern . There have been influential studies investigating these consequences . , , , Kasen and Brook ( ) , found a significant association between viewing aggression in adolescence and the likelihood of aggressive behaviour in later life , including robbery , threatening aggression and antisocial behaviour in general . In the study , , and ( ) , longitudinally examined the viewing patterns of children aged , and found that , exposure to violence and aggression on television in youth leads to such behaviour in later life . This evidence implies that aggressive imagery on television can have more serious ramifications for the future . Aggressive behaviour can lead to delinquency at a time of life when employment , familial responsibility and chastisement by law are salient concerns . This evidence puts the effects of viewed aggression into context in the larger sense , showing its potential to affect the child in later life . Moreover , it provides an experimental basis for 's social learning theory . Evidence exists which negates the need for concern over aggression shown on films and television . Savage ( 2004 ) highlighted the problems that arise when one is too quick to blame the media for aggressive behaviour in children . While she admits that research has shown links between violence on television and violence in real life , she believes many of these links to be correlations rather than causal effects . Savage argues that children with aggressive tendencies prefer violent programmes , and states that effects of television are hard to measure . They can occur in subtler ways in later life , which may be difficult to observe in overt behaviour . Finally , she states that the role of the child 's parents , peers and school life as well as biological factors are more likely to be the overriding factors that contribute towards displayed aggression . Savage places the effects of media low on the list . Jenkins ( ) , supports this , and states that real life will always have a more profound effect on behaviour than television will . and ( ) believe that television can not be solely blamed for aggressive behaviours in children , and that it is imperative to consider socio - economic status and situational factors , challenging the somewhat reductionist social learning approach . They reason that children perceive television as a mode of entertainment , not as a source of information about the world . They argue further that what a child views is not infallible - it has the ability to be corrected and put into context by others , namely through socialisation with parents and peers . ( ) , supports this view , stating that television only exacerbates other more influential factors , rather than having its own direct effect . The research discussed above by and ( ) , and Weaver ( ) and ( ) shows a flaw in the media violence debate . Though children who score high on higher trait aggressiveness are more prone to violent behaviour after watching it on the television , this simultaneously demonstrates that children with more violent tendencies watch these sorts of programmes . Not only does this accentuate the controversy over whether evidence is due to correlation or whether it is causal , but it places emphasis on the root of the development of such traits . Social factors and the importance of parental responsibility and control over what their children watch must be considered . Furthermore , Savage ( 2004 ) suggests that violent or antisocial traits can occur as a result of neglect , and believes a shift in research from the media violence "" blame game "" to the causes of childhood aggression and neglect may be more useful . Potter ( ) agrees with the need for such a shift , and suggests that the on - going war between the public , policy makers , researchers and producers only serves to complicate and distort the issue . This , in addition to 's argument , indicates the difficulties associated with proposing a link between viewed and displayed aggression , making the question about need for concern even harder to answer . Savage implies the difficulties with conducting this research . Most evidence is collected using qualitative methods , which comes with its own set of caveats . Obtaining evidence by means of a questionnaire , in the manner of and ( ) for example , is not always the most accurate way to obtain results . Also , the subject of the research focuses on testing children , who may not always treat scientific experiments with the appropriate respect and seriousness . The question of indirect aggression , whether in the form of verbal insults or more subtle antisocial behaviour , has also been studied . This type of behaviour can have just as much of an impact on behaviour as overt aggression ( , Archer and , ) , but can be harder to observe in behaviour . This can confuse the research , leading to an inaccurate picture of events . The question of indirect aggression can seem to be the beginning of a slippery slope argument , as one may wonder how far the criticisms of television content will expand in the future . It is also worth noting that much media is allocated an age suitability rating , showing the role taken by the industry to reduce the affects of aggressive imagery on young children in particular . The answer seems to be that awareness rather than concern is appropriate . Research does not suggest a clear link between viewed and displayed violence and aggression , therefore there is no need to be particularly worried at present . It does , however , highlight what to be aware of when embarking on this debate . , suitable parental control and the discouragement of violence can combat the imitation of aggression by children displayed on television and in films , in line with the theories of ( ) and Thorndike ( ) . Such theories should serve as warnings for the possible consequences of violence on television . , research demonstrates that aggressive images in the media and on television in particular can not be attributed to cause - socio - economic , biological and familial influences must be considered and foremost , not to mention proposed sex differences . Lastly , public opinion and inconclusive research can tend to distort the issue , and not give due attention to the influences of real life on the behaviour of children ( and , ) . Public health reports suggest multidisciplinary approaches to research , incorporating neuroscience , sociology , child development and economics ( and , ) , can establish a clearer state of events . Research suggests that exercising caution over the viewing habits of children without exaggeration is prudent . An extensive incorporation of the media and its effects into the school curriculum has also been proposed ( Potter , ; , ) . It is only through the means suggested that the relationship between viewed aggression and antisocial behaviour and cognitions can be better understood .",1 "< heading > Firewalls and VPNWhat is a ? What can a protect and can not protect ? Discuss the different types of . In your discussion give the details of the encryption systems used in each of the . < /heading> What is a ? < /heading > A firewall is an information technology security device which is configured to permit , deny or proxy data connections . Firewalls can either be hardware or software based . A basic task of firewall is to control traffic between computer networks with different zones of trust . Typical example is the Internet which is a zone with no trust and an internal which should be a zone with high trust . solves the security problem of connecting these networks by interposing a specially configured gateway machine between them . < figure/>The primary benefits of using a firewall are : < list > Protection from vulnerable servicesControlled access to site systemsConcentrated securityEnhanced privacyLogging and statistics on network use and exploitationPolicy enforcement(Vacca , J , 2005) Types of Firewalls There are base types of firewalls which can be distinguished by communication types : Is it between single node and the network , or or more networks ? < list > Personal firewalls : software application which filters all incoming or outgoing traffic form a single computer . Network firewalls : usually running on a dedicated network device ( router etc ) or computer positioned on the boundary of or more networks . This type of firewall working as a gateway filters all incoming and outgoing traffic of the connected networks. Is it intercepted at the network layer , or at the application layer ? Network layer firewalls : based on source and destination address and on number of ports and additionally , what higher - level network protocols the packet contains . Network layer firewalls tend to operate very fast and transparently to users . Also called "" circuit - level "" firewalls . Application level firewalls : use various forms of proxy servers to proxy traffic instead of routing it . As it works on the application layer , it may inspect the contents of the traffic , blocking what the firewall administrator views as inappropriate content , such as certain websites , viruses , and so forth . An application layer firewall does not route traffic on the network layer . All traffic stops at the firewall which may initiate its own connections if the traffic satisfies the rules . Hybrids : most firewalls fall into the "" hybrid '' category , which do network filtering as well as some amount of application inspection . The amount changes depending on the vendor , product , protocol and version , so some level of digging and/or testing is often necessary . Is it being tracked at the firewall or not ? Statefull firewalls : are able to hold in memory significant attributes of each connection , from start to finish . It keeps track of the state of network connections ( such as streams ) travelling across it . The firewall is programmed to distinguish legitimate packets for different types of connections . Only packets matching a known connection state will be allowed by the firewall , others will be rejected . Stateless firewalls : treat each network frame or packet in isolation . Stateless firewall does not know if any given packet is part of an existing connection , is trying to establish a new connection , or is just a rogue packet . < heading > What can a protect and can not protect ? < /heading> What can protect us from ? < /heading > Properly configured firewall can consist of many protective mechanisms , such as : < list > packet filtering - checking the sources of incoming data packets and accepting only this arriving from selected domains or addresses . user identification procedures e.g. applying passwords or digital certificates.completing programs which operate with some protocols ( e.g. or ) with security mechanismsenabling access only to services which admin consider to be secure.ensuring security by checking contents of network communication : , , , Telnet and Rloginrealizing SSN ( Network);translation and hiding private addresses of protected network . That enables identification , authorisation and hiding a topology of a network.cooperating with break - in detection system , which in case of break - in alarms to close the channel of attack . Cooperating with antivirus programs , which will scan all incoming data in search for viruses and other suspicious software . encryption of data ( DES , RC-4 , , , SHA-1 , IPSec)enabling secure access and managing of devices in , or Internet scanning websites for applets , ActiveX procedures , and other potentially dangerous additions to HTML and possibly blocking them.detection and blocking of most dangerous break - in techniques , such as : spoofing , , LAND , Ping of Death , WinNuke;providing secure e - mail server , which controls in details all SMTP packages . invigilation of users - thanks to tracking system we can check e.g. which server was used at what time and for how long by each user , what files were used by which users , connection usage . Monitoring of network enables admin to block in real time dangerous sessions . < /list> What can not protect us from ? < /heading > It is important to realize that firewall is a tool for enforcing a security policy . If all access between trusted and untrustworthy networks is not mediated by the firewall , or the firewall is enforcing an ineffective policy , the firewall is not going to provide any protection for a network . However , even a properly designed network with a properly configured firewall can not prevent following dangers : Malicious use of authorised services : e.g. a firewall can not prevent someone from using an authenticated Telnet session to compromise your internal machines or from tunnelling an unauthorised protocol through another protocol . Users not going through the firewall : A firewall can only restrict connections that go through it . It can not protect you from people who can go around the firewall , e.g. through a dial up server behind a firewall . It also can not prevent an internal intruder from hacking an internal system . Social engineering : if intruders can somehow obtain password they are not authorized to have or otherwise compromise authentication mechanisms through social engineering mechanisms , the firewall wo n't stop them . For example , a hacker could call users pretending to be a system administrator and ask them for passwords to "" fix some problems "" . Flaws in the host operating system : A firewall is only as secure as the operating system that a firewall is installed on . There are many flaws present in operating systems that firewall can not protect against . In all types of firewall systems , the security of the protected network depends on the security of firewall device . Someone who breaks into our gateway and can reconfigure its settings is likely to gain access to other devices on the . To prevent that , firewalls are specially configured and stripped down . Typically they run a "" hardened "" version of the Unix or NT operating system . ( , ) < heading > Encryption used in Firewalls Most firewalls support or more levels of encryption . Many firewalls that support encryption will protect outgoing data by automatically encrypting it before sending to the Internet . Likewise , encryption - enabled firewalls will receive encrypted data from Internet and decrypt the data before it reaches the . Using firewall encryption one can connect geographically - dispersed networks through the Internet , as well as support remote user access through the Internet , without worrying about someone casually intercepting and reading your data . That makes an idea of virtual private network . < figure/>These are some encryption techniques used in Firewalls : < heading > DES Data Encryption Standard ( DES ) found in 's by . It is the block cipher - an algorithm that takes a fixed - length string of plaintext bits and transforms it through a series of complicated operations into another ciphertext bit string of the same length . In the case of DES , the block size is bits . DES also uses a symmetric key to customize the transformation , so that decryption can only be performed by those who know the particular key used to encrypt . The key has bits , however of these are actually used by the algorithm . bits are used exclusively for parity checking . As a result the effective key length is bits . The key is randomly chosen from 000 numbers and is changed for every massage . The encryption system of DES uses the function . The structure ensures that decryption and encryption are very similar processes - the only difference is that the subkeys are applied in the reverse order when decrypting . The rest of the algorithm is identical . This greatly simplifies implementation , particularly in hardware , as there is no need for separate encryption and decryption algorithms . < heading > RC-4 RC4 was designed by in . Although it is officially termed "" Rivest Cipher 4 "" , the abbreviation alternatively means "" 's Code "" . RC4 , as cipher , generates a pseudorandom stream of bits which , is combined with the plaintext using . Decryption is performed the same way . To generate key , the cipher makes use of a secret internal state which consists of parts : < list > A permutation of all possible bytesTwo index - pointers The permutation is initialised with a variable length key , using the key - scheduling algorithm ( KSA ) . Once this has been completed , the stream of bits is generated using the pseudo - random generation algorithm ( PRGA ) . < heading > FWZ-1 FWZ-1 designed by has not been opened to public analysis . This is relatively new technology which uses a bit symmetric key . A message is encrypted with a secret key derived in a secure manner from the correspondents ' keys . The keys are authenticated by . The / IP packet headers are not encrypted , to ensure that the protocol software will correctly handle and deliver the packets . The clear text header is combined with the session key to encrypt the data portion of each packet , so that no two packets are encrypted with the same key . A cryptographic checksum is embedded in each packet to ensure its data integrity . ( checkpoint.com ) < heading > MD5 Message - Digest algorithm 5 ( MD5 ) was designed by in to replace an earlier hash function , MD4 . It is a widely used cryptographic hash function with a - bit hash value . An MD5 hash is typically a - character hexadecimal number . Recently , a number of projects have created MD5 "" look up tables "" which are easily accessible online , and can be used to reverse many MD5 strings into their original meanings . MD5 processes a variable - length message into a fixed - length output of bits . The input message is broken up into chunks of - bit blocks . The message is padded so that its length is divisible by . The padding works as follows : a single bit ( ) is appended to the end of the message . This is followed by as are required to bring the length of the message up to bits less than a multiple of . The remaining bits are filled up with a - bit integer representing the length of the original message . The main MD5 algorithm operates on a - bit state , divided into words , represented A , B , C and These are initialized to certain fixed constants . The main algorithm then operates on each - bit message block in turn , each block modifying the state . The processing of a message block consists of similar rounds . Each round is composed of similar operations based on a non - linear function F , modular addition , and left rotation . There are possible functions ( different one is used in each round ): FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA < heading > SHA-1 The original specification of ( SHA-1 ) was published in and finally approved in by government standards agency ( ) . SHA-1 produces a - bit digest from a message with a maximum length of ( ( ) bits ) , and is based on principles similar to those used by Professor in the design of the MD4 and MD5 message digest algorithms . < heading > IPSec IPSec ( Internet Protocol Security ) is a suite of protocols for securing Internet Protocol ( IP ) communications by encrypting and authenticating each packet in a data stream . also includes protocols for cryptographic key establishment . There are modes of operation : transport mode and tunnel mode . In transport mode only the message of the packet is encrypted . It is fully - routable since the header is sent as plain text , however , it can not cross interfaces , as this will invalidate its hash value . Transport mode is used for host - to - host communications . In tunnel mode , the entire packet is encrypted . It must then be encapsulated into a new packet to enable routing . Tunnel mode is used for network - to - network communications or host - to - network and host - to - host communications over the Internet . is implemented by a set of cryptographic protocols for securing packet flows and Internet key exchange . Of the former , there are : Authentication Header provides authentication , message and header integrity - and with some cryptography algorithm also non - repudiation - but it does not offer confidentiality . Encapsulating Security Payload provides data confidentiality , message integrity , and with some cryptography algorithm also authentication . The key exchange protocols is defined by , include the ( ) protocol and its successor , . protocols operate at the network layer of the model . This makes more flexible , as it can be used for protecting both and - based protocols , but increases its complexity and processing overhead , as it can not rely on ( layer OSI model ) to manage reliability and fragmentation . ( ) < heading and is the "" stateless "" protocol used by Internet browsers for most communications on the Internet . Using the layers as reference model describe in details how data ( segments ) travels from a home user 's browser to a website during a typical ecommerce transaction . You are required to elaborate on any encapsulations and de - capsulations that occur during this process . < /heading> OSI reference model In , ( ) began to develop its ( OSI ) reference model . In this model , a networking system is divided into layers . Within each layer , or more entities implement its functionality . Each layer uses different protocols , operates on different data units and has altered functions . < entity interacts directly only with the layer immediately beneath it , and provides facilities for use by the layer above it . Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in a remote host . < 's have a quick view on each Layer : < heading > Layer 7 : Application Layer The Application layer provides a means for the user to access information on the network through an application . Data processed at this level is send or received by the application used by user . < heading > Layer 6 : Presentation Layer The Presentation layer transforms data to provide a standard interface for the layer . Appearance of data is standardised , data is compressed , encrypted and some similar operations of the presentation are done . < heading > Layer : Session Layer The Session layer establishes , manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application . The model made this layer responsible for "" graceful close "" of sessions , and also for massage sequencing and recovery . < heading > Layer 4 : Transport Layer The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control , segmentation / desegmentation , and error control . Some protocols are statefull and connection oriented . This means that the transport layer can keep track of the packets and retransmit those that fail . Prioritisation of services is also done here . < heading > Layer 3 : Network Layer The Network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source to a destination while maintaining the quality of service requested by the layer . This is the layer where data is fragmented into standardised packets . The layer performs network routing functions , and might also perform segmentation / desegmentation , and report delivery errors . The best known example of a layer protocol is the Internet Protocol ( IP ) . < heading > Layer 2 : Data Link Layer The Data Link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network units and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical layer . The standardised packets of the network layer are separated into frames . < heading > Layer 1 : Physical Layer The Physical layer defines all the electrical and physical specifications for devices . This includes the layout of pins , voltages , and cable specifications . The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are : < list > Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium . Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared among multiple users . For example , contention resolution and flow control . between the frames obtained form layer and bit signals transmitted over a communications channel . These are signals operating over the physical cabling ( high and low voltage , light tension ) or over a radio link ( Radio waves). Data flow from a home user 's browser to a website during a typical ecommerce transaction . < /heading> Application Layer The user launches his web browser , which registers a port with operating system . When he types in the address of the internet shop and confirms it by pressing "" enter "" a - way handshake starts : < list > User sends a SYN to the server . In response , the server replies with a SYN - ACK.Finally the user sends an back to the server. At this point , both the client and server have received an acknowledgement of the connection and connection is established . User browser shows a main page of e - shop ( index.html ) . User chooses the products to buy by browsing the page and adding them to the basket . Finally he decides to make a payment by debit card . There is nothing at the HTTP protocol to guarantee any data confidentiality , authenticity or integrity . As soon as user types his debit card details and presses confirms them with "" enter "" key the data is send transport control protocol ( TCP ) . Application layer attaches an application header ( AH ) . < heading > Transport Layer TCP as "" connection "" protocol establishes connection between e - shop 's web server and user 's browser to form "" a live tunnel "" . The debit card details are broken into manageable sizes called segments . Size of the segment is determined by how much the receiver ( web server ) can and want to accept . Data is exchanged after TCP segment is confirmed . When the protocol is agreed , the TCP segment is encapsulated with header and passed down to network layer . < heading segments are encapsulated with header , and become datagrams . The header includes source and destination addresses to help with routing the datagrams to intended destination ( e - shop web server ) . Once the encapsulation is complete the datagrams are passed down to data link layer . < heading > Data Link Layer When IP datagrams reach the data link layer they are encapsulated by the with the header and become frames . have to be passed down to . < heading > Physical Layer At this final stage Ethernet frames are divided into bits and send to a wire for feather routing to the web server , where all the data processing is reversed starting from Physical layer and ending at Application layer . ( , , chap . ) < figure/> What is ? < /heading > Wired Equivalent Privacy - WEP is part of the IEEE standard . uses the stream cipher RC4 for confidentiality and the CRC-32 checksum for integrity . It can be typically configured in possible modes : < list > No encryption mode ( 64 ) bit encryption ( = key combinations ( ( ) bit encryption ( 2 104 = KC)232 ( ) bit encryption ( 232= 6,901746346790563787434755862277 * > By default most of wireless devices have turned off . Most public wireless access points ( i.e. , airports , hotels , etc ) do not enable . If does not enable , the wireless clients can not use the encryption . In some base stations , it is optional whether the encryption is enforced . The encrypted may be turned on , but if it is not enforced , a client without encryption with the proper can still access that base station . Standard - bit uses a 40 bit key ( or keys if appropriate software ) , combined with a - bit initialization vector ( IV , which is created automatically by the wireless network hardware ) and the RC4 traffic key . Most hardware now supports a larger key ; this also has a - bit initialization vector and so it is also sometimes marketed as a - bit system . A key is almost always entered by users as a string of Hexadecimal characters ( and ) . Each character represents bits of the key . × = bits . Adding the IV gives "" - bit key "" . Additionally as interesting fact a - bit system is available from some vendors , and as with the above - mentioned system , bits of that is for the , leaving actual bits for protection . This is typically entered as Hexadecimal characters . ( × = bits ) + 24 bits = bits of protection . ( ) < heading > Encryption Stage 1 Wireless client generates message to be sentWEP produce bits integrity check value ( ) and appends to message The is a check sum that the receiving station eventually recalculates and compares to the sent by the sending station to determine whether the transmitted data underwent any form of tampering while communication . < /list>
Stage 2 One of the bits encryption keys is selectedRandom - generated - bit initialization vector ( IV ) range : -16 777 216 The IV lengthens the life of the secret key because the station can change the IV for each frame transmission . The IV and the bits key fed into RC4 algorithm
Stage 3 Massage is fragmented into MPDUs ( Unit)The appended to with and bits Cipherstream go into operation of ( exclusive OR)
WEP adds the IV Header in the clear ( unencrypted ) within the few bytes of the frame bodyIV Header Contains IV , Key ID and sending and check sequence ( ) are added
Decryption Stage 1 Recipient stripes away header bits IV and key ID are extracted from IV HeaderThe key ID helps identify which of the bits key used
Stage 2 The concatenated ( from IV header ) and encrypted are fed into RC4 AlgorithmThe concatenated and IV on will cancel each otherThe end result is a Plaintext with appended < /list>
Stage 3 is stripped from massageNew ICV is calculated for a received massageIf new ( ' ) is equal to old massage have been send correctly ( compared in CRC)Decryption is successfulIf new ( ' ) is NOT equal to old massage have been send incorrectly ( compared in CRC)Massage must be send again
Internet and Ecommerce ArchitectureCross site , session hijacking and URL obfuscation are some of the tricks used by criminals to steal information from users over the Internet . Discuss these forms of attacks in details . < /heading> Cross Site Scripting Today websites are more complex than ever , containing a lot of dynamic content making the experience for the user more enjoyable . Dynamic content is achieved through the use of web applications which can deliver different output to a user depending on their settings and needs . Dynamic websites suffer from a threat that static websites do n't , called "" "" ( ) . Most usage of is benign to the local machine . Its environment of execution is restricted to certain operations known as a sandbox , so a remote user can not force your machine through cross site scripting to reformat its hard drive just by visiting malicious web page(Andrews M. and Whittaker J. A.,2006 ) . Often attackers will inject JavaScript , , ActiveX , HTML , or into a vulnerable application to cheat a user in order to gather data from them . Everything from account hijacking , changing of user settings , cookie theft / poisoning , or false advertising is possible . More and more uses are being attacked with every day . There are types of vulnerability : This form of vulnerability has been referred to as Local cross - site scripting . With Local cross - site scripting vulnerabilities , the problem exists within a page 's client - side script itself . For instance , if a piece of accesses a URL request parameter and uses this information to write some HTML to its own page , and this information is not encoded using HTML entities , an hole will likely be present , since this written data will be re - interpreted by browsers as HTML which could include additional client - side script . Because of the way Internet Explorer treats client - side script in objects located in the "" local zone "" ( safe zone ) , an hole of this kind in a local page can result in remote execution vulnerabilities . For example , if an attacker hosts a malicious website , which contains a link to a vulnerable page on a client 's local system , a script could be injected and would run with privileges of that user 's browser on their system . This kind of cross - site scripting hole is also referred to as a non - persistent or reflected vulnerability , and is the most common type . These holes turn up when data provided by a web client is used immediately by server - side scripts to generate a page of results for that user . If invalid user supplied data is included in the resulting page without HTML encoding , this will allow client - side code to be injected into the dynamic page . A classic example of this is in site search engines : if one searches for a string which includes some HTML special characters , often the search string will be redisplayed on the result page to indicate what was searched for . If all occurrences of the search terms are not HTML entity encoded , an hole will result . This does not appear to be a serious problem since users can only inject code into their own pages . However , with a small amount of social engineering , an attacker could convince a user to follow a malicious URL which injects code into the results page , giving the attacker full access to that page 's content . Due to the general requirement of the use of some social engineering in this , many programmers have ignored these holes as not terribly important . This type of vulnerability is also referred to as a stored or persistent or - order vulnerability and it allows the most powerful kinds of attacks . It exists when data provided to a web application by a user is stored persistently on the server ( in a database , file system , or other location ) , and later displayed to users in a web page without being encoded . A classic example of this is with online message boards , where users are allowed to post HTML formatted messages for other users to read . These vulnerabilities are usually more significant than other types because attacker can inject the script just once . This could potentially hit a large number of other users with little need for social engineering or the web application could even be infected by a cross - site scripting virus . The methods of injection can vary a great deal , and an attacker may not need to use the web application itself to exploit such a hole . Any data received by the web application ( via email , system logs , etc ) that can be controlled by an attacker must be encoded prior to re - display in a dynamic page , else an vulnerability of this type could result . < heading > Session hijacking < /heading > The term refers to the exploitation of a valid key to gain unauthorised access to information or services in a computer system . Session keys are normally randomised and encrypted to prevent session hijacking . Session hijacking is an advanced technique which exploits vulnerabilities in the protocol . establishes a session between network hosts . Session hijacking calls for the intruder to spy on a session . The intruder can use this technique to slip commands into the security context of the original session . common use of session hijacking is to get the system to reveal a change of password . Of course the hacker does not manually compromise spoofed segments on the fly . Session hijacking requires special tools ( e.g. ) . ( , ) For the attack to succeed , the victim must use telnet , rlogin , ftp , or any other non - encrypted / IP utility . Use of SecurID card , or other token based secondary authentication is useless as protection against hijacking , as the attacker can simply wait until the user authenticates and then hijack the session . This type of attack is very common as using a session management to solve a problem of storing state in web application is very common . And when you do it incorrectly it is open to attack . Session management works by each user having a unique identifier that travels with him during his use of a service . The point is to overtake the identifier by breaking the session management , which can be done in different ways : < list > Modifying data randomly , hoping to become another userFiguring out the sequence of unique identifiers that the site uses""Fixing "" the session identifier of another user Session identifiers are presented to the server as hidden fields , appended to URLs , or stored in cookies . Storing the session identifiers as cookies and than passing it to the server as each page is loaded is the most common . ( and , ) < heading > URL obfuscation < /heading > Link based tricks are commonly played upon as they are relatively easy to execute . It has been noticed that these kinds of phishing attacks were extensively executed when this Internet threat was in its infancy stage . Below is a list of some of such tricks with appropriate examples explaining how an attacker can use such links to trick the end user : Using Strings - uses a credible sounding text string within the URL Example : URL This will point towards a web server hosting a fake login screen for your account . Using @ sign - this kind of syntax is normally used for websites that require some authentication . However hackers make use of this syntax to trick victims to visit a fake login page . This works on a simple concept where in the content on the left side of @ sign is ignored and the domain name or address on the right side of the @ sign is treated as the legitimate domain . Example : URL Status Bar Tricks- The URL is so long that it can not be completely displayed in the status bar - Often combined with the @ so that the fraudulent URL is at the end and not displayed thus the victim takes it as a legitimate host and gives away his confidential info ! Example : URL : UserSession=2f6q9uuu88312264trzzz55884495&usersoption=SecurityUpdate&StateLevel=GetFrom@61.252.126.191/verified_by_visa.html Similar Name Tricks- This kind of tricks uses a credible sounding , but fraudulent , domain name . These kind of tricks have been often used by attackers gaining a psychological advantage over the victimExample : URL , URL URL Encoding Tricks : This kind of tricks is used to encode the URL or portions of the URL to disguise its true value using hex , or octal encoding . Often combined with the @ which can also be disguised as wellExample : URL % , which translates into HTML Image Mapping Tricks : The URL is actually a part of an image , which uses map coordinates to define the click area and the real URL , with from the < A > tag being displayed . Here is a small code that can easily help you achieve the same- : FORMULA As soon as the uninformed victim clicks any where on the image he is taken to the web server hosting a fake login page ( URL ) . URL as button : the displayed URL is contained in the text description of a Form Button . The itself is formatted to match the email background so that only the text shows . Since it s a Form statement the Fake URL does not display in the status bar of the email client . However when brings the mouse over the button the attacker uses the mouse over HTML tag to forge the link displayed in the status bar . URL Redirection Tricks : uses the redirection capability of a known provider to send the user to the site . - Redirection is used by many larger sites like , , . - Example : URL : // URL Double Redirect Tricks - Combines the simple redirect method with a URL Masking service such as cjb.net or tinyurl.com .The Masking service assigns the user an alias for their URL . Example : URL : //jne9rrfj4.CjB.neT/?uudzQYRgY1GNEnFirst sends to : URL and thenRedirected to : URL ( cjb.net ) Redirected to : Intended site through cjb.net redirection service The actual URL is stored at cjb.net and is accessed through the cjb.net alias . ( ContentVerification.com ) < heading > CryptographyThe security of the crypto system is based on the difficulty associated in finding the prime factors of a very large integer . Given the following real life situation: E = Encryption Public Key ( 20000000089 ) N = A very large integer ( ) M = Plaintext : "" The security of an encryption system is as strong because most people rather eat liver than do mathematics ! "" C = Ciphertext D = Decryption Private Key ( 4771730348713 ) Write C++ or programme to implement the encryption and decryption using the above given parameters . You must demonstrate that your programme works ! Hint : You may use a text - numeric converter of your choice to convert the plaintext into numbers . < heading > Programme Script FORMULA < heading > Programme output Before Encoding the message is "" The security of an encryption system is as strong because most people rather eat liver than do mathematics ! "" In number representation : FORMULA After Encryption FORMULA After Decryption "" The security of an encryption system is as strong because most people rather eat liver than do mathematics ! ""","The results of a Food Frequency Questionnaire , filled out by at , show remarkably modest levels of alcohol consumption . This was part of a Dietary Survey used to establish the nutritional components of these students ' diet over . The results showed that all 86 subjects - 23 males and females - had relatively well - proportioned , nutrient - rich diets with few significant deviations . Yet surprisingly it also revealed that they had an average alcohol consumption of g per day . Based on Government figures this converts to units per day - equivalent to a pint of ordinary strength larger such as . This would probably shock most of us as few would suspect that drinking would be classed as "" going on a binge "" . Binge or no binge , drinking is still thought to be a major part of a students ' life . Yet , according to these recent figures , female students at consume on average units a night and males - both a unit below the national maximum recommendations . You would only need to go out once with a student to see that this level of alcohol consumption is grossly under - par . So what does it mean ? Are students truly as angelic as the figures imply ? The truth is that there are many major inaccuracies associated with questionnaires such as these . Food frequency questionnaires are no exception . They are suitable for large - scale surveys and can focus on specific nutrients in the diet , yet they often have over - estimation of nutrients and under - estimation of unhealthy foods . Whether they are accurate or not these students still show alcohol consumption levels below the maximum recommended amount . Yet , compared with a ( NDNS ) , these students have daily alcohol intakes far above the national means . < figure/>This 2003 study recorded intakes of g of alcohol per day for men and a shockingly low g for woman . Comparing the University 's figures for female consumption with the ' , it shows that students knock back the equivalent of a whopping bottles of vodka , or of lager . The best explanation for these differences is that this study is out of date and does n't take into account the nation - wide increase in alcohol consumption ( especially in females ) since then . This increase in alcohol consumption requires an increase in nutrient intake . This is due to alcohol 's ' empty calories ' - energy without nutrients . But are 's students doing this ? Alcohol , as well as not giving any nutrients , also takes them away . God 's gift to hangovers , ( ) , of the many vitamins depleted by alcohol , was found in relatively high levels in students ' diet - almost twice ) of it in males . RNIs are part of the government 's Dietary Reference Values ( DRV ) . These values are compiled to get an idea of an individual 's nutrient requirement . RNIs represent the amount that meets the nutritional needs of most people . 's levels of ( for those bloodshot eyes ) , ( for alcohol metabolism ) and ( anti - oxidant fighting the baddies in alcohol ) are all well above the RNIs . However the questionnaire also picked up on deficiencies ( only in females ) that would no doubt hamper the body in combating the effects of alcohol . A new area of research is investigating the effectiveness of Phosphorus in treating alcohol withdrawal symptoms . Funnily enough students have abnormally high levels of Phosphorus in their diet . All subjects have more than double the RNI and males are even over the safe upper limit ! Could there be a hidden message behind this strange discovery ? Whether Students are in fact recovering alcoholics or just misunderstood youths remains to be seen . Nonetheless , students appear to be consuming more alcohol than the national means ( for ) , while still managing to keep their units per day below the maximum recommended amount . This paradoxical set of results leaves us questioning their accuracy - which , with the national trends showing huge increases in alcohol consumption , would not be a bad thing to do ! Published",0 "< heading > Calculate corrected readings for the sample and standard isobutanol solutions by subtracting the corresponding blank readings:Corrected reading for sample = Average fluorescence of sample solution - Average fluorescence for sample blank reading for standard = Average fluorescence of standard solution - Average fluorescence for standard blank solution=98 - 2=96 < /list> Calculate the thiamine content of the isobutanol sample solution by ratioing . < /heading > As the thiamine concentration of the working thiamine standard solution=0.2µg / ml , the volume of working thiamine standard solution used in measurement=5ml . The amount of thiamine contained in of working thiamine standard solution=0.2µg / ml*5ml=1 µg . As the fluorescence value of standard solution=96 , while the fluorescence of isobutanol sample solution=193 ; so by ratioing , the thiamine content of the isobutanol sample solution=(193 * 1µg)/96=2.01 µg . < heading > Calculate the thiamine concentration in assay solution . < /heading > The thiamine content of isobutanol sample solution equals to that of of assay solution The thiamine concentration in 100ml of assay solution equals to that in of assay solution . As calculated above , the thiamine content in of assay solution=2.01 µg , so the concentration of it = / ml . As calculated , the thiamine concentration in assay solution=0.402µg / ml . < heading > Calculate the thiamine content in the mass of cornflakes weighed . < /heading > As the thiamine concentration in 100ml of assay solution=0.402µg / ml . The mass of thiamine in 100ml assay solution = Concentration of it * Volume of assay solution . 0.402µg / ml*100ml=40.2 µg . As the assay solution was made from g of corn flakes , I.E. the thiamine content in g of cornflakes is µg as well . < heading the thiamine content of cornflakes as mg/100 g. < /heading > As calculated above the amount of thiamine in g of cornflakes=40.2 µg , i.e. * ( mg ) . The expression of thiamine content of cornflakes as mg / g=7.73 * -3mg / g. So the expression of thiamine content of cornflakes as mg/100 g = * -3 * g. < heading > Compare your answer with the value on the cornflakes packet . < /heading > As found on the cornflake packet that the thiamine content of cornflakes=1.2mg/100 g , so it could be seen that the practical value is lower than the literature value , the error made is calculated as below : ( 1.2 - 0.773)/1.2 * . The possible sources leading to the lower value could be that : , probably due to some losses of ground powder on the bench when being transferred to conical flask and the adherence of it on the sides of the flask . , the conical flask containing the powder was boiled instead of as indicated on the manual , as a result , probably some of the thiamine content in cornflakes powder was lost into the air due to the long - time exposure to heat . Additionally , as the pH of the mixture was not controlled and higher than the range of - 1.2 throughout the hydrolysis , then maybe the cornflakes powder was not efficiently digested , which would affect the results . , due to the time limitation , not all the hydrolysed mixture had been filtrated , there was still some of it left on the ash - free filter paper , besides , possibly the residue has not been washed thoroughly after filtration , as a result of them , the amount of the thiamine gained in the filtrate was made less than that in the mixture . Another source is during the oxidisation process of thiamine , probably the amount of oxidising agent added was not sufficient enough to covert all the thiamine its fluorescence derivative ( thiochrome ) , which led to a less fluorescence value , thus a lower corresponding value of the thiamine content . Another source of error is as the sample isobutanol layer was not diluted in this practical , then relatively bigger value was gained , which could bring about inaccuracy . < heading > Which other food components can be determined by fluorescence spectrophotometry ? Which components can not be determined ? Explain your answer . < /heading > The main concept of spectrophotometry is based on that as the sample molecules are excited by radiation in the UV and visible regions , they will acquire vibrational and electronic energy . Then the excited molecules will either return via vibration levels to the ground state with collisions and thus give no radiation , or stop at an excited electronic state on its way to the ground state , then return directly from this excited electronic state to its ground state and a quantum of energy ( fluorescence ) will be emitted . As a consequence , in fluorescence spectrophotometry , molecules return to the ground state by loss of energy as heat by molecular collisions , but loss of energy also occurs by the emission of radiation . According to the principle , the structure of molecules will influence the fluorescence capability of it . If the structure of molecules is very flexible and not really fixed , for instance , branched or non - branched carbon chains , then it is most likely for them to dissipate the excessive energy as heat via vibration levels to the ground state with no radiation occurring , thus no fluorescence will be given off . Then they are not suitable at all for fluorescence spectophotometry . On the other hand , provided that the structure of the molecule was very rigid and well fixed , all the molecules are bound together to prevent vibration , it will be very unlikely for them to emit energy through vibration levels , instead they will go on to a radiation process by giving off fluorescence directly , which meets the requirement of fluorescence spectrophotometry . Molecules which are aromatic ( including benzene rings ) or comprised of fused ring systems usually fluoresce and capable of undergoing fluorimetry analysis , because their structures are rigid enough . For example , compounds like vitamins A and E , the amino acid tryptophan , aflatoxins and the food additive , quinine . Additionally , other food components which do n't have rigid structure can also be analysed by fluorimetry after converting the non - fluorescent component to a fluorescent derivatives . For example , thiamine , which has a zwitterionic and chain - like structure , can be converted to thiochrome with a fused - ring systems after oxidisation process .","< heading > Was and is 's and other members ' marketing of infant formula ' unethical and immoral ' ? By what criteria should companies be judged ? < /heading > Infant milk formula is a common and useful product , which is widely used in the world as a substitute for breast milk if a mother chooses not to or can not breast - feed her infant . The infant formula was developed by in in response to the high mortality rate among infants born to working class women in who had no time to nurse . With regard to marketing of infant formula in Third World countries , and other members ignore the actual conditions of the countries . They followed some of the same marketing techniques that they had followed with success elsewhere . way of marketing was the distribution of free samples in hospitals to new mothers . In itself , the practice was neither illegal nor immoral . However , many of the new mothers who received samples were unable to correctly use the product when they returned home . reason was the fact that they were poor , so that they were unable to buy sufficient quantities of the formula . Another reason was that they often used local , unsterilized water to mix the formula . But infant milk formula comes as a powder that is to be mixed in a specific proportion with sterilized water . So there must be pure water with which to prepare it , refrigeration to safely store unused prepared formula and customers must be able to read instructions and have the income to purchase adequate quantities of the product . Thus did not analyze either the market condition of the Third World or consumers there carefully . They marketed their products without considering the actual need of the consumers there . They should have applied the suitable marketing strategies to the local market . Referring to the what criteria companies should be evaluated , they might be judged by whether they abide by the rules set up by certain , regulations of , and rules of UNICEF and . For example , The has to protect mothers and babies from aggressive marketing and help them get accurate information . It stops manufacturers giving free supplies of baby milk to hospitals , promoting their products to the public or health workers , using baby pictures on their baby milk labels , giving gifts to mothers or health workers , giving free samples to mothers as well as promoting baby foods or drinks for babies . Additionally , labels must be in a language understood by the mother , and must include a prominent health warning . ( Christ 's , Oct ) . < heading > Who should get the guidelines for ethical standards ? Should it be left to organisations such as and , or should it be national governments , or should it be left to the market ( consumers ) to decide ? Argue the pros and cons of the different groups becoming involved . < /heading>'If there were no standards , we would soon notice ' ( , Why Standards Matter ? ) . In addition to business principles , ethical standards definitely make a great deal contribution to most aspects of our lives . There have therefore been controversial issues regarding what parties should set the guidelines for ethical standards - whether the non - governmental organizations , the national governments or the markets / consumers . There has always been a general notion of the ' invisible hands ' , in which the market will sort an unethical behaviour out , thus promoting consumer protection . Any company will be shunned whenever unethical behaviour is unveiled . Building on the ground that consumers are at best position understanding what their interests are , it seems to be justified that consumers ( or simply the market ) should set the guidelines for ethical standards . Nevertheless , critics arise as consumers have the right to buy what they want , even if it is ' bad ' for them . This point is particularly important in a market where there is a diversification of consumers - with different interests , tastes and behaviours . As such , national governments may be seen as more neutral positions to set up guidelines for ethical standards . National governments are perceived to intervene to stop proven dangerous practises . In relation to unethical behaviour , they should provide frameworks such as codes of practice and labelling regulations concerning ingredients as well as nutrition figures . National governments are considered to be in proper positions to set guidelines for ethical standards , for they can , on one hand , take close account the interests and needs of their consumers , and on the other hand recognise their respective economic terms , citizen 's educational levels and bargaining powers . However , question may be on the ability of national governments to include all voices of consumer and industry groups , especially in an era where business globalisation is taking place . And also the national governments may only focus on the satisfaction of their own standards rather than the others ' . Thus , one may consider the involvement of international organisations , or more appropriately non - governmental international organizations ( NGOs ) like and , in setting up guidelines for ethical standards . NGOs observe the interests and needs of consumers in all countries . International guidelines for consumer protection are drawn from the consensus agreements between national delegations representing all the economic stakeholders involved - suppliers , users , government regulators and other interest groups such as consumers . In this way , international ethical standards provide a reference framework , or a common technological language , between suppliers and their customers . Benefits for the business groups include the widespread adoption of international ethical standards , which means that suppliers can base the development of their products and services on specifications that have wide acceptance in their sectors . More importantly , consumers benefit conformity of products and services to international principles , which provide assurance about quality , safety and reliability . Yet , it is often criticised that international standards , like the ( ) production and ethical standards , are sometimes voluntary . NGOs do not always have definite legal authority to enforce their implementation of ethical standards . Referring to case , the ' WHO code effectively allows almost no marketing . However , the code contains only recommended guidelines . They become mandatory only if individual governments adopt national codes through their own regulatory mechanisms . '(Principles of Marketing , , et al , Concluding Concept - Nestle : singled out again and again , ) . Furthermore , another concern is that decisions made by NGOs may be greatly influenced by the powerful countries such as with majority voting powers . < heading > Did benefit from confronting the activities directly in court and winning ? Should firms ever confront activities directly ? Should firms withdraw from legitimate markets because of the justified or unjustified actions of pressure groups ? < /heading > Nestle did benefit a bit from confronting and winning the activists directly in court . won the legal case and hence the boycott was called off . Although the campaign continued , many organizations such as rejected the boycott . The activists admitted that they were guilty of substantial and misrepresentation of unethical marketing behaviours as well as exaggerated figures . As such , gained back public justice for its milk powder . It was made easier for to rebuild its reputation in the future . Yet , it was a public - relations disaster for though it won the legal case . "" Good public relation involves building good relations with the company 's various publics by obtaining favorable publicity , building a good ' corporate image ' , and handling or heading off unfavorable rumors , stories and events""(Kotleral . ) . It led to , to some extent , negative effects on the corporate image of . Activists to the firms are sometimes unavoidable . But it seems firms should not confront activists directly , for all parties can have their voices noticed especially in democratic societies . Firms have the responsibility to make the general public informed about the productions and marketing practices . This is especially true regarding ethical business behaviour related to the public . Firms should let the public aware the criticism and make all things transparent . On the other hand , firms could also learn from critics and improve their corporate behaviours . But it all depends on whether the criticism of the activists is too severe . In this case , firms have to get involved to legitimate markets to confront the activists and defend themselves against the unjustified actions of pressure group to retain public confidence . For justified actions of pressure groups , the involvement of sues have aroused public attention and the effect has been manifested . Thus it might be sensible for such firms to get into legitimate markets so as to sustain their business performances , which is very important concerning corporate strategies of firms . For both cases , corporate social responsibility places a crucial role in future growth of firms . < heading > Find another example of where a company has been accused of unethical behaviour / marketing . Explain the background to the situation and what happened / is happening . < /heading > The McLibel Trial is regarded as the most serious crisis for . was accused of unethical marketing from the aspects of Rainforest Destruction , Nutritional Value , Marketing to Children , Cruelty to Animals and and . For example , some of 's advertisements and literature were accused to have inaccurately claimed positive nutritional benefits for their food , and people who eat there frequently , "" encouraged by 's advertising , "" increased their risk of serious diseases . Children are led by advertisements to believe that it is a part of their normal lives to eat at and take part in the ' ' experience and that they are missing out part of their normal lives if they do not take parts in . BACKGROUND : is a court case between 's and a postman and a gardener from ( and ) . It ran for and became the longest ever trial . The Judge delivered his verdict in . The verdict was devastating for . The judge ruled that they had ' exploited children ' with their advertising , produced ' misleading ' advertising , been ' culpably responsible ' for cruelty to animals , been ' antipathetic ' to unionisation and paid their workers low wages . But and failed to prove all the points , thus the Judge ruled that they had libelled and should pay damages . They refused and 's knew better than to pursue it . In made further rulings against in relation to heart disease and employment . SITUATION NOW : As a result of the court case , the Anti - McDonald 's campaign mushroomed , the press coverage increased exponentially , this website was born and a documentary was produced . The legal controversy continues . It aroused many anti - McDonald 's activities all over the world . This not only cost 's financial loss but reputation declined . has to pay great deal of money to settle many lawsuits all over the world . For example , has agreed to pay to settle a lawsuit over artery - clogging trans fats in its cooking oils in . also so a lot of charities to rebuild its reputation . For example , said it will donate to and spend another to inform the public of its trans fat plans .",1 "< heading > INTRODUCTION Anthocyanins are pigments present in a large number of plant tissues including flowers , and fruits which give them their red , violet , and blue colour ( Macheix et al . , ) . They are widely distributed flavonoid found most abundant in fruits such as black currants ( , ) , grapes ( et al . , ) and berries ( , ) . Although they are present in certain vegetables like aubergines , cabbage , red onions and red beans ( , 2005 ) , little work has been done to investigate the anthocyanins in those foods . Also , it will be quite interesting if there are more researches on fruit juice and mixed fruits . Anthocyanins are considered of crucial nutritional importance in the prevention of chronic diseases , such as cancer , cardiovascular disease and degradative diseases due to their antioxidant properties ( , 2005 ) . < naturally occurring anthocyanins and major anthocyanidins have been reported ( , ) . Anthocyanin contents which mainly found in the skin are generally proportional to color intensity and increase as the fruit ripens ( et al . , ) . They are consumed by humans as part of a normal diet . Dietary intake has been estimated at mg / day ( , ) . < heading > STRUCTURES OF ANTHOCYANINS Physical Structure Anthocyanins are water - soluble polyphenolic compounds ( ie , several hydroxyl groups on aromatic rings ) which belong to the flavonoid family . They are glycosides and acylglycosides of anthocyanidins ( aglycons ) ( Macheix et al . , ) . Anthocyanidins ( Figure ) are characterized by having the flavylium ( 2 - phenylbenzopyrylium ) cation structure with different hydroxyl and methoxyl substitutions on the B - ring ( , ; , 2005 ) . The common anthocyanidins are pelargonidin , cyaniding , delphinidin , peonidin , petunidin and malvidin . < figure/>In plants , anthocyanidins occur as glycosylated forms , anthocyanins . The most common sugar moieties are glucose , rhamnose , xylose , galactose , arabinose , and fructose . Both mono- and diglycosides are common . The sugar moiety can be located on carbons , , , , and 5 , the 3- and - positions being dominant . With different sugar types attached , the structural diversity greatly increases . Thus , the structural diversity of anthocyanins present in the diet is considerable . It will be useful to study thoroughly the actions of the glycosylated compounds as they are the native forms occurring in plants as well as in plant extracts and other products manufactured without hydrolysis . These sugars can also be acylated by acetic acid which make the anthocyanins more stable ( , ) . Anthocyanidins vary in the pattern of hydroxylation and methoxylation , and this variation greatly influences the spectra of individual anthocyanidins ( Zhang et al . , ) . < heading > Chemical Structure Anthocyanins exist in different chemical forms according to ( Figure ) . They are present as red flavylium cation at low ( pH 1 - 3 ) . In aqueous media and as the is raised to , hydration reactions generate the colorless carbinol pseudo - base which can further undergo ring opening to the light yellow chalcones . The flavylium cation can alternatively be transformed to quinonoidal bases through proton transfer reactions and at pH 6 - 7 be further converted to the blue - purple quinonoid anions ( , ; et al . , ) . < figure/>Anthocyanins are highly unstable in the aglycone form ( anthocyanidins ) , unstable to light and are rapidly destroyed by alkali . of each anthocyanin remained intact up to pH . At pH a local minimum in stability was detected , and at pH > 4.5 the stability rapidly decreased . Thus anthocyanins exhibit the highest stability as the red flavylium cation . is prevented by glycosylation , generally with a glucose at position , and esterification with various organic acids ( citric and malic acids ) and phenolic acids . In addition , anthocyanins are stabilized by the formation of complexes with other flavonoids ( copigmentation ) ( Nielsen et al . , ) . < heading > HEALTH EFFECTS OF ANTHOCYANINS Dietary antioxidants have attracted considerable interest due to their free radicals scavenging property ( Prior et al . , ) . The physiological function of dietary antioxidants is suggested to protect living organisms from oxidative damage , resulting in the prevention of diseases ( et al , . ) . Diets rich in fruits and vegetables are associated with a reduced risk for these pathologies , and protection has often been attributed to antioxidant vitamins such as vitamin C , vitamin E , and β - carotene . However , other dietary components may also be important protective agents ( ) . In some fruits , anthocyanins make a major contribution to the total antioxidant capacity . Among all common fruits and vegetables in the diet , berries , especially blueberries , have the highest antioxidant capacities ( Prior et al . , ) . During , a growing number of studies have investigated the diverse health benefits and protective effects of anthocyanins present in various fruits and vegetables . However , those studies just looked at the benefits of each kind of food . As different food have different contents of anthocyanins with different structures and thus offer different protective mechanisms to different levels . It will be very interesting and useful to investigate the health benefits of diet with mixed food . Anthocyanins are found to involve in a wide range of biological activities including antioxidant ( Prior et al . , ; Chaovanalikit et al . , ) , anti - inflammatory ( et al . , ) , anti - carcinogenic activities ( . ) , cardioprotective ( et al . , ) and neuroprotective actions . The health effects of anthocyanins depend on the amount consumed and on their bioavailability ( et al . , ) . < heading > Free redicals and oxygen species ( ) such as hydroxyl ( OH· ) and peroxyl radicals ( ROO· ) and the superoxide anion ( O2· ) are constantly produced as a result of metabolic reactions in living organisms . Living organisms are protected from oxidative damage by these reactive species by enzymes and antioxidant compounds . However , when free radical production exceeds the antioxidant capacity of the organism , it will lead to oxidative stress and these free radicals will attack lipids , proteins and DNA . Thus damaging structural integrity and function of cell membranes , enzymes , and genetic material . Various pathological conditions , including cardiovascular disease , arthritis , various cancers and Alzheimer 's disease , are associated with the damaging effects of uncontrolled free - radical production ( et al . , ; . , ; et al . , ) . Many foods contain nonnutritive components such as anthocyanins and other phenolic compounds which provide protection against chronic diseases through multiple effects are as yet poorly understood . These compounds may act as antioxidants by reacting with free radicals and so interrupting the propagation of new free radical species or by chelating metal ions such as Fe2 + , which catalyses lipid oxidation to alter their redox potentials . ( et al . , ) < heading > Anthocyanins as antioxidants The beneficial effects of anthocyanins are believed to be associated with their antioxidant properties ( Chaovanalikit et al . , ) . Anthocyanins can act as free radical scavengers , but other mechanisms , including metal chelation or protein binding are important in biological systems . The phenolic structure of anthocyanins ( Figure ) conveys marked antioxidant activity in model systems via donation of electrons or transfer of hydrogen atoms from hydroxyl moieties to free radicals and result in very stable radical products ( ) . < figure/>The difference in antioxidant capacity could be ascribed to individual molecular structure . It is suspected that the substitution pattern on the B - ring is the key factor in the antioxidative behavior of anthocyanins . Increase in hydroxyl groups ( OH ) will increase the antioxidant activity . That is why monophenols in the B ring , such as petunidin , malvidin , and peonidin , give lower antioxidant activity compared to those compounds with ' , substitution like cyanidin ( et al . , ) . Therefore , the specific anthocyanidin content of foods and beverages is valuable information in the assessment of their nutritional value . Although many papers have been published on the radical scavenging activities of anthocyanins , they mainly focused on the aglycon forms . The antioxidant activity of both the aglycon and glycosidic should also be considered as they both appear in natural anthocyanins . Glycosylation of a flavonoid reduces radical scavenger activity compared with the aglycon , as it reduces the ability of the flavonoid radical to delocalize electrons . , has higher efficacy than its glycosides , suggesting that the antioxidant activity of anthocyanins is due to their aglycon moiety ( et al . , ) . The literatures on evaluation of antioxidant potency of anthocyanins are difficult to interpret because different testing systems and different methods are used to determine oxidation . Also , there is a lack of information on the mechanisms by which anthocyanins exert their antioxidant activity on biological systems . < heading > Anthocyanins absorption / metabolism Anthocyanins can be absorbed intact as glycosides in rats and humans after taking an anthocyanin - containing diet ( mg berry extracts for rats and berry extracts for humans ) and excreted in the urine without modification or metabolism . Relatively small proportions are absorbed ( et al . , ) . Maximum plasma levels of total anthocyanins were in the range of - 120 nmol / L , with doses of mg / kg in human studies . The clearance of anthocyanins from the circulation is sufficiently rapid that by , very little is generally detected in the plasma ( Cao et al . , ) . Several of these anthocyanins are relatively large and polar , particularly those conjugated with a di- or trisaccharide , and are unlikely to be passively absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract . Bioavailability of anthocyanins is modulated by both the nature of the sugar conjugate and the phenolic aglycon . It has been recently hypothesized that this apparent low bioavailability of anthocyanins in vivo may be due to their biotransformation into metabolites that are not detectable with current techniques or are rapidly degraded ( et al . , ) . Future research is needed to investigate anthocyanin distribution to various tissues and evaluating the potent antioxidative activity of their metabolites . < heading > Anthocyanins as in vitro antioxidantsBilberry and the lowbush blueberries had the highest antioxidant capacity ( ± and ± 2.2 , respectively ) as well as anthocyanin content ( ± 12.9 mg/100 g and ± 3.4 mg/100 g respectively ) ( Prior et al . , ) . The correlation between and total anthocyanins contents of different blueberry and blackberry samples were studies by . ( ) . The average values of showed positive correlation with average values of total anthocyanins . A linear relationship was observed between and total anthocyanins . The correlation coefficient , r2 = for total anthocyanins , indicated that the antioxidant capacity is related to total anthocyanins . In vitro assay conditions , anthocyanins clearly can function as antioxidants . However , in vitro measurement of antioxidant capacity may or may not reflect what happens in vivo because of the instabilities of anthocyanins in the neutral range , it is not clear whether anthocyanins remain intact in tissues long enough to act as antioxidants . Very little is known about the absorption and metabolism of anthocyanins and whether they are absorbed in sufficient quantities and in a form in which effects on in vivo measures of oxidative cellular damage . < heading > Anthocyanins as in vivo antioxidant Animal study In rats fed a vitamin E - deficient diet for wk and then repleted with a diet containing a highly purified anthocyanin rich extract ( g / kg diet , this level in the diet provide mg / d ) , a significant improvement ( p < 0.01 ) in plasma antioxidant capacity and a decrease ( p < 0.001 ) in the vitamin E deficiency - enhanced hydroperoxides concentrations in liver were observed . The anthocyanin extract consisted of a mixture of the - glucoside forms of delphinidin , cyanidin , petunidin , peonidin , and malvidin ( et al . , ) . < heading > Human clinical study A small but significant increase in plasma hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidant capacity following the consumption of a single meal of g blueberries was observed by ( 2002 ) . However , Mazzaal . ( ) demonstrated a more consistent increase in plasma antioxidant capacity after the consumption of a g freeze dried blueberry powder that containing g of total anthocyanins and individual anthocyanins . of the anthocyanins present in the blueberries were detected in human blood serum . Furthermore , the appearance of total anthocyanins in the serum was directly correlated with an increase in serum antioxidant capacity ( , p < ) . These results show that anthocyanins can be absorbed in their intact glycosylated and possibly acylated forms in human subjects and that consumption of blueberries , a food source with high in vitro antioxidant properties , is associated with a diet - induced increase in ex vivo serum antioxidant status . This instability of anthocyanins in tissue culture and in the body often tends to be overlooked as one does not know whether the effects observed are due to the anthocyanins or due to some breakdown product . Measurement of in vivo antioxidant effects of a single flavonoid compound appears to be difficult . Relatively high dietary levels of anthocyanins appear to be necessary to observe antioxidant effects in vivo . Also , further investigations are required to more fully understand the in vivo bioactivity of anthocyanins . < heading > Health benefits Anti - cancer Lazzeal . ( ) analysed the effect of aglycone anthocyanins , delphinidin and cyanidin , on cell cycle progression , induction of apoptosis in human cancer cells ( uterine carcinoma and colon adenocarcinoma cells ) and in normal human fibroblasts . Cells treated for h with delphinidin or cyanidin with and 200 mM and resulted in apoptosis of ± , ± and of cells . The results showed that in the concentration range of mM , cyanidin has an antiproliferative effect only in normal fibroblasts while delphinidin affects the proliferation capacity of normal cells and has a pro - apoptotic effect in tumour cell lines . The maximum concentration of mMDP adopted in the study corresponded to . Liual . ( ) demonstrated the antiproliferative activity of raspberry extracts to HepG2 human liver cancer cells . HepG2 cells were cultured with an extract equivalent to , 1 , , , , , , or of raspberry fruit and HepG2 cell proliferation was inhibited in a dose - dependent manner after exposure to the raspberry extracts . From those studies , it is tempting to speculate that anthocyanins are promising substances for reducing cancer risk because of their antiproliferative potential and their apoptotic effects specifically in cancer cells . Obviously , additional pre - clinical studies using appropriate in vivo animal models as well as carefully designed pharmacokinetics studies are needed before clinical testing of anthocyanins as cancer preventive or therapeutic agents . < heading > Cardioprotection < /heading > Lietti ( ) demonstrated significant vasoprotective properties in experimental animals given an extract from bilberry that contained anthocyanins . In rabbits , the increase in skin capillary permeability reduced after oral administration ( mg / kg ) of anthocyanins . Anthocyanins from were effective both in a skin capillary permeability test and in a vascular resistance test in rats fed a diet devoid of rutin ( quercetin rutinoside ) . Human low - density lipoproteins ( LDL ) is an early event in coronary disease . Marniemial . ( ) conducted a study to evaluate the long - term ( ) effects of increased intake of berries on antioxidant potential and lipid peroxidation . The berry treatment group members ate g portion of deep - frozen berries ( bilberries , lingonberries , or black currants ) in addition to their normal diet for while the control group without . Subjects in the berry group had a slightly lowered LDL diene conjugation and slightly increased serum total radical - trapping antioxidant parameter ( ) . In in vitro study , LDL particles were isolated from healthy volunteers ' blood and incubated with various concentrations of the anthocyanins ( , , , uM ) and the extent of oxidation was determined by measuring the formation of hexanal and conjugated dienes . The antioxidant activity of the anthocyanins tested generally increased with concentration . Inhibition of conjugated diene and hexanal followed the same trend ( et al . , ) . Heinonenal . ( ) also proved that antioxidant activity for LDL was associated directly with anthocyanins . < heading > Neuroprotective < /heading > Nitric oxide ( NO · ) is known as one of the key chemical mediators participating in many physiological reactions in living organisms , such as signal transduction . NO · readily reacts with the superoxide anion to form a strong oxidant , peroxynitrite ( ONOO- ) , which is highly reactive to biological molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids . Since NO · radicals are generated constitutively in the brain under physiological conditions , ONOO- is implicated as a causative factor of cerebral disorders such as strokes and Alzheimer 's disease ( et al . , ) . Ichiyanagial . ( ) found that the anthocyanins from extract of bilberries could react with NO · and ONOO- thus scavenging those radicals . The study also revealed that the reactivities of anthocyanins towards NO · were markedly enhanced under aerobic conditions . This indicates that anthocyanins readily react with extended oxidation products of NO · . More relevant to brain aging , research has shown that the may show an enhanced vulnerability to oxidative stress , since it is deficient in free radical protection and uses of the total body oxygen and this vulnerability may increase further in aging ( Joseph et al . , ) . There are a number of neuronal and behavioural changes that take place as a function of aging , even in the absence of neurodegenerative diseases . These changes may include decrements in calcium homeostasis and in the sensitivity of several receptor systems . These decrements can be expressed as alterations in both motor and cognitive behaviours ( Joseph et al . , ) . Although the major factors involved in these age - related declines remain to be specified , a great deal of research in has suggested that of the most important may be reduction of oxidative stress by antioxidants . This appears to be particularly evident in Parkinson 's disease ( PD ) and Alzheimer 's disease ( AD ) ( Joseph et al . , ) . Recently , the world is going towards aging population . Therefore , it is important to determine whether dietary supplementations are effective in aged organisms . Josephal . ( ) conducted a study to examine whether dietary supplementations would be effective in reversing age - related deficits in neuronal and behavioral function in aged rats . group of Fischer rats were given a control diet and groups were given dietary supplements ( strawberry , spinach , or blueberry at , , or gm of dried aqueous extract per kilogram of diet , respectively ) of fruit and vegetable extracts with high antioxidant activity for . Figure presented the result from striatal slices obtained from the animals in the various diet groups , especially blueberry group , showed significantly greater oxotremorine - enhanced striatal dopamine release ( OX - K+-ERDA ) than that seen in those obtained from animals maintained on the control diet . < figure/>The study also showed the results of psychomotor testing ( Figure ) on rod walking ( which measured psychomotor coordination and the integrity of the vestibular system ) and accelerating rotarod tasks ( which measures fine motor coordination , balance , and resistance to fatigue ) . The latency to fall on rod walking ( Figure A ) and accelerating rotarod ( Figure B ) was significantly longer in the blueberry group . Therefore , supplementation with the blueberry extract improved motor performance on motor tests that rely on balance and coordination . < figure/>For cognitive testing in the study , positive effects of diet supplementation were observed in water maze performance ( Figure ) . Only the diet groups showed significant improvements between trial and trial for latency ( Figure 3.6.3 A ) and distance ( Figure 3.6.3 B ) to the platform . These showed the effects of improved working memory ( trial ) performance via diet supplementation . < figure/>All data from Joseph et al , indicated that the fruit and vegetable extracts , particularly blueberry , were effective in reversing age - related deficits in neuronal signaling , e.g. , signal transduction such as oxotremorine - enhanced striatal dopamine release ( OX - K+-ERDA ) , as well as cognitive function , e.g. water maze performance . Also , polyphenolic compounds present in antioxidant - rich foods may be beneficial in forestalling functional age - related deficits . In rats fed with a control or blueberry , several anthocyanins were found in the cerebellum , cortex , hippocampus or striatum of the blueberry supplementation rats , but not the controls . This finding suggests that polyphenolic compounds are able to cross the blood brain barrier and localize in various brain regions important for learning and memory and may deliver their antioxidant and signaling modifying capabilities centrally ( et al , 2005 ) . The effects of the food matrix on the bioavailability of anthocyanins have not been examined in much detail . There may be some important differences exist between animals and humans and so clinical studies will be of great help in investigating the health effect of anthocyanins . Much more research can be carried out on structure - activity relationships of anthocyanins . < heading > ANALYSING METHODS OF ANTHOCYANINS History of analyzing were previously characterized by paper chromatography ( PC ) . With the improvement of analytical technology , high - performance liquid chromatography ( HPLC ) coupled with UV - visible ( UV - vis ) detection has been the standard method for the analysis of anthocyanins ( Zhang et al . , ) . Recently , HPLC coupled with mass spectrometry ( MS ) has become an efficient tool for providing useful structural information regarding molecular weight and fragmentation ( et al . , ) . However , the most widespread technique for separation and qualification of anthocyanins is with UV detection at wavelengths around 520 nm as anthocyanins have a very specific absorption of UV and visible light in the red area ( Nyman et al . , ; et al . , ) . Actually , either UV - vis or mass spectra alone is not sufficient enough . Both information should be used to distinguish anthocyanins with similar structures . < heading > Extration methods The method of extraction influenced the composition of fruit extracts . The highest anthocyanin was found in extracts obtained using a solvent of acidified aqueous methanol ( et al . , ) . In many berries studies , frozen samples are freeze - dried and ground into powder . The samples are extracted with solvent ( water/ acetic acid ) . After vortex and centrifuge , run the supernatant into the ( Nielsen et al . , ) . < heading > Identification of anthocyanins Each of the berry fruit extracts contain a different composition of anthocyanins that produce a distinctive chromatogram based on the retention times of the individual anthocyanins and the relative amounts ( et al . , ) . Anthocyanin identifications are made by using retention time data and UV - vis spectra and comparing them with standard compounds ( Zhang et al . , ) . However , it is very difficult to obtain a complete profile as petunidin standard is not always available . Even though a large amount of published data is available , different investigators have used different experimental conditions , which can make comparison of anthocyanins in different foods more difficult . Due to the attached sugars and acids , the number of anthocyanins is times greater than the number of aglycon forms . This results in a large number of peaks on the chromatogram and difficulties in identifying individual anthocyanins ( et al . , ) . Acid hydrolysis greatly simplifies the anthocyanin profile by converting anthocyanins to major anthocyanidins ( Zhang et al . , ) . Most studies focus on the qualitative anthocyanin characterization of fruits and berries . Only a few reported the quantitation of aglycons , especially those in plant - based material is still lacking . More research can be done to quantify aglycons in fruits as to give a clear view of both the variety and amount of anthocyanins present . < heading > AIMS AND OBJECTIVES Aims of this work are: To find out the best extraction method for anthocyanins . To identify the best food source for anthocyanins in the diet . To design a diet for humans as to obtain the most diverse and amount of anthocyanins. Aims will be addressed by the following objectives : < list > By using different proportion of solvent / water and coupled with UV - visible detection and compare peaks obtained . Thus determine the best way for anthocyanins extraction . Perform an enzyme treatment for different types of foods . Then identify and compare the varieties of aglycons present to find out the best food source . Base on the aglycons content found in foods , to design a diet that can obtained more varieties of anthocyanins as to obtain optimal health benefits from whole food.","Talk of human rights , and violations of such rights , is the recent currency of politics . Infringements of human rights , and the uniting of nations under the guise of human rights , dominate newspapers and political discourse . The schoolgirl who feels that her human rights have been violated because her school would not allow her to wear the traditional jilbab dress , and the talk of arresting people without charge or evidence leaves a sour taste in the mouth of the human rights supporter , but is any of it well founded ? In deciding what constitutes a human right we must first decide what a human right is and whether or not it even exists . is perhaps the most obvious place to look for a justification for the existence of human rights . The declaration states : < quote>'they [ human beings ] are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights' The apparent religious overtones of ' Creator ' suggest that God grants us these rights . However , it is not so apparent that this is the case . Even if we accept that God , as creator of all , created us , then there is no explicit or even implicit creation of human rights in the creation of humans . In creating a robot , the scientist does not imply or explicate the existence of rights for said robot . Perhaps the theist would justify the existence of human rights in the context of a duty of society to God ; that life is God 's gift and with it there are certain rights for the individual such as the right to life , right not to be subjected to torture and other such negative rights ( positive rights in shall be dismissed here as too problematic to warrant consideration at this point ) . Life as a gift can be viewed in a wider context as well , in order to accommodate atheists ; parents or nature are perhaps the bearer of such a gift . An important consideration to raise here is that in viewing human rights as a duty of society to a God , in order to look after His subjects , individuals must and foremost acknowledge this duty to themselves ; for example , the right to life is also a duty to not commit suicide . We shall later see that society has responsibilities to the individual but the individual has no such duty to its creator . In viewing life as a gift , let us see if this entails rights for the individual out of respect to an omniscient God , loving parents or an indifferent mother nature . In a slightly different context , let us consider receiving a car as a birthday present from a well - meaning friend or relative . Now there are several possibilities for the use of the car here : Perhaps the recipient is entirely happy with the gift and takes good care of it ; waxing and polishing it each day and not driving it to excess and the car enjoys a long existence and a lot of love . Or perhaps the recipient appreciates the gift but wants to use it in a slightly different way to ( A ) ; they drive the car too fast , never wash it and end up wrapped round a lamppost in some downtown area . A possibility is that the recipient just does not want the car and so trades it in for a new one , or takes out their frustration on it , for such an inappropriate gift , before torching it and ending the car 's existence in a glorious pyrotechnic explosion . Would the understanding giver of the aforementioned car have any objection to any of the possibilities ? Or , rather , should they ? In ( A ) the giver clearly appreciates the care given to the gift by the recipient and feels that they have chosen the perfect present for them . In ( B ) the giver possibly feels that the car is a little unloved and perhaps they feel that the unfortunate end of the recipient was their own fault for giving them the car . They may feel that they did not really know the person and in hindsight maybe they should have bought them a different model of car , or socks . Perhaps a more liberal giver of such a gift in such a situation would maybe think that it was an unfortunate series of events but at least the recipient had fun with the gift and was just limited by a lack education or upbringing on how to care for the car . In situation ( C ) bearer of the gift will inevitably feel bad , but in the back of their minds they would know that there were other reasons and motives unknown to them . In applying this rather elaborate example to the concept of life as a gift and to the different possible bearers of such a gift the conclusion that even the basic human right of ' the right to life ' is non - existent becomes apparent . In considering the following , the car in the above example equates to life and the recipient is the person involved . Mother - nature , as the bearer of the gift of life , does not care for how the person treats their gift ; if they indulge in self - harm and explode in a blaze of glory as in ( C ) mother - nature will not feel hard done by . She is indifferent and most likely devoid of empathetic qualities and personification of any kind ; if we take her to be the laws of nature ( be it gravity , neo - Darwinism , or any other current popular theory ) . If parents are seen as the gift bearers and life is bestowed upon the person in a well planned and thought out manner then perhaps there is a duty for ( C ) , and to some extent ( B ) , to respect that gift and live the alternative , exemplary life as ( A ) . However , it is close to the example of the car in the original example . The parents should not feel disrespected or betrayed if their offspring ends up wrapped round a lamppost . In giving life to the individual , free will is also given and it must be expected that there will always be extraneous factors not taken into account at the conception of the life . In a theistic context the individual is also absolved of responsibility for ending their life and subjecting themselves to torture . God , as omniscient , knows all the reasons , which the parents as bearers did not , as to why what happened did . God will not punish ( B ) simply because he did not know what he was doing and was never shown how to look after himself and ( C ) will similarly escape consequences as God will understand why they did what they did . This is not to say that there exists no morality and that one can do as one pleases and expect no punishment for one 's actions . If life is a gift then other people , or society , should respect that gift . The individual is not morally required to justify actions aimed entirely at themselves , but actions that affect others must be morally justified . < fnote > In saying that the individual is absolved of responsibility of actions toward him or herself I am in no way advocating self - harm or suicide , either of these actions can have effects on other people and so can still be viewed as immoral or wrong . Suicide , excess and self - harm are morally neutral actions in themselves ; morality is always in relation to the people around oneself . < /fnote > In giving the car to the person in the example above , the bearer of such a gift would feel that both she , as bearer , and he , as receiver of the gift were both hard done by if a party were to damage the car or to destroy it . And so parents , or God , as a possible bearer of life , would feel that anyone who tortured or killed their creation is morally accountable for their actions . In this people have a responsibility to other people , but not to themselves in the same way . The individual is entitled to take their own life with no moral consequences , but not the life of another . May it be concluded that the view of life ' as a gift entailing inherent rights ' as found in , is wrong . If life is to be viewed as a gift , in any sense , be it theistic or atheistic , then entail , not rights . ' The Right to life ' and ' The Right to be free from torture ' are worded wrongly . They should , in fact , be ' the Responsibility towards other lives ' and ' the Responsibility not to torture others ' . Talk of human rights undermines the individuals responsibility to others as it , effectively , makes morality passive . ' Everyone should be moral to me ' , and ' I have no need to act morally ' seem to follow far too easily from a view of human rights . Human Responsibilities , however , give rise to an active morality in which all individuals are accountable for everyone else . The negative rights outlined in can all easily enough be translated into that provide a fairly good way to live life ; perhaps a more formal version of ' do to others as you would want done to you ' . The positive rights outlined in the Declaration are nothing more than superficial western ideals that no one can , or will , take responsibility for . The right to education and the right to clean , running water may be nice but unless someone is to take responsibility they are meaningless . The pragmatic view of human rights is often applauded in that it offers little in the way of metaphysical justification for its ideas and instead focuses on agreement between nations on morality . A view of morality that encourages passivity and is filled with meaningless ideals is far from pragmatic . Once people realise that positive rights are , by and large , unrealisable and that there is no need to acknowledge them as real rights , then there is the eminent danger that a similar view will be held for the negative human rights . In an attempt to end this seeming digression ; the answer to the question : ' How can it be decided what a human right is ? ' is that there simply is not any such thing as human rights . What constitutes a human right is the political worth of the idea it entails . Talk of human rights is worth its figurative weight in gold to those in , and who want , power and is an appalling depiction of the human psyche that we expect society to deal us with the right cards and accept no responsibility ourselves . Morality should be an active matter , not a case of passively waiting for others to wait on us hand and foot . In a document that outlines the right to be free from slavery , enslaves society in relation to the individual . It is clear from cases prominent in the media that once an alleged injustice is dressed up as a breach of human rights all hell breaks loose as the law , politicians , employers , schools and wider society all cower under the menace of this passive , non - existent morality . Once a code of Human Responsibilities is drawn up then , and only then , can justice prevail . If someone does not live up to their responsibilities then they can be demonstrated to be in the wrong . At present , if someone claims a breach of his or her rights society starts a witch - hunt amidst a blind panic , in order to blame this so - called crime on anything . Human Rights are the child in the sandpit crying because someone stole his toy tractor and threw sand in his face . Human Responsibilities are the adult who calms the child down , wipes the tears from his eyes and shows him how to play with what he 's got .",0 "The behaviour , lifestyle and biology of the species can be inferred from their fossil remains as well as comparative anatomy with other members of the Homo genus . Information can also be obtained from studying archaeological record . It is important to recognise that in many ways they were quite similar to modern humans . The configuration of their limbs , hands and feet indicate that they stood , walked and manipulated objects in much the same way that modern humans do . There is nothing in their vertebrae , joint structures or feet to say that they were anything but a fully upright bipedal species ( this definitely detracts from the stooping ape - like beast of ) . Probably most important in disproving this rather old fashioned view are the postcranial ( body ) bones associated with 1 ( approx kya ) a site containing the remains of several individuals . An earlier reconstruction of a skeleton by ( from his work at - aux - Saints in ) portrayed Neanderthals as stooped , brutish creatures which are misconceptions that have stayed with our notion of Neanderthals to this day . The morphology of the leg bones and the foot demonstrate without any doubt that the posture and gait of differed very little from modern humans . the skeleton of is considered the "" classic "" example of anatomy by many archaeologists . ( Fagan 1991 : ) The and possibly most important part of anatomy to look at when considering anatomies influence on behaviour is the brain . The Neanderthals were a relatively large brained species ; Endocasts taken from the inside of fossilised skulls have been compared to that of other species in the Homo genus . The brains of were , modern human range from ml in volume . This is curious when compared to brain sizes of for female specimens and for male ( Stringer and Gamble 1993 : - 82 ) . It can be argued that these figures suggest that evolution ( at least where brain size is concerned ) does not seem to follow a step by step pattern . In other words as our species progressed brain size and intelligence increased in tandem . On the other hand it can be argued quite strongly that brain size does not necessarily indicate intelligence within our own species , working with brain size alone is problematic at best . Endocasts have shown researchers however that modern humans and Neanderthals do share majorly important trait , they both have cerebral dominance which basically means that the left and right hand sides of the brain perform distinct , separate and unique function ( Stringer and Gamble 1993 : ) . Although we can determine the actual size of the brain we can not learn anything about its internal structure . Archaeologists have studied various other aspects of their anatomy such as the size and shape of their endocranial cavities , as well as their vertebral spinal canals with do indicate ( possibly ) that the full range of cognitive abilities was available to them ( Walker and Shipman 1996 : ) It is however virtually impossible to make any real and scientific judgements based on brain size or Endocasts alone . In order to gain more insights concerning behaviour it is probably more pertinent to look at some other aspects of their anatomy . Another important aspect of anatomy to consider when studying the relationship between anatomy and behaviour is their dental remains . In comparison to modern humans the average size of teeth are much larger . The front teeth were especially prominent and research has begun to show that they played an important part in life . Archaeologists have studied and analysed the use - wear patterns found on fossilised teeth which appear unusually rounded , worn and deep , showing that they were subjected to heavy use . Microscopic analysis has found traces of material , organic in nature , embedded in the teeth . The patterns and alignment of this material are suggestive of material being gripped between the front teeth and pulled tight . This evidence could point to the fact that Neanderthals used their strong front teeth and muscular jaws as a vice to secure a variety of objects and possibly food . An example of how this might work could be the preparation of animal hides ( Stringer and Gamble 1993 : 77).The Neanderthal could of used his / her front teeth to grip one end of the hide whilst pulling it tight with one arm and then using the free arm to manipulate and prepare the hide possibly using the many types of scrapper tool ( some evidence points to the right arm being used for this task ) ( and Shipman 1996 : ) Microscopic evidence from fossilised teeth found at in support the theory that stone tools were being held in the right arm . The action of the stone tool being used in conjunction with the item being manipulated left distinctly different scratch marks on the teeth indicating the direction of the tool ( Stringer and Gamble 1993 : ) . Evidence such as this gives archaeologists valuable insights into behaviour and everyday activities as well as the role their unique anatomy might have played . An interesting and unique piece was excavated at the site of ( approx kya ) where the fragmentary remains were found of several individuals were found ( Scarre 2005 : ) . The same scratch marks were found on the milk incisor of a young . This provides researchers with a tantalising insight into the early lives of children . The use wear marks are extremely suggestive and show that at least to a certain degree children were being taught the skills necessary to survive as well as taking an active part within their family units or communities ( Stringer and Gamble 1993 : ) . Apart from the Lithics that make up the vast majority of archaeological record , the skeletal evidence provides the greatest insights into behaviour . bones were extremely well built and robust with thick walls and large joints . The average had much shorter forearms and leg bones ( when compared to modern humans that is ) and large barrel chests . Therefore Neanderthals would have been rather short and squat in appearance , heavily muscled with broad chests ( Stringer and Gamble 1993 : ) . Archaeologists have compared these traits to that of modern living peoples and have found that they actually have the most in common with the people ( a race of people that have adapted to the cold climates of the frozen north with climates similar to that of ice age ) . This goes some way to proving the theory that Neanderthals evolved to survive in cold and extreme climates ( other evidence to support this includes their highly effective nasal system thought to regulate temperature ) and is reflected in their anatomy ( Walker and Shipman 1996 : ) . The robustness present in fossils suggests a skeletal structure that had evolved to withstand a lot of punishment and hardship . The bones themselves supported immense muscles , which made the Neanderthals into virtual powerhouses and left their mark . The ligaments and tendons needed to support this musculature left deep marks on the bones at the point were they connected to the joints , the size of these marks are very suggestive of the sheer bulk of this species . There is evidence from sites such as Le Moustier and in that this well developed muscularity was present even in childhood . It can therefore be argued that this is an inherited evolutionary trait as opposed to a trait developed over a period of time . It does however prove that the required massive amounts of strength and endurance in order to survive ( Stringer and Gamble 1993 : ) . An example of this could be their legs , which show great endurance and strength , this implies frequent and prolonged movement across the landscape carrying large burdens . As far as anatomy goes and musculature goes the emphasis really was on brawn . Neanderthal anatomy can also inform archaeologists about diet and subsistence strategies . Their fossil remains show abundant signs of nutritional depravation during growth and of all fossils found show defects in the teeth as a result of this . Stable isotope analysis of the bones chemical composition shows that they were primarily carnivores , with meat accounting for of their diet ( although recent excavation with more up to date scientific processes have begun to uncover evidence for at least some plant resource exploitation , though this is mainly is the parts of territory ) ( Scarre 2005 : ) . It is therefore entirely valid and reasonable to assume that hunting ( and some scavenging ) would have played a large part in the average Neanderthals life , in fact their lives and behaviour patterns could well have been dominated by changing weather patterns and the movements of their prey ( the archaeological and skeletal evidence does support this i.e. stone tools with no other obvious use apart from hunting and cliff drive sites like ) The difficult existence of the Neanderthals is reflected in the high frequency of traumatic injury found within the fossil record . Amazingly almost all adult fossils found to date show an astounding array of serious wounds , sprains , fractures and break ( even an amputation at site called in ) . Many of these injures are healed fractures and breaks occurring around the torso ( upper body ) . Comparative studies by and in have thrown up some interesting data , a fair number of the injuries found closely resemble the kind of injuries sustained by modern day rodeo riders . In other words the kind of injuries one might expect when coming into close contact with large mammals . Archaeologists have suggested that the dangerous close quarters hunting of large herbivores such as , and could very well account for injuries of this type ( Scarre 2005 : ) . The tricky and sometimes unreliable ageing of remains show that life expectancy was very low ( again when compared to modern humans , biologically speaking they may have had a much shorter life span ) . Few fossils have been found of individuals over and none whatsoever have ever been found over 50 ( so far anyway ! ) This shows that the dangerous lifestyle and world of and clearly had its costs , in terms of stress , injury and life expectancy . remains show that of Neanderthals experienced times of great stress during their development ( Fagan 1991 : ) . . There are certain sites which provide archaeologists with vital evidence and clues concerning lifestyles and the trials they in their ice bound world . important site worth mentioning is the site of ( approx kya ) , discovered and excavated by A and J Bouyssoine in . It was here that the now famous "" old man of la Chapelle - aux saints "" was discovered , the reason this find was so historically and scientifically important was the fact it was the relatively complete skeleton discovered . The nickname "" old man of la Chapelle - aux saints "" was used because the age of the skeleton is , which as previously discussed is the upper age limit for the species ( Fagan 1991 : ) . The "" old man of la Chapelle - aux saints "" is an interesting and useful find because his anatomy provides researchers with a wealth of information about his life . Many of his teeth were missing completely but the bone that had surrounded the teeth had been given more than enough time to heal after tooth loss . This means that he lived a considerable of time after he lost so many teeth . He also suffered from debilitating arthritis which would have certainly left him incapable of performing any tasks that required strenuous physical labour . It has been argued that in order for him to survive for so many years he would have needed the help and support of the other members of his group with processing food and maybe even moving from place to place . This fossil is considered to be the example of altruism to be discovered . ( Fagan 1991 : ) The fossil remains found at the cave site in ( the extreme edge of known territory ) were excavated during by and . Stratified occupation layers were identified in the cave dating to and periods , as well as a later component dated to ( ) . The lowest levels at ( approx kya ) included some accidental , and some apparently deliberate burials of Neanderthals including the 1 skeleton . The fossil was male and like the "" old man of la Chapelle - aux saints "" was aged around at the time of death , his skeleton displayed signs of severe deformity . His right arm was severely atrophied ( withered ) a condition he had for most of his life , possibly even from birth . His right leg was also crippled and deformed ( which means that he probably had a painful limp throughout his life ) and had a healed fracture on of the metatarsals . At some point during his life he suffered from a severe and crushing injury to his right eye socket ( clearly visible when the skull is examined ) which could have resulted impartial or complete loss of sight in that eye , even brain damage to a greater or lesser degree . All of these injuries combined would have almost definitely led to at least partial paralysis throughout the right hand side of his body . What is clear however is the fact that these injuries were sustained long before death and he survived for a good number of years despite them . He would not have been able to contribute very easily towards his community or family group and would have been a strain on resources and a burden . Archaeologists believe that this situation ( and that of la Chapelle - aux saints ) infers that Neanderthals looked after their sick even when they were not an active part of the group , this denotes implicit group concern ( : ) . This says a lot about social structure and organisation , as well as suggests levels of care , emotion and compassion ( coupled with the evidence for the possibility of burial practice ) previously only attributed to modern humans . There could however be an alternative argument , the 1 fossil and the "" old man of la Chapelle - aux saints "" could both have been either the group 's leader or have had access to knowledge and memories that the group needed in order to survive . Variation must also be taken into account , just like with modern society , different groups might have had different practices , whereas group might leave an injured member behind another might save him . It is unfortunate that the answers to these questions are unanswerable . The Neanderthals were a highly evolved and well adapted species , who flourished for millennia , is the harsh conditions of ice age . Archaeologists have gleaned vast amounts of data from studying their anatomy . Their skeletal structure tells of a species with the strength to handle the dangerous situations they faced on a basis . They must have relied heavily on the heavily musculature , which must have been at least as important if not more so than their intelligence . They probably had at the very least a form of proto language ( evidence for this comes from the hyoid bone found at which is very modern human in appearance ) as they almost certainly had the cognitive functions required . Their children grew up quickly and had to use their unique anatomy to adapt to their environment as well as learn the skills necessary to survive in the short time they lived . In many ways their behaviour seems very human in others it seems completely alien . We will never know their complete story , but through careful scientific study of their anatomy as well as the archaeological record we can learn as much as possible and their behaviour and everyday lives .","Archaeological theory is a very wide ranging and multilayered part of archaeology as whole . It covers many subjects and methodologies , and is constantly evolving new ways of thinking as well as new approaches to archaeology itself . The term theory , when applied to archaeology ( as well as other social sciences ) generally has a greater diversity of meaning than most other natural sciences and most definitely covers more ground . The range of different types of theoretical approaches to archaeology can often be confusing and difficult to separate , this an aspect of archaeological theory that is very often criticised by the wider academic community . Each theory has its own unique approach which is almost certainly always influenced by the archaeologists that thought them up in the place as well as their politics and cultural backgrounds . The theories cover many aspects of the human past from society to cultural background and even material culture . The theories themselves ( and the archaeologists do n't forget ) as well as the unique and particular approach they adopt or undertake is very often influenced by current political trends and ' fashion ' or even new technologies and associated ways of thinking . An example of how this can happen is which was definitely shaped and influenced by the increasing popularity and rise of feminism in the 's . As feminist issues came to the forefront of public and even academic society , gender archaeology and its unique views and interpretations soon followed and became and increasingly important part of archaeological theory ( Fagan 1996 : ) . archaeology at its most basic level looks at the roles of males and females , their activities , their relative positions within past societies as well as assesses the symbolic and cultural meanings attached to them throughout the whole of human history . It works on the assumption that all historical ( as well as modern ! ) societies require a definite collaboration between men and women ( Fagan 1996 : ) . The main aims pursued by gender archaeologists include attempting to correct the male orientated bias that has and still does exist in archaeology ; this basically means changing the assumption that all past societies were male dominated and that women were class citizens ( some gender archaeologists also try to change the use of the word ' man ' when referring to humankind , a distinctly feminist sounding agenda ) . They also criticise existing practices within the world of practical archaeology ( another supposedly male dominated area ) and attempt to suggest possible new ideas , practices , methodologies and approaches . Another aspect that they seek to change is the distinctly male dominated academic world and encourage a more open , ' politically correct ' and equal approach . Lastly they study gender throughout history using the archaeological record to provide them with supporting evidence . They use the full range of material remains to assess the impact gender has had on the structures of society as well as the possible cognitive processes concerning gender and possible gender roles ( Fagan 1996 : ) . The role of gender archaeology within the subject as a whole is an arguably extremely useful , even if one could say that it is influenced by politics . It causes the archaeological record to be looked at in a new and exciting manner . Areas of archaeology that had been previously dismissed by the academic community are now being studied adding to the sum of human knowledge . As a theory it shares a lot with feminist theory ( at least as far as its political aspects go ) and to a certain degree archaeology . It is , however , distinguishable from other theories because it looks at a particular and specialised area of archaeology that has previously been dismissed . ( Bahn 1996 : ) . archaeology is another obviously politically influenced theory , which at its simplest level is the interpretation of human history using a set of principles laid down by . The theory is primarily looks at social change and structure throughout history by examining the connections between forces of production , for example , technology and the power it has over the people within a society . It also looks at social organisation , for example , it would be concerned with feudalism in and how it affected society as a whole ( Bahn 1996 : ) . archaeology is heavily influenced by ' classical ' political theories and is concerned with the struggle between socioeconomic classes within particular social groups or societies . archaeologists also suggest that a particular society 's economic base or foundation can invariably be responsible for its basic ideologies , which in turn effects the amount of direct control over and the lifestyles of the people within that society ( Bahn 1996 : ) . archaeology is clearly directly attributable to political thinking and the associated theories . This is something that proponents and supporters of the theory do not deny ; they admit to being fully cognisant of the nature of the theory but still think it has immense relevance in modern archaeology . This particular aspect of theory is the most commonly criticised by the wider academic community with the vast majority of archaeological theorists ( well academics in general ) preferring to keep their personal political belief system separate from their professional lives ( Bahn 1996 : ) . . other aspect ( or even sub - discipline ) of theory worthy of mention is the Neo - Marxism movement which places emphasis on the ideological aspects of social hierarchies and social structures as opposed to the economic aspects ( Trigger : ) Both of these ' schools ' of thought are arguably flawed theories . They are , it can be argued , ( and has been many times ) too influenced by out - dated political ideas . Marxism is ( in my opinion ) a relic of WW2 politics and cold war thinking and has no real place in the , even if we do live in very politically motivated times . There are as with most theories some elements than can be applied to archaeology and must be noted and studied . It is essential when studying ancient societies to look at power distribution and the relationships between different classes and elements within those societies . But this does not mean that ideologies have to be brought into the equation . theory is distinguishable from other theories purely for the fact it is so heavily influenced by real - world politics and serves as an example of how politics and archaeology are not necessarily mutually exclusive . The important and noteworthy phase in the history of archaeological theory and thought is commonly known as cultural or culture history . The aim and practice of culture history was quite straightforward , archaeologists grouped sites into distinct social groups or cultures , they then looked at the geographical locations , the period of time in which they existed as well as the length of time and studied any possible links and interactions that may well have occurred . Archaeologists who support or supported this theory looked at each culture and determined that each one was governed by a set of rules which in turn went on to govern the behaviour of the people within that particular society . An example of how this might work is looking for patterns in style and craftsmanship , for instance an arrowhead with fluted barbs should theoretically belong to a different culture than an arrowhead without barbs at all ( Trigger : ) This theory is flawed is some ways , an approach such as this leads to people viewing the past in a possibly incorrect manner . It is possible that the past would be viewed as nothing more than a collection of different and separate population groupings only classified by their differences ( such as material cultural , architecture e.t.c ) as well as any influences they may or may not have had on each other . In reality the evolution of culture and social groups is a lot more complicated than this and archaeological thought has definitely moved on from this rather old fashioned viewpoint . During the revolutionary 's new ideas and viewpoints were being established in almost every sector of the academic world and archaeology was no exception . A group of primarily archaeologists , which included , looked at the well established cultural history theories and decided a new approach was needed . ( Trigger : ) They proposed a "" New Archaeology "" which would be more scientific in its approach as well as draw ideas and methods from the closely allied field of anthropology . and his supporters saw the formation of culture as the result of a set of behavioural processes and traditions . It was this study of processes that led to this new archaeology being called processual archaeology . Processulalists ( as they came to be called ) took the idea of hypothesis testing from science and applied it to archaeology . They would formulate a hypothesis and try to apply to the particular culture they were trying to study and try to prove its veracity . Excavations would also be undertaken with the hypothesis in mind in order to test and prove their ideas . Another aspect of culture historical thinking they tried to change was the emphasis of culture over people , in other words large social groups dominating research instead of individuals . They also began to prove that modern ethnic groups were not always easily comparable or similar to the cultures within the archaeological record . ( Hodder 1991 : ) Processual archaeology was extremely revolutionary in its time and literally rewrote the book where the study of cultures was concerned . The analytical ( through computer modelling of population exchanges , this shows how technology can effect archaeological though as well ) and scientific approach was easily adopted into archaeology and shows how truly interdisciplinary archaeology can be . It forced many academics to reassess their previous conclusions and as with most theories looked at past societies in a new and exciting way ( Hodder 1991 : ) . Archaeological theory as previously mentioned is a greatly varied field that has viewpoints and new approaches to almost every single facet of archaeology . There are many ' schools ' of thought covering many different aspects , some are in direct opposition and compete directly with each other ( processual and post - processual theory ) , whereas others work in tandem ( gender and feminist theory ) trying to establish new methodologies . For the layman it can be very difficult and even confusing to see the relevance of all these myriad theories and the place they have in archaeology . Some theoretical archaeologist tend to cloud their writings in dogma and overly complicated ' jargon ' ( for one ! ) , but ultimately they all to a certain extent have a valid point to make . Some theories have overlapping agendas or ideas which can make it even harder to distinguish them from one another . Unfortunately ( like many other areas in science ) a lack of objectivity can be a problem and researchers must be aware of this so that it can be dealt with otherwise any data compiled could be misinterpreted and corrupted . In order to make use of these theories they have to be looked at separately so that one can be distinguished from another . When studying a specific site , society or culture or more theories can possibly be taken into account . For example if an archaeologist was studying a graveyard , theories concerning gender , landscape and even Marxism could arguably be considered , even the scientific hypothesis testing of processual archaeology could be useful . In order to do this however archaeologists must have a clear picture of each theory , its strengths and its weaknesses if they are to successfully complete their research . Theory is extremely useful to the academic community as whole as it encourages new lines of inquiry and new approaches that previously may have been dismissed or in some cases not even acknowledged ( gender archaeology is an example of this ) . It can on the other hand be argued that theory can all too easily be susceptible to the trends and fashions of the time ( feminist , gender and archaeology are all to a certain degree ' victims ' of this ) in which they were invented , be it politically ( this can be dangerous or even in some cases misused ) or even technologically speaking . It must be argued that just because it is not necessarily easy to wade through each theory and their potential conflicts it can and must be done so that historical accuracy is kept intact .",1 "< heading > INTRODUCTION Understanding of consumer behaviour is the foundation of successful marketing . By understanding how customers proceed through the decision making process and what influences their buying behaviour , marketers can obtain many clues about how to meet customer needs and wants . Within marketing discipline consumer behaviour models were developed from onwards . The aim of consumer behaviour models is to attempt to give a simplified and organized version of the relationship that exist between various factors influencing consumer behaviour ( and , ) . The "" grand models "" of consumer behaviour have been transformed by tourism researchers to produce specific models which would explain tourist consumer behaviour . Some of the models developed are quite basic ( and , ; , etc . ) , while some of the others are more complex ( , ; and Wall , etc . ) ( Woodside et al . , ) . For managers in the tourism industry it is crucial to understand how individuals make decisions to choose a particular holiday destination , or a specific type of tourism product , and what influences these decisions . Indeed , the evolving marketplace of the travel and tourism industry has realized that understanding travel behaviour is essential in 's highly competitive business environment ( and , ) . This essay will attempt to apply specific tourism models of consumer behaviour to the situation defined by particular tourist segments , tourism sector and tourism manager , working within that sector , and a specific destination . Furthermore , the essay will provide suggestions for a marketing manager in the tourism industry on how ideas from the selected models and the analyzed secondary data might improve understanding of tourist behaviour within specific tourist segments . The selected tourist consumer models for the purpose of this paper are the models from ( ) and and ( ) . The analyzed tourist segments are seniors and newly marrieds ( young couples without children ) . The chosen sector is destination organization sector . This sector consists of national tourist offices , destination marketing organizations , regional / state tourist offices , local tourist offices and tourist associations . These sub - sectors are commonly government organizations or public sector agencies that receive funding from government . They are responsible for the promotion and coordination of tourism in a specific region ; however , they generally do not sell products directly to visitors ( and , ) . The chosen tourism manager for this particular essay is the marketing manager , employed within the destination organization sector ( e.g. ) . The selected destination is the city of in . Currently , figures specify that receives visitors per year who spend . These figures include staying and visitors . Tourism accounts for of local employment in ( : Visit , ) . < heading > TOURIST CONSUMER MODELS One of the key propositions of 's model is that tourist is a rational decision maker within his / her capabilities and limited amount of information . Moreover , the model indicates that travel decision process consists of several successive stages : travel desires , information search , assessment of travel alternatives and decision . Model hypothesizes that consumer travel decisions are the result of the interaction of different fields of influence which are internal as well as external to the consumer ( , ) cited in ( and , ) . The of the influencing elements are travel stimuli , which encompass advertising and promotion , travel literature , reports and suggestions from other travellers and travel trade recommendations . The elements are personal and social determinants of travel behaviour including motivations , desires / needs and expectations influenced by personality , socio - economic factors , attitudes and values and social aspirations and influences . Other important elements influencing consumer travel decisions are external variables such as confidence in the travel agent , destination image , previous travel experience , and cost and time constraints . and features of service distribution such as attractions offered , range of travel opportunities , quality / quantity of travel information etc . are another significant element that has an impact on the consumer 's decision process and its outcome ( , ) cited in ( and , ) . According to and Woodside ( ) of the major strengths of 's model is that it clearly identifies the relationships between various components and shows which factors have an impact on consumer travel decisions . In addition , the model pays attention to constraints and their influence on the decision making process . < figure/>The model analysed in this essay is the model from and ( ) . The authors emphasise that in order to understand individual travel behaviour one should view individual travellers as decision makers . Travellers develop either routine , impulsive or extensive decision making styles when making their choices . Understanding how individual consumers make travel decisions requires an insight into the psychological and social influences that have an impact on customers ' choices ( and , ) cited in ( and , ) . The internal psychological influences that affect travel behaviour are personality , learning , motives , attitudes and perception . However , those psychological forces do not function in a vacuum . Travel decision maker is also influenced by outside forces as well as by other people . and 's model classifies these social influences into major categories : role and family influences , social classes , culture and subcultures , and reference groups ( and , ) cited in ( and , ) . and Woodside ( ) suggest that one of the main benefits of and 's model is that it emphasizes the role of group and family in individual 's travel decisions . Moreover , it successfully combines different variables which are generally believed to be the determinants of tourist consumer behaviour . < figure/> TOURIST SEGMENTS , MODELS and APPLICATION TO PRACTICE Middleton and ( ) define segmentation as the process of dividing a total market into different subgroups or segments for marketing management purposes . Furthermore , the authors indicate that marketing segmentation can be referred to as the most significant of all the practical marketing techniques available to marketing managers in the tourism industry . However , according to et al . ( ) , there is no single way to segment a market . A marketer should consider different segmentation variables , alone and in combination in order to find the best way to view the market structure . This essay will focus on different tourist segments : seniors and young couples without children . Seniors are defined according to demographic variable age and relate to individuals or older ; young couples are classified according to different stages in the family life cycle . Worldwide , interest in seniors as a major force in world tourism has increased and the consumer behaviour of the elderly market has become an important area of interest to researchers and travel and tourism marketers . The elderly consumer group in and generates of the world 's international tourism expenditure ( and , ) cited in ( Shim et al . , ) . Vacation and leisure travel and tourism industries are particularly attracted to the elderly market due to the arising trends toward early retirement and increased number of leisure ( Mathur et al . , ) . Indeed , Javalgi et al . ( ) believe that consumers aged and older are a demographic ' discovery ' and an opportune market for travel and tourism sector since this age segment is growing in size and has a great market potential . Moreover , as seniors take more holidays than any other age group and also outspend them on travel and leisure , the need for greater attention by the travel and tourism industry to the elderly market arises ( , ) . With regard to travel behaviour of elderly consumers various authors agree that seniors are more likely to buy package holidays which cover both transportation and accommodation and use travel agents for making travel arrangements ( , ; . , ) . According to Javalgi et al . ( ) senior market is price - sensitive in their shopping behaviour , including shopping for products and services , related to travel . If encouraged by discount pricing , seniors tend to choose longer periods and greater distances for . When travelling , older travellers require variety , responsible and reliable information , an efficient , friendly and accurate reservation system , and overall value for money ( Ing , ) . should notice that the senior market is a large and complex one and there is a great amount of diversity within it . Various authors agree that although a person 's chronological age has long been a variable of interest within consumer behaviour , it does not completely summarize the real meaning of an older customer ( , ; et al . , ; Mathur et al . , ) . needs to consider that seniors are attracted to pleasure travel for many different reasons . Indeed , findings indicate that the senior market is not a homogenous group but consists of many different submarkets , each with its own needs and wants ( , ) . These ideas clearly support 's et al . ( ) argument of many different possible ways to segment a market , as discussed above . In order to better satisfy the needs and wants of senior travellers a lot of research of travel motivation has been done ( , ; , ; et al . , ; , ) . The authors imply that elderly travellers are likely to be motivated to travel in order to seek , rather than to escape . ( ) suggests that senior travel market could be divided into different segments according to their motivation to travel . Each segment is motivated to choose specific destinations , transport alternatives , holiday activities and accommodation packages based on different motives . Moreover , similar motivation to travel may be held by demographically related seniors and may also include similar perceptions of travel risk . In her study , ( ) recognized different travel - motive segments of senior travellers : and ; ; ; and , acknowledging the heterogeneity within the elderly travel market . Various other authors explored travel - motive segments within the senior travel market . An early study by ( ) , which discussed travel behaviour of newly retired consumers , described this group as getting away from work and achievement goals , to leisure goals . studied motivations for recreation participation of seniors and pointed out most important motives related to leisure activities : rest and relaxation ; association with family and friends ; physical exercise ; learning experience , and self - fulfilment . The results showed significant relationship between the motivations and the chosen leisure activities . A more recent study by et al . ( ) divided senior tourists into distinct groups . The and the largest group , "" novelty seekers , "" seemed to travel mainly to experience new things and visit new places . They were generally young seniors with relatively good incomes . The group , "" active enthusiasts , "" were primarily interested in physical activities and wanted to escape from cold weather . They mainly took trips of longer duration . "" Reluctant travellers "" as the group mostly had lower incomes and took shorter trips ( Lieux et al . , ) . The essay will now attempt to apply the ideas discussed above to the selected tourist consumer models . Moreover , it will explore how specific elements of the models might be useful for improving the understanding that tourism marketing manager , employed within the destination organization sector , has of tourist behaviour within the senior market . The essay will focus on motivations as one of the key element from both 's and and 's models . Furthermore , it will discuss social influences on individual travel behaviour as well as advertising and promotion element from 's model . Motivation is often thought to be the ultimate driving force behind travel behaviour ( and , ) . It can be defined as the state of drive or arousal that impels consumer behaviour toward a specific goal ( and Mittal , ) . Tourism marketing manager should consider the importance of motivations in the travel decision process , bearing in mind the question "" Why do seniors travel ? "" He should take into account that different travel - motive segments exist within the senior market and should therefore target these segments accordingly to ensure that their travel and tourism needs are more adequately met ( , ) . Tourism marketing manager could relate to various studies based on seniors ' travel motivations . For example , he could employ 's ( ) research of elderly market on the benefits sought from tourism . According to the author , the group , "" family travellers "" , used pleasure travel as a way to spend time with their immediate families . Tourism marketing manager could therefore develop promotions that focus on "" family reunions "" , where families from different areas gather in location such as cruise boat or a resort hotel . A segment from 's study were "" active resters "" , a group who travelled to seek intellectual and spiritual enrichment , to rest and relax , and to meet other people and socialize . Promotions building on these reasons for travel could focus on "" learning weekends "" sponsored by hotels to encourage intellectual enrichment ( , ) . Moreover , special programs could be developed to promote social interaction , such as dance and bridge contests . The group from 's research was the "" older set "" , who liked their trips filled with different activities and liked to stay in all - inclusive places . Marketing activities targeted at this segment should therefore stress these characteristics . Different studies determined the key travel motives of the senior market and could be of use to tourism marketing manager . However , one needs to consider that the majority of studies investigated motivation for travel within senior market in . The tourism marketing manager should take the culture focus of the studies into account when applying the findings to tourism practice . Another major element of both 's and and 's models are social influences that affect individual travel behaviour , such as role and family influences . Findings from the research conducted by Shim et al . ( ) show that , generally , in senior market spouses have a negative impact on travel , which suggests that tourism marketing manager should attempt to convert the spouse from a travel gatekeeper to a travel conspirator ( Shim et al . , ) . According to the authors a message that promotes a hedonistic approach to travel expenditures may accomplish this . 's model addresses advertising and promotion as another important element influencing the travel decision process . and 's model , however , ignores those external stimuli and from that perspective could not be very useful for the tourism marketing manager . 's model could prove useful when considering the influence of advertising and promotion on the travel decision process of the senior market . The research from Shim et al . ( ) shows that mass media play an important role in mature consumers ' search for travel information , influencing different dimensions of seniors ' behaviour and attitude regarding pleasure travel . Hence , the authors suggest that television , magazines and other mass media should be seen as a useful source of access to senior market for companies in the pleasure travel and tourism industry ( Shim et al . , ) . The segmentation variable chosen for the purpose of this essay are young couples without children ( newly married ) as of the stages within the family life cycle . The basic idea of the family life cycle concept is that most families pass through an orderly progression of stages which are defined by unique combinations of socioeconomic and demographic variables ( and , ) . Various authors argue that the stage in the family life cycle has an impact on consumer travel behaviour ( and , ; , ; , ) . According to Bomball et al . ( ) young married couples posses the following characteristics : at this stage consumers are generally in better financial position than later in life , they display a strong tendency to purchase expensive items and are highly susceptible to advertising . and ( ) and Hong et al . ( ) similarly suggest that newly married is the stage in the family life cycle which is especially important for heavy leisure and tourism spending . Stampfl ( ) supports this theory indicating that young married couples spend a lot of money on durables and vacations . Moreover , he believes that at this stage shopping energy levels are high , a lot of buying is done impulsively and decision making process is based on joint decisions . Various authors ( Consenza and , ; and Mittal , ) agree with , stating that the decision dominance structure at this stage of the family life cycle is syncratic ( joint ) , indicating that during the decision making process both spouses contribute but neither dominates . According to Litvin et al . ( ) both parties may compromise , bargain , or persuade each other , but in the end , both spouses make the decision and more or less agree that it is the right one . Consenza and ( ) believe that syncratic decision making reflects the fact that at this stage couples are most likely still in the ' let's - talk - about - it ' stage of marriage . They are input - orientated joint decision makers seeking all the information they can get to make the right vacation decision . Various authors ( Hong et al . , ; , ) agree that young couples without children are the most active leisure travel group within the family life cycle . They tend to allocate a large amount of their family budget to travel expenditures . According to ( ) they are attracted to beach resorts that offer different activities and are adventurous to some extent . should consider that vacations are frequently "" consumed "" by a family unit ( ) . Understanding how families make decisions is essential to travel agents , promoters of tourism in the private sector , and state and local governments interested in attracting tourists ( Jenkins , ) . Various discussions of travel behaviour as well as the selected tourist consumer models , however , focus on individual travel behaviour only and do not pay attention to joint travel decision processes . It could therefore be argued that due to this pitfall the selected models might not be particularly useful for the tourism marketing manager , employed within the destination organization sector , when applying the models to the particular segment and tourism practice . Nevertheless , the essay will now attempt to apply the ideas discussed above to some of the elements of the selected models and tourism practice . According to and Snepenger ( ) when efforts are directed towards joint decision making couples , promotion should be directed towards both spouses . To time promotion effectively one should consider that young couples plan their vacations sooner than the others and use the largest number of information sources to plan their holidays . Therefore , marketing materials should be dispersed broadly and made available . As joint decision making couples participate in different leisure activities , advertisements should focus on engaging them in such activities as visiting friends and relatives , camping , hiking , and visiting national parks and monuments ( and Snepenger , ) . Tourism marketing manager should also consider socioeconomic status as of the determinants of travel behaviour from tourist consumer models . Newly marrieds tend to spend a lot on leisure travel . Moreover , results from Hong et al . ( ) show that leisure travel expenditures increase with income . As young couples without children are generally in better financial position than later in life , tourism marketing manager should take this into account when employing various marketing strategies to target the segment effectively and efficiently . According to Hong et al . ( ) education is another factor that affects spending for leisure travel . The authors indicate that those with a high school education are likely to spend more than those with less than high school education but tend to spend less than those with a college education ( Hong et al . , ) . Tourism marketing manager should therefore consider education factor as well when trying to improve the understanding of tourist behaviour within the newly married segment . < heading > CONCLUSION The main aim of this essay has been to explore how relevant tourist consumer models might be useful for tourism marketing manager , employed within destination organization sector in the city of , by improving his understanding of tourist behaviour within the particular tourist segments . The essay focused on 's ( ) and and 's ( ) tourist consumer models . The segments discussed in the paper were seniors and young couples without children . The main conclusion to be drawn from the essay is that tourist consumer models can be thought of as a relatively useful tool for tourism managers , helping them to improve understanding of tourist behaviour . It should be noted , however , that travel decision process is a complex one and influenced by different internal and external factors . This essay has focused only on specific elements from the models . To understand tourist behaviour as a whole , tourism managers should consider each and every element from the models , analyze other tourist consumer models as well and compare their similarities and differences . Furthermore , it can be argued that the analyzed models have several disadvantages . They are based on individual travel behaviour and do not pay attention to joint travel decision processes . In addition , the particular models ignore postpurchase evaluation stage together with tourist satisfaction . According to and ( ) the majority of tourist consumer models have pitfalls . , they are stereotypical and generalized and have no time dimension . , they ignore elements such as emotions and feelings and are rarely based on empirical research . Moreover , the majority of models derive from and . Tourist behaviour , however , is culture bound and one could argue therefore that the models would not be particularly useful when related to tourists from or . When applying the ideas from the theory into tourism practice all this should be considered in order to maximise the level of understanding of tourist behaviour .","< heading > INTRODUCTION Tourism can be thought of as a rather complicated activity that overlaps various different sectors of the society and economy . Without planning , it may generate several unwanted and unexpected impacts ( , ) . Therefore tourism should be developed and managed in a controlled and sustainable way , based on sound planning . Moreover , it should be integrated within the wide planning process in order to promote certain goals of economic , social and environmental enhancement which may be accomplished through appropriate tourism development ( Hall , 2000 ) . This coursework will provide a critical analysis of what a tourism plan/ planning is and what are the benefits of its implementation . It will evaluate the planning process , the elements that should be included within a tourism plan and the methods of implementation . Furthermore , it will set out the implications of adopting a tourism plan for a specific destination . The selected area for the purpose of this coursework is in , which at the time of writing does not have an existing tourism plan . is situated in the area of the valley , located at the north west of between and . is a - round mountain tourist resort as well as an important winter sports resort with a variety of skiing slopes available . The size of the municipality of is ( Municipality of , undated ; , undated ) . < heading > DEFINITION OF A TOURISM PLAN / PLANNING Tourism planning relates to the same basic concepts and approaches as general planning ; however , it is adapted to the specific characteristics of the tourism system . A plan can be defined as a set of various decisions for action in the future ( Hall , ) . Several authors agree that the most significant feature of any type of planning , including tourism planning , is its orientation towards the future ( Hall , ; , ) . According to Inskeep ( ) , planning for tourism is a step - by - step process which should be continuous , comprehensive , integrated , and environmental , focusing on achieving sustainable development and community involvement . ( ) similarly suggests that tourism planning should be directed towards main goals : sustainable use of resources , enhanced visitor satisfaction , integration of local community and area and improved economy and business success . < heading > BENEFITS OF TOURISM PLANNING < /heading > Numerous authors emphasize the importance of tourism planning ( and , ; Hall , ; , ; , ) . According to ( 2002 ) the purpose of planning is to create plans of action for a foreseeable future and implement them . Furthermore , the tourism sector goals and objectives can be achieved more effectively and efficiently if carefully planned and integrated into the country 's overall development plan and programme . In addition , careful planning at all levels and good management are necessary to optimize the benefits of tourism and preventing or at least mitigating any problems that may occur ( , ) . Hall ( 2000 ) similarly suggests that planning can help to minimise potential negative impacts , maximise economic returns to the area , and thus encourage a more positive response from the local community towards tourism in the longer run . Moreover , in the countries , where not much tourism has developed yet , planning can provide the necessary guidelines for its development . On the other hand , for the areas where tourism is already well established , planning is often needed to revitalize the sector and maintain its future viability ( , ) . In tourism planning could help to achieve long - term sustainable development of the area , ensuring that the natural , cultural , and other resources of tourism are conserved for the future use . Moreover , it could bring benefits to the society and provide level of tourist satisfaction essential for tourism success in the area and country as a whole . Tourism development plan for should provide a framework through which the area 's tourism policy will be acted upon , ensuring the development reflects local values , and is an overall benefit to the tourism industry . As such the tourism plan should analyse the present situation in as well as provide recommendations for improvement in the area , based on sustainable development ( e.g. modernisation of the ski lifts , improved road access etc . ) ( Strategy of Tourism , undated ) . < heading > ELEMENTS OF A TOURISM PLAN , TOURISM PLANNING PROCESS and IMPLICATIONS FOR THE DESTINATION Tourism planning at the destination level is a step - by - step process of resource and market analysis , action and review . Elements of a tourism plan together with the tourism planning process will now be evaluated and implications for the destination suggested . PASOLP planning approach , adapted from and ( ) , in combination with and 's ( ) and ( 1994 ) approach to tourism planning , will be used . < heading > Tourism policy and committee structure At the stage a tourism policy should be set as a framework through which tourism issues are / will be analysed and decisions taken . Municipality of should firstly establish a dedicated team or committee , who should create a tourism plan for jointly with local resident groups ; local and national government ; regional tourism groups ; special interest community groups ; business associations ; private sector groups ; and external consultant advisers if necessary . Organization and coordination among them is the key to success . < heading > Tourism resource audit A destination 's tourism resource base is the core of that location 's tourism appeal . main function of the tourism resource audit is to identify the area 's key assets and to examine destination 's strengths and weaknesses from a supply point of view ( and , ; , ) . < heading > Tourist attractions and activities Kranjska should carry out tourism resource audit , including survey and inventory of existing and potential attractions such as natural , cultural , event and activity resources ; and attractions should be evaluated ; for example , primary resources of are its natural resources ( mountains ) which provide tourist services from sports to mountainous tourism . Sports tournaments are another primary attraction of the area ( competitions in alpine skiing and ski flights on the giant ski - jump in , the neighbour village of ) ; Seasonality should also be considered ( e.g. differences in population and activities in - winter sports in and hiking during ) . < heading > Infrastructure analysis Survey of existing and already planned accommodation by number , type and quality level should be carried out as well as survey of other tourist facilities in . Any specific infrastructure constraints , such as poor quality of hotels due to the old buildings , should be identified and improvements recommended ; Analysis of transport access to , as well as of the internal transportation system of facilities and services , should be carried out ( e.g. poor quality of transport infrastructure and recommendations for improvement ) ; Infrastructure of water supply , electric power , sewage disposal and telecommunications should be evaluated ; Analysis of hospitality and general community services such as medical services , emergency repair etc . should be carried out . < heading > Tourism market analysis This stage consists of evaluation of demand for tourism , which is a key component of tourism planning , helping to scale any development and the infrastructure required ( Lavery , ) . Municipality of should carry out analysis of tourist arrival patterns and trends , including both international and domestic tourists ; The effects of existing and potential competing tourist destinations should be analysed . For competing tourist destinations could be domestic areas such as and as well as neighbour countries with their skiing resorts ( e.g. with and with ) ; Market segments should be determined according to different relevant characteristics ( e.g. young people who enjoy skiing or snowboarding in the winter and seniors who prefer peaceful hiking in the mountains during the spring time ) ; The number and type of accommodation , other tourist facilities , services and infrastructure required , should be projected according to the defined market segments ( , ) . < heading > Country 's policies and priorities and relationship with other plans Planning of tourism at the destination level should be integrated into other related policies and plans that may exist , such as national and regional plans , park , recreation , and conservation plans , transportation and any other relevant infrastructure plans , and agricultural programmes . This integration will help to assure that relevant aspects of the tourism plan will be implemented by the concerned sector in an integrated manner ( , ) . In the case of existing national and regional development policies , plans and programmes such as Tourism strategy , marketing plan for tourism , , together with other transport and land - use plans should be considered . < heading > Economic , environmental and socio - cultural considerations Economic , social and environmental impacts are inevitable element of tourism development . Tourism planning should find a balance between the costs and benefits of these impacts in the best interest of tourism and the local community . < heading > Economic analysis and recommendations < /heading > Present and projected tourist expenditures in should be defined ; Calculation of the present and projected tourism economic impact should be carried out ( contribution to GNP or GDP , foreign exchange earnings , generated income and employment , the multiplier effect etc . ) ; Recommendations on how to enhance the economic benefits of tourism in should be provided ( e.g. increase of employment opportunities for local community of ) . < heading > Environmental considerations and recommendations Any present environmental problems generated by tourism in should be identified ; Recommendations on measures to prevent future negative environmental impacts as well as reinforcing positive ones should be provided ; of established conservation policies affecting , such as , and recommendations for further environmental protection and conservation policies and programmes should be provided ; Environmental impact assessment ( EIA ) for each specific tourism development project in should be carried out . < heading > Socio - cultural considerations and recommendations Existing and potential positive and negative socio - cultural impacts of tourism in should be evaluated ; Recommendations on how to achieve community involvement in all aspects of tourism should be provided together with public awareness programme on tourism . Tourist information brochures should also be available to visitors informing them about cultural traditions of , ) . < heading > Identifying opportunities and constraints At this stage , opportunities and constraints should be analysed to provide direction and a focus for future development . This should give some indication to the area of where development efforts will likely be awarded and where potential problems might emerge ( and , ) . For opportunities could mean improvements of existing and development of new products ( e.g. modernisation of ski lifts and improved hotel offer in ; construction of a multipurpose hall for sports , congressional tourism and events etc . ) as well as potential expansion into new markets . Constraints also need to be considered and these might include competing land - use claims which take priority over tourism use as well as development costs . Furthermore , difficult landscape of valley might be thought of as a constraint as well , affecting expansion of ski slopes and modernization of transport infrastructure . < heading > Setting development goals and objectives Tourism plan should be prepared in such a manner that it is realistic to implement . Setting goals and objectives within appropriate time frame creates a bridge between development policy and the action steps designed to pursue that policy . Without a clearly defined set of goals and objectives , a destination will have nothing to guide its activities , measure whether it has been successful , or be able to show the progress already made ( and , ) . should set its goals and objectives for development in the short , medium and longer term . Its goals and objectives could for example be to improve standards of service offered to tourists , to increase off - season visitor trips by over etc . < heading > Development of action steps Tourism action steps are developed to provide the means and methods of reaching a particular tourism objective . The action steps are very specific , describing exactly what needs to be done and in what order of activity ( and , ) . < heading > Tourism marketing plan If the actions are intended to attract more tourists , encourage them to stay longer and to come back , as well as create more of an economic benefit , then a tourism marketing plan is essential . For specific promotion programme should be recommended with cost estimates and possible sources of funding ; roles of the public and private sector in promotion should be established and overseas promotion considered . The next stage in the tourism planning process includes implementation and monitoring and review procedures . These will be analysed in the next part of the coursework . < heading implementation is in large part a political process due to government involvement in achieving implementation ( , ) . Nonetheless , to achieve systematic and efficient implementation , the following techniques should be applied ( adapted from , , and , ): Project development or action programme together with adoption of specific legislation and regulations as well as estimation of costs . In each project , such as modernization of the ski lifts , should be evaluated in terms of costs , necessity as well as location and time frame ; Identification of the agencies and parties responsible for specific tourism projects in Gora . Coordination among municipality of , various levels of government and the private sector is a vital element for a successful implementation ; Specification of tourist facility development and design standards , such as architectural styles and landscaping . These are generally administered by a separate design review committee or directly by the planning department . as a part of , for example , has specific alpine style of architecture , which should be considered when building new accommodation as well as other tourist facilities in the area ; Specification of zoning and other land use regulations that define specific areas for different types of land uses and the development standards to be applied within each land use zone in . The physical planning department should be directly involved in the development of zoning regulations for the area ; Preparation of detailed area plans together with project feasibility studies ; Identification of potential funding sources for project development . Financial sources in may come from government as well as private sector wishing to invest in this area , including international investors ; , conservation and cultural activities programmes also need to be considered . needs to take into account of which the key objectives amongst other are long - term protection of the natural ecosystems and cultural interests of the indigenous population ( , undated ) ; Other programmes such as those for employee training and education , public awareness , and economic enhancement should be further specified and implemented with funding provided and organisational structures established ; Procedures to monitor plan implementation and the general progress of tourism should be specified . It is essential that establishes a system to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of actions before tourism development takes place . < heading > CONCLUSION Communities , regions and countries benefit substantially from the proper tourism planning . Due to the tourism growth and its numerous and diverse impacts , should adopt a plan to manage these effects efficiently . It is necessary that planners consider both the costs and benefits that tourism brings to the area and that the principles of sustainable development are followed ( Wall and Mathieson , ) . Furthermore , in 's highly competitive tourism world , places with well planned tourism development are likely to be the most successful tourism destinations . A proper tourism plan , which would analyse current position with regard to tourism , identify development opportunities as well as constraints , is therefore of a great importance for the destination . As such it could help to achieve higher tourist satisfaction levels and bring significant benefits , with minimal disturbance , to the society , local economy and the environment ( , ) . It is crucial that the plan and its sub - components have respective time frames , towards which all involved parties , responsible for tourism development in , work in a coordinated manner to achieve the common long - term goals and objectives .",1 "' To bind up the nations wounds ' and ' to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace ' . This was how viewed the aim of reconstruction at the end of , but there were many different beliefs as to the aim of reconstruction and an equal amount of ideas of how best to achieve these aims . Reconstruction can said to have begun in with 's and it is widely agreed that reconstruction formally ended in with the inauguration of ; however these dates are debatable . Reconstruction after the civil war took numerous forms and occurred in a variety of ways all of which are still widely examined , discussed and revised by historians . In this essay the focus shall be on and its failure , from 's early attempts in to 's policies in . < fnote > John Hope Franklin , after , 1994 < /fnote > As the Unionists began to gain more and more territory in the war , the issue of what to do when the war ended became of implicit importance . The right of a state to leave the had never been mentioned in the so neither the President or had any guidelines to follow when dealing with the legality of secession . President believed that the project of reconstruction lay firmly with and not . As early as began devising and implementing policies to deal with reconstruction . The problem that faced was how to form a loyal government in a state , so he began to implement his Ten Percent Plan . 's plan of amnesty and reconstruction required of the qualified voters of to take an oath of allegiance ; they were then allowed to set up a state government which the President would recognize . However believed this policy to be far too lenient and that the problem of reconstruction belonged to , so they passed the Wade - in opposition to 's plan . This made it much harder to be considered a loyal citizen and only after a majority had taken an oath of allegiance could delegates elected to state , where they must take the iron clad oath . This oath was important as it restricted many more from voting than 's plan did . The Wade - also had another important requirement that was notably absent from 's proclamation ; the state had to abolish slavery as a condition of re - entry into the . As passed this Bill on the last day in session was able to get rid of the Bill with a pocket veto , but the did mention a problem that faced : ' the future of slavery and the negro ' . < fnote > W R Brock , An American Crisis , < /fnote > has become martyred as the ' Great Emancipator ' but in reality this is not what intended to be . For the issue of slavery always came to a reunion with the and this showed in his early policies . Historians are only able to guess if 's attitude towards blacks would have changed , though most believe that would eventually have seen that the acceptance of blacks in was inevitable and that he should flow with the tide and not against it . This view was not shared by 's successor , . On , Vice President was sworn into office as the President of . To most politicians this meant a significant change in reconstruction policy for the better . Even radicals like Senator felt pleased with the new President , "" we have faith in you "" as they believed they had gone from a ' lenient ' to a ' firm ' . An important aspect of 's time as President is the contrast between the support he received at the beginning of his Presidency and the lack of support he had by the end . How did a southern have so much support from and ? < fnote > George W Julian 's < /fnote > Much of 's early support came from his beliefs on how to treat the south , "" must be made odious and traitors must be punished and impoverished "" ; this belief was strong within and groups . 's ideas on how to treat the south stemmed from his own personal dislike of the elite planter class , whom he believed were the real traitors who had dragged the south into war . was living proof of . He was born in to poverty in and gradually worked his way up as a tailor . He was illiterate until he married and then began to work his way into politics . Up until his time as President , 's political career was another success story as he had advanced from the very bottom to the very top . During the war 's fierce denunciations of the secessionists leaders put him firmly within and gained him much early support . < fnote > George W Julian 's < /fnote issued his in , and it was greeted with enthusiasm from both republicans , though the radicals believed they had been deceived on the issue of slavery . The amnesty promised a pardon to all those who would take an oath of allegiance , though classes of were excluded from this general pardon and had to apply to the President for a personal pardon . The most notable exception were with taxable property of $ and the major officials , this clause impressed the radicals as they had hoped would make an example of the ' traitors ' . Unfortunately it soon became clear to radicals and that what said and what he actually meant were different things . After the Proclamation of Amnesty Southerners came forward in huge numbers to receive pardons and received of requests for a personal pardon . Though gave out these pardon cautiously at he was soon doing them in mass amounts . took the south 's willingness to co - operate as a sign that they supported him and his policies , and indeed they did but largely due to the huge relief they felt that the requirements for re - entry were n't harsher . Many historians believe that in could have taken a very different path . could have imposed practically any rule on the states and it would have been accepted but he always believed firmly in state rights and upholding the , so he stuck to his policy of reconstruction with amendments later on . As the radical later said "" he has missed a golden opportunity "" . < fnote > Library of Congress , Wade Papers , < /fnote > Even though in the eyes of some 's policy was misguided it achieved the outcome that had hoped for . The began to reorganize itself as now it had an opportunity to rebuild in a way that reflected every individual state . Nevertheless 's treatment of the led to many new problems and the of these were the 's choice of new officials . stated that practically everyone was loyal , indeed it is a wonder how so many states seceded when everyone claimed to be ' a Union man ' who simply ' followed the state ' . Under 's requirement s the began choosing their new governments , though the majority of these men could hardly be called loyal . In the deep service to the Confederacy proved to be a virtual necessity for electing an official , and the state of sent former Vice - President to the senate . Further up in the the elections had some of the outcomes the President had been hoping for , and in most states former men took up office . For and the the elections had been a success and the states could now concentrate on providing a new constitution and entering the Union as quickly as possible . On the other hand and Radicals felt that the was once again back in the hands of the traitors and dissent began to grow as feeling towards changed . It seemed liked the idea of being the ' champion of the ' , indeed was a and he did gain support from the , but at the expense of support from the . < fnote > , , < /fnote > The events that occurred after the elections were of crucial importance to why Presidential reconstruction failed . made the ratification of and repudiation of debt extra requirements for entry back into the Union , but both these provisions were created with a lack of enthusiasm in the . These new conditions laid on by were hardly radical but the states reverted back to their pre - war prejudices and many refused to ratify the amendment or merely acknowledge that slavery did not exist . The repudiation of state debt also caused similar debates within the newly formed state conventions and eventually had to publicly declare debt null and void . The problems that occurred from the acceptance of the new conditions proved to and that the secessionist had once again come back into power and that had deceived them with false promises and his desire to gain popularity in the . 's fatal mistake was suggesting these changes at a time when hope of ' home rule ' had been revived and they felt able to revise or reject them . Further problems that arose within were used as ammunition against over as began to fail . Most of the tribulations that were to affect stemmed from the issue of slavery and the black population . After the abolition of slavery had been accepted most of the faced a severe labor problem , as the planters now had no personal authority over the blacks the state had to somehow re - establish a form of authority . New laws were needed to make sure that white supremacy was kept intact , and the President 's own beliefs went hand in hand with most of the whites . Many new laws were passed in different states as a legal means of keeping a large black population subordinate . These laws quickly became known as and they played a significant role in the failure of . On the surface the codes were used as a way of defining freedmen 's new rights and his place in society . In reality they were used as a way of controlling the black workforce and limiting their social and economic possibilities . Legally the codes had not re - enacted slavery but they had come as close as it was possible to doing so and in some respects the freedman was in a worse position than before . Now they were n't just controlled by man they were controlled by the whole state , as an early historian said the black codes ' put the state much in the place of the former master ' . < fnote > to , < /fnote > The Black Codes provided crucial ammunition for and to prove that Presidential reconstruction had failed . To 's growing number of opponents the 's choice of leaders showed that they were not loyal to the Union . had failed to create a ' new political leadership in the ' and in part this is because it appeared that he had aligned himself with the old elite just to increase his own following and possibility of re - election . The states revision or complete rejection of the terms imposed on them by were used as an example of the states ' reviving arrogance ' ; the enactment of showed a contempt for the morals of the north ; and the south 's continued determination to resurrect the past and old social structures was clear evidence that 's reconstruction policy was n't working . Worst of all was the President 's ' apparent tolerance of these things ' and his failure to do anything about them . While it highly unlikely that actually approved of he regarded states rights as undisputable and he never advocated black suffrage or citizenship for blacks . 's policy was acceptable on paper but almost a complete disaster in application . Political stability in the had been restored and new governments had been formed , yet the majority of these governments could hardly be considered loyal . New constitutions and laws had been made , which was what the President wanted but these new laws went against nearly everything the and the president 's opposition wanted . When was called into session at believed his policy of reconstruction had been a resounding success and that any opposition came from a small number of troublemakers . Unfortunately for the majority of disagreed with him and over a bitter feud grew over the issue of . By the time and failed and began . < fnote > , , < /fnote> W R Brock , An Crisis,1963 < /fnote >","The purpose of this essay is to establish the extent to which the model of voting can be used to explain the result of . It attempts to answer whether the outcome can be explained by use of the median voter theorem and concludes that this is the case in as far as the predictions that result from implementing the theorem are as vague as the variables that it considers . was , in comparison to those of and 1997 , a fairly lacklustre one and in this respect , the median voter theorem fairs well when analysing it . The economic theories devised in magnum opus The Wealth of Nations gave rise to the political paradigm of rational choice . The concept of self - interested individuals persuing maximum utility , and thus resulting in collective welfare , was one that could be applied to politics as effectively as Smith applied it to economics . Though Smith himself denied the importance of his economic theories in a political light , later developments and technical conceptualizations of his work proved both resultant and influential . < fnote > Smith , A. ( ) . The Wealth of Nations . ( . ) . : . ( Originally published in ) . < /fnote > A key protagonist of the economic approach to politics was ; his median voter theorem has proved consistantly useful in analysing voting behavior despite changing ideologies . As with many of the models to rise from economic principles , the theorem relies on the key assumptions of the rational choice paradigm : < fnote > Downs , A. ( ) . An Economic Theory of Democracy . : . < /fnote > Actors pursue goals . These goals reflect the actors ' perceived self - interest . Behaviour results from a process that actually involves concious choice . The individual is the basic actor in society . Actors have preference orderings that are consistent and stable . If given options , actors choose the alternative with the highest expected utility . Actors possess extensive information on both the available alternatives and the likely consequences of their choices . < fnote > Monroe , ( ) . to Politics : A Critical Reassessment of . : . < /fnote > Thus , once one is aware of an actor 's preference orderings and goals , judgements and projections can be made as to how the actor will respond in a given circumstance . From this , established the main characteristics of a single - member district plurality election according to his median voter theorem : . There are parties . . Voters ' preferences can be mapped on to a - dimensional space . . Parties can move to and occupy any point in this space . . Parties are vote maximises . . Voters vote for the party closest to them in political space . . Voters ' preferences are fixed . . There is perfect information . < fnote > Hindmoor , A. ' Reading Downs : New Labour and , , , vol . , - 417 . < /fnote > Downs ' assumptions indicate that in order to achieve electoral success , a party must move to the centre of the distribution of preferences where , owing to the unimodal structure , the majority of voters reside . This indicates that in the run - up to a general election , a political party should form policies that match those preferences of the median voter and thus capture the majority of the electorate . This approach undoubtedly worked for New Labour in ; by reaching out to and the Mondeo Man , the apparent median voters , the election was won with a swing from the , double that of the previous highest . There are , however , more factors in the outcome of an election than the ability for a party to move to equilibrium . In particular , party made the error of leaving the election until the latest possible moment in hope that the "" feel - good factor "" following economic prosperity would turn around fortunes in the polls . The subsequent lack of recovery , coupled with flaws in the campaign such as sleaze and party divide over ensured that Labour faced a weak opposition . ' model of voting does not incorporate such events and it is perhaps the simplicity of the theory that has prevented it from becoming anachronistic . However , there are shortcomings in the model that prevent it from being precise . There are those , such as , that argue that actors seek not to achieve maximum utility but are satisfied by a minimum level . As well as this , criticisms have been made regarding the lack of attention paid to phenomena such as the existence of habit , tradition and socially imposed norms that would otherwise affect the actor 's preferences . In essence , the simple nature of the model is both a help and a hindrance . Though the conclusions drawn when using the model are reliable to a certain degree , the few variables used when constructing the initial hypothesis allow for criticisms to be made as to the precision of the findings . < fnote > Simon , ( ) . Models of Bounded Rationality , vols . - 2 . , : . < /fnote > By using ' median voter theorem when analysing the result of the , observations regarding the extent to which the theory can be applied to a real event can be made . In the election , Labour maintained government with a seat majority and gained of the electorate throughout the . This was a decisive victory for Labour and the median voter theorem would conclude that the result illustrated that their centre policies were most in line with those of the median voter on the continuum . < fnote > URL . Accessed . Grant , ( ) . , lecture notes distributed in Introduction to Research Methods PO at , on th . < /fnote>
Figure illustrates party ideology as of , after the general election . point that can be made when looking at the graph is that the median voter ( X ) is positioned to the centre right of the ideological continuum . The spectrum places ( La ) closest to the median voter with a slightly less right position , whereas ( C ) and ( ) are more polarised , with the former benefiting from the rightward leaning median voter . In order to achieve the greatest share of the electorate , a party must adapt their policies to coincide with the preferences of the voter at point When using ' model of voting , the ideological spectrum would suggest that Labour , being the party closest to the median voter , could gain the majority of the electorate at the time of election , followed by the and Liberal respectively . When looking at the election results , it is clear that on the most fundamental level , the ' model does indeed apply . With votes ( ) , Labour had a simple majority of seats ( out of ) . The gained votes ( ) which equated to seats , whereas the Liberal managed votes ( ) giving them seats . < fnote>7 URL . Accessed November 2005 . < /fnote > In An Economic Theory of Democracy , states that "" [ t]heoretical models should be tested primarily for the accuracy of their predictions rather than for the reality of their assumptions . "" 8 Therefore , the aforementioned assumptions of ' median voter theorem , though vague , can be applied to the and used to justify the outcome . Moreover , the deductive hypothesis formed by - that in a single - member district plurality system , parties will gravitate towards the preferences of the median voter - appears to be true insofar as 's position on the ideological spectrum resulted in electoral victory . < fnote>8 Downs , A. ( ) . An Economic Theory of Democracy . : . < /fnote > When analysing individual issues , Labour was ahead on the most important issues . In a survey , of those polled indicated that health care was an important issue in the election and suggested that Labour 's policies were most in line with their preferences , whereas thought would best manage health care and trusted the Liberal . The issue of , in the list of most important issues , also indicated electorate trust in Labour , where stated they had the best policies in that area , over for the and for the Liberal . Only on less important issues such as Immigration and did the and make any ground . of those surveyed agreed that the had the best immigration policy and backed policies . < fnote>9 Worcester , ( 2005 ) Explaining Labour 's ' ' . . < /fnote > On the most important issues , Labour certainly appealed to the median voter and though the ' immigration policy appealed to many , the issue was clearly not high enough in the voters ' preference list to greatly affect the result of the election . It is a known fact that when the economy is doing well , as it was at the time of the , immigration is not a great concern ; the fact that of those surveyed trusted Labour 's economic policy perhaps alleviated the impact of the popular immigration policy . It became apparent shortly after the party campaigns began that Labour would attempt to highlight the success of the economy under their time in government whereas would advocate their immigration policy whenever possible . However , the controversial nature of the issue ensured that the were quickly labelled "" "" by their opponents and , whilst consolidating their core vote , disengaged a lot of people in the process . In contrast , 's economic platform was successful in that they had history of being capable managers of the economy , something that the Conservative party lost in the ERM crisis of and are still trying to regain . ' median voter theorem implies that the most important factor in determining the electoral result is party policies and the degree to which they are aligned with that of the voter . However , there are other factors that affect the way people vote . When a poll asked "" what it is that most attracted you to the [ insert party name ] party "" , of those surveyed stated that ' Leader Image ' was the most important deciding factor and ' Party Image ' . Though the rest agreed that "" Issues "" was the most important factor , this evidence illustrates that ' theorem is limited by the extent to which the electorate vote on issues alone . Another limitation to the use of ' model of voting is the rise of the Liberal as a viable party . The model is less effective in multi - party systems ; by gaining of the electorate ( up from ) and seats , the are finally showing that , despite the biased electoral system , the rise of a party system in is not completely out of the question . This would add another dimension to the ' model of voting and it has yet to be seen whether the theorem can withstand such a development . It is clear that smaller parties , such as and , would not win election by adopting median policies ; in some cases , it is not even in the party 's interest to win the general election but rather to stand on a single issue in a single constituency as more of a protest to the actions of the government . in particular , where the election of in on an anti - Iraq - war ticket , demonstrated that ' assumption , that the single goal of election is pursued rationally by the political party , is in fact not consistently true . Another assumption made by can be contested . The view that voters ' preferences are fixed was perhaps not the case in the General Election of . The candidate 's revolutionary policies of privatisation and restructuring were not at the time shared by the electorate but through careful campaigning and electorate education , managed to realign the entire contemporary political ideology and thus undermine a fundamental principle of ' theorem . However , when regarding the , it appeared that no politician was ready to take such bold action and it was only in the aftermath that the , whilst returning to opposition , decided to modernise in an attempt to move closer to the ideological centre by electing a new leader . This tactic certainly worked for New Labour in , when fronted a revamped party that 're - wrote Clause IV , promised to abide by trade union legislation , abandoned its outright opposition to grammar schools , committed itself to the ' golden rule ' and the Conservative government 's spending plans and pledged to leave income tax unchanged . "" This move to the centre right of Politics was , in the opinion of authors such as , an attempt to capture the median voter . This came as a harsh blow to party activists such as who saw the shift more as a sacrilege of traditional Labour values than an attempt to compromise . It seemed that at the time , the efforts made to woo the electorate since had been abandoned and had fully accepted the model . < fnote > Hindmoor , A. ' Reading Downs : New Labour and , , , vol . , . < /fnote> Norris , P. ( ) ' New politicians ? Changes in party competition at Westminster ' , in and ( Eds . ) , Critical Elections : Parties and Voters in ( London : Sage ) . < /fnote > The model has become increasingly popular owing not only to its contemporary ability but also because of the decline of viable alternative models . The sociological model is dependent on class and there has been , since the decline of manufacturing industries , a substantial fall in party links with classes , as well as there being a general decrease in the class system itself . For instance , the disaffiliation of the working class from has resulted in the traditional core Labour voter no longer identifying with New Labour 's right - wing policies . The Psychological model has also become anachronistic since in party identification , resulting in a more fluid electorate who seek to maximise their utility over committing to a party ideology . The economic model of voting has thus become more prevalent in when concerning . ' model of voting has been , to some extent , accurate since its formulation in . The extent to which it can help to explain the result of of depends on the level of detail that seeks to acquire . In the pre - election polls , Labour seemed ahead in regards to health care and education , the most important policy areas . Also , the overall ideological position of the party was closest to that of the median voter . Therefore , when looking at the major parties ' policies and ideologies , the ' model can be applied and should produce similar results to those seen in the General Election . However , there are a number of flaws in ' theorem such as its inability to accommodate for factors other than "" issues "" such as events , personality and whether the party leader has the ability to change individuals ' preferences to the extent of provoking an ideological shift . This is becoming more prevalent with use of such as who seek to advocate policies that may not be in line with the median voter . Yet ' deterministic theory survives due to its lack of variables and can therefore unintentionally accommodate for such factors by not considering them when formulating predictions .",0 "Satisfaction , a notion existent in many areas of people 's lives , proves to be a state which is extremely hard to reach and even harder to maintain for longer , still in spite of difficulties and unsuccessful attempts , human beings never cease to look for it . ( The famous classic song "" Satisfaction "" seems to summarise the dilemma pretty well ) . The process of reaching it becomes more complex , when it is realised how many various definitions could describe satisfaction as well as its numerous shades and levels . No matter how hard the task is , it is certainly considered worthwhile by the companies ( especially customer focused ) and marketing researchers who are aware of the fact that satisfaction is one of the key concepts in understanding consumers ' behaviour and thus being able to provide them with goods and services they want and need . Anything that we buy and use may be a source of satisfaction ( or dissatisfaction ) , so food being without a doubt the thing purchased and consumed most often , constitutes a good example to show how consumer becomes impressed or quite contrarily- disappointed with a product , but most importantly why and how it takes place . Food market is nowadays very fragmented due to the big number of companies , competing products and most of all largely differentiated consumer groups , i.e. segments . Consumers , by expecting and demanding wider choice of better quality , healthier food , more conveniently prepared and served , make the food market evolve faster and become more customer friendly in every sense of the word ( , , ) . Fresh food- not preserved by canning or dehydration or freezing or smoking ( URL ) , which is a sub - segment of the large food market , is an important part of the market as consumers are attracted by products that do n't contain preservatives . So not only do the producers have to meet those expectations , but it is more advisable for them to exceed them ( e.g. by adding new features ) . Many models explaining the idea of consumer satisfaction have been elaborated , but disconfirmation ( or expectations / expectancy - disconfirmation ) model seems to be providing the most popular explanation of this phenomenon ( , , , ; Woodruff , ) . It is worth mentioning that it was preceded by the confirmation model , drawing on an assumption that satisfaction means meeting merely consumer expectations ( ) , which were defined as the anticipation of future consequences based on prior experience , current circumstances and other information ( Oliver , ; , , ) . East ( ) points out that ( ) referred to contentment as a state when the consumed good satisfied positively the individual , and develops the idea by adding the term discontent for the situations in which negative expectations are confirmed . The confirmation model involves low level of arousal as the consumer has familiarity / habit with the satisfactory or unsatisfactory produce and therefore is not surprised by its performance ( e.g. usually purchased bread ) . In contrast with the above - mentioned theory , disconfirmation model is based on the state of high arousal . If a product only triggered off neutral feelings , then consumer 's attitude and then behaviour would not be likely to change , but here an element of surprise is involved . Satisfaction can then be treated as : < quote > the summary psychological state resulting when the emotion surrounding disconfirmed expectations is coupled with the consumer 's prior feelings about the consumption experience . Moreover the surprise or excitement of this evaluation is thought to be of finite duration , so that satisfaction soon decays into ( but nevertheless greatly affects ) one 's overall attitude toward purchasing products . ( Oliver , in East , ) < /quote > or < quote > the consumer 's fulfillment response . It is a judgement that a product or a service feature , or the product of service itself , provided ( or is providing ) a pleasurable level of consumption - related fulfillment , including levels of under- or over - fulfillment . ( Oliver , in , 2000) Both definitions focus on consumer 's judgements of a good , assuming that in comparison with some kind of standards , feelings present before consumption , the product / service proved to be a pleasant or disagreeable surprise . E.g. consumer buys a certain brand of yogurts and expects their consumption to be both pleasant and beneficial for his health , but if the positive effects are not perceived by him , disconfirmation occurs and then dissatisfaction . ( ) stresses the importance of referring to consumer and consumption as opposed to customer / buyer , for the latter is not always the one who tries out the product and therefore is not the best suited to be the sole subject of marketing researcher 's analysis . For instance it is said that there is a lot of emphasis at present on impact of children will on parents ' shopping decisions . The disconfirmation model has been investigated by many researchers and academics , and it is largely agreed that it is based upon an assumption that the level of satisfaction ( or dissatisfaction ) felt during and after consumption is an end product of a - step process ( Oliver , in , , ) . The initial phase is connected with consumer 's expectations ( Oliver , takes into account the case of retail establishments but it seems general enough to use the means of analogy and adapt the theory to any case of consumption).These are beliefs that a product will achieve a certain level of performance on a set of salient attributes . Next step involves consumption of the good and simultaneous or subsequent formation of perceptions concerning performance on the above mentioned attributes . It seems to be debatable though whether only salient attributes are taken into account . It is a truism , but everyone could consider different attributes as the decisive ones in judging the product at hand . For example , age ( as a proxy of life experience and wisdom ) could make young consumer appreciate greatly a product like average wine , whereas an older and more knowledgeable consumer would be left disappointed because his or her expectations would have been greater . The user can at this stage compare the perceptions of product 's performance with previous expectations . East ( ) points out that expectations are not necessarily formed definitely in our minds before consumption , but the experience of using the good may be a stimulus for us to realise what is appropriate in given circumstances , i.e. how the product should perform . It is now possible to state whether the disconfirmation is positive ( performance exceeds expectations ) and thus likelihood of consumer satisfaction increases , or negative ( performance falls below expectations ) which implies that likelihood of consumer dissatisfaction increases ( , , , ) . Perceived disconfirmation in the step of the process can be regarded as determinant of a level of satisfaction with the product and in the final step consumer decides about his or her intentions ( customer 's anticipation of future behaviour towards a good ( , , ) to return to that product . It seems rather useful that the model does not stop at the point of feeling satisfaction , but goes on to the intentions stage , because that is where one can observe actual impact of the consumption - related fulfilment on next shopping decision . However , having certain kind of attitude or intentions formed towards a product may not always imply that we as consumers will actually behave in a given way . Sometimes the consumer , although very positively impressed with e.g. time purchased exotic fruit will not repurchase it due to its high price . < figure/>East ( ) remarks that in the disconfirmation model the extent of the surprise element is in close relation with the discrepancy between the expectations and the perceived experience . Furthermore satisfaction or dissatisfaction is determined by the importance or value of the purchased good , i.e. the level of involvement ( high or low ) and it is also affected by perception of the product 's performance ( as was mentioned above ) . It means that if a consumer has higher expectations which are met by the product 's perceived performance , there is not going to be disconfirmation , but the person feels more satisfaction than in a situation when the initial expectations were low and still the product did not live up to them . It follows from this logical link that companies that promote their produce as something spectacular , boosting up customers ' expectations while the product turns out to be rather disappointing , expose the users to a negative disconfirmation ( , , , ) ( e.g. consumer notices that attractively presented store made salad is not as nice as he expected , so the expectation - perceived performance relation leads to dissatisfaction ) . It is also argued in the literature that customers with only basic expectations are likely to experience more intensive positive disconfirmation than customers requiring more from the same product ( , , , ) . It has been assumed that high involvement purchases causing high arousal are necessary for disconfirmation effect to take place and it may seem that buying fresh food products would not necessarily fulfil these conditions . However , in spite of having lower prices ( compared to explicitly expensive and generally high involvement products like cars or holiday trips ) , it has become an issue of quite high importance in people 's lives as eating the right things is deemed necessary to maintain healthy body . What is more , such fresh foods like e.g. fair trade fruit or organic meat go beyond the function of satisfying hunger because they carry a certain kind of ideology or lifestyle , so disconfirmation is possible . It is even probable that the expectations concerning for example organic product could be much higher than a regular equivalent , so the discrepancy between them and actual performance of the product would most probably lead to disconfirmation ( either positive or negative ) causing satisfaction or dissatisfaction . Some other conditions such as frustration ( e.g. with price ) , dissonance ( e.g. the very idea of eating fruit by someone who does not like fruit ) may be involved ( East , ; , ) . It is essential to emphasize that consumers judge their satisfaction using various external factors which have impact on expectations , i.e. past experiences , comparison with similar products , word of mouth communications , product cues or even cultural background and other various standards and norms etc . ( , Woodruff , ) Even in case of new , unknown products ( e.g. free food samples in grocery shops ) it is possible to have certain expectations ( passive rather than active ) based on what the customer can observe about the packaging , response of other users , category of the good ( , , , ) . It must be underlined that consumers judge on basis of their own perceptions ( subjective ) , and those may differ from actual technical attributes . Negative disconfirmation ( e.g. when purchased oysters that were seemingly fresh , good quality and appetising turn out to be quite the opposite ) is quite likely to lead to dissatisfaction and may result in putting an end to this customer 's loyalty , and what is worse- to sharing negative opinions on the product . However it is possible to avoid or at least repair the damage done by negative disconfirmation ( and dissatisfaction as a consequence ) during the complaint handling process . On the other hand it is argued that positive disconfirmation ( e.g. rather low price cheese performs surprisingly beyond our expectations ) is not likely to have converse effect , because consumers ' loyalty is not believed to set in just after consumption experience bringing satisfaction ( ) . Undoubtedly though such an experience may encourage the person to switch to the satisfying product . It should also be added that consumer 's expectations and satisfaction vary and evolve over time due to ( amongst others ) increased knowledge of the products , and thus manufacturers have good reasons to improve their products . , and ( ) hypothesise also that customers will adapt their expectations as improvements are made , until no disconfirmation exists , which seems to be praiseworthy aspiration for perfection . To sum up , disconfirmation model provides a very useful tool for explaining consumer 's satisfaction . Based on different standards and other sources of knowledge , people make constant judgements and comparisons about any kinds of products , including fresh food . Positive disconfirmation is a state that both consumers and producers hope for , but even negative disconfirmation , provided that it is followed by constructive feedback from unsatisfied users , can be beneficial for the company , as long as it understands where the drawbacks are and try to rectify them .","was a very turbulent and crucial year in the history of - the largest of the republics , with an area of , and economy based mainly on agricultural revenues . After of oligarchic dictatorship of the Somoza dynasty ( from ) , the country experienced an insurrection led by ) , FSLN- founded in ; named after the assassinated , the leader of a peasant army fighting the occupant in the period 1926 - 33 ( , ) . The political change provided a great opportunity to redefine rural and agricultural policy in , which the new government understood and was willing to perform , but did not avoid making many mistakes which inevitably led to the decrease in number of the supporters and consequently to the loss of political power . The aim of this essay is to investigate the steps the government undertook to amend 's agricultural and rural development strategy . , the situation inherited after the Somoza period will be presented . Then revolutionary regime 's decisions concerning the agricultural sector will be examined . As the strategies were subject to several shifts and changes , they will be presented in chronological order . It is necessary to describe the actual situation the faced after gaining the rule of the country , as it obviously affected their decisions . There is no doubt that they were committed to the idea of agrarian reform , but it is argued that no exact plans concerning the appropriate methods and instruments existed in the moment of taking over the power . To support this assertion and Scott ( ) mention that were not actually aware how much land in reality the group possessed . E.g. in numerous officials were convinced that by confiscating the old regime 's properties , of the country 's agricultural area had been nationalised , whereas it made up of the productive agricultural land in terms of value . The Somoza clique had been nonetheless making huge profits from focusing activity in agro - export processing rather than in not so lucrative production of primary goods . Under their rule in the agriculture contributed to of the gross domestic product ( GDP ) and agriculture - related industries added of GDP ( , ) . It is important to underline that agricultural produce was much appreciated by the state as it dominated 's exports , providing hard currency . The country under the period underwent transformation of the economy through introduction of cotton , sugar , cattle and fishing as new export goods , and construction a manufacturing base of simple wage goods ( FitzGerald , ) . ( ) reports that in unprocessed and lightly processed agricultural goods brought of 's total of exports , which meant a foreign exchange surplus , that other sectors of economy promptly used . Although it was a spectacular achievement , this pro - export strategy also implied that practically everything revolved around this activity , which for obvious financial reasons had priority over e.g. people 's basic needs . Wheelock ( cited in : , ) illustrates it with an example of the coffee boom in when the natives were eliminated and small - holders moved to areas with poorer soil in order to satisfy this export produce demand for land . FitzGerald ( ) notices also that even though the economic model provided foreign exchange , the reliance on the export products created a situation of dependence from such sources of producer goods as the , and . What is more , it also led to dissatisfaction of many whose basic needs were not met , and peasants in particular who were desperate to work their own piece of land . The revolutionary government came with the populist slogans which promised to address those and many other problems . It pledged to carry out an extensive agrarian reform and people seemed to believe that FSLN would , according to its program , "" freely transfer land to the peasants in accordance with the principle that the land should belong to those who work it "" or as in version- more specifically distribute land confiscated from clique "" to landless peasants and all those who wish to go work the land "" ( ) . Keeping these promises proved rather troublesome . Since the regime was forced to deal with land tenure issue ( or more precisely large numbers of the landless and smallholders hoping to receive a land title ) , it is useful to describe land structure in shortly before the political change . In the agricultural land was occupied by farms of each ( making up of all farms ) . of farms were occupied by medium sized ( - 350 hectares ) producers and finally family sized ( ) farms were placed on of the area . of the farm labour force was made up by landless seasonal workers ( Barraclough , ) . landless workers benefited directly from new revolutionary policies through new employment and participating in newly established state - owned farms ( UPEs ) or through receiving access to land they could cultivate within the said state farms . So wages and social conditions on those farms improved considerably ( Barraclough and Scott , ) . The strategy in the framework of agricultural economy had several key objectives , that ( , in : , ) summarises as : ) creation of a strong , modern , centrally planned state sector , ) maintaining production in other sectors ( generally though less favoured ) , ) retaining political tactical alliance with the capitalist producers , ) guaranteeing the urban population access to basic foodstuffs at stable ( and low ) prices , ) gaining control over surplus generated in private agricultural sector , without the necessity to nationalise production . ( cooperating with other institutions such as ) ensured that agricultural planning met these objectives . Initially creation of state farms that were to become symbols of the revolution in the countryside , was possible due to expropriation of large group landholdings . It is evident that authorities were originally interested in the idea of extending the area of state farms , as these were given much needed privileged access to credit , foreign exchange and direct subsidies ( , ) . Such strategy stemmed from an initial belief that large state farms would be more efficient ( thanks to the economies of scale ) which expressed in the following words : "" it is more profitable for peasants to work in a large farm than for each one to work separately "" ( , ) . It is argued though that existence of such benefits was hardly ever the case and there is evidence that performance was far from satisfactory for different reasons , including lack of autonomy in taking decisions and lack of incentives to reduce costs ( Binswanger et al , ) . Additionally it was also more convenient for the authorities to control such large - scale production , where there were fewer entities than in a small - holder dominated environment . Yet state farms were a part ( but an important one ) of model of mixed economy , which was chosen for various economic and political motives . ( ) claims that the main reason for this choice was a fear that too radical a change ( i.e. elimination of private property ) could possibly lead to collapse of production , especially in the key agro - export sector . Another factor influencing the choice of policy was , as goes on to explain , the fact that FSLN had entered into alliance with a part of the bourgeoisie , and that such conduct could facilitate gaining international legitimacy , so that it would be harder for the government to justify military intervention . Having chosen the mixed economy model , the had to put their ambitious ideas into practice . The task was not the easiest one as in they needed to design an agrarian reform policy that would not undermine the commitment to the policy of national unity but would also secure the place of popular hegemony principles in the implementation of the agrarian policy . At the policy of national unity seemed to have been favored , to the disadvantage of the peasantry , but the focus was to be shifted towards popular hegemony by the reform ( , ) . reports stages of the agrarian reform : establishment of the state farm sector , establishment of the cooperative sector and the prioritization of peasants . Luciak develops this explanation in the following division : ) the confiscation of the landholdings and the consolidation of the state farms , from , ) special titling programs at the agricultural frontier and the promotion of service and production , from to , ) the process of land distribution to individual farmers from onwards . reform was given a very important place in the political program ( FitzGerald , ) . Straight after taking over the power in the country , the new government issued decrees no . 3 and 38 ( of and respectively ) legitimizing confiscation of the properties , which however were not redistributed to the landless peasants because that was thought too disruptive for the economy , based on large - scale modern farms producing agro - export goods ( FitzGerald , ) . Instead a system of state farms was put in place , consisting of agricultural complexes ( with state farms ) employing workers ( Thome and , ) . It is also worth noting that a very important decree no . was promulgated in "" . It targeted owners with abandoned , idle , underused or rented land and it marked the beginning of land redistribution to cooperatives ( , ) . Still , these were the state farms that received more than twice as much land as and individual peasants altogether , which was consistent with 's opinion ( valid until ) that socialist transition should be accomplished through collectivization and state sector ( Deereal . ) . The position favoring state farms appears to have been revised , which is confirmed by ( cited in : Luciak , ) stating that it had been the policy of the wanted to reduce the size of farms if their efficient administration by the government was not possible . It seems to find expression also in the data quoted by ( ): almost 263,000 manzanas ( ) were removed from the state sector and handed over for the purposes of the agrarian reform . The revolutionary government provided financial credit for the farmers , especially those engaged in the export production , so even negative real interest rates were offered and profitable export prices were guaranteed in such a way that increase in international prices would be covered by the government and also any increase in the world price would result in sharing profits among the state and the growers ( , , ) . It must be underlined though that the government made sure that prices of basic foodstuffs ( such as corn , beans , edible sorghum ) , produced mainly by small farmers , were kept at a low level , so as to enable their purchase by the urban population . That was consistent with a cheap foods policy ( with price controls on basic staples , subsidies ) , that of all consisted in assuring food security and thus was aiming at getting support of the masses ( that experienced hunger before ) for the revolution ( , ) . ( ) claims that the FSLN could maintain wages relatively low , because people 's basic needs were satisfied so cheaply . Another conclusion may be drawn from such strategy : consumption subsidies were at the same time subsidies for producers . Yet , such policy proved hard to carry out in the long run , as it was less and less affordable for the government to keep the price controls in place , so they started being eliminated in ( , ) . Food security was a challenging issue for the , as some shortages occurred , leaving the poorer groups of the society hungry and upset ( which had big impact for their opinion about the revolution as a whole ) . Excessive exports that used to be so encouraged by the authorities , in brought an undesired side - effect - sugar shortage , which was handled by introduction of a rationing system , that later covered also further goods ( et al . , 1985).Situation where there were official lower prices and insufficient supply of commodities , black market and speculation emerged , which was very difficult to bring under control , especially as the government had to face the opposition of the contras and the military intervention ( ) . ( ) points out that much of the domestic production got wasted before reaching the market due to inefficient transport and storage infrastructure . Disillusion with this early export policy ( whose poor effects might have also been due to external factors , such as unexpected slump of world food prices ) in a slight shift towards a strategy more focused on the needs of the peasantry , that in benefited from the law of forced rents . According to this law , all idle or under worked land had to be rented at legally established rates ( Deere et al . , ) . The government also introduced a programme of granting peasants with the titles to land for which they did not have a property right ( , ) . The authorities were very generous with granting credit ( through the nationalised bank system ) but in a quite unreasonable way . E.g. state owned agribusiness enterprises were major beneficiaries of this lenient policy that presumed that they , irrespectively of their financial performance , should be supported at any cost . And so amount of credit for them increased , but subsequently- due to losses- their debt grew higher ( , ) . Therefore , the regime started to channel the support to the entities that were newly prioritized - cooperatives . Such adjustment of strategy was judged positive , but ( ) observes that even then the majority of peasants did not benefit in a great way from the change . seemed to be a breakthrough , as rate of land distribution to individuals was higher than during ( Martinez1993 ) and other changes followed . It could be described as an expression of the government turning more boldly from its initial policy of national unity ( aiming at maintaining a "" multi - class alliance "" ) to popular hegemony , as ( ) observed . Cooperatives that proved not to be very popular with the peasantry , became more flexible and diversified , i.e. combining collective and individual production ( Kaimowitz,1988 ) . Cheap food policy principles had to be revised in the context of the economic hardship ( including high inflation , unstable situation due to the war ) the state faced , so producer prices were raised to stimulate production , subsidies on basic foods were reduced , and investment money was directed to productive inputs and rationalisations in the peasant sector ( , ) . The reform of the agrarian reform law ( Presidential Decree no.14 ) had an important feature consisting in elimination of the bottom acreage limits for expropriation of idle , underused , or rented land ( previously the limits applicable were : manzanas in the regions and manzanas in the rest of the country ) . The new law also eliminated compensation for expropriated properties , and formalised expropriations for public use or social interest ( Luciak,1987 ) . It can be said that hunger for land was partially satisfied , but the state of the economy that achieved under the rule , was rather poor . At , they had to admit that market needed more independence from the state , so by it was allowed to determine important economic variables ( previously under control of the state ) , including the exchange rate ( , ) . Certain austerity measures were taken in an attempt to revive the economy ( , ) . was declared finished in by then Minister of Agriculture , . It meant that the process of redefining the agricultural relations of production was completed . According to ( ) , it resulted in of the most successful land redistributions in as were handed families . However it is argued that became at the same time poorer during in power and the basic nutritional needs of the less affluent part of the nation were not satisfied , as it had been promised in of the revolution ( , ) . The face of the countryside had been transformed , but the result bore little resemblance to the FSLN leadership 's original vision , as state farms occupied of the arable land and the cooperative sector made up . On the other hand , large and medium - sized capitalist producers had , and the individual peasants enjoyed the property rights to ( , ) . "" Higher forms of production "" , that the leaders wanted to impose , failed to bring success to the designed mixed economy . The long rule was composed of both success but also failures due to misjudgments of actual situation and sometimes implementing conflicting policies concerning agriculture . It seems to be true to say that the agrarian reform left major part of the peasantry disillusioned and dissatisfied ( , ) . Also the economy as a whole did not thrive in spite of the original growth from through , as such problems as sharp war - driven inflation and increasing foreign debt emerged ( URL ) . The could be considered as quite flexible and rather pragmatic , as throughout their rule they applied a series of adjustments or even complete changes of strategies ( e.g. significant reduction of public employment , elimination of subsidies for basic foods ) . The economy was in crisis . Still they were convinced that they would manage to improve things , and in fact the FSLN election slogan was worded : "" Everything will be better "" . But they did not have a chance to put it into practice as they lost this election .",1 "< heading > Notes of Load Lines: The true current flowing in the circuit shown below was found by creating the circuit shown in diagram and plotting the characteristics of the . < picture/>Load lines were drawn on the characteristic using the supply voltage ( ) and appropriate values of current . When drawing the load line to find the actual current flowing in the circuit of figure on the handout , the load line intersects the y - axis at , the current that is assumed to be flowing , calculated using ohms law ( R = 240Ω , V = ) . The current required to cause 15mA to flow was found by drawing another load line on the simulated characteristics of the diode . The load line intersects the characteristic plot ( which gives the actual current flowing in the circuit ) at 15mA , then the point at which the load line < heading > Diode analysis Using an IV analyser ( arranged as in ) a simulated characteristic graph can be plotted ( Figure ) . Here the characteristics of the diode are explored . < calculated the current to be from the simulated circuit characteristic ( Figure - Appendix ) with a 240Ω resistor was in series with the diode and the supply voltage was 6V. From the paper design ( see page of appendix ) I found the current to be 22mA. I tested the circuit using a multimeter ( Diagram 2 ) and found the true value to be < picture/>
From table one it can be seen that there is a marked increase in accuracy of the simulated characteristic method over the paper based method . The % error has been reduced by a factor of . The required value of R if a current of 15mA was to be achieved was then calculated using a load line from the simulated characteristic plot . I found the current required to be Using ohms law a resistor of , ( tolerance ) please refer to figure in appendix . From the paper design ( see page of appendix ) I found the resistor required to be A simulation was then run to determine the actual current in the circuit with the chosen resistors . I unfortunately chose a resistor from a different series ( not ) in my paper design and therefore had to use different resistors to achieve the value stated , as shown in diagram below . < picture/>
The paper design does give a good estimate of the operating current of the circuit , however it is less accurate than the simulated characteristic value by a large amount . It is worth taking into account that the simulated values throughout the analysis of this diode will be inaccurate also as the components used will have tolerances . In the real world the component values will vary due to this and the operating current would most likely be a different value . < heading > Transistor amplifier analysis The table below shows the characteristics of my circuit submitted as the paper design . Please refer to the appendix for calculations and circuit diagram . < table/>There are a number of problems with the original circuit I designed . The gain and the upper cut - off frequency do not match the specification . This is because the equations used to calculate the gain was incorrect . To rectify the gain I performed new calculations . These can be viewed in the appendix under the title of "" Calculating gain "" . To rectify the upper cut - off value another capacitor is needed . This should be placed across R C. This creates an upper cut - off due to the fact that when the frequencies are above the calculated cut - off frequency ( see appendix entitled "" Calculating upper cut - off capacitor value "" ) the capacitor 's reactance becomes very low . This causes the current to flow through the capacitor and not the resistor R C. This in turn reduces the output as the gain of the circuit is determined by the ratio of the resistance values of R C and R E. When the capacitor 's reactance is low , R C is effectively low , causing the gain to decrease . < heading > Revised circuit:
The circuit now meets all of the specifications bar one , the supply current . I have learnt a great deal about transistor amplifiers and using software throughout this project , however calculating values that meet the supply current gain is beyond my current capabilities .","< heading > To Whom It May Concern Enclosed is the proposed business plan for the e - commerce company providing energy - efficient light bulbs , "" Enlighten "" . Climate change is of the utmost importance in 's market place , providing an ideal opportunity for any company offering energy - efficient solutions . Government legislation may soon see all wasteful incandescent lighting banned for general lighting purposes showing long term advantages and security for the company . Enlighten will offer a high level of service to customers including rapid email response and telephone advice & assistance to build a customer base , differentiating itself from its competitors in the e - commerce market . Employee relationships with research teams developing the latest technologies in the lighting sector will offer exclusive products . The managing director of the firm has had previous experience starting a profitable online business providing similar products . To start up this business we require a up to the value of £ for initial funding . Alongside this we have £ collected of personal finance to invest in this company . We have qualified for with the to make this funding possible . To reduce start - up costs the firm shall locate in a home office in ( 200sq feet ) . Enlighten will be a limited liability company , privately owned by and . < heading > Projected sales
Objectives To provide a quality service , building a customer base of customers at . Achieve a turnover of £ in , £ in and £ in with profits of £ , £ and £ respectively . Sell of all 's sold in the by , providing the turnover shown . < fnote > Compact fluorescent lamp < /fnote > MD Enlighten < heading > Marketing Key elements of marketing strategy : < heading > Marketing segmentation Market large enough to justify committing resources - huge market Market has potential for future growth - always growing , development in energy saving . Market has potential for increased value - providing energy saving and new technology light bulbs before the competitors will give us the market lead Not too much competition - not for online , small business sellers Need for our company 's products - increasing energy prices , keeping companies ' spending lower , everyone needs light - bulbs < heading > Market entry Demand patterns - always in demand ; particular demand in the winterEducation of the end userDevelopment of new products - not so much development , as promotion ; focus on new technology , not usual old bulbsCompetitor activity - RESEARCH Launch Lead time - build up stock and create websiteSetting up distribution and stocks - Al covering distribution and packaging ; CHECK AOBUT STOCKSTraining staff - not necessary as internet based company , no sales assistants ; internet nature of company reduces need for people which keeps wages low ; using automatic phone system ( AL)1.5 Product , Place , Price & Promotion Product Features: energy savingCFLsSoon to become the only legal bulbs for businesses. Quality: Varying qualities with correspondingly low prices , to cater for as wide a market as possible. Brand / image: Exclusive production from company in other bigger brands as the bulbs are too rare to make worthwhile producing ourselves Packaging: Packaging kept to a minimum to help reduce carbon emissions and unnecessary wastePacking substantial enough not to break bulbsDelivered by post for individual orders , or in bulk by van for larger ( office ) orders Guarantees: Standard guarantee with all products as a minimumBulbs can last , so we would expect the average bulb to last for a minimum of positioning: As an additional service for businesses we can fit out an entire new office and install light fittingsThis is done through an associated chain of electricians whom we can call up at short notice if necessary anywhere across the UK. Place Customers: Primarily , advertising is based at small businesses and officesTargeting new businesses who will make for long term customersAvailable to anyone browsing the internetDomestic customers still benefit from the convenience and speed of delivery , though are unlikely to benefit from bulk buying discounts Distribution : see "" Selling "" in promotion . < list> Location: As a footloose web - based company , our location does n't affect our customers . Can locate anywhere , allowing cheap premises. Stock levels: Lightbulbs do n't go out of date or perish at a fast rate , so we would rather have more stock than necessary and always be relied upon to be able to supply any bulb at any timeSpecialising in energy saving and bulbs. Price Level: Varying prices depending on quality of the productUltimate aim is to undercut other distribution companies Sensitivity: By establishing ourselves early on , we will become noted as the pioneers in this market for when government legislation commands that only our types of bulbs may be used in businessesThe market inevitably drops over as there is less need for artificial lighting Discounts and Payment : see "" "" and "" Selling "" in promotion . < heading > Promotion Communication plan: Essential in reaching the publicSeveral strategies which together should give us good promotion Advertising: Links from web - based companies URL URL URL URL Ideal for a web - based company such as ourselvesMakes it easy for shoppers to buy all their products in go online Viral Advertising Pop up adverts onlineParticularly related to / home living websitesIdeal for a web based company Leaflets Leaflets advertising current promotions and new products to be sent out with each deliveryPartnerships with associated companies so every time they send out an order they enclose our leaflets , and vice versaDisplayed in non - chain stores Magazines Large number of and home improvement magazines available for advertisementsAdvertising in entrepreneurial magazines and newspapers too , to target new companies and businessesAdvertising in the Economist Sales promotion: promotions , according to customer sales and current interestDiscounts for bulk ordersFree on orders over £ , encouraging bulk buyingDiscounts for new businesses using us for the time , on condition they use us for a minimum of more orders Public relations: User friendly websiteEasy search tools within website , enabling you to find the exact bulb you want even for the non - engineering mindedExtensive "" Help "" and "" FAQ "" pages12hour guaranteed reply to email queriesPhone line for any further queries Selling First class post as standard deliveryNext day delivery available on all orders for minimal extra""Within "" delivery service available for a premium priceAll transactions by over secure internet sites ensures fast turnaround and paymentConvenience and flexibility in not having to go to a shop , and always open 1.7 Market Size From figure we can see that the size in terms of total units sold does not change significantly over . However if we look at the market size in terms of retail sales , we can see an overall upward trend in the amount of money in this market . < figure/>Figure shows a clear increase in market value , despite no rise in units sold . According to , however this is due to rising sales of specialist lighting , but this is linked directly to trends in luminaries / fittings sales . For , retail prices are falling , and therefore Enlighten must concentrate on sourcing cheap manufacturers in order to secure a decent profit margin .",1 "For , , and other reputed international relations experts , the end of heralded the emergence of a "" new world order "" . The shift away from a bipolar distribution of power that these analysts have in mind , however , is aspect of this transformation ; perhaps more importantly , the stage of world politics has recently been invaded by a host of transnational actors . As transnational cooperations , non - governmental organisations and superstate institutions gain influence in global debate , they may "" call into question the primacy of states "" by challenging their sovereignty . Some even warn that international organisations can be used by powerful states as tools to secure their hegemony . These somewhat pessimistic forecasts may be exaggerated , however ; if transnational actors can be made accountable to civil society , they will more likely reform rather than annihilate the system . Through the emergence of "" global governance "" , transnational actors can become a positive force for change in 's world order . < fnote > Ruggie p554 < /fnote> Kaldor p583 < /fnote> Cronin p103 < /fnote> Barnett < /fnote > In popular belief , some of the most powerful and potentially threatening actors of the current international stage may be transnational coorperations ( TNCs ) , firms which hold branches , subsidiaries and production facilities outside their own country . These have proliferated in , emerging even in developing countries . According to , their growth and the scale of their activities leaves "" the sovereignty of most governments . . . significantly reduced "" . As TNCs have highly mobile production facilities , they can easily move out of a host country if its policy is no longer attractive to them . Due to such ' regulatory arbitrage ' , host governments must compete for a firm 's presence by lowering taxes , relaxing regulation , or improving particular infrastructures ; major aspects of state policy thus become dictated by the needs of the . In , for instance , the government has voluntarily relaxed environmental laws in order to accommodate the mining company . This firm 's "" importance to 's treasury . . . ha[s ] helped secure it against challenges from local people [ and ] environmental groups "" in spite of the considerable environmental damage that it causes in the region . Morevoer , 's can cause states to lose control not only of policy , but also of currency and foreign trade , as the bulk of financial flows generated by these companies leads to considerable fluctuations in a currency 's exchange rate and in a country 's current account . Furthermore , companies can occasionally evade state supervision altogether , for example by transfer pricing , where 's transfer their funds from country to another to avoid taxation . In cases where firms follow directives from extraterritorial headquarters , domestic branches may be subject to the policy of a foreign government and may disregard domestic regulation . TNCs can indeed pose very real threats to state sovereignty . < fnote > Willetts p363 < /fnote> Willetts p363 < /fnote> Perlez and pp363 - 365 < /fnote > Beyond the impact of TNCs , the growth of transnational actors also worries states by fostering the development of a "" global civil society "" . Modern voluntary associations seek to shape social rules by gaining independence from the state , engaging in transnational public debate , and becoming globally connected . In particular , the number of ( NGOs ) is "" skyrocketing worldwide "" thanks to improved communications technology and higher levels of education . NGOs are generally seen as potentially destabilising activist movements that have been ' tamed ' and institutionalised , yet it is this "" formalised part of this civil society "" that governments most fear . As legally recognised entities or ' insiders ' to the political process , NGOs have acquired considerable influence and autonomy in decision - making processes . , for instance , builds public pressure against corruption , lobbies individual governments to advocate policy reform , and monitors the compliance of states to multilateral conventions . Submitting NGOs to a state 's domestic regulations may consequently be difficult , leading governments to extreme measures : the government , for instance , recently launched an NGO - monitoring project threatening certain organisations with loss of funding if they did not adhere to its policies . Such antagonism suggests that 's transnational civil society can limit the sovereignty of even the most dominant states . < fnote > Kaldor p583 < /fnote> Kaldor p585 < /fnote> Florini p72 < /fnote> Kaldor p585 < /fnote> Florini p72 < /fnote> Transparency International < /fnote> Florini p73 < /fnote > A similar power struggle pits states against a form of transnational actor : International Organisations ( IOs ) . The majority of international organisations - such as or states as their constituent membership and operate within formal procedures . Nonetheless , these bodies can act with a degree of autonomy from states . According to and Snidal , this independence gives IOs considerable power to "" modify the political , normative , and intellectual context of state interactions "" : thus , on was the source of many of the economic development concepts that influenced the formation of the Group of 77 . Additionally , by centralising different states ' interests , IOs can alter states ' perceptions of their conflicts and hence influence the terms and outcomes of their interactions . By shaping the norms , values and preferences of member states , acquire significant power over the decision - making processes in the international system . < fnote and Snidal p17 < /fnote> Indeed , the influence that IOs exert on state policy can directly "" challenge the state 's monopoly on decision - making authority at the global level "" . IOs regularly serve as "" managers of enforcement "" in ensuring that governments comply with international commitments ; by threatening to withhold their benefits or to apply sanctions if states renege from these obligations , IOs truly diminish the extent to which states are sovereign to choose their own courses of action . Moreover , certain political figures propose to strengthen the role of IOs in areas linked still more closely to state sovereignty , such as security . The previous Secretary - General , for example , advocated the creation of a standing army , arguing that issues of domestic security were a "" legitimate concern of because [ they ] ha[d ] the potential to undermine regional security . "" Likewise , the foreign minister called for a greater use of sanctions by the , which would enable this organisation to establish international regimes for peace enforcement . Such changes would allow transnational actors to infringe traditional aspects of state sovereignty to an even greater degree . < fnote > Abbott and Snidal p18 < /fnote> Boutros - ( ) , , in Barnett < /fnote> Gareth Evans ( ) , Cooperating for Peace , in < /fnote > Not all political theorists see transnational actors strictly as threats to state power , however . Alternative interpretations suggest that NGOs , IOs and even TNCs could be tools by which dominant states of the international system would reflect and promote their personal interests . Some thus suspect certain TNCs of promoting the hegemonic ideology of dominant countries - in this fashion , both and 's can be perceived as part of an apparatus by which disperses capitalism to the developing world . Similarly , NGOs could also be used by states to voice their own concerns through a smokescreen of democratic consultation ; as critics have expressed it , "" these unelected guardians of the public good . . . claim to speak for the world but in fact speak only for themselves . "" Indeed , the neoliberal view of civil society sees NGOs as key agents in disseminating capitalist ideology , in particular by facilitating market reform and promoting parliamentary democracy . Rather than reversing the logic of the system , transnational actors may instead fortify existing power balances and reinforce , rather than deplete , a hegemon 's sovereignty . < fnote > Florini p75 < /fnote> Kaldor p586 < /fnote > For many , however , such claims rest on isolated examples of partisanship , and NGOs and TNCs alike are generally accountable organisms . The case for the use of as tools of hegemonic influence , on the other hand , is a truly convincing one . Numerous theories of international relations suggest that IOs can provide "" continuing utility . . . as instruments . . . for regime and rule creation . "" For realists , powerful states form IOs to allow weaker states to participate in the furthering of their own interests - thus , by creating at the zenith of its supremacy , could share the burden of its economy with satellite states . Constructivist theory argues that IOs may help states to legitimise their prevailing ideas by setting codes of conduct that encourage certain activities . For example , sees as a norm - setter dedicated to "" expand[ing ] the number of actors who are committed to a liberal political order "" : the 's peace - keeping operations may be a pretext to spread the neoliberal ideology by introducing principles of democracy and human rights in turbulent states . As shown by the use of the veto in , voting procedures in IOs can establish a certain balance of power that endows dominant states with disproportionate influence on decision - making . Additionally , the , the and the IMF alike serve as forums that allows weaker states to voice their grievances , thus legitimising the status quo and limiting any challenges existing neoliberal international system . IOs can therefore promote a hegemon 's interests by creating structures that stabilise world politics and encourage member states to adhere to the hegemon 's rules . < fnote > Scholte p231 < /fnote> Karns and , in and Snidal p29 < /fnote> Abbott and Snidal p30 < /fnote> Abbott and Snidal p30 < /fnote> Barnett < /fnote > The predominant threat that transnational actors pose to states thus resides in the proliferation of IOs . These bodies can fragilise the sovereignty of member states , or they may even pursue policies that favour state at the expense of other members . At present , IOs suffer from a scarcity of democratic accountability mechanisms : their leadership is not appointed through direct elections , they lack elected legislative bodies to balance the power of their executive components , they can not be tried in court , and they are not subject to the control of external formal policy evaluation devices . Yet , according to , the accountability of these ' global governance arrangements ' could be restored if civil society was to take an active role in regulating international organisations . In particular , NGOs can increase the transparency of operations , as was the case in when voluntary organisations in and forced the to publicly release the text of the secret Multilateral Agreement on Investment which it was debating . NGOs can also monitor global policies and seek redress in court for errors that are committed in these policies ' implementation . Civil society can also promote the creation of formal accountability mechanisms to control IOs , as was done with the formation of for . More recently , NGOs have also attempted to implement ' corporate social responsibility ' ( ) devices to ensure the accountability of TNCs . For example , is currently lobbying for the establishment of international , legally binding regulation of TNCs that would impose minimum human rights and environmental standards on these firms . With the necessary resources and networking , and with the support of progressive political attitudes and culture , "" civil society associations [ can ] offer significant possibilities to increase global regulatory arrangement "" - the threats posed to state sovereignty by transnational actors , and especially by IOs , may be reduced . < fnote > Scholte p212 < /fnote> Scholte p212 < /fnote> Scholte p220 < /fnote> Scholte p224 < /fnote> Christian Aid < /fnote> Scholte p231 < /fnote > If International Organisations can be monitored and controlled by other transnational actors , then , rather than endangering global stability , they may become "" an important supplement to the decentralised cooperation of the international system . "" Decentralised cooperation theory holds that IOs centralise the interests of different states through stable organisational structures which significantly enhance interstate cooperation . IOs provide institutions that increase the efficiency of collective activities by pooling the assets and activities of members . This enables burden sharing between nations and reduces the risks of individual states , solving coordination problems and facilitating the otherwise contentious production of collective goods . Moreover , ( ) stresses that IOs can play a crucial role in intergovernmental bargaining : international regimes reduce the transaction costs of negotiations , improve the flow of information between states , and make any violations of multilateral agreements more costly . In this way , far from being the most threatening of transnational actors for the established international system , IOs may instead foster its proper functioning and steadiness . < fnote > Abbott and Snidal p31 < /fnote> Abbott and Snidal p17 < /fnote> Abbott and Snidal p20 < /fnote > Yet , for many , the growing involvement of transnational actors in world politics is of little value if its only effect is to uphold the existing status quo . Rather , international relations theorists such as Snidal argue that "" often represent deliberate decisions by states to change their mutually consisted environments , and thus , themselves "" : IOs can and should become forces for positive change in the international system . way in which IOs can foster such reform is through their role as sources of information . According to , state interaction with IOs can lead to increased governmental transparency . Through their various activities , collect large amounts of information from member states ; as they release previously concealed and potentially disparaging information about a government to societal actors , the regime concerned may face a ' trust crisis ' from its citizens . In order to prove its credibility to a society , it will tend to adopt laws that increase transparency and free flow of information . Based on empirical evidence , finds that - led growth in external information does precede the advent of democratic transparency in many countries . In turn , this transparency enhances interstate cooperation and makes collective action more effective . A strong civil society can therefore have a beneficial impact on the workings of domestic and international politics . < fnote > Abbott and Snidal p25 < /fnote> Grigorescu p643 < /fnote> Grigorescu p665 < /fnote > The constructive role that IOs can play in improving interstate cooperation is best exemplified by the tasks currently ascribed to . Reports composed by enthusiasts circa maintain that the globalizing world order needs international organizations that can mitigate the negative side - effects of modernization and resolve interstate conflicts resulting from interdependence and collective burden - sharing . IOs are believed to build confidence and transparency between members , in particular through creating monitoring mechanisms that guarantee that states will respect their commitments to international agreements . Finally , rather than endangering the stability of states , such organizations may provide states with what Secretary - General expressed as a "" final confirmation of independence , nationhood , and sovereignty "" . International Organisations can therefore create a more peaceful international order capable of reforming the obsolete realism of the system without endangering the states that comprise it . < fnote > Barnett < /fnote > In , states have witnessed the appearance of a great number of transnational actors in the international relations arena . The growing influence of , and especially in world politics may have ground - shaking consequences for the structure of the international system . While these new actors may not altogether dethrone the statist world order , they are introducing a "" system of global governance . . . in which states will continue to be sovereign , but sovereignty will be much more conditional than before . "" In particular , a growing global civil society can hold states domestically accountable to their citizens , and international bodies such as can facilitate state cooperation and ensure that governments fulfil their commitments to the world community . The end of has indeed marked the emergence of a "" new world order "" - one in which the rise of transnational actors is of ever - increasing importance . < fnote > Kaldor p584 < /fnote >","< abstract> Summary The objective of this report is to design a cross - flow heat exchanger which gives optimum payback time . The design variables are height , depth , fan model , and fin type . The optimum design was found by analysis of fins and fans , followed by an iterative procedure . From the results the following conclusions can be drawn ; The lower power fans are more appropriate for this type of heat exchanger . The capital costs have a negative impact on the payback time , hence only the lower power fans are economically viable . The louvered fin design is much more efficient and effective that the plain fin design due to larger surface area and increased turbulence . The effectiveness increases with size of the heat exchanger . The best design was found be a heat exchanger of width m , height and depth m utilizing the louvered fins , with the 83GW fan . This design gave the optimum payback time of . < /abstract> Introduction Heat exchangers are commonly used to transfer heat from steam , water , or gases , to gases , or liquids . The purpose of this report is to optimise the design of a cross - flow heat exchanger in order to obtain the most desirable payback time . Heat exchangers play a dominant role in the performance of most energy systems ; however , optimization of these components is a complex task due to the coupled nature of the design parameters involved . Anytime the heat transfer coefficient is increased in these components , there is a corresponding increase in frictional pressure drop ; therefore , a delicate balance is required between these effects in heat exchanger optimization . The report shows that the best design was found be a heat exchanger of width m , height and depth m utilizing the louvered fins , with the 83GW fan . This design gave the optimum payback time of . < heading > Theory Formulae used in calculations and spreadsheet , taken from appendices - 6 . FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA < heading > Cross - flow Heat Exchanger
Design Procedure Chart
Fin Designs The fin designs focused on are the plain plate - fin and the louvered fin . plain plate - fin and louvered fin designs will be analysed . The dominant thermal resistance in compact heat exchangers occurs on the airside , and fins are used to reduce this thermal resistance and improve the heat exchanger overall performance . < picture/>Plain fins are sheet metal with corrugated fins at right angles to the sheet < picture/>Louvered fins are composed of several interrupted surfaces that interact with the boundary layer and generate complex air - flow patterns . The designs being analysed are illustrated in appendices . < heading > Fouling During the lifetime of a heat exchanger its performance will be influenced by what happens on the surface where the heat is exchanged . On the surface deposits of materials can accumulate that reduce the heat transfer and increase the pressure drop . This is referred to as fouling . A number of questions arise when one designs a heat exchanger : How much additional surface is needed to cater for fouling ? How much additional pressure drop can be expected due to fouling ? Are provisions needed for cleaning ( chemical or mechanical ) ? Is regular cleaning / inspection required Is it possible to reduce the buildup ? Which materials of construction are preferred ? Fouling can be caused by several mechanisms which in fact can happen at the same time ( combined ) . The most important basic mechanisms are : < list ( e.g. Mg- and Ca- bicarbonates ) Decomposition of organic products resulting in tar or cokes Polymerization and or oxidation Settlement of sludge , rust or dust particles Biological deposits Corrosion The tendency for fouling depends on many variables that influence each other and can be difficult to address with a theoretical model . Allowing for fouling is therefore a matter of experience . Due to a lack of experience in the field of heat exchanger design and time constraints , fouling will not be considered in the design process . < heading > The Problem The heat exchanger analysis will be based around the following problem ; The allowable pressure drop in the extract side of the heat exchanger is 300 Pa and the flow rate is 700m^3 / hr The heating season is to inclusive with a mean outside temperature of whilst the plant is in operation ( / day , ) The factory is heated by oil costing 22p / litre with S.G. and a calorific value of MJ / Kg . The heating system efficiency is . Electricity costs / kWh . Assume the pressure drop is the fresh air duct is the dynamic head . Assume equal flow rates and properties on both sides of the heat exchanger . Construction material is aluminium , conductivity W / mK , cost £ 1.65 / Kg . Overheads of apply to the aluminium used in the heat exchanger , fresh air duct and casing . A diagram of the problem can be seen in appendix . < heading > Assumptions In heat exchanger analysis important assumptions are made ; is constant through the heat exchanger . A reasonable assumption for the cross - flow design . U may be predicted from forced convection correlations . Prediction from theory and dimensional analysis can result in large uncertainties . Design is a collection of compromises ; < list > EffectivenessPressure dropTotal size and volumeCostReliability Analytical ' Forced ' Errors When calculating the pressure loss coefficients in the analysis of the fin designs graphs were available to extract data , these are shown in appendices . These graphs applied to triangular and square tube entrances , and several graphs did not fall perfectly under these categories . The most realistic approximation was made in each case , for example the louvered fin was taken as a triangular tube entrance . The tolerance levels for the fans are not specific and so an assumed error had to be used . Change in duct pressure was a realistic ' guess ' giving an unknown error on the total pressure drop . This error would influence fan choice , hence payback time . The louvered fins can not be analysed properly . Data for louver gap and spacing can not be utilised , and so the louvered fins were analysed in an identical way to the plain - plate fins . < heading > Apparatus Software used for spreadsheet and calculation - Excel Macro ' Solver ' used for iterative optimization procedure . < heading > Optimisation Technique The objective of this design exercise is to find the most cost - effective waste heat recovery system by minimising the payback time . Due to the many variables this will be an iterative process . The most important inputs are choice of fin and fan . The payback time for each fan will be analysed for each fin design . Optimisation Steps < list > Analyse fan data and remove inappropriate fansDesign spreadsheet implementing formulae from theory section to calculate payback time . Find optimum payback times when each fan is combined with the different fins Fan Analysis The fans shown in appendices can cope with varied levels of static pressure . In general , fan price will increase with level of static pressure , therefore a trade - off must be drawn between size of heat exchanger ( related to pressure drop ) and price of fan ( including running costs ) . In order to select an appropriate fan efficiently , and to draw comparisons between fans that can cope with a comparable amount of pressure , a table can be made to highlight the most important characteristics . < table/>Some fans from the data table in appendices are not shown here as they are not applicable to the volume flow ( ~410 Ft / Min ) . Due to likely inaccuracies in the graphs and data tables provided in appendices , and to leave some room for design inaccuracies and manufacturers tolerances , the static pressures are in increments of . Fans that can cope with these pressures comfortably are shown . It can be seen from fig that some of the fans can be removed for analysis purposes . The pole 76FW has a higher price and running current than its comparable model , and the pole is nearly twice the price of the pole 83GW . These models are highlighted . Therefore the possible fans to be used in the heat exchanger are ; < table/> Excel Formulation The equations shown in the theory section were used in the optimisation of the heat exchanger design . They were entered into a spreadsheet , using excels formula function . The spreadsheet automatically calculates various functions when a number of user inputs are applied . This enables a quick iterative procedure , and efficient constructive analysis . The formulation can be seen in appendices , which shows a trial run . The functions are grey and the user inputs are left black . The final output is the payback time of the heat exchanger . This is changed dramatically by changes to the inputs . In order to analyse every possible heat exchanger this spreadsheet is applied to the different fin types by inputting given values found in appendices . The fins are then analysed using each fan type shown in fig . The values for heat - transfer coefficient and friction factor are found by using the graphs in appendices . This means that every time the number changes so do these values . ' solver ' function is the most efficient and accurate iterative procedure , however due to the number of variables , some user input is required as well . Using fin ( see appendix ) as an example , the procedure for using solver is shown in the plastic wallet at back of appendix . The macro ' solver ' allows the user to apply various restraints and also optimises given variables around a target . Some restraints were dependant on the fan and so had to be altered for each optimisation . For example when using the 83GW 6Pole model the total pressure drop had to be restrained to < ( from fig ) . Restrained values were as follows ... < list>0.01m < < depth<2mReynolds number , dependant on , dependant on ( negative payback suggests the exchanger will never pay for itself) Variables are as follows ... < list > depthwidth Therefore solver will optimise the depth and height within the boundaries of the constraints to find the best payback time . < heading > Observations and Results See CD on inside cover < heading > Analysis and Discussion of Results Charts - Appendices 13 - 21 The charts in show the optimised payback times for the different fins . Where there is no value of payback time for a specific fan , the design never pays for itself , hence can not be optimised . There are no results when using plate fin ; this fin can not produce a reasonable design . At a glance it can be seen that when using the lower power fans a lower payback time is achieved . This is obvious from the ' best designs ' chart in appendix , where all but of the designs utilise the pole 83GW fan , which of all the fans analysed requires the lowest power . Also note that all the fans shown in appendix are fans . The capital and running costs of the lesser pole fans proved too high for this particular heat exchanger design . The power requirements and initial price of the larger fans are not realistic for the type of heat exchanger in question , however may be more reliable and so provide more long - term benefits . Due to the lack of information on this aspect , further analysis and discussion is impossible . The larger fans allow for a larger , more effective heat exchanger . This is visible in the data tables and illustrated in appendix . However this increase in effectiveness does not compensate for the capital , and costs of the larger fans . The larger heat exchangers also save more energy and oil , again clearly visible from the data tables ; however the difference is not comparable to the extra energy required to power the larger fan . When the best results from each fin design are compared , this is illustrated in appendix , it can be seen that the louvered fins provide the best payback times . The difference between the louvered and plain - fin designs is quite remarkable , although not unexpected . The louvered designs provided a larger surface area and also increase the turbulence of the passing air , giving greatly improved heat transfer . Detailed analysis of why louvered fins improve performance is given in appendix . Comparisons between louvered fins and various other fins are shown in appendix . The table shown clearly demonstrates that the louvered fin , although most expensive , is the most effective design . The graph reiterates this showing the louvered fin to have the best heat transfer per unit weight . The optimum design calculated from this analysis was a heat exchanger of width m , height and depth m utilizing the louvered fins , with the 83GW fan . It can be seen from the chart in appendix that this design gives a payback time of . < heading > Recommendations There are several areas in which the heat exchanger analysis could be improved and developed . Recommendations for further investigation are as follows ; More data on the fans is required . More accurate tolerances are required in order to obtain optimum analytical results . Multiple passes for the exchanger should be analysed . In perform this analysis further information is required on how much money an extra pass will cost etc . It is known that multiple passes increase the efficiency and payback time . Other fin designs should be researched and analysed , for example pin and wavy . Different heat exchanger designs should be analysed in order to gain a comparative view of how efficient the cross - flow design is in comparison with other standard designs such as the counter - flow exchanger . Several improvements can be made to the optimization technique . The relationship between heat transfer and number needs to be more accurate , also there could be more variables for example material used in construction . Finally if more information was provided on the fans , as stated above , the pressure tolerances could be more exact . The software used for analysis could be improved . A more powerful programming tool could be used for the optimization . The selected ' best designs ' should be manufactured and tests should be carried out to gain knowledge of how accurate the model is . Fouling factors should be taken into consideration upon advancement of the project . Catering for fouling would be done with the use of appropriate tabulations . < heading > Conclusions From the results the following conclusions can be drawn ; The lower power fans are more appropriate for this type of heat exchanger . The capital costs have a negative impact on the payback time , hence only the lower power fans are economically viable . The louvered fin design is much more efficient and effective that the plain fin design due to larger surface area and increased turbulence . The effectiveness increases with size of the heat exchanger . The best design was found be a heat exchanger of width m , height and depth m utilizing the louvered fins , with the 83GW fan . This design gave the optimum payback time of .",0 "< heading > Introduction This practical investigates the properties of several transition metal complexes . The complexes are synthesized , and then characterized by obtaining spectra , magnetic susceptibility data , melting points and physical observations . < heading > Safety Solvents Ethanol and are flammable . Diethyl ether in addition , forms a heavy vapour that is capable of covering large areas posing an extreme risk of fire and/or explosion . Under certain conditions , ethers can form highly unstable peroxides . For these reasons , the entire experiment will be free from sources of ignition . Due to the volatile nature of some of the compounds used , all chemical handling will be carried out in a fume cupboard . < heading > Corrosive and Toxic chemicals Nick(II ) nitrate hexahydrate , Nickel(II ) chloride hexahydrate , cobalt ( II ) chloride hexahydrate , sodium thiocyanate and triphenylphosphine are all toxic and so care must be taken when handling these substances . In addition , protective glasses and vinyl gloves will be worn at all times . Side reactions can produce unknown compounds , ie . , rearrangement of thiocynate to cyanide and so all products must be considered ' unknown ' and therefore highly toxic . < heading>2.3.1 Synthesis of CoCl(PPh3)3 Experimental procedure , account and observations Cobalt ( II ) chloride hexahydrate ( g ) was dissolved in ethanol ( ) in a 250mL 2 - necked , round bottle flask to form a purple - blue solution . Triphenylphosphine ( g ) was added , and the mixture stirred magnetically ( ) on an oil bath ( set to 35ºC ) . Always with a slow continuous flow of nitrogen into the flask . This was necessary to exclude oxygen which can oxidize the sensitive compounds produced . With time , a suspension formed which was a light soft shade of blue which was more opaque than the mother solution . Added dropwise was a clear ethanolic ( 10mL ) solution of sodium borohydride ( g ) . The temperature was maintained steadily ° C . After addition , the colour reintensified dark ( greenish petrol ) blue . After of continued warming , the solution was so intensely dark green is was nearly opaque . After , a heavy green - brown precipitate suspension formed which settled at the bottom of the flask . The product of fine olive - brown crystals was filtered under reduced pressure and washed with aliquots of ethanol ( 30mL ) , followed by of water ( 20mL ) and finally again with of ethanol ( ) . The product was then dried under vacuum in a desiccator for . < heading > Physical characteristics / Measurements FORMULA FORMULA < heading > Appearance The product when dry was a very powdery solid . It was dark(ish ) olive green in colour and matt in appearance . < heading > Magnetic susceptibility FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA < heading>2.3.2 Synthesis of NiCl2(PPh3)2 Experimental procedure , account and observations Nickel ( II ) chloride hexahydrate ( g ) was dissolved in ethanol ( ) with triphenylphosphine ( g of white flakes ) in a round bottomed flask . The cobalt compound did not dissolve completely upon initial mixing and formed a vivid lime green solution . The solution was set to reflux on an oil bath to ca . ( bp . ethanol , ) for 30minutes . After of boiling , the colour was very dark green and very fine dark green crystals where apparent , stuck to the glass where the solution was boiling . Subsequently of solvent was distilled off ( at 80ºC with the oil bath set to ) and discarded . The oil bath contained very dark dirty oil which obscured much observation . Upon standing , the mixture settled into a dark olive green solution with intensely green / black precipitate at the bottom . With further standing the solution clarified to a very transparent olive green solution as more precipitate settled . This solution was filtered using a sintered glass disc under reduced pressure and dried on the disc to reveal an effectively black , microcrystalline solid of very fine particulates which glimmered as light caught it . < heading>2.3.2 Physical characteristics / Measurements FORMULA FORMULA < heading > Appearance The product when dry was a microcrystalline solid which glimmered in the light . It was dark olive green / nearly black in colour . < heading > Magnetic susceptibility FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA < heading>2.3.3 Synthesis of Ni(NCS)2(PPh3)2 Experimental procedure , account and observations Part : Nickel ( II ) nitrate hexahydrate ( g ) was dissolved in ethanol ( 16mL ) with no need to heat with swirling to form a lime green solution . To this solution sodium thiocyanate ( g ) was added and then refluxed for at After the not all thiocyanate had dissolved but the solution had turned a blue(ish ) green . The reaction vessel was cooled in an ice bath for giving time for sodium nitrate to crystallise out . The blue(ish ) green solution was filtered under vacuum leaving an off - white crystal filtrate ( coloured green / blue with residual nickel solution ) . Part : Triphenylphosphine ( g ) was dissolved in propan-2 - ol ( 25mL ) in a flask and heated under reflux at ( 93ºC ) to give a clear solution . The blue(ish ) green solution from part was mildly reheated , even still though evaporation did occur and where it did , a intensely ( off ) yellow residue formed on the sides of the vessel . This solution was trickled down the reflux apparatus into the clear propanolic triphenylphospine , as one dripped into the other , an intensely deep red ( brown ) solution instantly formed . Once all nickel thiocyanate had been added and the mixture was allowed to reflux for some time , a deep red / brown dark orange suspension formed . Upon standing the red suspension settled leaving a clear liquid . This was filtered under reduced pressure . When dry , the product was very powdery , having the consistency of eye makeup . < heading>2.3.2 Physical characteristics / Measurements FORMULA FORMULA < heading > Appearance The product was a cochineal powder , red / orange with pink over tones and a slight sparkle was apparent when light caught its surface . Very much resembling eye makeup in appearance ( and description : no pun intended ) . Even though it was entirely dry , it did not look so ; it appeared to have lubricative properties as a stirring rod was pushed through it . < heading > Magnetic susceptibility FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA < heading > Discussion a. < /heading > done . < heading > b. Calculation of the Magnetic Moment FORMULA FORMULA < table/>The measurements for the Cobalt(I ) complex suggest the species is paramagnetic . Cobalt ( I ) has the valence configuration of 13d 7 , which if the coordination geometry of the complex was square planar , would give rise to no unpaired electron ( with a d config ) . See d planar energy level figure below . If however , the geometry was tetrahedral there would be unpaired electrons . The result of calculation suggests the number of unpaired electrons is definitely greater than none , and so we can say that the coordination geometry is definitely not square planar . sounds very unlikely . My thought on the matter is that due to operative and instrumental error , the readings are significantly higher than the actual value . The paramagnetic nature observed for the d Dichloro bis - triphenylphosphine Nickel ( II ) complex can be rationalised by considering that complexes of tetrahedral geometry , owing to the degeneracy of the t orbitals , have unpaired electrons ( this is also true once distortion is considered ) . Experimental data suggests unpaired electrons , which agrees with a tetrahedral geometry ( see the figure below ) . The magnetic dipole ( ) is strikingly close to the literary value taken from , ( ) . < figure/>
The magnetic susceptibility data suggests the bis - triphenylphosphine complex has no unpaired electrons . I believe it is reasonable to round this value down taking into account experimental errors . Meaning this complex has no unpaired electrons . Thus , this complex is square planar . It 's diamagnetic nature is a corollary of it 's d configuration ( see figure ) . Through application of , it can be predicted that d planar complexes are diamagnetic due electron pairing in the low energy orbitals , with no unpaired electrons being promoted to the b g orbital ( due to the b g 's enormous destabilisation ) . < figure/>This is supported by the work of , which gives the complex geometry of bis - triphenylphosphine as trans - square planar , and the geometry of bis - triphenylphosphine as tetrahedral . < enote > Taken from , . Page . < /enote> c. < /heading > Discussion of the factors which determine whether a d complex of a row transition element will adopt a tetrahedral or square planar geometry . There are main factors which determine whether a complex adopts a tetrahedral of square planar geometry . , there are the steric factors - it is easier to adopt a tetrahedral configuration if the ligands are large bulky groups , this can be rationalised by considering the bond angles with regards to steric strain . For a tetrahedron the bond angles are 109º , whereas for the square planar there is an angle of Being closer together , the ligands cause steric repulsion between one another . Related to this is the size of central metal ion . A small metal ion causes ligands to be drawn closer to each other , again causing steric clash and for the same reasons , predisposes the geometry towards the tetrahedral configuration . Thus , small ligands and a large central metal ion favour more strongly the square planar configuration . there are electronic factors . Due to the orientation of the ligands in a tetrahedral crystal field , the d orbital splitting is as such that for a d configuration , electrons would be forced to occupy the high energy e orbital set ( pair ) , whereas for a square planar configuration , all orbital pairs ( a g and e g ) which lay below the barycentre are occupied and of the higher energy orbitals , the b g set . The b g orbital , which is massively destabilised , hence having hugely increased energy would remain empty . When considering the energy of all the split d - orbitals , it is most favourable to adopt the square planar configuration . For this reason also , it is always more favourable to pair up electrons in the d xy orbital set rather than put an unpaired electron into the b g set - thus d planar complexes are always diamagnetic . < heading > d. < /heading > Analysis of the infrared spectrum of thiocyanato complex . The thiocyanate ion can bond to the metal centre at either end of the ligand . The propensity of the ligand to bond at end or the other depends primarily , although not solely , on the ' hardness ' of the metal ion . ' Hard ' metals ( those that are small and highly charged , ie . , Class A metals - the row transition elements ) bond preferentially with the nitrogen end - ' soft ' metals ( class B - the heavier transition elements ) bond with the sulphur terminus . Thus I would expect the bonding to be via the nitrogen terminus . < fnote > S. Ahrland , , and , . Rev. , , ( ) < /fnote > The carbon - nitrogen triple bond present in cyanates , isocyanates and thiocyanates typically causes a strong adsorption band between cm -1 , which is a wider band than for the triple bond present in nitriles and cyanides . This band is responsible for the carbon - nitrogen stretch vibration , which are observed generally at lower wavenumbers in complexes bonded to the terminus ( ≤ cm -1 ) than those bonded at the S terminus ( closer to -1 ) . In addition , there is a peak at - 760 cm -1 ( for N bonded ) or at - 690 cm -1 ( for S bonded ) ; however , these peaks can quite easily be obscured by other resonants and so are not always useful for structure elucidation . Finally , it has been suggested that and M - S bond vibration can be used to determine the type of bonding , however this wavenumber is very sensitive to the overall structure of the complex and so it not a usual method employed for analysis . < fnote > , . Soc . , , < /fnote>
I draw conflicting conclusions from the spectrum . I would expect a nitrogen associated complex due to the hard nature of the metal ion , however the analysis of spectrum implies both types of bonding . There is more spectral evidence of sulphur associated to the metal ; it is also possible that one ligand is nitrogen associated and the other thiocyanate is sulphur associated . On grounds of the spectrum alone , I would have to say that the complex was sulphur associated . < heading > e. < /heading > With application of group theory to the modes of vibration of the cis and trans isomers of the planar 2L 2 complex , it should be possible to spectrometrically distinguish between the . < figure/>From the molecular representations , it can be found that the cis - isomer belongs to the D point group , whilst the trans - isomer belongs to the C point group . Using the reduction formula we find that the vibrations of the cis - isomer are 2A 1 and 2B 1 , of which all are active . However , for the case of the trans - isomer the vibrations are g , B and B 3u , out of which , there are that are active ( the 2A 1 g are symmetrically degenerate and are thus not active ) . Using the simple harmonic oscillator approximation , the energies of the vibrations can be predicted - the M - N bond stretch vibrations are expected to be of higher energy and hence higher wavenumber , since the mass of is lower than that of Phosphorous . Hence , for trans- C 2v isomer we expect to observe distinct peaks for the stretch vibrations whereas for the cis- D 2h isomer we expect to see .","Molecular modelling is an aspect of chemistry made possible through the use of IT . IT opens the field of computational chemistry , which very quickly has become the main stay of many chemists across the world . Certain computer software not only allows for the design of complex chemicals but also the manipulation in - dimensions and several energy optimisation routines to be applied . For this aspect of the course , the software package will be made use of , running on ' Indy ' workstations which operate Unix . The SGI Indy line of computers where introduced as ' cheap ' Unix workstations capable of and some 3D application . They have video cards which update the screen very quickly and so the machines seem to run fast and smoothly . Unix has many security features which makes it the operating system of choice for many professional and academic applications . This makes them ideal for computational chemistry uses . Computational chemistry applications utilise many empirical and semi - empirical routines designed for the ' realisation ' of entered chemical structures . The routines allow for the calculation of steric energies , optimisation of structures , measurement of bond angles , lengths and degrees of torsion , calculation of charge distribution , intermolecular interactions ( hydrogen bonding , van der Waals interactions , electrostatic energies ) and many other processes which relate to structure . The rendering aspects of the visual environment allow for the investigation of all conceivable conformations of molecules , provided along side calculation for the energies of each conformation . This allows you to find heats of formation and steric energies for chemical models which can give the user a feel for the stability of their designed model . For this course , I created , manipulated , measured and optimised several organic molecules including caffeine , E / Z - dichloroethene , - dichloroethane , isoflupredon ( a corticosteroid ) and syn / anti - dimethyldecalin . Through the application I also designed a complexing agent for removing Ni 2 + from a mixture containing also . < figure/> Theory of Molecular Mechanics Molecular modelling is based on statistical semi - empirical methods . This means that the information was partly derived from experimental evidence and partly from theory . Bond angles and lengths are obtained experimentally , and related to electronic configurations . Data concerning the elements is collected and filed in a database which the chemical software can access in real time when performing the calculations . The calculation of minimum energy is achieved through a combination of optimising the bond angles and bond lengths by adjusting the coordinates of the atoms step - wise to obtain a conformation known to be stable . After each spatial adjustment , many calculations are performed to obtain the energy of the state , and the energy compared to the previous step to see if an improvement was made . Calculations performed involve the interaction between atoms and electrons , bond energies , torsions and strains , van der Waals and coulombic potentials . The variables provided to the maths engine are taken from the database and are specific to the identity of the atoms in question . A potential drawback of this method , is that the results of the maths engine can only be as accurate as the variables provided to it ( taken experimentally ) and the calculations are limited to the parameters provided . The calculation of the steric energy is involves several energetic contributions , FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA The constants involved in the calculation , k s , k a , k t , B , A , l 0 , , n , s , A and B are the empirical constants derived from experimentation , stored in the database . < heading : The energy of geometric isomers Cerius 2 provides an intuitive environment for the investigation of molecules . Upon start - up the user is presented with a main view window ' model window ' , a text port and a controls window . The chemical drawing and rendering takes place in the model window , in which chemical structures can be designed and the views are rendered and the models manipulated . Atoms and bonds can be created by selecting the appropriate tasks from the controls window , and messages reported back to the user form the environment are displayed in the text port . To begin with I created a molecule of cis - dichloroethene . This I achieved by drawing a line of carbon atoms with the draw atom function and then changing the identify of the terminal atoms to with the change atom function . All the functions are easily accessible from the control box , and a built in guide is provided to give assistance whilst using the features of the application . < figure/>With the atoms drawn , the molecule must have attached to it hydrogen to complete the valence of each atom . This is done quickly using the "" Correct for Hydrogen "" function . With the hydrogen added , the charge distribution must be calculated and is done so by selecting Charge from the ' OFF SETUP ' menu in the control window . This assigned a charge distribution to the molecule and allows for calculations involving the electrostatic interactions . With the polarities established ( which can be viewed by selecting the atoms and changing the labels to "" charge "" ) , the molecule is ready to have it 's energy minimised . This routine is a semi - empirical method which involves the calculation of the total steric energy as contributed to by bond angles , bond torsions , bond lengths , non - bonded van der Waals interactions and electrostatic interactions . This procedure uses the results from many observed phenomena modelled using empirical parameters relating to the actual geometry of the molecule , to shuffle the molecule into the lowest energy , most stable structure . This must be carried out with the model view set to ' stick ' because if set to a - dimensional view , the operation can cause system instability due to the large CPU overhead of rendering the model . Using the ' minimise energy ' procedure , Cerius reports that the trans ( E ) isomer of the - dichloroethene is the lower energy conformation . Also provided in the text port messages are the individual contributions to the molecular energy : for - dichlorethene , it is reported that for the trans isomer of the total energy is contributed by electrostatic interactions , whereas for the higher energy , less stable conformation , the cis isomer has contributed it 's total energy from electrostatic interactions . It is the ability of the chemical modelling software to give a breakdown of the total energy which makes it so powerful . < figure/>From the molecular mechanics summation it is obvious why the trans- isomer is more stable : with the bulky chlorine atoms on opposite ends and opposite sides of the molecule , the electrostatic repulsions are minimised . When the chlorine atoms are brought closer together , as in the case of the cis- isomer , the total energy rises because the electrostatic repulsion increases and becomes a more significant contribution . < table/> For this task I built a molecule of ethane . The species exists in conformations , the staggered and the eclipsed forms . < figure/>If the molecule where to have it 's energy minimised , irrelevant of the prior conformation , the procedure will always result in the staggered conformation . This is because the eclipsed form always has a steric clash between the syn- hydrogen atoms , and so electrostatic contribution forces the lower energy less repulsive form . < table/>95 % of the total energy is contributed by electrostatic terms . Next , I built - dichloroethane . < figure/>This has groups of conformers , the staggered and the eclipsed . The eclipsed forms however experience a steric clash between the syn- chlorine atoms which raises the steric energy so high that the conformation is never observed . The staggered conformation are shown below . The conformers are of the same energy , since the structure is the same but the chlorine atom is displaced in the other direction . The conformer has the chlorine atoms anti - periplanar which results in the least electrostatic repulsion and so is the minimum energy conformer . < table/>The different conformations are afforded by changing the torsion angle Cl - C - C - Cl from the menu . This is a much easier way to build the different conformation as the alternative involves manually rotating about the carbon - carbon bond . < heading : Boat and Chair conformation of cyclohexane A potential draw - back of the molecular mechanics energy minimisation energy procedure is that the energy is decreased step - wise by ' jiggling ' the atoms by adjusting their coordinates to result in the lower energy term conformation . This continues until the difference between consecutive steps is less than 0.2kCal / mol . This means that if the molecule must go through a high energy transitional conformation to reach the global energy minimum , the minimise energy procedure will fail - or at least , only result in the lowest energy conformation this side of the transitional state . For this task , I built a molecule of cyclohexane which exists as a pair of conformations , the chair and the boat conformers . With the pair of conformers built , and their energies minimised , it was reported that the chair form is the lowest energy . The difference in energies arises from the C - C - C - C torsion angle along the plane . < table/>The chair form is the most stable because the structure is closer to the ' perfect ' tetrahedron and nearly diamond like in terms of torsion angles . Each vertex approaches the perfect tetrahedral angle . < heading : Isoflupredon Isoflupredon is a corticosteroid , which has a close relative used in vetinary medicine to alleviate the symptoms of respiratory blockages in horses . < figure/>The chemical is chirally sensitive for it to be pharmacologically active , the stereochemistry must be rigorously adhered . I found Cerius 2 quite slow when rendering this molecule . Also , method of drawing atoms I found frustrating at times as I connected the wrong atoms together . Stereochemistry was fairly easy to ensure since the view allowed the molecule to be rotated round to view from alternative planes . < heading : Substituted bicyclic analogues of cyclohexane - dimethyldecalin Decalin is bicyclo[4.4.0]decane , with the and positions being the bridging atoms . In the exact same fashion as cyclohexane , decalin can have different conformations . The homocycles can adopt either the boat or the chair conformation , where the bridging atoms held in the axial plane . Naturally , since the chair - cyclohexane is more stable , the chair - chair will be lower in energy than the chair - boat . < figure/>With the and positions methylated , the compound adopts isomeric forms , the syn- form and the anti- form . The syn- form has the methyl groups in a plane with the bridging atoms , and the anti- form has a methyl - bridge - bridge - methyl torsion angle of . < table/>
Task 6 : Ligand Design One of the most exciting features of is the real - scale modelling of molecules . This becomes especially important when designing ligands which specifically bind certain metal but not others . Such is the case , for a ligand designed to chelate Nickel(II ) but not Copper(I ) . The specificity is brought about by the minimum energy conformations of the complex geometries . Copper(I ) forms complexes with a planar tetrahedral geometry , whereas Nickel(II ) forms stable complexes with an octahedral environment . The molecular modelling software enables us to design ligands , with atoms and bond lengths chosen specifically to match the geometry of the Nickel(II ) ion . The software has access to a database containing all the significant data regarding the species used in the simulation so that when a models energy is minimised , the specific radii and geometric preferences of the Nickel(II ) can be taken into account . A such , very specific cage ligands ( cryptands et al ) can be developed with absolute specificity towards species over another . The molecule I designed to chelate Nickel(II ) preferentially over Copper(I ) is a hexadentate cyclic amine . donor atoms lie in a heterocycle which associate with the Nickel(II ) in a plane with each other . The remaining donor atoms extend from the ring system to claw round , above and below the ion . This forces the octahedral geometry required , and the ring was designed such that the bond lengths are optimal for an energetically favourable association with Nickel(II ) . < figure/>This molecule is systematically known as , - tetraazacyclotetradecane , or less verbosely , ' A certain kind of ' , since it worked very nicely . < figure/> Task 7 : Further Specificity of Model Design Utilising the same principles employed to design the ligand for task , more specific molecular models can be designed with affinities for certain species . The challenge was to design chemical system which has a high affinity for the Phosphate ( V ) ion . My approach to the problem was to design a rigid "" empty bowl "" with partially charged sites to which the oxygen atoms in the phosphate ( V ) ion can associate . The bowl must be large enough to accommodate the entire phosphate molecule , and so the inner diameter must be the sum of largest dimension of the phosphate ion . That is , FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA < figure/>The phosphate ion is a distorted tetrahedron . vertex of the tetrahedron is doubly bonded and so the is slightly shorter than expected . This causes the remaining vertices to have reduced torsion angles . The largest dimension is thus the hypotenuse between the shorter vertex and of the longer vertices . FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA The average carbon - carbon bond is long , at the tetrahedral angle of 109.5º. So the average length of a C - C - C chain unit is < figure/>I did not complete the task . I found Cerius unbearably slow when dealing with very large molecules such as the one I had in mind , which hindered my efforts ( the workstation may have needed a reboot )",1 "< abstract> Abstract: Formation of the vertebrate limb requires specification of cell position along axes : the proximal - distal axis , the antero - posterior axis and the dorso - ventral axis . These axes are governed by signalling centres : the apical ectodermal ridge and the progress zone for the proximal distal elements , the polarizing activity region for the antero - posterior axis and the overlying ectoderm that determines the dorso - ventral axis . These signalling centres emanate proteins which cross - talk linking the formation of each axis to each other . of intensive studies has identified some signals that pattern the different axes . The apical ectodermal ridge releases Fibroblast growth fators ( Fgfs ) in particular Fgf- 4 and Fgf-8 which mimic it if removed . Fgf-8 is also involved in the formation of the fore and hind limb formation as it forms a feedback loop with Fgf-10 mediated by , which is induced by Tbx 5 and 4 via and respectively . The polarizing activity region releases ( ) , a limb morphogen , which is induced by Gli3 a protein implicated in human cephalopolysyndactyly syndrome , which forms a feedback loop ( mediated by , , a antagonist and of course ) with Fgf-8 and Fgf-4 . is also induced by , a transcription factor , and in the forelimb by Hoxb8 . However , dorso - ventral patterning is very different as it does not rely on a gradient of expression but more on an system . , another member of the family , is restricted to the dorsal region by and induces the expression of Lmx1 without β - catenin dependent activity to specify the dorsal fate . It is also required for maintenance of and thus Fgf signalling . < /abstract> Introduction:""What can be more curious than the hand of a man , formed for grasping , that a mole for digging , the leg of a horse , the paddle of the porpoise , and the wing of the bat should all be constructed on the same pattern and should include similar bones , and in the same relative positions ? "" Darwin(1859). This quote from highlights the intrigue that is the making of the vertebrate limb and how it has been conserved in evolution and between the different vertebrates . This is an extremely complex organ , which is not necessary for embryonic survival ( therefore makes it a fantastic candidate for studying how structures develop in the right places in the embryo ) , is initiated when the vertebrate body plan is being mapped out and finished when the precise array of organised cells and tissues have been generated . The question the developmental biologists seek to answer is : how is the vertebrate limb made ? Limb patterning is established along dimensions : the proximal - distal axis which consists in the replacement of the initial cartilage by bone and accompanied by the rises of the stylopod ( humerus / femur ) , zeugopod ( radius , ulna/ tibia and fibula ) and autopod ( carpal fingers / ankle and toes ) . The axis is the anterior - posterior axis ( thumb to little finger ) and finally the one is the dorsal - ventral axis ( knuckles / palm respectively ) . Figure represents a schematic diagram of these axes and a recapitulatory of all the terms and their definitions used in this review can be viewed in the end table . < picture/>In order to analyse the making of a vertebrate limb , the different pattern of development must be discussed . < heading > I ) Generation of the proximal - distal axis in the vertebrate limb A ) Apical ectodermal function and ( FGF ) roles The proximal - distal axis is patterned through an organizing centre known as the apical ectodermal ridge ( ) . This self - perpetuating structure forms at the boundary between the dorsal and ventral ectoderm ( , ) . It becomes visible as a continuous epithelial layer protruding from the distal tip of the limb bud . This structure can be viewed in figure . < picture/>AER formation involves steps . Precursors are induced ; they then spread over a large area of ectoderm . Following their migration , they are concentrated at the dorso - ventral junction of the limb bud and this defines the compaction step ( see section III ) ( , ; , ) . Following experiments in which the entire ridge was removed and resulted in the cessation of outgrowth and a truncated limb , it was concluded that this organization centre is critical for the developing limb and each step mentioned is mediated by key signal which will be discussed later ( Mahmood et al . , ; et al . , ; , ) . Subadjacent to it is a region of mesenchyme ( see end table for definition ) which contains undifferentiated progenitors of the limb skeletal elements and called the progress zone . models have been proposed to explain the specification of proximal - distal elements : the progress zone model and the early specification model . A comparison of the models is shown in figure . Another region of mesenchyme caudal and proximal to the progress zone is the polarizing region which is the source of polarizing activity . This zone was defined following experiments which resulted in mirror image digit duplications ( see figure for a representation of these interacting regions ) . < figure/>AER function is specified by the fibroblast growth factors ( Fgfs ) . It is a gene family containing known members that encode heparin - binding proteins which most of them are secreted constitutively . They are essential for the induction of the mesoderm , vascularization and maintenance of the ridge . These genes were identified to encode the outgrowth signals as beads soaked in Fgf could substitute for the apical ectodermal ridge and sustain limb bud outgrowth ( et al . , ; , ; Mahmood et al . , ) . protein members seem to be more involved than the others : Fgf-4 and Fgf-8 . Although these proteins have the same overall effect , their signal transduction pathway differs greatly . Fgf-8 , previously identified as androgen - induced growth factor , is believed to be the most divergent member of the family since its amino acid sequence shows the least similarity than the others . It therefore probably regulates developmental processes not previously associated with et al . , ) . Fgf-8 is expressed in all germ layers and in neuromeric boundary regions of the brain ( Mahmood et al . , ) . Its expression in those regions suggests that it might affect morphogenetic movements or cell adhesive processes that help to establish the initial number of cell in the early limb bud and the also play a role in spatial organization ( Mahmood et al . , ; , ) . Interestingly , the use of whole - mount in situ hybridization , has detected Fgf-8 in nephrogenic mesoderm cells adjacent to the duct prior to their differentiation , suggesting that its expression is linked to embryonic kidney development and has very important role in tubulogenesis ( Crossley et al . , ) . However , the most striking role of Fgf-8 is in its involvement in derived mitogenic activity that regulates limb bud outgrowth ( see section B ) . This was stated due to its presence in the ectoderm of limb bud prior to the onset of limb bud growth in both mouse and chicken embryos . However , it is not sufficient to induce a limb ; it probably acts in conjunction with other determinants such as retinoic acid or other genes . It is also involved in the compaction step of the ridge formation ( , ) . This protein signals through , which belongs to the fibroblast growth factor receptor family . This is a group of transmembrane proteins with intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity ( et al . , ) . They all share common features ( they are listed in table along with their role ) and all have the same signalling pathway . See figure for a schematic representation . < figure/>But the most important domain is the immunoglobulin ( Ig ) like domain . Deletion of this domain or inactivation using a recombinase uncouples the interaction between Fgf-8 and Fgf-10 ( which defines the reciprocal regulation loop ) resulting in limbless embryos ( . , ) . It is therefore critical for Fgf binding and for normal Fgfr2 activity . Figure represents a schematic diagram of this interaction . < picture/>A characteristic that differentiates Fgf-4 from Fgf-8 is the receptor it binds to . Fgf-4 binds to , which is expressed in mesenchyme . Fgf-4 is efficiently secreted from cells and along with Fgf-9 and is expressed in the posterior part of the ridge ( et al . , ; , ) . Fgf-4 can also substitute for the ridge but although the limb develops completely , there are a few digit abnormalities . This suggests that Fgf-4 does not perform the mechanical function of the ridge ( et al . , ) . Fgf-4 and Fgf-8 do show redundancy as Fgf-4 also maintains expression ( See section II ) . This property is also shared with Fgf-9 and . Nonetheless , this redundancy is partial as in Fgf-4 conditional mutants , the limb forms normally showing that Fgf-4 is not essential for limb induction ( , ) . Another feature in which Fgf-8 differs from Fgf-4 is that the latter is critical for the progress zone cell proliferation ( et al . , ) . < table/>There are hypotheses that relate Fgf signalling to the proximal - distal patterning : according to the progress zone model , Fgf signalling could be related to a developmental clock based on oscillations , as cells leave the progress zone , they leave Fgf influence . Another hypothesis is that there is continuous interaction between the mesenchyme and the throughout limb but outgrowth , leading to increasing levels of Fgf production and that these levels specify the proximo - distal fate . And finally , a possible explanation that specifies a role of in the et al model is that form a gradient , by diffusing from the ridge , which specifies position along the proximal - distal axis ( , ) . Once the have performed their role , they are down - regulated , mesenchyme proliferation ceases and the apical ectodermal ridge regresses , returning to a flattened epithelium ( , ) . < heading > B ) The formation of the limb bud and the identification of the hind and forelimbs . < /heading > Limb bud induction occurs progressively and at different stages in different tetrapods . It begins when mesenchyme cells proliferate from the somatic layer of the limb field lateral plate mesoderm and from the somites . These cells to accumulate under the ectodermal tissue to create a circular bulge : the limb bud ( Gilbert , ) . Limb induction engages distinct gene families : the growth factor family , the family and the Tbx family . From the Fgf family , actors impose themselves : Fgf-10 and Ffg-8 as seen above . Fgf-10 protein has various roles , and is not only limited to limb bud induction : it 's a brain regulator and it is required for lung formation ( Sekine et al . , ) . The latter was suggested due following Fgf-10 deficient mice that were generated using embryonic stem cells in which a targeting vector construct had replaced Fgf-10 exon . The resulting mice died shortly after birth : they were fore and hind limbness as the limb bud had been initiated but did not outgrowth and displayed pulmonary branching morphogenesis disruption ( Sekine et al . , ) . Like stated above , it has to interact with Fgf-8 in order to induce a limb . Recent work has however updated the reciprocal regulation loop . members have now emerged as to mediate the interaction between Fgf-8 and Fgf-10 as Fgfs do not diffuse very far and when a Fgf-8 soaked bead is implanted in the flank , it takes to induce expression in the surface ectoderm in the lateral plate mesoderm contrasting with the rapid activation of other limb genes in response to Fgf beads . The mediator is Wnt-2b , a member of the family , showed by whole - mount in situ hybridization of embryos to be expressed ( and restricted ) in the chick wing region ( forelimb ) and to act upstream of Fgf-10 in the lateral plate mesoderm during limb initiation ( et al . , ) . The mediator detected by a similar experiment is which is expressed in the leg ( hind limb ) and acts as a regulator of expression in the lateral plate mesoderm of the hind limb region ( et al . , ) . And finally , the rd mediator appears to be implicated in the reciprocal regulation loop . These intermediate factors all have activities that are β - catenin dependent : when β - catenin is blocked in both the fore and hind limbs forming regions ( using axin , a negative regulator of the Wnt pathway , which was over expressed using an adenoviral vector ) limb development is impaired ( and , ; et al . , ) . The family that is critical for fore and hind limb development is the Tbx family . This family of gene encodes T - box transcription factors with the T - box domain binding DNA as a dimer ( et al . , ; et al . , ) . members are specifically expressed in the hind and fore limb buds : Tbx 5 and Tbx4 . These appear to be the most upstream factors in limb initiation . This is supported by lines of evidence : mice carrying a null mutation in and Tbx4 ( using the recombinase ) failed to express Fgf10 in the fore limb and hind limb respectively ( Takeuchi et al . , ; Rallis et al . , ) , Tbx5 mutation in human causes syndrome ( a dominant disorder characterised by upper limb defects and heart abnormalities ) , and misexpression experiments using retroviral vector to produce and dominant - negative forms resulted in failure of wing and leg to form respectively ( Takeuchi et al . , ) . Recent work has also shown that there is a regulatory loop between and Tbx for both limb initiation and the wing / leg identity specification ( Takeuchi et al . , ) . Figure shows the expanded model of this reciprocal loop . < figure/> II ) The establishment of the anterior - posterior axis A ) Front line Normal antero - posterior patterning in the limb depends on the zone of polarizing activity . This crucial signalling centre releases a number of signals ( , ) . The identified signal , using whole - mount in situ hybridization is hedgehog ( ) protein , which has the main attribute of the limb morphogen in that it acts by forming a gradient across the early bud and is diffusible ( , ; Riddle et al . , ) . Degenerate polymerase chain reaction primers corresponding to a sequence highly conserved between drosophila ( produced by a set of cells in the posterior of each segment ) and mouse desert ) was used to amplify and screen an amplified cDNA library . This resulted in the isolation of a kb cDNA clone whose gene was name ) . Its attribute as a morphogen arises from graft experiments in which small blocks of limb tissue were grafted to the anterior of host limb buds and the strength of the activity was quantified according to the degrees of digit duplication to determine the extent of correlation between the spatial and temporal pattern of ZPA activity and expression ( Riddle et al . , ) . The outcome of this experiment was that signalling is pivotal in controlling both digit number and identity ( , ) . Further evidence support this statement as application of expressing cells or recombinant protein to the anterior of the chick limb bud causes mirror - image digit duplications of the type : - 3 - 3 - 4 and 4 - 3 - 2 - 2 - 3 - 4 ( , ; Riddle et al . , ) . Figure shows these mirror- image duplications . < picture/>The patterning effects of Shh signalling require Gli3 ( Gene implicated in human cephalopolysyndactyly syndrome ) ( Litingtung et al . , ; , ) . Gli3-/- embryos display polydactyly ( which has been attributed to ectopic expression in the early stage mesoderm of the anterior limb bud ) and surprisingly Gli3-/- Shh-/- double mutants also have numerous digits with a normal stylopod and zeugopod . This suggests that the default state of the limb is to form many digits and that those 2 genes and their transcripts repress the polydactylous capacity of the autopod . In other words , and are required for digit identity , not the formation of the limb ; and the type of digit that develops in a particular position depends on the signalling strength ( Lintingtung et al . , ; , ; , ) . < picture/>The Gli3 processed form acts as a repressor ( ) and the unprocessed form acts as an activator . The relative ratio of : is crucial in signalling ( , ; Litingtung et al . , ) . Defects in Shh signalling can be seen in talpid2 and talpid3 mutant which express high Gli3A : Gli3R levels across the anterior / posterior axis supporting the model described above ( , ; Litintung et al . , ) . Upstream of Shh lie Hoxb8 and dHAND.Hoxb8 , member of the gene family , plays an important role in specifying the antero - posterior axis ( Gilbert , ; et al . , ) . It appears to be induced by acid ( Retinal is oxidised to retinoic acid by retinaldehyde ) as embryos treated with disulphiram ( which inhibits synthesis ) showed severe Hoxb8 down - regulation ( et al . , ) within particular regions of the forelimb mesoderm and is not detected in the hind limb . Conclusion , Hoxb8 only induces in the anterior forelimb . Interestingly , grafting and removal experiments showed that is inhibited by the established zone of polarizing activity and by the anterior ( figure ) . < picture/>However , signalling affects downstream targets as well . < heading > B ) Downstream of Shh The vertebrate limb bud organizer patterns the anterior - posterior axis by generating differences through extracellular antagonism signalling ( Zuñiga et al . , ) . As stated , there is a feedback loop between the region and the in which Fgf-4 and form the reciprocal regulation loop with Shh normally maintaining Fgf-4 expression which in turns maintains expression in the posterior mesenchyme ( , ) . There are main mediators of this feedback loop : Formin ( Fmn ) , ( ) and Bone morphogenetic proteins ( Bmp ) . was discovered as a downstream target of sonic hedgehog as in Shh mutants , there are no Fmn transcripts in the limb bud and in ld ( limb deformity ) mutant mice , the gene encoding Fmn is disrupted as well as the maintenance of the ridge and the feedback loop . Furthermore , anterior grafts of expressing cells induce ectopic expression in distal limb bud mesenchyme ( Zuñiga et al . , , et al . , ) . Downstream of Formin there is , a member of the / Cerberus gene family and an extracellular antagonist absolutely required in limb patterning ( Khokha et al . , ) . This was demonstrated by producing a null allele at the locus by replacing the open reading frame which lies in the exon with an in - frame fusion of LacZ to the sequence encoding the residues of . Homozygous displayed a very obvious disturbed skeletal phenotype and died within of birth , Fgf-4 and Fgf-8 expression were reduced ( they lacked kidneys , and as discussed , Fgf-8 is linked to embryonic kidney ) . This supports the model in which is sufficient to induce the Fgf - Shh feedback loop ( Zuñiga et al . , , et al . , ) . Figure is a model representing this regulation loop . However , there is an alternative pathway which involves the same protagonists , except for , ( and is therefore termed the - independent pathway ) , with the instigator being an unknown posterior activity ( Zuñiga et al . , ; , ) . < figure/>This feedback loop shows that the making of a vertebrate limb involves cross - talking between the different axes . In contrast with the molecular mechanisms involved in the establishment of the other axes , the formation of the dorso - ventral dimension appears to be straightforward . < heading > III ) The mechanism of - ventral axis patterning Studies of the molecular control of the dorso - ventral patterning has so far identified central characters . , a member of the family is expressed in the dorsal ectoderm , suggesting that it may play a role ( and , ; Riddle et al . , ) . Indeed , loss of function in mice , using gene targeting , results in the transformation of dorsal limb structures into ventral fates ( and , ; Riddle et al . , ) . These are particularly distinguishable in distal limb structures . In addition , ectopic expression of in ventral ectoderm leads to the acquisition of dorsal properties by the ventral mesoderm ( Riddle et al . , ) . Figure shows some of these penetrant phenotypes . < picture/>Wnt7a induces the expression of Lmx1 and is sufficient to maintain its expression in disto - dorsal mesenchymal cells . This is supported by the fact that expression of coincides with expression of Lmx1 . Lmx1 is a member of the homeobox gene family which encodes protein with a pain of cysteine - histidine rich domains and a homedomain ( Riddle et al . , ) . The presence or absence of their respective proteins appears to depict the organization of the limb into dorsal and ventral domains . In other words , the default state of the limb mesenchyme is ventral and and Lmx1 signalling result in the emergence of a dorsal pattern ( Riddle et al . , ) . It follows that and Lmx1 signalling is not restricted to the dorso - ventral pattern . Indeed , the removal of the dorsal ectoderm or the loss of by gene targeting causes a reduction or loss of expression . Moreover , loss of posterior skeletal elements and Fgf-4 expression in Wnt7a-/- limbs supports the view that is also required in conjunction with to maintain expression and thus A - P establishment ( , ; and , ; Riddle et al . , ) . produced by these experimental manipulations can be seen in figure . < picture/>Although a Wnt protein , is not involved in formation and does not have a β - catenin dependent activity ( et al . , ) . Misexpression of an activated mutant form of β - catenin limb buds stimulated the effect of Wnt3a but not of . Furthermore , this resulted in ectopic expression of Fgf-8 and other markers such as Fgf-4 and Bmp-2 but not Lmx1 , the target ( et al . , ) . < figure/>What signal specifies the dorso - ventral border ? It has yet to be identified but the dorso - ventral boundary can be clearly seen due to the presence of the apical ectodermal ridge ( et al . , ) . A gene called fringe ( R - fng ) in the chick ( it also homologous to fng gene ) appears to direct formation and positioning of the ridge ( et al . , ) . It is expressed at the dorsal limb ectoderm and then at the dorso - ventral boundary to finally be expressed in the . < heading > Conclusion: The last ten years of research into this field has given insight into how all axes are mutually linked to allow co - ordinated growth and patterning of the limb . Several aspects remain in the dark such as the fact that Gli3 activity is not required for expression of the genes downstream of , however these genes are not sufficient to generate posterior digit identity ( posterior pattern is not generated in the Gli3-/- limbs despite intact levels of signalling as shown by expression of genes downstream of ) . It is possible that another family member fulfils this role or a different transcription factor . Another enigma is what are the downstream targets that translate the signals from the organizing centres into skeletal pattern ? And the greatest question is why some of the molecules involved have been conserved between vertebrates and invertebrates whereas others have been changed within a specific developmental program ? < table/ >","< abstract> Abstract: Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can give rise to specialized cells . There are different types of stem cells , but those that are thoroughly studied at the present time are pluripotent stem cells . These cells in theory can give rise to any cells in the body . There are kinds of pluripotent stem cells : embryonal carcinoma stem cells which are derived from teratocarcinomas and primordial germ cells , embryonic germ cells derived from primordial germ cell as well and embryonic stem cell derived from the inner cell mass cells and the primitive ectoderm . Each of those cells exhibit markers that define their state as undifferentiated and they also require growth factors . This leads to one of their properties : self - renewal . When kept in their niches , these stem cells can divide symmetrically giving rise to identical daughter cells which in turn will give rise to identical daughter cells each . Pluripotent stem cells also possess other properties , they can undergo differentiation ( which is correlated with their exit from their niche , secreted factors and a clock mechanism ) and they are capable of plasticity . These cells are of great importance as they can be used in cell - based therapies to treat diseases and injuries but their use also raises many concerns , morally and ethically . Stem cells may be the answer to a new medical generation and era . The analysis of their origin , properties and medical potential are therefore primordial . < /abstract> Introduction: The aim of researchers has always been to find a way of treating diseases caused by damaged or non - functional cells . In of investigation , a new class of cells has been discovered : stem cells . Stem cells are a special kind of cells that are unique . They are undifferentiated cells , which under certain conditions are capable of self - renewal and maintenance and are also capable of differentiating into specialized tissue - forming cells ( The official national institutes of health resource for stem cell research ; and Gearhart , ) . Some cells will only give rise to particular cell type , others will give rise to many . And it is this characteristic that has differentiated them from each other . Many stem cells have now been discovered : adult stem cells , embryonic stem cells , pluripotent stem cells and many more . But scientists have focused on pluripotent stem cells . These cells possess the ability to give rise to every cell type and tissues in the animal body and are derived from embryonic tissues ( Musina et al , ) . The investigation of biologists have been based on question : what is the origin , properties and medical potential of these particular cells ? To understand why researchers have focused on them , a full understanding of these cells is primordial and their origin , properties and medical potential must be reviewed individually and concisely . < heading > I ) The origin of pluripotent stem cells Three types of pluripotent stem cells have been isolated and studied : embryonal carcinoma ( ) stem cells , embryonic stem ( ) cells derived from pre - implantation embryos and embryonic germ cells derived from primordial germ cells ( PGCs ) of the post - implantation embryo . < heading > A ) Embryonal carcinoma stem cells Embryonal carcinoma stem cells have been investigated for ( since ) and they were , in fact , the pluripotent stem cells to be identified ( and Gearhart , ; , et al , ) . These are stem cells derived from tumours know as teratocarcinomas ( see figure ) . < picture/>Teratocarcinomas , also called testicular teratomas , are highly bizarre gonadal tumours containing a wide array of tissues which are derivatives of the primary germ layers ( endoderm , ectoderm and mesoderm ) . However , other studies have suggested that cells are also derived from primordial germ cells ( PGCs ) ( Donovan and de Miguel , ) . This was noted by who described "" vesicles like structures that resemble embryonic ectoderm , mesoderm and endoderm "" that had differentiated after rupturing the seminiferous tubules and entering the interstitial space in mice developing teratocarcinomas ( Donovan and de Miguel , ) . The primordial germ cells are diploid germ cell precursors that transiently exist in the embryo before entering into close association with the somatic cells of the gonad and specialize into haploid gametes ( URL ) . The from which cells are derived in this case are termed nullipotent . This is because when tested in of development potency , they can not give rise to any other cell types . The question researchers have been trying to resolve is how these nullipotent primordial germ cells actually give rise to cells . Genetic approaches have determined several germ sell tumour loci in both mice ( located on chromosome and chromosome ) , humans ( located on chromosome ) and the markers they express such as the - domain transcription factor ( common to the types of pluripotent stem cells ) , the tissues non - specific alkaline phosphatase ( ) ( Donovan and de Miguel , ) . Somehow , the conversion of into cells remains to be clarified and understood . It is believed to be linked in some way with their deregulated proliferation . The study of embryonal carcinoma cells and their derivation from also lead to the discovery and analysis of embryonic germ cells derived from . < heading > B ) Embryonic germ cells derived from PGCs of the post - implantation embryo . < /heading germ ( ) cells were discovered in and like the cells , they are derived from a nullipotent and are capable of forming the germ layers that make all the specific organs of the body ( see figure ) ( and Gearhart , ) . < picture/>EG cells formation is believed to be related in some way to mitotic status . This is based on facts : PGCs isolated from young embryos make cells readily , loss of the tumour suppressor increases proliferation and cell formation competence and isolated from the embryonic gonad will in the presence of serum and certain growth factors ( such as or ligand , leukaemia inhibitory factor also know as and basic fibroblast growth factor designated bFGF ) will grow into cells ( Donovan and de Miguel , ) . bFGF is believed to be the key to the conversion of into embryonic germ cells ( demonstrated by the addition of and alone , which did not cause the conversion ) , along with the Oct4 POU domain transcription factor , the transcription activator , the HMG - box protein SOX2 , the forkhead transcriptional regulator and finally , the recently described protein ( Donovan and de Miguel , ) . The exact role of these factors remains unclear , as does the genetic pathway which declenches the proliferation and differentiation of the nullipotent , however it is believed to be similar to nuclear reprogramming . < heading > C ) Embryonic stem ( ) cells derived from pre - implantation embryos . < /heading > In contrast with the other types of stem cells reviewed above , embryonic stem cells are derived by the culture of the pluripotent inner cell mass ( ) cells of the pre - implantation embryo ( Wert and Mummery , ; and Gearhart , ) . The inner cell mass is the lineage of the early embryo that is located inside the blastocyst and that gives rise to all cell types of the adult body ( and , ) . As a result , they are often mistaken as to be the equivalent of cells . Figure shows where the embryonic stem cells have originated . < picture/>They are said to be totipotent . However , the isolation of the primitive ectoderm also called epiblast or embryonic ectoderm , ( the remaining ICM tissue formed during the differentiation event of embryonic development ) , from the mouse readily produces cell lines compared to isolated ( Zwaka , and ) . In addition to this , cell lines can be derived from single , isolated , mouse primitive ectodermal cells , which is impossible with cells ( and , ) . These experiments suggested that embryonic stem cells can also originate from the primitive ectoderm , but only a minority of those cells will undergo the full transition . Biologists have been trying to determine what triggers the proliferation and differentiation of the inner cell mass cells and primitive ectodermal cells into embryonic stem cells . The classical markers such as alkaline phosphatase isozymes and some cell surface markers including GCCM-2 , TRA-1 - 60 , SSEA-4 and SSE-3 are currently been studied . The cell surface markers display an epitope which is recognised by highly specific antibodies ( , et al , 2000 ) . Their exact physiological role in the conversion of the precursor cells remains in the dark , but scientists have been able to elucidate the roles of : Oct 4 which appears to maintain the totipotency of the cells derived from the inner cell mass cells , and or fibroblast growth factor which indicates that embryonic stem cells obtained are derived from the primitive ectodermal cell population ( , et al , ; and , ) . different pluripotent cells and different origins , however they are linked to one another somehow ( see figure ) and share many properties . < figure/> II ) Properties of stem cells As mentioned above , of the fundamental properties of stem cells is that they are unspecialized . However they are capable of dividing and renewing themselves ( for short and long periods ) and can give rise to specialized cells . < heading > A ) Division and self - maintenance Unlike the other "" ordinary "" cells , stem cells may replicate many times , over and over again . This process is defined as proliferation . During proliferation , they will divide asymmetrically , or symmetrically ( , and , ) . In asymmetric division , a stem cell gives rise to stem daughter and daughter that undergoes differentiation ( this applies to unicellular organism and invertebrates ) , or a stem cell gives rise to daughter cells that have a limited probability of being either stem cells or allocated progenitors ( this applies to most mammalian tissues ) ( , and , ) . However , pluripotent stem cells divide symmetrically ( in culture ) and give rise to daughter cells ( and Gearhart , ) . These cells are exact copies of another . When symmetrical division goes on for a certain period of time , the cells are said to show long - term self renewal . Figure shows the process of self renewal . < figure/>The state of long - term self - renewal is controlled by extrinsic and intrinsic factors ( , and , ) . It is believed that the intrinsic factors make up the stem cell niche . A niche is defined as the combination of the cellular microenvironment and extra - cellular matrix that serves as a "" shelter "" for an indefinitely long period of time ( , et al , ) . It produces various factors promoting the survival of the stem cells and the maintenance of their undifferentiated state . The specific factors and conditions of this niche are of great interest to researchers ; but , unfortunately , few factors are known for pluripotent stem cells . These factors are believed to be secreted factors and they are the same factors associated with the cells that have just been derived from their precursors ( , , bFGF , , SSEA3 ) ( and Gearhart , ) . This discovery ( which took of trial and error ) allowed pluripotent stem cells to be expanded in culture before any induction of differentiation . For example , human cells rely on embryonic fibroblast feeders to maintain their undifferentiated phenotype ( , et al , 2004 ) . It is also believed that the self - renewal process requires cell to cell contact mediated by integral membrane proteins ( e.g. the receptor and its ligand ) and integrins adhering to the extra cellular matrix ( they keep the stem cells in their niche and can directly activate growth factor receptors ) ( , and , ) . However , these last concepts have only been demonstrated in stem cells other than the pluripotent . Figure shows a schematic diagram of the differentiation process . < figure/>The exit from their niche ( in vivo ) or the removal of those factors ( in vitro ) is correlated to the transition to irreversible differentiation ( , et al , ) . < heading > B ) Differentiation It is not known whether it is the exit from their niche that sets off the differentiation or whether it is the spontaneous differentiation that causes the exit . This relationship has been investigated in laboratories , primarily using mice and by testing with independent assays ( carried out by Gearhart and ): in vitro differentiation in a dish , differentiation into teratomas when placed in histocompatible mice and finally , in vivo differentiation when introduced in the blastocoel cavity of a pre - implantation embryo ( and Gearhart , ) . These experiments have shown that all the pluripotent stem cells can differentiate in vitro and give rise to specialized cells , which represent the primary germ layers in the embryo . During their differentiation , a decreased level of the markers and increased level of new markers were noticeable ( , et al , 2004 ) . It is also believed that the differentiation is dependant on chemicals secreted by other cells . For example , cultures of stem cells exposed to retinoic acid or HMBA lose their cell surface markers SSEA3 , , and TRA-1 - 60 and simultaneously acquire a variety of new antigens ( , et al , ) . The stem cells are also believed to emit internal signals controlled by specific genes which are interspersed across the DNA strands . These genes still remain to be determined . Another factor that is believed to play a role is a clock mechanism . It is believed that intracellular clocks control changes in the level of cell cycle promoters or inhibitors and the length of the telomere . Telomerase activity is very low in humans and its progressive shortening could act as a mitotic clock counting off the divisions until a particular number has been reached . Once this number has been reached , differentiation can be initiated ( , and , ) . However , recent published studies have launched a debate and divided scientist into to groups . These studies suggest that stem cells can give rise to the cells of given tissue which in turn differentiate into cells of other unrelated tissues ( , et al , ) . This ability is called plasticity and the process described is termed transdifferentiation or transdetermination . Not all stem cells have shown this capacity and scientist have come to the conclusion that these stem cells show plasticity in the case of transplantation , organ or tissue injury ( and Hogan , ) . In the case of transplant , these cells may undergo transdifferentiation when established in a new and suitable stem cell niche . This property is intensively being analysed in the hematopoietic stem cells but are assumed to be a feature of pluripotent stem cells . These amazing assets could lead to the treatment of devastating diseases . < heading > III ) Medical potentials and ethical issues < /heading> A ) Medical applications < /heading > The properties of stem cells open a new window to researchers in their quest against diseases and injuries . Stem cells have been discovered to have many medical applications . They can be use dot understand the causes of early pregnancy loss , toxic effects of new drugs on early embryonic cells ( which are more sensitive than adult cells ) but their most important use is their transplant to treat diseases and injuries ( Wert and Mummery , ) . Examples of those are neurodegenerative disorders ( Alzheimer 's disease , Parkinson 's disease ) , spinal cord injury , liver cell damage , hematopoeitic diseases ( leukemias and lymphomas ) , stroke and arthritis ( , ; Wert and Mummery , ; , et al , ) . Many experiments with mice have demonstrated success in mice : neuronal cells derived from human cells after treatment with retinoic acid have improved motor and cognitive deficits in rats with stroke . Most of the diseases ( with the exception of stroke and blood diseases ) are the targets of embryonic stem cells . Embryonic stem cells appear to be very prospective in regenerative medicine ( , ; Wert and Mummery , ; , et al , ) . The use of embryonic stem cells must be both safe and effective . key safety issues have been considered : derived cells must be histocompatible with every individual to avoid the problem of tissue rejection during transplantation due to the polymorphism of human populations ; derived cells and transplanted cells must not form tumours in the host ; and pluripotent stem cells derived from embryos and culture on feeders layers containing serum must be infectious agents free ( and Gearhart , ) . The key issue can be followed be using methods : therapeutic cloning and genetic modification . Therapeutic cloning also known as somatic cell nuclear transfer ( SCNT ) involves the nucleus from an adult , mature donor cell to be introduced into the cytoplasm of an enucleated oocyte to create a cloned embryo ( Hochedlinger and Jaenisch , ; and , ) . Stem cells derived will be derived from that embryo and are genetically similar to the cells of the donor . It is therefore less likely that the proteins produced will be recognized as foreign and trigger an immune response in the host ( and , ( ) . Figure shows the different steps of this method . < picture/>Genetic modification involves homologous recombination of existing stem lines to create a compatible stem cell to the patient . However , these techniques are very difficult ( SCNT requires many attempts since most embryo created by SCNT are malformed and die in utero and the length of time between reprogramming and the start of zygotic transcription must be considered ( and , ; , ) . The key issue has been raised by the ability of , , and cells to form tumours in histocompatible organisms . It has therefore been suggested to use differentiated cells rather than non - differentiated stem cells for transplantation . Research is therefore required on how to deliver cells to the appropriate site in the patient , to ensure they survive , to integrate in the host tissues and adopt appropriate function ( Wert and Mummery ; and Gearhart , ) . The key safety issue requires development in human stem cells in defined , serum - free medium with purified recombinant growth factors and on defined extracellular matrix ( and Gearhart , ) . These methods also require sources of human cells . There are various sources at the moment ( e.g. spare embryos ) but what happens when these sources are depleted ? Should embryos be created just for cloning purposes ? When does life begin ? What are the regulations around the use of cells ? All these questions show another aspect of the stem cells which are the ethical issues arising . < heading > B ) Policy and ethics The questions that are currently being debated are : when does life begin and is it justified to create embryos for cloning purposes ? The beginning of life can be defined as the moment of conception but this relies on an assumption about the value of a potential life ( and , ) . The argument scientists are giving is that at , the blastocyst has no central nervous system ; therefore it has no feelings whatsoever ( and , ) . Several commissions ( advisory commission , the national academy of sciences advisory committee ) have been exploring the ethical issues surrounding this matter . They have to consider perspectives : a fetalist perspective and a feminist perspective ( Wert and Mummery , ) . These perspectives underlie the same problem : the use of a potential life and women purely as instruments with no benefit at all for them . But can this be justified , in the case of the depletion of the current sources of embryos , they could treat many diseases that are fatal and save lives . However , the commissions are concerned that if the creation of embryos is permitted ( which would mean destroying an organism that has the potential to develop into a human being ) , then it may open doors to more destructive acts ( and , ) . To date , the use of stem cell derived from created embryos as well as embryos stored frozen in clinics is forbidden by of the convention on human rights and biomedicine ( Wert and Mummery , ; and , ) . Nevertheless , the ban of the derivation of stem cell from embryos through governmental sponsorship ( public law 107 - 78 , section ) has lead to the research being sponsored through private and corporate funding ( Gearhart , ) . < heading > Conclusion: Stem cells , especially pluripotent stem cells are of great interest in the research field . These cells although very different from one another and derived from different origins are connected by their amazing properties and medical potential . Table 1 summarizes the different and important aspects reviewed . < table/>The importance and great potential of pluripotent stem cells has been recognized amongst the different communities ( scientific , clergy , governmental ) but have also raised concerns about their sources and use . If the creation of embryos for the derivation of pluripotent stem cells is reconsidered and allowed , what criteria will be used for cell - based therapies ? Could the use of embryo be just allowed for therapeutic cloning ? Adult stem cells might be the answer as there are less ethical issues surrounding them . But biologists are still trying to find ways to grow them in cell culture and manipulate them to generate specific cell types .",1 "< abstract > This essay will explore the rule against bias ; nemo judex in causa sua in the context of the given scenario . Therefore an analysis of this rule of natural justice that ' no man may be a judge in his own cause ' will be conducted in light of the main facts in this problem . A brief definition and explanation of the rule against bias will be formulated ; in order to lay out a foundation in which this rule can be applied to the different facts of this case . These facts will be scrutinised from every aspect to provide a balanced analysis . Furthermore relevant cases and statutes such as ) will be referred to in this essay . This particular case is concerned with advising Gareth on the law of bias as a ground for judicial review and as such only procedural impropriety will be analysed and not the merits of the case . < /abstract> The Rule of Bias Tested Against : < /heading> a ) George The rule against bias is an aspect of natural justice that is ultimately concerned with fairness . , and described the rule against bias as "" not only to prevent the distorting influence of actual bias , but also to protect the integrity of the decision - making process by ensuring that ... the circumstances should not give rise to the appearance or risk of bias . "" This highlights the importance of not only preventing real bias but also any appearance of bias . in this instance consists of George and ; both lay members and , the chairperson of the tribunal . It emerges that is married to 's cousin , but has never met and did not know of this relationship . The question is whether this leads to bias or an appearance of bias . Prior to the Pinochet ( ) case bias was predicated on the basis of pecuniary or proprietary interest which leads to automatic disqualification . does not seem to have any pecuniary or proprietary interest in this case according to the facts laid out . There is no indication of pecuniary or proprietary interests . However the landmark decision in ( ) implies that "" a similar , automatic disqualification would arise wherever a judge has a strong personal interest in the case before him . "" It seems that does not have a strong personal interest in 's case as he had no knowledge of such a relationship as between him and Gareth . But it has been held that "" justice should not only be done , but should manifestly and undoubtedly be seen to be done . "" The fact that George did not know about such a relationship does not negate the possibility of bias . Therefore according to this pronouncement would be a bias party as justice should be seen to be done . The correct test to be used was pronounced by Lord Hope in Porter v Magill ( ) that states , "" The question is whether the fair - minded and informed observer , having considered the facts , would conclude that there was a real possibility that the tribunal was biased . "" According to this test a fair - minded and informed observer would most likely conclude that was not bias even though there is a family connection . This is because the family relationship was not known by and so it can not be said that he made a judgment based on such knowledge . There was not even a chance for to have been unconsciously affected by bias as there had not been any explicit nor implicit information . It also emerges that is a member of the same golf club as George and Gareth . It is safe to infer that George and Gareth have never met at the golf club since never knew of his family connection with Gareth and had never previously met . So the legal analysis regarding the risk of bias by remains intact . < fnote > See De Smith , , , ( ed . ) , , , p.521 < /fnote> R. v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrates ex p. Pinochet [ ] 1 AC 119 < /fnote> The Late Phillips , , , , O. Hood Phillips & Jackson : Constitutional and Administrative Law , ( ed . ) , , , p.707 < /fnote> R v. Justices , ex p. [ ] 1 K.B. 256 , per Lord Hewart C.J. < /fnote> See R v. Gough [ ] A.C. 646 , per Lord Goff , "" ... bias is an insidious thing that even though a person may in good faith believe that he was acting impartially , his mind may unconsciously be affected by bias , ' < /fnote> b ) Fiona is both the chairperson of the tribunal and a lawyer in a firm of consultants that advises construction companies on health and safety issues . of these companies is that was a party to the proceedings in the tribunal . It is not certain whether personally and actively participated in consulting the latter company ; whether it was on this particular issue regarding Gareth 's negligence in health and safety issues . Assuming that did personally consult the company in the proceedings and subsequently sat as the tribunal 's chair without disclosing her close involvement with of the party to the proceedings ; it would be fair to say that the decision of the tribunal would be bias . This is due to the important fact that 's dual and intermingling functions could give rise to bias or the appearance of it . This is highlighted in the Pinochet case where Lord was automatically disqualified after disclosure that he was closely linked to , a party to the proceedings . Such is the importance of maintaining public confidence that there should not even be the appearance of bias . The formulation of bias in v. ( ) was subsequently adopted in v. Northern Spirit ( ) where it was held that "" there was a real possibility that a lay member might be sub - consciously biased due to the fairly close relationship of trust and confidence which would have been developed with the judge who was now appearing before them rather than sitting with them . "" Thus is likely to be sub - consciously biased against Gareth and favouring as she had been previously involved in consulting the latter on health and safety issues concerning 's negligence . This is concerned with ' forming a concluding view in advance . ' < fnote > Lawal v. [ ] UKHL 35 < /fnote> Parpworth , , Constitutional and Administrative Law , ( ed . ) , , , p. . < /fnote> See Leyland , , Gordon , Textbook on Administrative Law , ( ed . ) , , 2005 , p. , "" If it is evident that the decision - making body has made up its mind in advance of the hearing , this will naturally give rise to serious doubts about the validity of the hearing process since any such procedure would be considered to be unfair . "" < /fnote > But what if was not actively involved in consultation concerning the current issue and had no knowledge regarding 's case ? Then according to the test pronounced in Re Medicaments and Related Classes of Goods ( No.2 ) ( ) and then adopted in both v. ( ) and v. ( ) , bias will have to be considered through the viewpoint of the fair - minded and informed observer . Then it would seem that there was no real possibility that the tribunal was biased because had neither knowledge nor prior association with the current case . However the rule against bias as explained is also to protect the integrity of the decision - making process and to prevent any appearance of bias . There is a slight appearance of bias in this instance because of 's relationship with through the firm of consultants she works at . Therefore this may be sufficient to justify an appearance of bias . < fnote > Re Medicaments and Related Classes of Goods ( No.2 ) [ ] 1 W.L.R. 700 < /fnote> c ) Geoffrey Refer to URL for further information about the different trade unions in . < /fnote> Locabail ( ) Ltd. [ ] 1 All E.R. 65 . < /fnote > However another complication arises regarding 's wife ( B ) , a close friend of Gareth 's aunt ( C ) ; who she meets regularly at a health club owned by 's trade union . Is this an instance concerning personal friendship ? The facts do not highlight any friendship between B and Gareth . If we were to assume that B knew about Gareth 's unfair dismissal case through C , would this make a difference ? The answer would be yes . B may be persuaded by C to influence 's judgment in the case , whether overtly or covertly . This is reinforced by the fact that B and C are close friends who organise social events for all their neighbours . It would certainly be a disadvantage for B to have an altercation with C regarding Gareth 's case ; especially since an argument would lead to a possible fall in popularity for But what if C has a personal animosity towards ? This is also a case of bias although this is bias against rather than towards Gareth . From case law it does not seem to be crucial in ascertaining whether a decision - maker was biased against or towards an individual . It is sufficient that there is some sort of bias or appearance of it . Furthermore using the test of bias formulated in v. ( ) ; "" the fair - minded and informed observer , having considered the facts would [ certainly ] conclude that there was a real possibility that the tribunal was biased . "" It does of course matter as to whether B really did influence but it is also of importance to prevent the appearance of bias . This is in line with Lord pronouncement in R v. Justices , ex p. ( ) . The fact that B is a member of a health club owned by 's trade union must also be considered in the light of the rule against bias . It seems rather strained to say that B 's membership at the health club owned by 's trade union would lead to a possibility of bias with regards to ; especially since himself does not seem to be a member of the health club . Furthermore according to ( U.K ) Ltd. v. ( ) membership of such a club would not give rise to allegations of bias . < fnote > Op.cit . Note . < /fnote> In the Context of ) ECHR : < /heading > The rule against bias has to be analysed in light of ) of the as it concerns an ' independent and impartial tribunal ' . This means that a tribunal has to follow the rules of natural justice ; ' nemo judex in causa sua ' and also ' audi alteram partem ' in order to provide a fair trial . Gareth can potentially invoke ) in where the "" concept of impartiality is tested both subjectively - was there in fact bias?-and objectively - were there guarantees in place to exclude any legitimate doubt as to the impartiality of the tribunal ? "" The test seems to be similar to that of the common law rule against bias especially since Lord Hope stated in v. ( ) that the newly modified test of bias now "" represents in clear and simple language a test which is in harmony with the objective test which the court applies when it is considering whether the circumstance give rise to reasonable apprehension of bias . "" So it seems unlikely that Gareth will succeed considering that the test of bias is now in line with the interpretation of ) . < fnote ) ECHR- "" In the determination of his civil rights and obligations or of any criminal charge against him , everyone is entitled to a fair and public hearing within a reasonable time by an independent and impartial tribunal established by law ... "" < /fnote> Sir , , , Administrative Law , ( ed . ) , , , p.453 . < /fnote > Furthermore the requirement of "" guarantees in place "" implies recourse to a higher court or tribunal . It is clearly highlighted in the case that Gareth unsuccessfully appealed to ( ) , which is in this case a higher tribunal . Therefore even if there was bias in the instance ; the fact that Gareth had a right of recourse to would imply that he is not likely to succeed in judicial review . There has been no apparent evidence that the also consisted of tribunal members that were bias or appeared to be . It is not known whether the were made up of the same tribunal members as in ) . However it is unlikely that the was of the same composition as the ET since the is normally presided over by a High Court Judge and either or different lay persons . But if indeed the consisted of the same individuals from the ET then there would "" normally be a breach of natural justice where an adjudicator takes part in the determination of an appeal against of his own decision , unless he is expressly authorised to do so by statute . "" This is not a case in which the decision - maker has been expressly authorised by statute to further adjudicate in an appeal . Therefore there is a real possibility of bias when applying the test expounded in ( ) . If however the were to conduct a full and fair trial ; then it would be irrelevant if there had been a failure of natural justice in the instance . This was held to be the case in v. ( ) . Thus Gareth would fail to establish the law on bias as a ground for judicial review as he had a full and fair hearing in the appeal stage . < fnote > De Smith , , , ( ed . ) , , , p.530 < /fnote> Calvin v. [ ] A.C. 574 . < /fnote> Right of Waiver : < /heading > Another important aspect of the rule against bias is the right of waiver ; "" the act of abandoning or refraining from asserting a legal right . "" If Gareth had known of the facts that entitled him to object but continued to allow the proceedings to continue without any protest , then he would be held to have waived his legal right to object . As such he would not be allowed to protest later based on the decision - maker being bias . It does not seem apparent that Gareth had known the essential facts and so "" there is no presumption of waiver if the disqualified adjudicator failed to make a complete disclosure of his interest . "" Therefore Gareth does not seem to have waived his right to object in this case and can thus apply for judicial review . < fnote > Editor : , , A Dictionary of Law , ( ed . ) , , , p.532 . < /fnote> De Smith , , , ( ed . ) , , , p.542 . < /fnote > Gareth 's case for judicial review based on the rule against bias seems rather bleak considering that he has already appealed to the ; satisfying ) that "" guarantees [ were ] in place "" . This would of course be a different matter if it could be shown that the were themselves bias . Furthermore there is no conclusive evidence that was actively involved in consulting and so unlikely be biased . 's family connection with Gareth seems tenuous at best especially since has never met and thus would not be sub - consciously or consciously biased . The facts show that George and have never met although all of them are members of the same golf club . Thus there is no real possibility of bias notwithstanding membership of the same association . This equally applies to 's and 's possible membership of the same trade union . Lastly the close friendship between B and C may give rise to a possibility of bias as the former could influence her husband , . All these facts however will not assist Gareth since he had a full and fair appeal trial . Hence it is very likely that Gareth will be unsuccessful in judicial review .","Promoting competition is ultimately the most important responsibility delegated to competition authorities . But how exactly is this achieved ? Competition authorities are equipped with tools to combat anti - competitive practices and behaviour ; of these tools is the powers of enforcement . For the purpose of this essay the powers of enforcement are to encompass many different aspects such as the powers of investigation , powers to impose penalties and powers to order the termination of infringements . However competition authorities can not apply competition law effectively if the law itself is not bolstered by strict and precise enforcement powers . Therefore this essay will seek to explore how enforcement powers held by the national competition authority , ( OFT ) , have developed since the implementation of , Regulation / and Enterprise Act . In addition an analysis of the interrelationship between enforcement powers and Regulation / will be conducted . Competition law will be an effective mechanism to promote competition if it is backed by stringent powers of enforcement , and provided that competition authorities are confident enough to use them . < heading : < /heading > According to the 's website its enforcement role is to "" uproot and deter all forms of anti - competitive behaviour , including cartels and the abuse of market power . "" This has certainly been made easier with the implementation of Regulation / as the competition rules , namely and 82 can now be directly enforced by the . However much of the 's current enforcement powers are derived from which reflect those provisions embodied in the competition rules . This is in addition to newer and more extensive powers of enforcement acquired through and Regulation / . These provisions have not only served to strengthen the enforcement powers and role of the in ; they have brought it more into line with those powers held by . < fnote > URL ( Accessed ) . < /fnote>(a ) Competition Act 1998 < /heading > Indeed commentator has stated that "" the primary purpose of the [ 1998 ] Act may not be to fine - tune the substantive rules of competition law but to provide effective means of taking action against those breaches of competition law which have in the past escaped enforcement action because of a lack of evidence and enforcement powers available to the competition authorities . "" Thus it is clear that the quest to equip the OFT with more effective and extensive enforcement powers in the sphere of competition law had begun as far back as . of the main enforcement powers established through was the power to enter business premises without or under a warrant . This is of course a considerable achievement in the 's position of investigating any potential breaches of competition law since it now possesses a more effective enforcement power . These new powers , as explained by , have also been acknowledged "" in the case [ where ] the noted that the Act has endowed ' the [ OFT ] , in the public interest , with wide ranging and draconian powers ... "" But the enforcement problem still remains , albeit in a different form , if the is reluctant to exercise its new powers no matter how stringent they may be . Indeed the now holds increased powers of enforcement in its role as the national competition authority ; it has been strengthened by the fact that "" the tripartite scheme is effectively extinct [ and ] [ t]he Secretary of has no real enforcement role under ... "" Thus the eventual depoliticisation of the enforcement framework not only provides the OFT with greater enforcement powers . But establishes a sense of transparency and certainty in its realisation . However as aforementioned the question that should be then posed is whether the is capable of enforcing its extensive and valuable enforcement powers ? < fnote > Rodger , and , Angus , eds . , ( ) , The UK Competition Act : A for UK Competition Law , : , p. . < /fnote> Ss.27 - 28 , Competition Act in , , ed . , ( ) , 's Statutes : , ed . , ; : , pp.10 - 11 . < /fnote> Middleton , , , and , Angus , ( ) , , : , p.20 . < /fnote> Enterprise Act 2002 Op.cit . note . < /fnote> Ibid . pp.196 - 197 . < /fnote> U.S Department of Justice , . ( online ) URL : URL ( Accessed 8th ) . < /fnote> Watts , , ( ) , Is the consumer watchdog barking up the wrong tree ? The Telegraph , p.7 . ( Accessed 8th ) . < /fnote> Agreements between , Argos Ltd and fixing the price of toys and games ( ) Case CP/0480 - 01 ( online ) URL : URL ( Accessed 8th ) . < /fnote> Regulation / < /heading > One of the key changes in relation to the 's enforcement powers is its newly acquired power to decide directly on ) exemption without the need to notify . This was a result of decentralisation and the need to create a higher degree of efficiency and clarity ; rulings by the Commission usually took a long time and were a hindrance to prompt utilization of enforcement powers . As a result of this modernization change the can now directly enforce Community rules more effectively , without the need to wait for a ruling and the burden of consuming huge resources . "" The direct applicability of ) means that many of the barriers to the enforcement of Community competition law by nationally - based authorities have been removed ... "" Hence the enforcement powers of the have greatly increased through this positive change and this is clearly highlighted through recent cases that have been rather expeditious . However as commentator has elucidated , "" direct enforcement without some form of procedural harmonization may lead to significant divergences in the protection of Community law rights . "" This implies that enforcement powers obtained by competition authorities may not necessarily be advantageous , especially if this results in jurisdictional inconsistencies when applying competition law in the Community . Furthermore and assert that the various national competition authorities will implement competition rules differently because of their diverse experiences , legal institutions and available resources to name a few . However these worries may actually be unfounded since in the community are issued with guidelines through the form of . Guidelines range from topics such as the calculation of turnover to definition of the relevant market . Indeed even if "" the application of the law in the proposed decentralized system might present a potential source of inconsistency , it is incapable of producing such magnitude to interfere with the effective functioning of the overall system . "" The introduction of Regulation has conferred upon national competition authorities such as the a greater latitude for enforcing community rules through the various enforcement powers . These include powers to makes decisions requiring the termination of an infringement , ordering interim measures , accepting commitments and imposing penalties . It has certainly strengthened the 's pre - existing powers of enforcement derived from and Enterprise Act . < fnote > Op.cit . note , p.255 . < /fnote> Kon , , Rachel , ( ) , by and NCAs and and , Competition Law Insight 14(22 ) , p.2 . < /fnote> Pijetlovic , , ( ) , Reform of EC Antitrust Enforcement : Criticism of is Highly Exaggerated , 25(6):356 - 369 . < /fnote> Article 7 , Council Regulation . Op.cit . note . pp.268 - 269 . < /fnote> Article 8 , Council Regulation . Ibid . p.269 . < /fnote> Article 9 , Council Regulation . Ibid.p.269 . < /fnote> Chapter VI Penalties , Council Regulation . Ibid . p.275 . < /fnote> Interrelationship between and Regulation : < /heading > The Commission is tasked with the responsibility of overseeing the activities of all national competition authorities in , and since Regulation its role has been reduced to that of supervisory level . As aforementioned national competition authorities can now directly enforce community rules and this applies to individual exemptions under ) too . Thus the Commission no longer holds a monopoly over such an exemption and this can be considered as a reduction in their enforcement armoury . But essentially "" [ t]he Commission , alongside the NCAs , has wide powers to carry out investigations into possible infringements of the competition rules and it also has the power to impose fines or , in some cases , a structural remedy . "" Most commentators agree that the 's enforcement powers have been increased as a result of Regulation . But the extent to which it has been increased is still debatable . The main aspects of enhanced enforcement powers are the ability to impose structural remedies and penalties and the powers of investigation . < fnote > Rodger , and , Angus , ( 2004 ) , Competition Law and Policy in the and , ed . , : , . < /fnote> Powers of Investigation These powers are encapsulated within . They range from requests for information , to oral statements , to powers of inspection in business premises and other locations . These enforcement powers are absolutely necessary for the Commission who have to frequently deal with suspected cartel dealings and price - fixing schemes that involve a serious infringement of competition law . The has the power to impose penalties on undertakings that refuse to supply information or supplies information that is incorrect or misleading . This is an important power because ' dawn raids ' can essentially be carried out with as little interruption and undue interference as possible . This in turn ensures that competition law is effectively and efficiently utilised to promote competition in the markets . In addition to the 's wide - ranging powers is "" [ t]he fact that an undertaking [ which ] considers that the has no grounds for action under does not entitle it to resist a request for information . "" Therefore this highlights the disparity between the undertakings and the while an investigation is being carried out . It is apparent that the is equipped with vast enforcement powers while the undertaking has no real choice but to adhere to their requests . This is exactly what the needs to promote competition - ' razor sharp teeth ' to enforce competition law and thereby to halt anti - competitive practices . As such this ' teeth ' will emerge in the form of stringent powers of enforcement . The is certainly being endowed with stronger enforcement powers as can be clearly seen from its powers to obtain oral statements under . This has been described by as being a "" novel provision "" , implying that it is a new , interesting and different kind of provision . However this still begs the question of its efficacy . < fnote > Op.cit . note , pp.272 - 273 . < /fnote> , , ( ) , Competition Law , ed . , : Butterworths , p.261 . < /fnote> Op.cit . note , p.273 . < /fnote> Commission Decisions - Structural Remedies These can be found at and are among many of the important enforcement powers held by the . When the Commission finds an infringement of competition law , namely or , it may require the undertakings to end such infringements . The commission 's powers to request termination of such infringements are further strengthened by their ability to impose behavioural or structural remedies . Although behavioural remedies such as fines are commonly imposed on undertakings who are obstinate , structural remedies are a more contentious issue and "" the inclusion of this possibility in was controversial . "" It is certainly true that the may use structural remedies in place of behavioural ones but this is subject to a very strict test . The latter encompasses conditions of effectiveness , necessity and proportionality . commentator argues that "" the effectiveness , necessity , and proportionality of a structural remedy function as a straitjacket and will rarely allow the adoption of structural remedies . "" Therefore although the is theoretically endowed with this particular remedy it essentially can not use it in reality because of the many constraints . < fnote > Ibid . pp.268 - 269 . < /fnote> Op.cit . note , p.255 . < /fnote> Penalties The power to impose penalties are the most useful and usual forms of enforcement powers because of their valuable deterrent effect . Articles in are concerned entirely with penalties ; the provisions provide specific percentage values that have to be adhered to when calculating various fines . This provides the Commission with a wide discretion to calculate and adjust the values ; there is no particular maximum amount threshold applicable . The calculation is essentially a percentage of the undertaking 's total turnover subject to the considerations of gravity and duration of infringement . It can be clearly seen from case law that the wields substantial powers to fine and has been active in using it . For instance in the cartel case a fine of was imposed and remains the largest fine imposed on a single undertaking in a cartel case . The also has powers to impose periodic penalties on undertakings that supply inaccurate or misleading information . This is important to ensure full co - operation and a successful investigation process which in turn leads to competition law being better applied . However it is regrettable that the has yet to establish a system for criminal penalties in relation to cartel activities considering that some of its Member States have adopted such penalties . This would greatly enhance the existing wide range of enforcement powers available to the . But it has been expressed by and that "" ... it seems highly unlikely that there would be the political will to bring criminal law within the Community competition system . "" However at least it can be seen that the current enforcement powers held by the Commission functions well in promoting competition . As long as the Commission continues to exercise its powers fearlessly but legitimately , the potential drawbacks of not possessing criminal penalties may not be as serious as deduced initially . < fnote , ( ) ( online ) URL : URL ( Accessed January 2007 ) . < /fnote> Op.cit . note , p.52 . < /fnote > In conclusion , competition authorities such as are furnished with strict , precise and wide - ranging enforcement powers in order to better apply competition law . This is clearly highlighted by the implementation of Regulation / ; it confers upon these authorities enhanced enforcement powers in the areas of investigation and penalties . This is necessary since competition law can not be effectively applied without the ' razor sharp teeth ' of enforcement powers . Nevertheless it is inevitable that there will always be deficiencies and inaccuracies . Ergo it is up to competition authorities to make the most of the existing powers of enforcement they control and to use them boldly in all circumstances .",1 "The use of primates in laboratory experiments has a long and outstanding history . Experiments such as vivisections have been around for ( CMP 2005 ) and have yet to be proven that they are the sole responsibility for any major break through ; there can always be the possibility that these discoveries in medicine would have eventually been made without the need to perform vivisections . The history of laboratory experiments is fixated around the ethics of the situation and as some believe the fact and others the myth that it is beneficial to humans to conduct these experiments . The history is also varied between countries , the law in the dose not out rule the use of primates in laboratory experiments but in fact states that it is permissible if it can be shown that the use of a "" lower "" species could not be used within the experiment ( Animal act ) . The use of the great apes in laboratory experiments was formally band in within the , the act also band the use of wild caught primates in the during . However the ban of the great ape in laboratory experiments does not exist in all the countries of the world . The law does not always support the animals ' rights , in fact in some case the law actually stipulates that animal testing must have occurred before that product can go to market . It has been established that within the experiments on primates are only conducted when there is ' no alternative ' option , however the interpretation of no alternative option varies depending on who 's making that judgment . The problem then becomes an issue that is of world wide concern ; within the 6994 primates where used in laboratory experiments within ( commission ) . Within that 6994 primates and were found to be the highest users of non human primates within the laboratory for ( Home office ) . This demonstrates that across the the definition of ' no alternative ' appears to be more lax within some countries than others . However primate testing is not limited to within the , is the biggest contributor to primate experiments with primates used within the labs across ( Hagelin ) . It has also been discovered that and under- reported their use of primate by over primates ( Animal aid ) . This shows that across the world there is a large variation in opinion on the acceptance of primate testing , and regardless of the rules and policies primate testing is still going to occur out side of the . The experiments that are deemed unsuitable to be conducted on a ' lower ' species and thus are conducted on primates include : Drug testing , infectious disease research , brain research , HIV test , vaccinations , malaria , xeno research and neurological disorders . At the end of most of these experiments the primates ' lives are terminated . The argument that drug testing in primates is beneficial to humans is a very controversial topic . Since organisations like the national anti vivisection society and aid for animals has highlighted the circumstances for which some of the primates are kept in for experiments which have little or no value to the human health or well being . The debate has now become more than an ethical one and one that 's concerned with whether it is even necessary to perform such experiments . It has been shown that the drug flosint is a very good cure for arthritis in monkey , however when used on humans it solved the problem of arthritis by causing them to die ( Animal aid ) . The use of aspirin causes deformities within monkeys that are pregnant and yet it has no such effect within humans . Another example is tobacco , the tobacco companies held back the warnings on cigarettes as there was no correlation between primates smoking tobacco and cancer . On the other hand the drug testing for vaccinations related to malaria show a good correlation between some species of monkeys and the response in humans ( Herrera et al ) . The results from a wide range of tests show that the response that the primates have to the drugs is not always the same as the response a human would have . This means that you are not going to know how the drug reacts to human anatomy until it has been tested on a human subject . This appears to negate the need for primate testing as the results obtained can not be established as reliable . The stand against vivisections is not just based in the unreliability of the results from an experiment , but also against the manner in which the experiments are conducted . On the issue of how vivisections are performing you do not just have the anti- vivisectors protesting . The people performing the vivisections themselves have been found to be campaigning on how immoral the experiments performed on primates are . ' One does not need to add emotive words to make experiments sound "" unacceptable "" for your own protocol descriptions do this for themselves . ' is a quote from a former vivisector who is now campaigning against vivisections ( 1994 ) . Alternative methods do exist yet these methods have a different meaning depending on what side of the argument the individual is on . For the people supporting primate testing , or the people conducting the experiments , biomedical researchers etc then ' alternative methods ' take the view of a method that can complement the traditional method of animal experiments . However for the protesters the term ' alternative method ' takes on a different meaning : of entirely replacing animal testing programs ( Bennett 2000 ) . A full range of alternative method exists from computer modelling and in vitro techniques , to the use of less well developed species such as insects and micro - organisms ( news ) . Depending on whose side the argument for alternative methods supports depends on the person you speaking with . The arguments put forward to prevent primate testing , tend to be filled with emotive words , such as ' brutally ' , ' fear ' , ' cruel ' and ' emotional harm ' etc . An emotive argument plays on people 's feelings and heightens the impact on what is really occurring , this forms a more biased view and tends to stop people from investigating the other side of the situation . Primate testing is not all barbaric but has allowed medical discoveries to occur , which has allowed for the improvement of quality of life for some people . In 1.35 million animals were used in experiments of and of that of animal testing involved the use of primates ( national primate research centre ) . Primates are used in laboratory experiments because they are genetically and physiologically more similar to humans than any other animal found on . They are also more likely to catch illnesses and diseases which threaten human health making them far more valuable to study the effects of a disease on than a rat ( national primate research centre ) . is a prime example for the parasite will not take to rodents , so primates are used instead to test vaccinations on ( commission ) . The alternative methods are used were they can be , but the technology is not yet at the standard researchers need it to be at to allow them to study the effect to a whole organism rather than just part of . In neurological experiments it has been put forward that the is around a decade behind ( ) , due to restraints on the use of primates within the laboratory . The experimentation on primates in the has advanced their understanding of neurological disorders far beyond that of the , allowing the to make better diagnoses and treatment schemes for people suffering from neurological conditions . The ethical problem then evolves that if the completely bans primate testing and all the countries outside the do not , what happens if the other countries develop a vaccination for AIDS ? If the countries within the use it then they have benefited from primate research , making it hypocritical to ban primate testing . The suffering primates have to endure within these experiments is kept to a minimum ; regulations exist to reduce the suffering a primate will endure due to testing and its living accommodation : < list > D86/609 / EEC1999/575 / EC A quote from the regulation / demonstrates the regulations are tying to establish a situation that can be justified by a utilitarian point of view . "" ... , accepting nevertheless that man in his quest for knowledge , health and safety has a need to use animals where there is a reasonable expectation that the result will be to extend knowledge or to be the overall benefit of man or animal , just as he uses them for food , clothing and as beasts of burden;""(European commission ) . These regulations set out guidelines for accommodation and experimentation conditions . Although sometimes it is unavoidable and suffering will occur , like in the cases were aesthetics and pain killers can not be issued as they will affect the results of the experiment , however this only occurs in of all cases that have involved primate testing ( ) . Though the primate suffering is not in vain , during virtually all medical advancements in knowledge were made using animals in the experiments ( Biomedical Research 2004 ) . The use of primates in laboratory experiments is declining as technology is improving as observed by the , this supports the argument that primate testing is only done as a necessity . Primate accommodation in laboratories is regulated by the law : it states that appropriate cage size and design must be used and the environment should be enriched . This means they should have something that they can entertain themselves with and a place to go where they can be social with other monkeys should they so wish to be . This is beneficial both to the primates and to the researchers to keep their primates in as much as possible a stress free environment . A stressed primate will affect the outcome of the results and could possibly end up invalidating the experiment . It has been but forward that the difficulty in procuring primates and the cost of keeping them insures that no experiments are preformed lightly , ( ) and most of the time the experimental and living conditions are designed not to impose excess stress on the primates . Due to the cost and difficulty in procuring a primate it is in a very few cases within the where primates living conditions are found to be unsatisfactory . However should unsatisfactory conditions occur there are then organisations and laws in place within the that deal with these situations . The justification for the use of primates in laboratory experiments is a topic that has had many debates . From the view of a utilitarian argument it is unacceptable to cause intense suffering to any animal ; it appears that using primates in laboratory experiments have the benefits gained from the procedures outweighed by the costs . The experiments conducted on primates have not had their costs limited to just the primates , but have also extended into the humans with the of deaths that have occurred due to drugs having no effect on primates and devastating effects on humans physiology , these results are in conflict with the reasoning of a utilitarian . Just because primates are a close resemblance to human physiology and genetics , does not mean they are a suitable substitute for an exact match . The benefits that have been obtained are minute in comparison to the suffering and the loss of lives , be it human or primate . By conducting these experiments the researchers have not been able to find a cure to any of the disease such as AIDS , but have just made claims that they are closer to finding a cure . The use of Macaques demonstrates the potential for yet another catastrophe ; macaques are infected with , which develops into an AIDS like virus ( commission ) . Humans develop AIDS not an AIDS like virus : what use is a vaccination against a form of AIDS humans do not contract ? To have the benefits stand a chance at outweighing the cost then people would have to be cured and not just have their lives extended . From the point of a utilitarian argument this house concludes that the costs are too high and therefore concludes that primate testing should be band .","< abstract> Abstract The study looks at the interaction between the different species of ant present within the site , and the kind of influence a species of ant has on another species of ant . If species of worker ants were present in area of the site would it encourage other species of ants , or deter other species of ants from entering this area . The question this was looking at was ; is ant community dependent on the presents of anther ant community ? The results from this study showed that nylanderi and fusca had an effect on each other which was also true for nylanderi and . Were as fusca and had no effect on each other , there communities were interacting randomly . The study then looks at as to why these species interact or coexist together . The aspect of this study is how the structure and types of habitats affect the structure of an ant community . Does the amount of coverage in an area influence the amount or the species of ant found at that location ? The results produced in a T - test showed that nylanderi and preferred the patches with a lower amount of cover , were as Formica fusca is mainly found in patches with or more cover . This study then looks at why nylanderi and prefer low coverage and fusca seems to prefer the high coverage . < /abstract> Introduction Ants come under the category of hymenoptera and they are one of the groups within this order that are eusocial , ants belong to the family Formicidae , but because there are so many species of ant ( worldwide ) subfamilies have been created ( ) . The colonies are structured with a queen ant which is the only Female to mate ; the fact that she is the only one to mate means the queen is the only one that can produce a female . The male in the colony can be produced by an unfertilised egg so any female with ovaries in the colony can produce a son by Parthenogensis ( Sudd and Franks as cited from , ) . However most females in the colony are infertile and without ovaries this is because it is the females in an ant colony that are the worker ants , so they are produced infertile . Reproduction in an ant is determined by the ant 's diet , a rich diet will ensure the ant becomes reproductive , and reproduction is only carried out by the queens and males in the colony ( Dorling ) . The queen will remain in the nest while the worker ants will go out and forage for food and raise the young . For the structure of the ant community to be maintained it requires the ants to be able to pass information between them . The ants ' method of communication relies on pheromones which can be used to produce the ' colony odour ' which allows nest mates to identify each other , this pheromone dwells in the cuticles of adult ants and is not present in young ants , the pheromones that are not linked to ' colony odour ' are secreted from specialised exocrine glands . Another pheromone is the alarm pheromones which cause the ants to attack any foreign being that enters their colony . The other types of pheromone used are recruitment pheromones which help in obtaining recourses and sexual pheromones used in mating . It was ( as cited in ) that placed the types of pheromones into these categories . Within a community there is a verity of jobs that need to be done , the jobs are delectated by age , and this process is based on a polyethism system ( Sudd and Frank ) . The youngest worker ants remain in the nest were it is safe and perform duties such as tending to the queen , maintaining the nest and taking care of the brood . Foraging duties are given to old worker ants because this work contains more hazards and these ants are near the end of their life . It is these old worker ants that this study looks at , for they are what leave the nest . This study was carried out at Rennes field centre in , . The study looked at the community structure of ants in different habitats , since the worker ant is the only ones to leave the nest it was the structure of worker ants that was looked at . To be able to address how different habitats affect the structure of ant 's community a site was needed that contained a wide rang of habitats . The area this study was conducted in was m by m and was on a very gentle slope that sloped downwards ( fig1 ) . < picture/>The site contained a variety of habitats , short grass lands , long grass , concrete , stones , rocks , mud , burnt grassland , mossy cover , dead bush , gorse and brambles . The pictures below show some of the variety of habitats contained within the site . < picture/> Method Grid the site out into1 m squared squares and places the letters A - O along the top and the numbers 1 - 18 down the side . Make a map of the site including all the vegetation present on the site ( as in fig ) . Randomly generate a set of coordinates and use this random system to select your locations for the quodrates . Take quodrates sized and place them together at the selected coordinates to make large quodrate . Record the coverage within each small quodrate , and then spend a minute on the quadrate counting the amount of each species of ant that are present within a quadrate . Collect specimen from each species of ant you find and take it back to the laboratory to be keyed out down to its species . When recording how many ants were present also record what activity they were undergoing , and what the weather was like at the time . When the entire grid has been quodrated take you data and do a test and a t - test on the data for the amount of coverage present and the amount of ants present . < heading > Results The table below show how many species of ant was found in each grid on our site and the percentage of coverage for each grid . < list> Key to results table: Spp A = Leptothorax nylanderiSpp B = Tetramorium CaespitumSpp C = Formica fuscaSpp D = Formica pratensisSpp E = winged ant not caughtSpp I = Tapinoma erraticum
Calculations The calculations for the interaction between nylanderi and Formica fusca : < table/ > FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA The calculations for the interaction between nylanderi and . < table/ > FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA Calculation for the interaction between and Formica fusca . < table/ > FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA < heading > Results for coverage A table for nylanderi , and Formica fusca was created to show the mean coverage when a species was present and then absent , like the one below : < table/>From a full version of the data above a t - test was conducted and the following graphs where created . . The t - test produced the following result for the analysis carried out on nylander : = -3.04 , P - Value = , = . The graphs produced from this data are show in fig . < figure/>
The t - test produced the following results for the analysis on ; = -0.72 P - Value = = . The following graphs are for the results on . < figure/>
The t - test for produced the following results ; , P - Value=0.474 , . The following graph are the results for fusca . < figure/>
A t - test on fusca produced the following results ; T - Value=-0.17 , P - Value=0.865 and . There were insufficient recordings of the other species to great accurate graphs . < heading > Discussion < /heading > Research has been done on the types of interactions that accrued between ants , the interactions have been categorised into groups depending on how much the species interacted . The groups ranged from cohabitation with no interaction to a complete association between a parasite and the host colony ( etl ) . The ants that fall between these extreams of interaction are the thief ants , which only interact when the thief ant steals pupae or the forage from another worker ant of a different species . Formica fusca tends to be a victim of Solenopsis fugax which raids the nests of fusca ( Sudd + Franks ) . Another ant that steals pupae from fusca is Polyergus rufescens ( Sudd ) , however none of these raiding ants were found on our site . The results gathered from our site showed Formica fusca to have a relationship with nylanderi , the chi squared test showed that Formica fusca and nylanderi benefited from each other , this is seen in the fact that you have a higher amount of them together than expected . Nether of the species of ant have ever been recorded as acting as parasite or host ant to the other species . So this suggest another reason for the association , nylanderi has been recorded to form temporary mixed colonies in , this fusion of unrelated ants can accurse due to the shortage of nesting site ( etl ) . However in this study a nest was found for both species of ant , the fact that both species of ant now have their own nest dose not rule out the possibility that the species of ant did coexist as one colony put makes this hypothesis unlikely . The other possibility is that nylanderi once was a large colony that split into leaving one colony without a queen ant , so for this community of ants to survive they needed a queen ant , so formed a mixed colony with fusca ( etl ) . This behaviour from has been recorded before , if you look at fig you can see around the nest site of Formica fusca there is quite a few species present . The behaviour of the ants was recorded in this study as well and none of the ants around this nest were acting acresavle to each other . The different species of ants would have different ' colony odours ' , so the Formica fusca ant should have secret an alarm pheromone and attack . The evidence from this study suggests that these species of ant are reliant upon one another for their communities to survive , and it is quite likely they have formed a mixed colony to allow the survival of both . The results also show to have a relationship with , though the reason for this interaction appears to be a different reason to that of the reaction between and Formica fusc . Teramorium Caespitum has been recorded as beening a host ant to Anergates atratulus only when the colony of is without a queen ant ( J.H.Sudd + N.R.Franks ) . Teramorium Caespitum has also been recorded as having a range of ants which are parasitic off them . However the site of our study dose not contain the parasitic ants , instead it shows an interaction between species of ant that apparently benefits from each others presents . Neither of these species has been recorded as acting as a host to the opposite species or as an ant that raids the others colony for pupa . The reason for the interaction between these species is highly speculative , the study shows no evidence to suggest any reason for there interaction , and there appears to be no records of these species interacting . The species could be beneficial to each other by providing each other with protection from predators , if they share the same predator its more likely that ant from species will spot the predator . H.A hypothesis as to why different species would interact is because they require similar abiotic factors ( Cited from ) . However F.E Clements came up with an interactive hypothesis that is the community is linked by biotic interactions without these links a community can not function as a unit ( from etl ) . Whether these species of ant are interacting due to biotic or abiotic factors can not be determined from this study . The reason for the interaction between them can not be determined from this study only speculations can be made , for a more accurate reason for the interaction between the species they would have to be observed in more depth . and Formica fusca where found to have a chi of which is lower than one degree of freedom ( ) , this means there presents in area has no effect on the other species . There is no association or dissociation between these species , the location of these species is random and not influenced by the other species . The other species found on site were only located in small numbers that where not sufficient to do a chi test . However if you look at the of formica pratensis 's nest ( grid A,6 fig27 ) , you can see a behavioural pattern in the worker ants foraging routine . The nest is located at the edge of the site , then if you look at the location of each species found on site ( fig ) it shows formica pratensis is only located in the A column , this suggest that formica pratensis forages to the side of the site and only has its nest within the site . This shows an interesting structure to pratensis worker ants , there worker ants only forage in one direction from there nest , which takes them off the study site . If you look at the location of nest you can see they use a different structure for there foraging techniques , instead of just foraging in one direction from the nest they forage all round the nest , this can be seen in fig . Formica fusca 's nest is located on the opposite side of the site from pratensis . Formica fusca 's worker ants appear to forage all over the site but because the nest is located at the edge of the study it can not be determined if they forage all round there nest or just to one side as partensis dose . Another aspect looked at in this study was whether effected the presents of ants . The start of the day when it was cool and still damp resulted in very few ants of any species being present , by had warmed up more ants are about , by the majority of ants are out . In the the nest for fusca was discovered and ants were located around the nest but other than that no ants were found in the evenings . All the species of ant in this study have a preference to warm conditions , all the colonies of these ants only send there worker ants out in the warmest parts of to forage . The temperature is not the only aspect to affect the amount of ants present in an area , the type of habitat present also effect the location of the ants . nylanderi seem to have a slightly preference to a lower amount of coverage ( see fig 8) . There is only a slight difference between the amount of ants located in regain and the reign . However there are a few more ants located cover and cover than coverage . confirms that nylanderi does not like the high percentage coverage . is another ant that prefers the lower percentage covering to the high percentage covering , ( this is shown in fig and ) . Formica fusca on the other hand was found mainly in coverage ( fig ) ; however fig shows the high percentage patches to have more of Formica fusca absent , suggesting it 's not a preferred coverage . The reason for this may be due to or site containing a high proportion of high coverage areas and only a few Formica fusca . nylanderi and are never found in an area without any cover , a reason for this may be because they are to exposed to predators . nylanderi and also avoid the high coverage patches , if they are in the high coverage patches it 's to shaded for them , they like warm conditions , so the go for an intermediate between being exposed or being to cold and go for mid coverage . The other ants found on the site were only found in small numbers , so there was insufficient data to determine their preferences to coverage . < heading > Conclusion The structure of the ant communities found on site varied slightly from species to species . The structure of the communities were partly effected by the surrounding habitats , for habitat influences the location the ants are most likely to be found in , for example a colony is most likely to be found in an area with cover . However it is not just the habitat that affects the structure of an ant community , the abiotic factors also influence the way the colony is structured . All the species of ants in this study preferred warm dry conditions , worker ants only go out to forage in dry warm weather , on a wet day the structure of the colony changes , foraging is replaced with another task . The biotic factors also contribute to the structure of the community . The majority of the ants found on this site had some kind of effect on another species of ant , though this study can only draw speculation as to why different species of ants are interacting , it dose appear that on this site fusca and nylanderi are reliant upon one another . Should Formica fusca disappear from the site then the community structure of nylanderi would fall apart for it is likely this colony is dependent on fusca queen . If this is the case then nylanderi can not maintain a community on this site if this habitat loses fusca . However the presents of species is not interracial to all species and Formica fusca had no effect on each other so the loss of fusca would not effect , though another biotic factor would effect . Each colony of ants located on this site functions in a different way to the next and is affected by different aspects of the habitat . However it is not just the variation in habitats that affect the ants community structure but a range of factors .",1 "In spite of the great degree of controversy concerning the importance of meat - eating in the evolution of genus Homo , most researchers are at least able to agree on fundamental point . The emergence towards the end of Pliocene of Homo ergaster , at MYA , represents a clear grade shift in hominin evolution both morphologically and behaviourally ( Wood/1999 ) . Modern ' human - like ' limb and body proportions , habitual bipedalism , larger body size as compared to its most probable ancestors ( Homo habilis , rudolfensis and Australopithecus gahri , ( Foley/2001 ; Asfaw et ) ) , reduced molar size and increased brain size of Homo ergaster all represent a shift away from ape - like morphology . Additionally its appearance in the fossil record is concurrent with a host of behavioural ' firsts ' including ; the appearance of hominins outside , ' home base ' or ' central place ' sites , and the utilisation and possible control of fire ( Stanford/2001 ) . It is clear that ' such a shift needs accounting for , ' however considerable debate exits over what factor or combination of factors , both social and ecological , may have brought about such a reorganisation and almost immediate geographical expansion out of ( ; et al/2000 ) Increased reliance upon ' meat - eating ' is regarded as a prime candidate , as states , "" H.ergaster/erectus , appears to show a number of evolutionary shifts that would be expected to occur as a result of a more carnivorous foraging strategy "" ( Foley/2001p324 ) . Historically ' meat - eating ' by hominins was closely associated with either graphic descriptions of the ' blood - thirsty ' ape or ' man the hunter ' paradigms ( ) . Some researchers still erroneously synonymise the term ' meat - eating ' with historical theories of ' man the hunter ' ( of big game ) in their arguments denying the role of meat in the evolution of the genus ) . Thus for reasons of historical disassociation ' meat - eating ' might be better termed as the exploitation of ' animal protein ' or ' animal resources ' ( Aiollo/1995 ; Stanford/1999 ) . In a phylogenetic framework meat - eating is a plesiomorphy of the clade and ' some level of meat eating is likely to have characterised all hominoids ' ( Foley/2001 p308 ) . Clear evidence in the form of herbivore limb bones which bear stone tool cut marks and have been shattered ( Presumably to obtain high fat bone marrow ) now suggests some , A. gahri for instance and early Homo obtained a source of animal protein by exploiting animal carcases as early as 2.5 MYA ( et ) . However , although the increase in brain size for H. habilis may be correlated with increased inclusion of animal protein in the diet , its overall morphology remained more like that of the than ergaster ( Haeusler/2004 ) . Consequently a range of hypotheses have emerged , each attempting to illustrate the relationship , or otherwise , between ' meat - eating ' , body shape , brain size , geographical expansion and total life history of H. ergaster . This relationship exists as ( ) states , as the "" ... evolution of relatively larger brains is dependent upon energetics as much as the actual selective pressures leading to an advantage of having a large brain "" . Thus while distinct hypothetical standpoints are evident in the current literature , neither denies that with the appearance of H. erectus , "" ... there are indications that early humans were able in some manner to greatly improve their intake and uptake of energy , apparently without any decrease in dietary quality "" ( ) . Furthermore , as ( ) illustrates the ' evolution of relatively larger brains among hominins would be expected to correlate with changes in life - history which in turn would result in a series of adaptive / biological changes'(my emphasis p313 ) . However , there are those who contend that increased reliance upon meat - eating had very little significance in producing these changes , and maintain that ' H. erectus evolved as a result of climate - driven changes in female foraging and food sharing practices , possibly involving the exploitation of tubers ' or ( 's ) , combined with the cooking of these 's ( et ; et ) . O'Connell and Lupo ( ) use ethnographical studies of modern hunter - gatherers like the in an attempt to illustrate that even if meat acquisition via scavenging was practiced in , ' it does not necessarily follow that Carnivory played a key role in the evolution of early humans ' ( p104 ) . They maintain that it is the frequency and reliability with which meat was acquired that is critical . Indeed , as ( ) illustrates , "" The large - carcass scavenging rate is large carcasses per hunter per year "" ( p232 ) . Proponents of the hypothesis argue that as the climate in Sub - Saharan Africa became cooler and increasingly arid and - 1.7 MYA meat , because of its low energy value during periods of climatic stress appears unlikely to have been a fall - back food ; rather , ' 's would have been a much more dependable target ' ( et al/1999 ; et ) . O'Connell and associates also use ethnographic comparisons of the and early humans to support their ' Grandmothering ' hypothesis . They propose that increasing aridity prevented juveniles from being able to help in provisioning themselves due to a lack of fruits . Thus older female members of the social group , grandmothers , were able to increase their potential genetic fitness and value to the group by helping to provision younger members and especially female kin . This was achieved by the extraction and roasting , using digging sticks , of 's . The effects were increased longevity of female members and increased fertility amongst the younger females . This increased longevity would delay maturation and thus mothers would have needed , and been able , to devote more time to infant rearing ; the net results would have been larger group sizes . Thus larger brains developed through a combination of greater social interaction and were ' funded ' by the increased nutritional benefits provided by cooking 's . Furthermore , better nutrition , increased longevity and slower rates of maturation are posited to explain the reduction in molar size and the increase in body size ( et ) . The life span of H. ergaster is estimated to be but for most individuals was probably lower ( ) . In addition , excavations at the site of at , have demonstrated beyond reasonable doubt that members of the ergaster lineage used ' home - bases or central place sites ' to which they transported carcasses . Bunn ( ) argues that , "" given the quantities of meat obtained , it seems probable that , like the , early Homo shared meat "" ( p212 ) . Thus some of the theories of the ' Grandmothering ' hypothesis such as the correlation between increased brain size and group size and food - sharing are not incompatible with current palaeoanthropological theory ( Bunn/2001 ; ) . However , their arguments are fundamentally weakened by the self - imposed dichotomy they themselves create . The majority of the evidence suggests that the driving force behind the grade shift in ergaster was not meat only vs. plant foods only , but rather a mix of the elements ( ; Foley/2001 ; ) . Furthermore , in opposition to their theory most researchers contend that , ' small incremental increases ( in carnivory ) rather than a major change in foraging behaviour can have a significant evolutionary consequence ' ( Foley/2001 p313 ) . As chimpanzees ( troglodytes ) obtain only 5 - 10 % of their calories from meat an increase of in early humans would have brought them up to a level of animal exploitation similar to living humans ( Foley/2001 ; Stanford/1999 ) . Indeed as both ( ) and ( ) illustrate , not only would a small increase in animal products in the diet be sufficient , when dietary intake exceeds ' the liver is unable to metabolise the excess amino acids and the body unable to flush itself of the waste products of meat consumption ' ( Stanford/1999 p118 ) . Paradoxically the potential toxicity of excessive meat consumption helps to illustrate the importance of meat for the increased encephalization and body size of H. ergaster . For instance , the long bones of the female ergaster specimen ( ) are covered with a layer of abnormal , amorphous bone . The cause of this abnormality is suspected to have been ( vitamin A poising ) . explorers have developed similar abnormalities by consuming the livers of large carnivores such as polar bears ( ) . In addition to strengthening the case for the increasing importance of animal protein within the diet , this example is also significant for further reasons . , it illustrates that early hominids would have had access to relatively intact carcasses , probably as a result of ' power - scavenging ' by MYA . it suggests that either female 's were involved in this potentially very risky strategy , or perhaps benefited from the sharing of animal resources within a social group at some form of ' home - base ' ( Bunn/2001 ) . It may be argued then , that reasonably small amounts of animal protein were fundamentally intertwined in the relationship between body shape and brain size . Indeed , although 's provide an excellent source of calories which is absent in meat , most are ' devoid of nutrients ' and some contain cyanogenic compounds ( capable of causing cyanide poisoning ) ( Milton/1999 ) . ( ) argues that , "" An adequate supply of sulphur - containing amino acids is essential in the detoxification of cyanogenic plant foods "" ( p18 ) . Thus meat becomes a tool , which enabled ergaster to simultaneously exploit foods from trophic levels , while at the same time lowering dietary bulk by only selecting the most energy rich plant foods , for instance tubers ( ) . As previously stated , ' brains constitute tissues that are expensive to grow and maintain ' and thus require a diet rich in nutrients ( Foley/2001 ) . The extensive fossilized remains of ( ) indicate that in contrast to both apes , australopithecines and early forms of the genus ergaster lacked not only the wide pelvis of previous hominins but also had a modern - like barrel shaped ribcage ( ; ) . The expensive tissue hypothesis of and argues that the relative increase in brain size from ca 654cc for H. habilis to ca in ergaster occurred ( perhaps simultaneously ) with a corresponding decrease in gut size ( ; Foley/2001 ; Milton/2001 ) . Indeed , they state that the wide pelvis in other hominins is consistent with the presence of a well developed and protuberant abdomen which ergaster lacks . This combined with the barrel as opposed to funnel shaped chest of specimens would mean H. ergaster has a greatly reduced gut , which she argues was the result of an increased reliance upon a mix of nutrient rich animal protein , combined perhaps with underground tubers . Concurrently , ( ) suggests that , ' using meat to supply essential amino - acids and many required micronutrients frees - space in the gut for ( high energy i.e. ) plant foods ( p11 ) . In reply , proponents of the 's hypothesis and especially , argue that if cooked , tubers could fulfil all the dietary requirements . Additionally , he argues that modern humans were unable to digest the uncooked beef slivers they were experimentally fed ( et ; Wrangham/2004 personal notes from conference ) . However , Holy Smith illustrates that when the teeth of the H. ergaster youth from ( ) are compared to those from a H. habilis specimen ( OH7 ) they display significantly less wear . She suggests that uncooked meat consumption in H. erectus is a good candidate for the difference , and that , ' simple cooking in hearth ashes , such as that of Aborigines , introduces much grit into the food and produces high attrition of teeth ' ( p586 ) . Furthermore , ( ) argues that the present archaeological ; record does not show evidence of cooked or roasted bones . Thus even though populations of ergaster may have been controlling fire at they was either able to digest raw meat , or had some means to process it with tools before consumption that did not involve cooking ( perhaps simple tenderisation with stone tools ) ( Wrangham et ) . Theories that exclude the possibility that meat played an important role in the evolution of the genus also have a difficult time explaining the sudden and rapid expansion of ergaster to in and ( et al/2000 ; et al/2000 ) ; in contrast , those that do not have less trouble . ( ) , for instance , suggests that early humans may have co - evolved with carnivores by scavenging there kills . As the climate , and thus fauna , at , > 1.9 MYA was similar to that found in the savannah environment of , there would be little barrier to geographical expansion of both carnivore guilds and herbivores from . Furthermore , the inclusion of more animal protein in the diet would naturally require larger day and home ranges due to the behaviour of prey items , which would have selected for both more efficient bipedalism and locomotors abilities ( Foley/2001 ; Gabunia/2000 , Stiner/2002 ) . Thus , there appears to be a strong correlation between increased levels of animal protein within the diet combined with continued reliance upon plant food . Indeed , ( ) argue that the secondarily altricial nature of modern human infants probably coincided with the emergence of H. ergaster . They state that ergaster appears to have evolved ' prenatal and postnatal growth patterns found in modern humans ( suggesting ) ... mothers must have begun acquiring foods of high nutritional value ' ( p341 ) . Furthermore , this secondarily altricial nature would further boost the validity that ergaster populations had some form of ' base camp ' as altricial young can not cling to their mothers . As both ( ) and ( ) concur , infants more nutrients to grow their large brain size , and developing children have been shown to need iron , calcium , iodine , vitamins A , B , C , not to mention high levels of protein and fat . 's and tubers alone can not fulfil these needs and thus , "" the routine inclusion of animal foods in the diets of weanling children seems mandatory "" ( Milton/1999 , p19 ) . This ' mandatory ' reliance upon high nutrient rich food in the form of animal protein would certainly have been required for highly mobile social groups and thus an influential part of the diet that could very well explain the related set of novel and interrelated features covering encephalization , body size and life history that are only seen in the archaeological record with the evolution of H. ergaster ( Foley/2001 ) .","Linguistics , the scientific study of language , is essential in the field of speech and language pathology . It provides the foundation in understanding the nature and causes of communication disorders . In carrying out clinical work , linguistic knowledge is applied in identifying and assessing speech and language disorders in children and adults , as well as in planning and performing appropriate therapeutic interventions . Linguistic theories provided a distinction between speech and language . Saussure , the founder of modern linguistics , contributed the basis of explaining spoken communication . is a physiological act made by an individual , which results in the production of physical sound waves that is considered of having concrete existence . Language is a psychological abstract that does not have substance but exist as a ' form ' in the shared knowledge of a linguistic community . Within language , it can be divided into aspects , language execution ( expression ) and language reception ( comprehension ) ( , ) . Thus , speech impairment can be differentiated from language impairment . Assessment and diagnosis of speech and language disorders is built on the linguistic - descriptive approach . The method is based on describing language , using metalanguage , at different levels of the linguistic hierarchy . The frame work of linguistic components is illustrated in Figure ( adapted from , ) . < figure/>The different levels of language , which are briefly defined in the following ( Fromkin , , ) , are important in providing a systematic linguistic analysis . < list > Phonetics - The study of linguistics speech sounds ; how they are produced ( articulatory phonetics ) , how they are perceived ( auditory phonetics ) , and their physical aspects ( acoustic phonetics)Phonology - The study of sound system of a language ; includes the inventory of sounds ( phonetic and phonemic units ) and the rules for their combination and pronunciationMorphology - The study of structure of words ; includes the rules of word formationSyntax - The study of rules of sentence formation ; it represents speaker 's knowledge of the structure of phrases and sentencesSemantics - The study of linguistic meaning of morphemes , words , phrases and sentencesPragmatics - The study of how context and situation affects meaning < /list > It is important to recognize that although language can be separated into multiple levels , each linguistic level interacts and has influence on one another . A breakdown in any of the linguistic levels will result atypical communication condition . I would further discuss the links between linguistics with speech and language pathology , including its role in assessment and management , with reference to communication disorders : < list>(a ) speech disorder developed in children with cleft palate(b ) language disorder acquired by adults with aphasia < /list > Cleft palate is a congenital malformation that involves the hard or soft palate or both , unilaterally or bilaterally . There is sub - mucous cleft where the surface of the palate appears intact in contrast with overt cleft . It is a type of articulatory disorder , which may be accompanied with or without phonological consequences . Knowledge in phonetics , especially articulatory phonetics in this case , is crucial in understanding the pathology of cleft palate . Majority of consonants are oral sounds produced with a velic closure , where a sufficient air pressure is achieved in the mouth ; except for the nasal consonants [ m ] , [ n ] and [ ŋ ] , which is produced by lowering the velum to allow air flow through the nose . Problem in the velopharyngeal mechanism in children with cleft palate causes hypernasality . Hypernasality can also be influenced by degree of mouth opening , tongue position and relationship of maxilla and mandible ( , ) . A nasal snort , a disturbance caused by nasal emission may be heard . Due to velopharyngeal insufficiency , with air escaping into the nose , oral plosives may be substituted by glottal stops where manner of articulation is maintained but there is a shift of place as a compensation to achieve plosion . Misuse of larynx in glottal articulation results a harsh quality phonation with uncontrolled loudness ( , ) . ( , cited in , ) stated that there is also a tendency for contacts to the back of the mouth . Backing , is a deviation from normal speech development , for example in [ gægi ] for ' daddy ' , which is different from the stopping of fricatives in [ tu ] for ' sue ' and cluster reduction in [ pun ] for ' spoon ' that are observed as part of the normal development process in children . Dental abnormalities and malocclusion between the upper and lower jaw may be present in children with cleft palate and interfere in speech production of fricatives / s / , / z / , / ʃ / , / ʒ / , / f / and / v / and alveolar plosives / t / and / d /. A compensatory substitution for labiodental [ f ] and [ v ] with bilabial [ ɸ ] and [ β ] may be seen ( , ) . Phonetic impairment may lead to phonological impairment of reduced phonological contrast , for example when the child produces both alveolar fricative / s / and postalveolar fricative / ʃ / as palatal [ ç ] by saying [ çəʊ ] for both ' sew ' and ' show ' . The child with cleft palate may be subjected to language delay . Hearing impairment resulting from chronic otitis media as well as malfunction in the opening and closing of the tube can reduce auditory input and feedback , which consequently slows the development of language comprehension and expressive language . Besides taking a thorough medical history of the size and extent of the cleft including any surgical repair done or any usage of palatal training appliance or obturator , a descriptive profile of the child 's speech and language abilities is made , for example by collecting a phonetic inventory as well as conducting ( PACS ) . Instrumental articulatory phonetics such as the electropalatograph may also be used . Phonetic and phonological analysis helps to estimate the developmental level areas associated with language acquisition . Intervention is performed through play . Articulatory therapy , with preparatory work focusing on auditory discrimination using minimal pairs , should be progressive ; plosive sounds should be tackled before the fricatives and affricatives in coherence with the normal development sequence . Initial focus is placed in facilitating the production of sounds in isolation and then into simple nonsense CV syllables and followed by meaningful words . Further consonants of a similar group might be elicited through the consonant acquired , for example , firstly acquired [ ʃ ] can be modified to produce [ s ] . Complexity of the phonetic context of target sound should be gradually increased , for example , practice / t / at the final position of the word as in ' hat ' before going into initial position as in ' top ' which requires additional aspiration component . Appropriate progression will strengthen the sensorimotor patterns and achieve desired modification of the child 's ( , , cited in , ) . Speech production requires rapid and precise movements . Therefore , the child with cleft palate is encouraged to experiment with his articulatory ability to try a wider range of speech and to boost sensory feedback of oral kinesthetic and proprioceptive information . Next , let us look into aphasia in adults . is the loss or impairment of language function caused by brain damage . Brain damage can be due to various problems such as cerebrovascular accident , brain trauma or encephalitis infections . can affect different modalities of language , not only speaking , but also reading ( such as alexia ) and writing ( such as agraphia ) . In this discussion , I will focus only on spoken language in aphasics . There are many classification systems for aphasia . Some uses localization of brain damage such as aphasia ( frontal , where 's area is associated with serial organization and motor programming ) , aphasia ( temporal , where the 's area is associated with spoken language comprehension ) or conduction aphasia ( parietal ) , while others refer to the speech pattern , using the dichotomy of fluent and non - fluent aphasia , as well as grammatic and agrammatic aphasia . It should be noted that there is a lot of variation in aphasia as no individual 's brain anatomy and physiology as well as language usage are identical . Alongside , the location and the extent of damage generate different manifestations with different severity ( , ) . Descriptive linguistics and structured analysis is used to detect impaired linguistic skills caused by the brain damage , as well as to determine linguistic performance that is unaffected . Assessment is made by communicating with the patient through conversation , making relevant observation and accurate transcription , and implementing appropriate linguistic test . Below is some language impairment at different linguistic levels that may be found in aphasic patients : < heading > Phonetics and phonology Speech apraxia Production of non - fluent speech with phonetic errors and also phonological errors that fail to comply with phonotactic rules due to problem in phonetic planning , ( , cited in , ) suggested that there is breakdown in preparation of representation for articulation and programming of the articulators . Phonemic paraphasiaProduction of fluent speech with phonemic errors of omissions , additions , displacement and substitution that comply with phonotactic rules , for example ' squottle ' for ' bottle ' . Garrett ( , cited in , ) proposed that the word meaning is accessed but its phonological form is impaired . Neologism , the production of bizarre meaningless word , may result from severe phonemic paraphasia where a random selection of phonemes is made. Syntax AgrammatismDescribed as a non - fluent output , appearing as telegraphic speech , where content words especially nouns are used in greater extend than grammatical words , for example ' Boy home ' for ' The boy went home ' . Grammatical morphemes such as affixes are often omitted ( , as a fluent output , consisting grammatical errors , that violates the normative morphosyntactic rules . Unlike in agrammatism , grammatical morphemes are overuse and rarely omitted while content words are instead lacking . This may be due to difficulties in syntactic selection and organization. Semantics CircumlocutionTalking around and describing the target word ( for example , ' soft ' for ' snow ' ) . In severe case , empty speech such as ' it is over there , like the other one , the one he has ' is produced . Semantic paraphasiaProduction of a real word that has either the same grammatical function or has semantic association with the target word ( for example , ' walking ' for ' running').Verbal paraphasiaProduction of a real word that has the same grammatical function but no semantic association with the target word ( for example , ' walking ' for ' wishing').Perseveration paraphasiaProduction of word expressed in previous context , which is inappropriately repeated in later utterance. Aphasic connected speech may present with word searching behavior such as pauses , hesitation and re - attempts of sounds , syllables or words , which display awareness of difficulty in word retrieval and production of lexical items . < heading > Pragmatics Holland ( ) stated that pragmatic skills are particularly resilient in aphasia and a certain level of communicative competence can be achieved . Although speech may be unintelligible or absent , aphasic patients are able to use non - verbal signals to convey their intentions through eye gaze , facial expression as well as gesture . There are exceptions where pragmatic problems do occur , when the brain damage is widespread and affects the right hemisphere . Patients may ignore turn - taking , as well as continue to jargon ( production of incomprehensible utterances ) in spite of negative feedback from conversational partner . Comprehension in word level is affected when there is a failure to activate the phonological structure responsible in spoken word recognition , or when there is a problem in evoking appropriate sense relation , may it be reference , hyponymy , antonomy , or synonomy . In sentence level , a comprehension breakdown may be caused by phonological , syntactic , semantic or pragmatic deficit , or attention , memory or other cognitive problem ( , ) . . Therapy is tailored according to the specific language deficit that is found in the particular aphasic patient . For example , phonological therapy , which concentrates on analyzing word shapes and practicing naming , making rhyming judgments about words and naming pictures with phonemic cues , can be applied to tackle phonological deficit ( , , cited in , ) . therapy such as for Syntax Stimulation ( HELPSS ) ( , , cited in , ) can be carried out to help to expand the complexity and range of syntactic structures in agrammatic patients with syntactic deficit . Semantic therapy involving word - picture - matching task that requires appropriate selection of an item from a spoken name , and written label , as well as categorizing tasks are directed to remediate semantic deficit of word retrieval error ( , cited in , ) . Residual function should be utilized besides focusing on correcting language impairment present . It is also important to target items with high degree of relevance to the individual and in everyday context of communication . Strategies such as emphasizing key words at the end of sentence , giving time to respond , repetition to clarify and providing cues to help linguistic access can support better outcome in communication . In conclusion , the study of linguistics provides a vital framework for assessment and treatment for speech and language disorders . Application of linguistic principles , combined with the knowledge of psycholinguistics and anatomy , enables a holistic approach towards communication disorders .",0 "< abstract > Crystal violet undergoes readily hydrolysis to its carbinol form . The order of reaction with respect to crystal violet and sodium hydroxide have been found to be both one . The rate constant for the reaction has been measured at different temperatures and the activation energy calculated . The effect of adding inert salts and to the system has been shown to slow down the rate of reaction , and the mixing of acetone or methanol into the reaction as solvents have shown ambiguous results as to what reaction pathways are possible . < /abstract>1 . Introduction violet ( ) is a large polyaromatic structure that undergoes hydrolysis to form a carbinol compound . Crystal violet in aqueous solution is violet , but the carbinol derivative is colourless , thus making the rate of reaction ideal for study in UV - Visible spectrometry . < figure/>Many studies have already been conducted on this reaction , finding the order with respect to and hydroxide ion alongside more complicated factors affecting kinetics such as : varying the inert salt present in solution and varying the solvent the experiment is conducted in . The aim of this brief study was to determine the order of reaction with respect to , , look at the effect of adding inert salts and KNO 3 on the rate of reaction , and the effect of different solvent mixtures acetone : water , methanol : water on the rate of reaction . The underlying premise of the kinetic studies is : FORMULA ( ) Where A is the absorbance , c is the concentration of solution ( mol dm -3 ) , l is the path length of the cuvette ( cm ) , and is the molar extinction coefficient in mol -1 dm -3 . By using a UV - Visible spectrometer to measure the absorbance vs time , concentrations can be calculated at time t , and thus the rate of reaction calculated . < heading>2 . Experimental2.1 The wavelength at which the absorbance of in water was determined by performing a scan nm to find max . This was found to be nm , see figure . The extinction coefficient at this wavelength is mol -1 dm -3 [ 1 ] . Previous experiments used concentrations -6 - 5.5 x 10 -6 mol dm -3 [ ] , and therefore with a stock solution of x 10 -4 mol dm -3 it was necessary to dilute the solution by a factor of . The low concentration is necessary due to the poor solubility of the product [ ] . The concentration of stock solution provided was questioned when the absorbance read at the beginning of the reaction 0.056 instead of the expected ( using ) ~0.6 . Using ( ) and the extinction coefficient , it was calculated that the stock solution was of concentration x -5 mol dm -3 and as such only required dilution by a factor of . The experiments were conducted in a thermally equilibrated UV - Visible spectrometer . The solutions of ( -3 ) , water , ( -6 mol dm -3 ) were all held to rest in the water bath for prior to a run . Water and crystal violet were added to a cuvette , then the sodium hydroxide . The cuvette was then inverted twice to ensure good mixing , and then placed in the UV - Visible spectrometer where the absorbance was measured . Experiments were run between temperature range - 307 K , and the dependence of the hydroxide ion and determined by varying the concentration of between mol dm -3 and mol dm -3 . Results were repeated and then gradients of the graphs averaged . < heading>2.2 solutions of mol dm -3 CaCl 2 and -3 KNO 3 were prepared . Concentrations of -3 were added to set concentrations of and OH- at K and experiments run as described in . < heading>2.3 Solvent Effects Instead of using water in cuvettes ; a 50:50 ratio of acetone : water and a 50:50 ratio of methanol : water mixtures were used , carrying out the same experiment as outlined in section at different temperatures ranging from Quartz cuvettes were used since acetone dissolves standard plastic cuvettes . The cuvettes were cleaned and dried with air before use every time to ensure clean . < heading>3 . Theory3.1 Orders of reaction with respect to OH- and CV The rate of reaction is thought to be dependant upon the concentration of OH- and : Rate of reaction = FORMULA ( ) Where a and b are the orders of reaction with respect to OH- and respectively and the rate of reaction can be thought as the rate of consumption of : FORMULA ( ) Thus by measuring the reaction as a function of absorbance over time , we can calculate the concentration of at that time , and thus by various plots work out the rate constant . By putting OH- in vast excess of CV it can as such be treated as constant : FORMULA ( ) FORMULA ( 5 ) If the reaction is zeroth order with respect to then a plot of vs time should be a straight line . If a plot of -ln(Absorbance ) vs time is straight then that means it is order with respect to , and if a plot of vs time means that is order with respect to . This is due to the different integrated rate laws ; order rate law : FORMULA ( ) FORMULA ( 7 ) order rate law : FORMULA ( To determine the order of reaction with respect to OH- , the logarithm of ( 5 ) can be taken to give : FORMULA ( 9 ) Thus by plotting log kobs vs different [ OH- ] , will yield a graph with gradient b. From the rate constants at different temperatures by use of the Arrhenius equation , ) can be determined : FORMULA ( ) Where R is the molar gas constant ( J mol -1 K -1 ) , T is the temperature in Kelvin and A is a pre - multiplicative constant . By plotting ln k vs. 1 / T , -Ea / R is found to be the gradient . < heading>3.2 > The kinetic salt effect is based on the principle that by adding inert salt to a system it will change the rate of reaction but play no part in the reaction itself . FORMULA ( 11 ) If the reactive species coming ( A and B ) together to form reactive complex have like charges , adding inert salt increases the rate of the reaction , whereas if the reactive species have different charges adding inert salt decreases the rate of reaction . The formation of a single , highly charged ionic complex from less highly charged ions is favoured by high ionic strength because the new ion has a denser ionic atmosphere and interacts more strongly , and as such the reactive intermediate complex is more stable than if it were in the solution without inert salt and thus increases the rate of reaction . For ions of opposite charge coming together to form reactive complex intermediate- the charges on the complex cancel and as such the higher the ionic strength of the solution- the less favourable the interactions with the solution and decreases the rate of reaction . [ 4 ] This is the theory behind in the kinetic salt equation : FORMULA ( ) Where A= , zA and are the charges on ions A and B respectively . I is the ionic strength of the solution : FORMULA ( ) Where ci is the individual concentration of the constituent ions , zi is the charge on those constituent ions . Within limiting law , this allows the elucidation of the charges on the reactive species that come together to form the reactive intermediate by plotting log kobs / k(I=0 ) vs. I1/2 . The gradient gives 2 A zA zB. < heading>3.3 Solvent Effects The interaction between solvent and solute is key and critical to determining kinetics of a reaction in organic chemistry especially- such as the stabilisation of carbocation intermediates by an electron rich donor solvent , or the competition of nucleophiles . Also the solute - solute interactions also have a part to play on this effect . < heading>4 . Results and Discussion4.1 Order of reaction with respect to and OH- Linear plots of -ln ( Absorbance ) vs time were obtained , establishing the order with respect to from integrated rate laws is ; a= 1- see figure . < figure/>Values of kobs were calculated by using ( 7 ) , at different concentrations of OH- were obtained and tabulated in table . < table/>(6 ) shows that a plot of log kob vs log [ OH- ] ( see figure ) will yield the gradient b - the order of reaction with respect to OH- . Microcal Origin software calculated the gradient as 1.026- rounding to the nearest integer means the order with respect to OH- is one also . < figure/>Thus equation ( ) can be updated to : Rate of reaction = FORMULA ( ) < heading>4.2 Calculation of Activation Energy The observed rate constants were found at different temperatures and tabulated in table . As expected the rate constant increased with temperature due to the more internal energy in the system , making it a lot easier to cross energetic barrier from reactants to products . < table/>Using ( ) , figure was obtained : < figure/>The gradient was calculated using microcal origin to be -6641.6 = -Ea / R. Thus , by multiplication of - R ; Ea = kJ mol -1 . The intercept was = ln A. Thus A = 127 9800 mol -1 dm s -1 . By manipulating the Eyring equation into a different form : FORMULA ( ) As such at K H‡ = kJ mol -1 , and [ ] states it to be kJ mol -1 , thus within of literature value . < heading>4.3 Kinetic Salt Effect By adding to reaction it was found that it slowed the reaction down quite considerably ( k0= mol -1 dm s -1 ) as can be seen tabulated in table . This consistent with predictions that the reactive species are the same magnitude and of opposite charge . Thus expect gradient = -1 . ( zA zB = -1 x = -1 ) . < table/>Using ( ) figure was obtained : < figure/>Microcal origin calculated the gradient to be -0.670 . Thus in line with predictions however the magnitude infers that it is not purely a case of the species and OH- coming together to react . And that perhaps there is an alternative reaction pathway competing as mentioned in [ ] . By adding 3 to reaction it was found that it slowed the reaction down quite considerably as can be seen tabulated in table ( k0= mol -1 dm s -1 ) , this is in line with the prediction that the reactive species are of the same magnitude and opposite charge . Thus predict gradient = -1 . ( zA zB = -1 x = -1 ) . < table/>Using ( ) figure was obtained : < figure/>However microcal origin calculated the gradient to be -0.640 . Thus the sign is correct , but as with , the magnitude is wrong . The inert salts should have the same effect on the rate of reaction- just providing a stronger background ion atmosphere . The results here are inconclusive and go against what expectations . As such , the only the explanation in [ ] that there is a competing reverse reaction ( going from to ) contributing to these anomalies . < heading>4.4 Solent Effects As in , the calculation of the activation energy can elaborate any change of kinetics by comparing to original results . Here an acetone : water 50:50 mixture was used , and the following rate constants obtained . The rates increased in comparison to pure water solution . < table/>Using ( ) the figure was plotted : < figure/>However microcal origin calculated the gradient to be -8897.7 . Thus Ea = kJ mol -1 . Using ( ) at , H‡ = kJ mol -1 . The fact the rate increases however the activation energy is also larger is against expectation . However is in line with literature values ; the rate constant at for a 50:50 water : acetone mixture is mol -1 dm s -1 [ ] , and these experiments calculate it to be mol -1 dm s -1 . The discrepancies in activation energy and rate can be explained by the fact that acetone is a more polar solvent than water , and as such can help donate electron density to the unstable carbocation of crystal violet , as such this would increase the rate of reaction , however the activation energy is now higher due to the incoming nucleophile having to break the stronger- Van der Waals forces between the substrate and the solvent . A mixture was used ; methanol : water in a 50:50 ratio . This yielded a rapid exponential decay curve of Absorbance vs time graph ( see figure 8) . < figure/>When trying to apply the order integrated rate law , a non - linear graph was produced ( see figure . ) < figure/>It was evident that the reaction was occurring at a much larger rate and was almost over in the s ; thus a nd order plot using ( was applied yielding a linear plot . < figure/>More data was complied thus over a range of temperatures in table . < table/>Using the Arrhenius equation this yielded figure < figure/>Which microcal origin calculated the gradient as : -4760.7 , thus the activation energy is a lot lower and kJ mol-1 . is a competing nucleophile , and as such changes the whole kinetics of the reaction to include the nucleophiles and as such is little interest or sense to this study . < heading>5 . Conclusions The results of the experiments have shown many important factors that affect the kinetics of the hydrolysis of crystal violet . Such as the order of reaction with respect to OH- and are both , but the effect of adding an inert salt to the solution proved that there is perhaps a secondary pathway of the reaction taking place also- which is also eluded to in [ 5 ] . The solvent effects were unexpected ; methanol especially exhibiting order reaction kinetics . Thus a competing nucleophilic attack , rather than a solvent effect- and as such a poor illustrator of the effects of solvent on the reaction kinetics . However the acetone results were good , and in line with literature data- and implying that the acetone stabilises the carbocation more readily than water ( increase in rate ) , but the OH- nucleophile has more difficulty displacing the acetone due to the stronger Van der Waals interaction occurring between and acetone and this is seen in a larger activation energy ( compared to water solvent ) . The accuracy obtained here when compared ( to the few experimental results available ) , shows that for a limited undergraduate set up the results are quite good . Ideally the reaction would be carried out in an inert nitrogen atmosphere , and all solvents properly degassed before used as well as crystal violet solid being prepared from scratch and re - crystallised before being made into a solution to increase purity of reagents . Alongside all experiments being repeated- to decrease the errors , however this would require more time than the three days provided . For the ionic salt effect , more results would need to be obtained to be more conclusive about another reaction pathway ; especially at very low ionic strength . Some of the higher ionic strength experiments conducted here were probably out of limiting laws and as such are unreliable . Also a larger range of salts could also be used to look at the effect . For the solvents , a wider range of solvents could be used to investigate solvent effects , however caution has to be applied when choosing a solvent ; since methanol was a competing nucleophile to hydroxide and change the whole kinetics of the situation . < heading>6 . Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge and thank my laboratory partner for the joint experimental results we obtained ; and for sharing their data on acetone : water solvent mixtures and ionic salt reactions . Also the demonstrators present in the laboratory for on hand assistance .","The extracts from the poems by , and by share a common theme which is that of cities . In the case of the poem , the city of . Whilst Hopkins ' laments the felling of poplars in the village of outside ' ( Spiro , handout ) , visualises a situation in an unknown city where fog dashes around the houses like a cat . In addition to the common elements of a rather negative description of a city and its happenings , both extracts from the much longer poems have some stylistic features in common , but at the same time are different in some instances of their use of sounds , words , figurative language , sentence structure and shapes and patterns . The extract from consists of stanza , written in the indicative and simple past as well as present perfect , which is comprised of lines following an irregular rhyme scheme - a b a c d a c c - with several internal rhymes between the words quelled and felled , dandled and sandaled , and the half rhyme between shadow and meadow . Furthermore , the poem consists of iambic and trochaic feet , but there is no clear stress pattern which structures the whole poem . The alliteration of the initial sounds such as [ kw ] in quelled and quenched , the lateral [ l ] in leaves and leaping , the fricatives [ f ] in felled , following and folded and [ s ] in sandalled , swam and sank and the approximant [ w ] in wind - wandering weed - winding as well as the assonance in leaves and leaping and in followed and folded show that the poem is characterised by its outstanding use of alliteration and assonance . The choice of these sounds has an effect on the poem , since the fricatives are linked with ' friction , hissing [ and ] scratching ' ( Carter , , p54 ) , which supports the ire of the poet as he sees the felled trees as well as the approximant [ w ] which can be regarded as a ' continuous [ flowing ] sound ' ( Carter , , p54 ) , representing the wind and the water mentioned at the end of the poem . Hopkins 's choice of words is based upon frequent alliteration and also upon his repetition of words such as quelled , felled and all . He even uses a repetition of a whole sentence pattern in line and line , giving the reader the feeling of an outcry and exclamatory emphasis . The change of semantics of the word wind in line is remarkable . Hopkins alters the word by adding - ing to it when it occurs for a time . Therefore the meaning , although the word winding reminds one strongly of the word wind , becomes different . An unusual word collocation can be found among line where Hopkins used an enjambment between the words sandalled and shadow . Whereas sandalled is normally linked with shoes and therefore with a person , it is now connected with shadow . In this , together with the use of dear in relation to my aspens , the poem shows an personification of nature and a metaphorical language . Hopkins 's metaphorical language is complemented by antonyms such as swam and sank or fresh and felled - pairs which interestingly consist of the same fricative sounds . This reveals how well structured and how elaborate the poem is , although it only consists of complex sentences . The fragment of is composed of stanza , written in the imperative , simple present , present continuous and simple past , offering a rather mystical view of an unknown city . The extract from the poem consists of lines in which only line and line rhyme with each other . Metrically , only line one and , due to their parallel structure , are equal , whereas the following lines have no continuous stress pattern . Alliteration can be found for the fricative sounds [ f ] in falls from , [ s ] in soot , slipped , sudden , seeing and soft as well as [ ð ] in the and that and in the lateral [ l ] at the beginning of line , four and five . As mentioned before , fricatives are regarded to cause ' friction ' ( Carter , , p54 ) , which the fog and smoke actually do in line and by rubbing their backs or muzzles against the window - panes . In addition to alliteration uses assonance in words such as leap and asleep . Eliot 's choice of words is characterised by the repetition of words such as back , upon and the different forms of the verb to fall . This repetition of individual words is complemented by the method of parallelism used in line one and . According to Short ( , p14 ) , the ' interesting [ thing ] about parallel structures , in addition to their perceptual prominence , is that they invite the reader to search for meaning connections between the parallel structures , in particular in terms of parts which are varied . ' By analysing the lines of this poem with regard to this statement , recognises that they are the only ones written in the simple present with a simple sentence structure and that within these lines only the nouns fog and back differ from smoke and muzzle . The very same words , together with several other words in this poem such as the combination of the words fog or smoke with rubs and tongue or the phrase corner of the evening , offer unusual collocations . Fog has no back , and smoke has no muzzle or tongue and neither of them can rub against window - panes . 's choice of such central nouns in the poem offers , along with his remarkable selection of verbs such as curled , licked or seeing , a dimension to the poem . Throughout the poem the reader has the feeling that the fog and smoke are behaving in the manner of a cat . This is extremely metaphorical language , where one can not be sure if ' the fog has turned into a cat , or [ if ] the cat has turned into the fog ' ( Spiro , , p63 ) , which makes use of the method of personification , or perhaps "" animalisation "" in this case . The word corner is normally used in conjunction with a building , shape , room or road and not , as the poem uses it , in the unusual collocation the corner of the evening , with a specific part of . Even the colour yellow which is normally seen as positive and can be connected with flowers or the sun , is attached to negative words such as fog and smoke . With this change to the usual semantics and 's playfulness with words in general , he emphasises the extraordinary events in this unknown city , where the cat seems to symbolise something positive in contrast to the rather negative fog and smoke . By comparing both poems to each other , one has to recognise that , although they are from different authors and were written at a different time , they are quite similar . Both poets make an extensive use of alliteration , assonance , metaphors and repetition , and share an extraordinary point of view of a city . Whereas Hopkins laments the deforestation of trees near , let us experience a city through the eyes of smoke , fog and a cat . Beside these similarities , each poem has its special features . has enjambments , internal rhymes and antonyms while offers a parallelism and an extraordinary use of verbs .",0 "The international legal sphere is a complex framework of symbiotic and interdependent relationships between states . The fact that there is hardly a coherent legal structure and legislating body to govern these fragile and fluid connections has led to considerable innovation . In order to give effect and substance to international law , jurists have debated about the role and significance of the various sources of international law . This essay will primarily explore the notion that the significance of custom is currently waning in international law . For purposes of limiting and focusing the discussion of this essay ; the analysis of other sources of law such as general principles of law , judicial decisions and teachings of highly qualified publicists enumerated in ) of the Statute of ( ) will not be included . Therefore , there will be an emphasis of custom in relation to international conventions , the use of force , and the role of peremptory norms ; jus cogens , and custom as a proxy for efficiency . This discussion will also include the inherent problems of the elements within custom ; state practice and opinio juris sive necessitatis ( therein referred to as opinio juris ) . Appropriate cases from the will also be referred to as a device in understanding the role of custom in earlier and more recent times . In addition , this essay will briefly discuss the importance of ' soft law ' such as the persuasive force of and of . Ergo by taking into consideration all aspects of law discussed in this essay , a conclusion will then be made as to whether custom is now of limited importance as a source of international law . Before starting on a substantive discussion of custom or customary law , it is essential to define ' source ' . "" By ' sources ' one means those provisions operating within the legal system on a technical level , and such ultimate sources as reason or morality are excluded ... "" However , the term ' source ' is in itself problematic as pointed out by that it is "" a figurative and highly ambiguous expression . "" International custom is listed in ) of the Statute of the "" as evidence of general practice accepted as law . "" It is widely accepted that important elements have to be complied with in order to form custom . These are ( ) state practice and ( ) opinio juris . It is thus regrettable that these elements pose the most problems in the formation of custom especially since they are the basis of custom formation . The requirements for constituting state practice are not coherent even though general principles have been expounded in cases brought before the . In cases , it was held that "" state practice , including that of states whose interests are specially affected , should [ be ] both extensive and virtually uniform ... "" Questions have arose regarding the usage of ' extensive ' and ' virtually uniform ' . Does this mean that consistent practice has to be adopted by all involving states and any irregularities on the part of a state signal a deviance from uniformity ? It has been argued that such a deviance is unlawful if indeed a custom has been formed . However , this raises the alleged theory of the ' persistent objector ' . Thus , it is apparent that custom is plagued with uncertainties that serve to perpetuate mounting criticism on it . Another inherent complication within custom is that of opinio juris . This is termed the ' psychological element ' "" or belief that a state activity is legally obligatory . "" There is a sense of circularity in this requirement . In order to create a new custom , there must be a belief by states involved that such a norm is already legally binding . As encapsulated by and , "" The idea of opinio juris is mysterious because the legal obligation is created by a state 's belief in the existence of the legal obligation . "" Therefore it seems rather inefficient to determine a formation of custom on a belief that custom is already in existence . It is exactly because the existence of opinio juris can not be effectively determined that custom is of limited importance in international law . The uncertainties surrounding the requirements of state practice and opinio juris make it difficult for states to depend on custom as a source of international law . For example , in order to establish a concrete argument based on custom , there must also be a concrete basis for an argument ; that would be custom itself . So without certainty it seems that custom is now of limited importance ; it will possibly be relegated to the bottom if its problems are not dealt with . However there is also the argument that custom is rendered flexible without these precise set of requirements . This is linked with the argument that customary international law as a judicial tool promotes efficiency . The facts of this discussion will be expounded in the next section . < fnote > Shaw , , International Law , ed . , , , p.66 . < /fnote> Kunz , , ' The Nature of Customary International Law ' , , Vol.47 , , ,1953 , p.663 URL . < /fnote> North Sea Continental Shelf Cases ( ) , at p.44 ( para.74 ) < /fnote> See Cassese , , International Law , ed . , , , . argues that "" the contention is warranted that a is not entitled to claim that it is not bound by a new customary rule because it consistently opposed it before it ripened into a customary rule . "" < /fnote> Shaw , , International Law , ed . , , , p.80 . < /fnote> Goldsmith , , , , , , p.24 . < /fnote> See Benvenisti , , , The Impact of International Law on International Cooperation : Theoretical Perspectives , 1st ed . , , . < /fnote > Custom may at closer inspection still retain its importance in international law especially in relation to states that are not parties to a particular convention . Therefore allowing some sort of judicial activism to manifest itself and manipulate custom to promote efficiency . As per Benvenisti , "" efficiency is the underlying principle- the grundnorm- of customary international law . "" established the concept of grundnorm and according to , "" the grundnorm is a logical necessity for all normative systems . "" But judicial activism is itself another source of debate as judges are not allowed to make law in a course of proceedings . Instead judges are to apply the law . But it is evident that custom is used as a judicial tool to create new law as highlighted in the decisions of the , v. . In the former , "" it reveals the judges of the [ ICJ ] deciding the content of customary international law on a tabula rasa . "" So according to , the judges circumvented the requirements of state practice and opinio juris by simply deciding that the latter was furnished by the former and loosely interpreting state practice . The impetus for such a decision was probably due to strong convictions among the majority judges that there should be a customary international law governing the use of force in that instance . In "" the distorted the logic of the [ Watercourses Convention ] and treated it as an empty vessel into which it injected its own contradictory vision , pouring new law in old bottles . "" Thus to circumvent the problematic requirements ; state practice and opinio juris the exploited customs ' inherent vagueness to promote ' efficiency ' . It can be clearly seen that it is exactly the existence of these problems that eventually lead to efficiency . But is there really efficiency ? If to promote efficiency means to create uncertainty and vagueness , surely international law is better off with a coherent set of rules and requirements . Therefore custom may indeed be of limited importance in light of this discussion . Jus cogens or peremptory norms are argued by to be "" a special class of general rules made by custom [ that ] has been endowed with a special legal force . "" This means that these norms such as slavery and genocide can not be derogated from . So is jus cogens a ' super - custom ' or just another form of international law ? If we take the former approach that it is a higher derivative of custom then the latter is by no means limited in its importance . Custom 's potential role is then to maintain the current peremptory norms and lay the foundation for the formation of others , and thereby promoting issues of humanitarian law . Another informal source of international law termed ' soft law ' has been a source of debate among jurists in . "" [ ' Soft law ' ] is a body of standards , commitments , joint statements , or declarations of policy or intention . "" The complication is whether ' soft law ' has any binding effect . It is generally held that they do not and therefore are held to be only of persuasive force . It has been stated by commentators that ' soft law ' complements custom in some sense . This is because they help furnish custom with the necessary state practice and opinio juris requirements by providing evidence ; in the form of basic evidential documents and negotiations within international organizations . This is supported by who states that "" [ a]s well as constituting state practice ... such resolutions [ are ] evidence of the existence of or evolution towards an opinio juris without which a custom can not arise . "" It is now easier to satisfy and prove the requirements for the formation of custom with the additional assistance of ' soft law ' such as declarations . This will then prevent the time lag and uncertainty related to custom and subsequently proving that custom is still as important in international law as before . < fnote > Ibid . p.88 . < /fnote> Kammerhofer , Jorg , ' Uncertainty in the Formal Sources of International Law : Customary International Law and Some of Its Problems ' , ( ) , p. . URL . < /fnote> Benvenisti , , , op.cit . note , p.86 . It is argued that the has the authority to create new customs as long as it is the only insitution capable of making such decisions at the material time . < /fnote> D'Amato , Anthony , ' Trashing Customary International Law ' , , Vol.81 , ( ) , - 105 , p.101 - . URL . < /fnote> Benvenisti , , , The Impact of International Law on International Cooperation : Theoretical Perspectives , 1st ed . , , , p.86 . < /fnote> Shaw , , International Law , ed . , , , p.109 . < /fnote > The relationship between custom and treaty is indeed a complex one . It is generally accepted by jurists that a hierarchy of sources of international law do not exist . So both custom and treaty are on equal footing . But important maxims have to be taken into account ; lex posterior generalis non derogat priori specialis , lex posterior generalis derogat priori and lex specialis derogat legi generalis . Custom has been slowly losing its importance as a source of international law ever since . This is evident with the increasing codification of international law in the form of treaties such as the Charter of , the on the Law of Treaties and the Genocide Convention . of the reasons why treaties have surpassed custom in terms of importance is that the formation of the latter is rather time - consuming . Thus custom may be "" outdated and archaic "" when it does come into force and "" as a result states , recognizing the inadequacy of a customary rule [ fall ] into the habit of violating it because of that inadequacy . "" But "" [ t]reaties , on the other hand , are a more direct and formal method of international law creation . "" So formulating a new law by way of treaty produces quicker and arguably better results notwithstanding that some states may simply choose not to be parties to it . for instance is not a party to the Rome Statue . Therefore in some cases custom may have a wider ambit than treaties and consequently wider influence . Treaties are specific in nature and have a degree of certainty because only the states to the treaty can be bound by the law . Custom is applicable to all states that have fulfilled the requirements of state practice and opinio juris and even in cases where there is only acquiescence . Therefore , it is argued by that custom based on Western homogeneous values are being placed on other diverse legal orders not necessarily sharing such values . But if those values are positive values that for example encourage the protection of human rights then surely custom is doing something right . intervention is a contentious issue and to argue that customary international law exists or should exist to prevent gross violations of human rights is not a question for this essay . However if there were custom in that aspect and assuming it were properly utilised without the risk of abuse by powerful states , it would serve nation states well by safeguarding the sanctity of human life . Every state would then be bound . This is unlike treaties where "" they only bind ... the that have agreed to be bound by their provisions . "" Treaties themselves are also inherently problematic and may lack certain substance because of being improperly worded and interpreted . for example is non - retroactive and so can not prosecute atrocities committed prior to its coming into force . Custom therefore has an important role to play in instances where treaties do not possess their full weight . In addition custom still retains its importance in relation to the customary principle of "" pacta sunt servanda "" ; which is "" the bedrock of the customary international law of treaties . "" < fnote > Von Glahn , , Law among Nations : An Introduction to Public International Law , ed . , , , . < /fnote> Shaw , , International Law , ed . , , , p.810 . < /fnote> See , , op.cit . note , p.23 < /fnote> Cassese , , International Law , ed . , , , p.170 . < /fnote> See : Non - retroactivity ratione personae , of ( entered into force on ) URL . < /fnote> Editor : , , A Dictionary of Law , ed . , , p.350 . < /fnote > The question is whether "" custom is now of limited importance as a source of law . "" So is it ? By summarizing all the facts that been discussed above it seems that the inherent problems such as state practice and opinio juris in custom do contribute to its slow formation in international law . However , one has to bear in mind that even treaties have its fair share of complications as evident in . It by no means imply that custom is now limited as a source of international law due to certain weaknesses in its formation . The significant role that custom plays in relation to humanitarian law is justified by the argument that it is a judicial tool for promoting efficiency . This is done by allowing judges to manipulate its vagueness and as such circumventing problematic requirements in order to produce efficiency in international law . Custom is also arguably the basis on which peremptory norms are formed notwithstanding contrary arguments . This prevents gross violations of human rights such as slavery and genocide and thus is beneficial in maintaining the protection of those rights . The emergence of ' soft law ' has also to a certain extent reinforced the importance of custom . This is because there is now additional assistance in providing a substantial and more accurate basis for the formation of custom . Custom is therefore still intact , not limited in its importance and still surviving . Taking the words of , "" [ c]ustom lives . "" This is in contrast to and 's theory that lambastes the role of custom and argues that it has no real , significant role in international law with respect to relations between states . < fnote > F.Vagts , Detlev , ' International Relations Looks at Customary International Law : A Traditionalist 's Defence ' , . ( ) , p.6 . URL . < /fnote> See Goldsmith , , , , , ) < /fnote > This essay has argued on both sides of the discussion that "" custom is now of limited importance as source of international law . "" By analysing the inherent problems within custom , namely state practice and opinio juris and linking this argument with the notion of efficiency , it is found that it by no means imply that custom is of limited importance just because of certain weaknesses . The uncertainty and vagueness apparent in custom can arguably be ' cured ' by judicial action or rather judges using custom as a judicial tool to promote efficiency . This was evidenced by the decisions of ; v. and . The essay then goes on to briefly discuss jus cogens as a sort of ' super - custom ' and that custom provides a basis for jus cogens in relation to humanitarian law such as slavery and genocide . It was also argued that with the emergence of ' soft law ' that includes there is now additional assistance to prove the formation of custom in international law . As this makes it easier to provide a more accurate basis on which custom is formed then the latter still retains its importance . The essay then concludes by summarizing the different facts discussed and , subsequently arguing that custom is not of limited importance as a source of international law in recent times despite some apparent weaknesses .","< heading>1 . Introduction The central aim of this report is to investigate to what extent students are interested in history . However , the report concentrates not only on particular branch of history , but its questionnaire covers a wide range of different situations that are connected to history . This includes history both as a subject at school and as one 's own leisure activity . It can not be argued that history is quite an important factor in our daily life and it helps the people to understand the present ( see Crabtree , ) . , for example , has still a deep impact on certain 's political and diplomatic decisions . The is mostly associated with the Age of British Empire . Box - office hits like "" Troy "" or "" Gladiator "" pick up a motive of the ancient or Roman history and tell a story about passed times . Old cities like , which have seen many centuries passing by , are full of beautiful architecture and the of tourists are proof that many people are still interested in history . The survey for this report may not be necessarily valid for the whole population , because the sample it is based on is relatively small . Thus , in order to give a more comprehensive view on students ' interest in history , the findings of this survey will also be compared to the findings of other , larger surveys . < heading>2 . Procedure The survey for this report was conducted at , between the th and th of . students , with equal numbers of males and females , were chosen at random , provided only that they were not students of the history department . They were asked to complete a questionnaire of questions . Apart from the questions , the purpose of which was to check the gender and age of the student , all others focused on the particular student 's general interest in history ( see appendix for a copy of the original questionnaire ) . < heading>3 . Findings The questions asked the students about their gender and age . As mentioned before , the number of male and female was equal and the majority of them ( ) was . stated that they were and were . The following questions were related to history as a subject at school . In the one , the interviewees had to give their opinion about the statement : I enjoyed history at school . A clear majority ( ) answered , that they agreed with it , while disagreed and strongly agreed with it . This result corresponds with the opinion of academics , who think that history as a subject has been remaining popular among students over ( see Halpin , ) . The statement of the question was that history is a very important subject at school . Like before , the majority ( ) agreed and even strongly agreed to it . However , each stated that they did not know or disagreed . The next questions concerned the different aspects and periods of history . Here , the students could choose answer . Most of them ( ) said they are interested in military aspects , followed by political / diplomatic and science / technology aspects ( both ) and ethnic aspects ( ) . of the interviewees expressed an interest in religion or economy / business . A small minority of each stated either an interest in women 's history or no interest at all . The most popular epoch with was modern history , followed by ancient history ( ) . of the students favoured medieval history and showed no particular interest in any period . This result is largely in accordance with the report by , which stated that too many students opt for and that "" the era had become an obsession "" ( Halpin 2003 ) . When subsequently asked how often they go to museums , the majority of answered that they visit a museum once a year , compared with who go . each stated that they go either almost never or . The majority of the interviewees ( ) preferred art museums , followed by natural science ( ) , historical ( ) and technical museums ( ) . The last questions wanted to shed light on the student interest in the history of - the city in which every one of them was studying . A majority of had an interest in the university city , while were not sure and did not care about as a historical city . However , none of who have shown an interest in the city and no one of the others knew what "" "" was . < heading>4 . Discussion The oral interviews suggest that many students are aware of the importance of history at school ( ) , even if they did not enjoy their history lessons ( ) . In addition , it seems that the interviewees have a wide range of different historical aspects which they are interested in . It was only the military aspect which had a small majority of . Surprisingly , here the students ' opinion differs significantly from the survey by and : in their evaluation the most frequent answers according to the interest were social , ethnic and science / technology aspects . It is also interesting , that in this large survey , the women 's aspect was the strongest result ( see Cassanello and Murphree , no date ) , compared with the weakest result here ( ) . The fact that expressed an interest in ancient history and in medieval history is also quite interesting : Halpin quotes in his report some academics who claim that students nowadays are only interested in modern history ( see Halpin 2003 ) , but this is not the case in this report . In comparison with who favoured modern history , the combination of ancient and medieval history gains a clear majority ( ) . Crabtree argues that the modern society "" has turned its back on the past "" not because of a lack of information , but because of indifference ( ) . This statement may be right for of the interviewees who said that they almost never go to museums . However , the clear majority of who goes once a year , every six or every three months implies that many people are still quite interested in history , especially in the history of arts ( ) . Furthermore , there is also a great interest ( ) in the history of . It is nevertheless astonishing that not one of the students knew what "" "" - a popular museum about the history of was . < heading>5 . Conclusion The results of this report show that students are still interested in history and think it is a subject of high importance at school . It may be assumed , according to the high percentage ( ) who have enjoyed history lessons at school , that these students will try to broaden their historical knowledge in their free - time . The great number of the interviewees who go at least once a year to a museum ( ) also imply interest in history during leisure time . Moreover , the report has proved that the interviewees are not only interested in modern history , but also in ancient and medieval history , however , with a strong accent on the traditional military aspect . < heading>6 . Evaluation When I read the assignment for the report I was a little bit confused at the beginning , because I 've never written a report like this one before . I knew how to compile and evaluate a questionnaire , but I was not sure about how to put the different parts of the report in the correct order . It was also a little difficult for me to stay away from over - colourful expressions and long sentences , because last semester I did an language course which was specialised on descriptive essays . Consequently , it was quite hard at the beginning to get into the academic , objective language . Another complicated task was to find secondary sources . After an exhausting and exhaustive search in the electronic library and on the internet , I was relieved that I had found articles which were finally related in some ways to my topic . All in all , I enjoyed it very much to interview other students and got quite excited when I evaluated their answers . I was surprised that almost every interviewee was immediately willing to read and answer my questionnaire . Some of them even wanted to know the results of the evaluation .",0 "< heading > Introduction The aim of this essay is to examine how different sectors of the leisure industry contribute to the provision of leisure opportunities in the . It will do this by examining each sector in turn and then drawing conclusions . < heading > Public Sector The public sector plays an important role in providing leisure facilities in the . Both central and local government are involved . In central government , organisation of leisure responsibilities involves major departments - The Departments of Environment , Education and , and . There are also government agencies , quangos and non - departmental public bodies e.g. , . The government works with and through these to provide for recreation . They assist with planning , provision and management . The local authority has a large input into leisure provision - in local government spent under the revenue budget headings of recreation and leisure [ , . ] The local authority provides some facilities for general public use e.g. swimming pools , libraries . Land extensive facilities ( such as water recreation and parks ) and very expensive buildings are also often provided by the local authority due to the cost of building and the fact that they require a lot of land . They are therefore not attractive investments for the private sector . The public may not pay directly for the use of some facilities but they may pay indirectly through rates and tax . For other facilities they may be a charge e.g. for golf courses and theatres . This charge may be subsidised by the local authority . The local authority pays the salaries of those who work in its facilities and this makes up a large proportion of its leisure spending . The local authority also provides funding indirectly e.g. through financial support . They provide grants and support to youth and community services and organisations . The planning system has an important role in recreation . The council can assist with availability of land and resources for leisure by giving / withholding planning consent . This will have an effect on leisure provision by other sectors . Planning guidance ( specifically PPG 17 which applies to support and recreation ) guides the council as to what kind of leisure facilities should be encouraged and where they can be built . Provision of leisure opportunities by the public sector is led by central government policy . Policy filters down to the local level . The local authority provides opportunities for leisure and recreation through "" planning , facilities , services , budget and support "" [ Torkildsen , ] However , the role of the state in the provision of leisure is "" complex and fragmented . "" [ Haywood , ] < heading > Voluntary Sector This comprises both volunteering as a leisure activity in itself , and not - for - profit providers e.g. societies and clubs . Community involvement and volunteering are an important part of making this sector what it is . Voluntary organizations have a long history . In they existed as political coffee clubs . Voluntary sector organisations became increasingly important as rural society became industrialized ; they provided "" the medium for development and pursuit of common interests , which might previously have been met by the extended family or local community . "" [ Haywood , ] The voluntary sector is made up of a huge range and diversity of organisations , some of which have primary goals other than relating to leisure . Some of the types of organisations are shown in the table below : < table/>The groups range from those which represent certain sectors of the population e.g. women 's groups , disabled groups , to those set up for the pursuit of certain hobbies/ interests . These organisations provide the opportunity for likeminded people to get together , and in some cases these groups provide leisure opportunities to disadvantaged people whose needs may not be met by the other leisure sectors . Volunteering is a leisure opportunity in itself . In the ONS omnibus survey , of adults said they had volunteered at least once in . activity increases with of adults over had volunteered in [ Torkildsen , ] . Volunteering has a range of benefits , such as the opportunities to contribute to the community , for shared learning , social empowerment and self - fulfilment . It gives people the chance to participate and be involved in all levels of an organisation and its management . It also has an economic value ; the values the contribution of formal volunteering at a year . [ Torkildsen , . ] The voluntary sector has an important role in the pattern of leisure provision . It provides opportunities that none of the other sectors can , and can make a very positive difference to people 's lives and their communities . < heading > Private Sector The primary objective of this sector is to make financial profit . Access to the leisure opportunities it provides will usually depend on the ability of people to pay . There has been a huge growth in disposable income and household consumer expenditure on leisure in . People also have more leisure time , and people 's residual income is taken up in a large proportion by commercial products and services . The table below shows household expenditure in the and demonstrates that leisure is an attractive and potentially lucrative market . < table/>There are a range of providers in this sector , from small local businesses to huge multinational companies . Multinationals have a significant role in the leisure industry . They often have very diverse holdings , in different types of activities . This is to help insure against the risks of trends and fashions , which may mean leisure activities gain and lose popularity rapidly . An example of a multinational is , which holds interests in television , motorway services , hotels , cinemas and health clubs . Ownership in the leisure industry has also become increasingly concentrated into the hands of a few large conglomerates [ , ] . An example of this is empire ; his company owns a huge range of newspapers , satellite channels and publishing companies . The commercial sector provides the public with a range of leisure opportunities , both in the home such as TV , papers , DVDs , and outside such as clubs , restaurants , cinemas , betting , gambling , commercial sports and health and fitness centres . The tourist and holiday industry is also an expanding market . Commercial leisure is a massive industry , but it is limited to what can be provided through the market and may not always cater for poor , vulnerable or disadvantaged groups ' needs . < heading > Conclusion People 's leisure and recreation is made possible by a range of providers -- public , commercial and voluntary . They each have different roles to play . There is some overlap between each sector and the type of facilities they provide . However there are differences in their philosophy , aims and approach . A range of services and programs are needed to meet the diverse needs and the aims of the population and coordination between the difference sectors is important to achieve this .","< heading > Introduction and Capabilities This is a compiler ; implemented in , which compiles C code into C compatible - address code . It takes as a parameter the filename of a source file , and outputs both to the screen and to the file "" output.txt "" . If the code compiled successfully , the compiler will return a 0 , otherwise it will return a . The compiler 's scope currently is the declaration of integer variables with user specified names , the functions in ( ) and out ( ) , and any assignment to a variable of an expression containing variables and/or positive and/or negative integers connected with ( , ) , + , - , * , / , + + , + = , -- and/or -=. White space , including new lines and tabs , is stripped . From this , it generates C - address code using temporary variables , which is then put recursively through levels of optimisation . Both outputs of this ( screen and file ) are separated back out with new lines to make it easier for the user to read . < heading > Brief Code Description The code is split up into source files , each with a header . The header contains global variables , definitions and function prototypes . The comments explaining the purpose of each of these are located in the header file , not in the source code . P.T.O Here , briefly , are the important points in the flow of control through the program : < figure/> Test Strategy I tested the program many of times throughout the coding to test every new piece of code . Therefore by the end of the code writing process I was able to be fairly sure that the compiler worked . I still ran tests of the compiler both with and without optimisation to verify that the compiler does indeed work . All of these tests were successful . Some of the results follow . < heading > Test Results Test lexical analysis Input : FORMULA Output 1 ( without optimisation ): < picture/>Output ( with optimisation ): < picture/>Result : By following through the input , one can see that both outputs are equivalent to it . As the code was designed to be a strenuous test to the lexical analyser , its success is valid . < heading > Testing parsing . < /heading > Input : FORMULA Output 1 ( without optimisation ): < picture/>Output ( with optimisation ): < picture/>Result : You can mentally convert the input code to output successfully , therefore the parsing , and especially the postfix code seems to work . Manual calculation confirms that the code should output - 42 , so both parts of the test were a success . < heading > Testing optimisation as a whole . < /heading > Input : FORMULA Output : < picture/>Result : This code was the code used as an example of optimisation in the notes . It therefore tests every stage of optimisation . I did not use it as an input for any tests while writing the code . Apart from the names of the variables , the result is exactly that of the notes , therefore the test is a success . < heading > Code Please see separate attachment .",0 "is a based book distributing company that has been in operation for over . As a distributor , would take into its warehouse a mass of books from a range of publishers such as , and Virgin to name a few , and dispatch them to individual bookshops around the . In , won the Book Awards Distributor of the Year , and decided to implement a electronic warehousing system to keep their company ahead of all other competitors , even though the current system had been working perfectly for . The aim of the system was primarily to increase efficiency and productivity by handling greater volumes of books and speeding up their delivery of books to the correct outlets . However , this backfired , causing disastrous effects for themselves and many book outlets across the . The system was designed to give each book a stock - movement ticket to specify where the books were positioned in the warehouse and this would allow for an electronic map of the warehouse to be produced . When an order was programmed in , the system would provide the most efficient way for the staff to pick up the books ( using this map ) and then placing them on a conveyor belt . The books were weighed and packed into suitable boxes according to their weight and the size of the order . It was a very clear process that was n't overambitious , which has been the cause of many other failed IT projects . For a system to be successful , it needs to have clear requirements ; if the requirements are n't adequate , then the product will not be what the end user expects , and will result in a failed project . The functional requirements were clearly stated in detail early on in the development but they were n't complete . They did n't highlight the fact that the books loose moisture when in the warehouse and therefore weigh less than the computer expects , and this resulted in the rejection of consignments and incomplete orders . The non - functional requirements were somewhat overlooked such as the timing of orders . It was not considered that the warehouse staff would not always complete the order in the time predicted by the computer , causing a backlog which could take to catch up with . The requirements were not clear at the start of development , and although they were n't contradictory nor were they ambiguous , they did n't seem to be complete as not all circumstances were allowed for . The waterfall model was used to create the system software and worked well as the final results were good because the system did meet the requirements even though they were not entirely correct to start with . The waterfall model was thought suitable for this development as it is a logical process and entails a lot of unit and system testing which was infact carried out by to ensure that failure was n't possible . Top - down integration testing was used to test the complete system and sub - systems , as it is a good way to discover errors in the systems architecture which is crucial for the operation of the new system . In fact the system was tested in an almost live environment with every aspect of the hardware , software , interfaces and warehouse equipment functioning as it would when the system went live . However , more time should have been devoted to structural testing to identify possible test cases for the system that would test the system 's capabilities and not just that of the components . If more had been done in this area the developers may have introduced schemes to cater for human error , and have anticipated all the possible knock on effects the errors would cause for the company . It is fair to say however that even if the system is known well , it is hard to account for every instance in which something may go wrong . As it happened , the system was n't fully understood by the staff because struggled to find the time to train them properly due to rigorous testing , and so they did n't appreciate the major changes in attitude and processes that would accompany the introduction of computers . The staff foolishly believed they could ' cut corners ' when necessary ; but they could n't . If a book was taken to fill an order from the pallet not indicated by the computer , the computer would think that the book was out of stock when infact it was still on the shelf , leading to the electronic map becoming useless as nothing was where it was supposed to be . It then took longer than the time period allowed by the computer for the order to be fulfilled and the books were marked out of stock and people did n't get their orders . On top of this , unforeseen error messages were appearing that further confused staff as they tried to deal with other problems . The system proved to be too reliant on human consistency and it failed . Unfortunately did n't have a contingency plan to fall back on as they had too much confidence in the success of the project , and believed that as it had been heavily tested and worked fine , nothing could go wrong . Tiptree may have been able to get away with not having a backup plan if they had used a form of incremental implementation whereby small parts of the system could be put into use , one at a time without taking the entire old system out of operation and being left with nothing if everything goes wrong . But foolishly took the old system offline and put the new ' improved ' system straight into use and paid a heavy price for it . When operating under a complete transition like did , it is sensible to have the old system running in parallel to the new one so that you have a backup available if things do not go as originally planned . Infact an incremental development process may have been more suitable to use in this instance as it can accommodate for change , whereas the waterfall model ca n't . Once a system has been developed using the waterfall model , and it is up and running , although it offers maintenance , it is inflexible in partitioning the project into distinct stages and it is therefore difficult to respond to a change in customer requirements . Incremental development on the other hand does offer the opportunity for change as part of the functionality is delivered at a time , and if it does n't operate as originally intended , the team can go back , alter it , and then implement the system again as the process model contains a loop . Even though change would n't have helped Tiptree out of the backlog crisis as there obviously was n't the time to adjust the system , the system would inevitably have to be altered eventually so that it could operate properly in the future to try and regain its status as the top distributor . To clear this backlog , organised a treble shift and set up a hotline that which helped a great deal , and by , many of the problems had been resolved . Several publishers planned to seek compensation for lost orders and their costs and had already submitted a claim by . Another publisher spoke about claiming compensation running into , but in the end this and other disputes were settled by negotiation . The system used client - server architecture as data distribution is straightforward , it makes effective use of networked systems and therefore requires cheaper hardware , and it is easy to upgrade or replace servers . It was suitable to use as all clients in the warehouse could access the server and put together the orders as necessary . However , it was a centrally controlled system whereby sub - system takes responsibility for managing all other sub - systems . It is not always wise to implement centralised control because giving all the responsibility to sub - system is dangerous because if that control system becomes faulty , every other sub - system it is controlling does too and the entire system will stop , resulting in a backlog of orders . With this problem always being an issue , and not having another system running in parallel , it proved unwise to implement a centralised control system . An event driven system would have been better as they are driven by externally generated events where the timing of the event is out with the control of the sub - system which processes the event . This means that if one sub - system malfunctions then the other can still operate giving the company a lifeline whilst the other is repaired . The event driven system has in effect a back up plan and a contingency plan would not have been entirely necessary . A broadcast model would have been ideal as sub - systems register interest in a specific event , and the control is transferred over to the sub - system to handle that event . It is a perfect method for processing orders within a given time limit as each sub - system has partial independence . The failure of the system was n't just about an unsuitable system architecture , it equally came down to naivety on the part of the directors assumed that just because they had seen a similar system working perfectly in the and , that it would work for them also ; but every business is different and no systems can be the same . Systems can run on different operating systems with different hardware that has been tested by different quality controls , which is not apparent to a director but can be recognised by the trained eye . Tiptree knew the system had to work very well because if the warehouse was shut down for a period , due to technical problems , then the consequences would affect many other businesses across the probably making them liable for compensation claims . Despite knowing these consequences , the system was a failure as it did n't increase productivity as the wrong books were sent out and orders were missed , and the backlogging did n't improve efficiency . Tiptree went from being the best distributor to the worst in a very short period of time . The system decided to implement would have worked very well if it was n't so susceptible to human error and the reliance on the electronic map being totally accurate . This could have been prevented with thorough structural testing , and better staff training , but these issues were possibly overlooked , maybe due to poor scheduling by the project manager , or having to meet a tight deadline . Even though the waterfall model design process was suitable for the development the project still failed as there was not any form of contingency plan , and it was foolish to put the new system in operation without a parallel system to fall back on . Other process models were available , but they believed that the system would be as successful in the as it was in the states because both systems used the same model . Unclear requirements , a system intolerant to human error , a non - existent backup plan , a poor transition to a misunderstood computer system and a questionable system architecture all contributed to the failure of the system .","< heading>1 ) < /heading> a ) < /heading > A UNIX process can be defined as a program , together with all the resources that are associated with that process as it is executed or as a single instance of a program running on a UNIX system ; but the latter is more widely accepted . A process can start creating additional processes once it starts executing via a process known as ' forking ' or ' spawning ' ; these are exact copies of the original process and are called ' child processes ' . There are special processes called ' daemons ' which run as the system starts and they perform general housekeeping tasks such as scheduling actions to happen at set times e.g. cron , but the majority are created when a program is executed . Each process has a unique number of identification which allows them to be traced and killed if necessary . < heading > b) Processes that interact with other processes are called cooperating processes and these are very common in modern systems . Processes communicate via pipes which are - way mechanisms that allow related processes to send a byte stream across a channel from to the other . This is generally to allow the output of process to become the input value of another . This can be seen in UNIX commands such as ' cat ' filename ' | more ' , where the output of the ' cat ' command becomes the input of the more ' command ' . Using message queues is another way of processes to communicate whereby messages are placed into a queue with an identification number , data ( message ) , and a private or public stamp much like a notice board . Private messages can only be read by the process that created the message or a child of it , but public message can be read by all processes . Several processes can read and write to this queue at once and messages can be read by number unlike piped communication whereby a whole stream needs to be received before a message can be read . Pipe naming works much the same in that processes that are not related can communicate . A named pipe has an access point which is a file and several pipes can write and read to it thus allowing data to be shared . < heading > c ) < /heading > Memory management is the planned organisation of programs and data in to memory with the goal of space being easy to find . However , there maybe more programs running than can fit into the available memory space available on a system , but it is desirable to have as many programs residing in memory as it increases machine performance . To aid the problem of memory management the idea of virtual storage was introduced to the multitasking system along with memory management techniques called swapping and paging which both use this concept . The main different between paging and swapping is that swapping is more concerned with the scheduling of processes to be processed whereas paging deals more with storing the processes to be run . Swapping was introduced to the UNIX system which is the process of using virtual memory to temporarily store data when physical memory is full when too many tasks are perceived to be competing for limited resources . Swapping aids in the scheduling by swapping out processes to virtual storage based on predefined priorities such as the length of time its had resided in memory . Processes are swapped back from virtual storage if they are ready to be run and there is sufficient space in the physical memory . The amount of space available in memory is calculated using complex algorithms designed to decide whether a process can be swapped back in its entirety . In contrast , paging is concerned more with memory allocation than scheduling and came in later versions of UNIX . Paging can be described as the transfer of pages between physical and virtual storage . The technique uses page tables to map between virtual address and physical addresses in the memory . Each process in physical memory only has its user structure ( machine registers , accounting stack , state etc ) and page tables with it , data tables and pages of text are brought in dynamically as referenced . This is very different to swapping as the whole process is moved in and out of physical and virtual memory when it is ready to be executed and there is enough available space . Paging is part of the fetch - execute cycle . The CPU queries the address register to find where in physical memory the next process resides . If it is not in the physical memory then the process address is mapped through the page table to the virtual memory and then the page needed is read back into physical memory in exchange for another page which is moved out , and then it is executed . This is slower than if the process is already in the physical storage . < heading > d) Microsoft does not make system calls publicly available so instead Win32 API is used to make system calls . Win32 API is a library containing procedures that make these calls for you so that you are indirectly making the system calls . The calls available do not change within latter version of windows but more calls are added for every release . Certain calls create kernel objects such as processes or files , and these return what is known as a handles to the caller that are specific to that object , which allow operations to be used on the objects according to its permissions . These operations may include create or destroy files , open , close and read . There are many procedures available in the library that make calls to allow manipulation of the graphical user interface of windows and associated functionality . < heading>2 ) < /heading> a) When the nodes on a are first powered on at start up , one is designated as the active monitor which sends out a data packet around the ring to see if any nodes are down in order to diagnose a problem which would prevent data flow . If a node does n't receive a packet from its nearest active upstream neighbour it creates a packet to send onto the network with he address of the fallen node so the ring can reconfigure itself logically . 's is actually networked with a star topology even though the name suggests otherwise . However , the ring is actually logical and a Multistation Access Unit hosts the ring internally . Access to the network media is handled by the possession of a token that is continuously passed around the ring from node to node until takes the token and replaces it with a ' busy ' token and adds a message to be transmitted . The data travels around the ring in a one direction until the node with the correct accepts the data and modifies the token with a ' copied ' token that is returned to the sender as acknowledgement . At this point the node that transmitted places the original token back on the network and passes it onto the next node on the ring ( nearest active downstream neighbour ) . < heading > b) CSMA / CD stands for Carrier Sensitive Multiple Access with Collision Detection , and it is a protocol that is apparent on all Ethernet Networks . As do n't try and prevent collisions they deal with them using this protocol . Collisions occur when nodes attempt to transmit simultaneously resulting in the messages being sent interfering with each other and becoming scrambled . The listens to the line to detect whether the line is free before a node transmits . After it has transmitted , it continues to listen to the line . If a node detects a collision on the line , it immediately stops transmission , waits a short time , and then returns to listening to the line so it can retransmit . The amount of time each node waits after a collision is random before retransmission occurs . As a result of collisions , is not suited to high traffic networks or ones with long connections . < heading > c ) < /heading > The main differences between the Token Ring and architectures are the way they are connected and the way in which they transmit data . is wired in a star topology much like the majority of but the difference is the logical ring which resides inside which hosts the ring . The logical ring means that is harder to configure when initially implemented than the and the hardware is more expensive as only requires hubs , NICs , and cabling . uses an active architecture because each node has to pass data on to its nearest active downstream neighbour in a ring in order for it to reach its destination . In contrast , uses a passive architecture as it waits and listens on the transmitting line for any messages that are waiting for it . Each packet of data has a address on it and the corresponding picks up the packet . Both methods get the data from A to B but is typically faster when network traffic is low as nodes can transmit when they like ; no token is needed , but faster flavours of are being developed . However , when the network traffic increases the architecture 's performance is reduced as collisions occur . If nodes attempt to transmit at once there is a collision and both have to resend when the line is free ; obviously on a high traffic network this is not efficient . In contrast , the Token Ring architecture copes well with high traffic as collisions do not occur as nodes can only transmit when they are in possession of the token thus making it speedier than Ethernet . is a fair network and prevents one node from hogging the network media . It does n't allow a node that has just transmitted to transmit again in succession , and so the speed of the network is consistent at all times . Ethernet does not have a scheme like this and a node can flood the network with data and not allow others to transmit . This can be frustrating for other users as the network will appear slow . You could argue that is more flexible than as it can be wired as a Bus or Star topology giving you options with cabling but as prices are dropping rapidly , this is no longer becoming an issue , and the ability for a node to be added onto a bus network makes the architecture very scalable . is stuck with the star configuration but this is standard across many architectures , but it is not very scalable because the more nodes on the network , the less often the token is available and so sub netting is necessary . < heading > d) Today of connections installed in universities and within organisations use . It is preferable over because it has further advances in the size of the bandwidth with Gigabit Ethernet being common . has made advances into larger bandwidths but not on the same scale as . Ethernet is very flexible and it integrates well between and services which is much needed for multinational organisations . It is an inherently scalable architecture in the sense that as many nodes can be added as necessary with only a and a cable necessary and minimal configuration ( unless sub netting is necessary ) , or just a wireless for a wireless connection which is very useful for organisations which maybe in growth . is also scalable but only up to a certain point as the circle would become too large to be able to efficiently pass the token around . It is also proving a very affordable solution as hardware is very cheap compared to the Token Ring architecture which needs a multistation access unit in addition to cabling and NICs . Most PCs and laptops come with a included and so only carries the cost of the cabling . < heading>3 ) < /heading> a ) < /heading > As - based networks can be of different sizes , the architects of the addressing system set up different classes of addresses to accommodate different sizes of networks . addresses exist within distinct classes commonly known as class A , B , and C. The class in which an address resides , is determined by the byte of the address or the digits before the dot . Class A is used for very large networks allowing for hosts , and the byte of the addresses covers the range from meaning there can only be class A networks e.g. . Class B is used for large companies and institutions , and the byte covers the range from - 191 . There are class B network addresses available each allowing for host addresses . Class C ranges from . There are over 2 million network addresses available but they only supply node addresses and are therefore ideally suited for small company or home networks . other classes of address do exist sometimes known classes D and E. Class D addresses are used by multicast groups receiving data from applications or server services , and class E is an experimental class not accessible by the public . < heading > b ) < /heading > To determine the address of a based system you need to ensure that you are either connected to the Internet or a network.otherwise the following commands will not provide positive results . it is necessary to invoke a command prompt window by clicking on start from the desktop , then programs > accessories > command prompt . From here typing ' ipconfig ' should bring up details of the computer 's address . Based on the byte of the address , you will be able to determine the class of the address as for class A it will be , class B 128 - 191 , and class C 192 - 233 . If operating on a Linux system the method of determining the machine 's address is similar . Assuming you are connected to the Internet or a network , you need to invoke a terminal window ( the method may vary depending on the flavour of Linux ) and type ' ifconfig ' . This will display details in a similar manor to Windows and from the address in the same way as before , you can determine the class of the address . < heading > c ) < /heading > Class C addresses allow for over 2 million network addresses each of which only allow for host addresses . These are perfect for small company or home networks where it is unlikely that you will have nodes but for the average sized company these are too small . They are advantageous over class B or A networks which allow for many more hosts because they do n't come with the added complication of sub netting . Sub netting is essential on class A or B networks as the vast number of hosts supported is too hard to manage by routers alone . However , class B networks are better than class C networks when there is a large organisation as they allow for many more nodes to be available . This will need to be sub netted but it can be useful when the organisation has many departments as traffic can be kept local to each sub net when nodes within the same department want to communicate . This will allow for a higher performance on the network . As C class networks are so small , they are much more manageable as there are not so many nodes hanging of the routers and therefore there is not as much traffic flowing around the network . Larger networks that are class A , and B are very hard to manage due to the enormous scale of them and the many routers and subnets involved with extensive routing tables which would slow down the data transmission . However class C networks do carry the disadvantage that they are not as easily scalable as Class A and B because you are only limited to nodes per network address and you would need to introduce another network address to cope if your business expanded leading to several class C networks connected together which again is very hard to manage . If you started with a class B network address you are preparing for growth within your business as these are equipped for hosts which is plenty for any organisation . < heading>4 ) < /heading> a ) < /heading > In terms of computer security , authentication is the verification of a user 's identity when accessing a system normally via the validation of a username and password against a database . Authentication should occur on any network so that the system is sure that the person logging on is who they say they are , and it is necessary to protect critical or confidential data that may reside in a user 's account . Access control is a method of restricting the availability of resources based on certain privileges that are granted by a higher authority to a particular user . Access control allows for definitions of what users can and can not do whether it be editing a document , viewing certain tables in a database or changing the wallpaper on a network node . Access control is strongly linked with authentication as authentication can define privileges . < heading > b ) < /heading > As a systems manager of a large company it is necessary to have strict policies regarding the passwords used for authentication as usually they protect critical information . It is wise to have a password which consists of numbers , punctuation , and letters of different cases ; the greater the mixture the better , as passwords that are words can be cracked . This is a good policy because a random string of numbers and letters can not be guessed but on the downside it is hard to remember a password of this kind . You need to have a password that is easy to remember but nothing that can be guessed such as your favourite band or colour . A good technique is to take the letter of each word in a sentence such as a song lyric and use this as your password . It is easy to remember , can be worked out again if you forget it and is also very hard to guess . It is a good idea to change your password regularly in case it has fallen into the wrong hands ; once a week is probably optimal . This also entails issues concerning remembering and you may be tempted to write the passwords down which is a con with this policy but you can devise a system for changing your password based on numerical schemes e.g. using lottery numbers to correspond to letters in the alphabet . Lastly , ensure that nobody is looking when you enter your password because people can recognise keystrokes and decipher the password . It is good to not look at the keyboard when typing as this aids people in viewing the word . You would need to be able to touch type the word that is a downside but it is a good method because it protects against people finding out your password , which you previously thought was unable to be guessed . < heading > c ) < /heading > First of all you need to create files called ' names ' , email ' , mobile numbers ' , and ' sales records ' and separate the data into each according to the name of the file . groups need to be created called ' Team A ' , ' Team B ' , and ' Team C ' . The root user needs to allow group members view the files based on the GID of their group and this is done by the permissions the files have and the setgid bit . If a file has a bit it will run with the privileges of the files group owner , instead of the privileges of the file . Chmod g+rs filename The command above should be given for each file so that when a member of a group tries to access the file they only have the permissions of the group they are in which maybe mean that they can not read the file at all . < heading > d ) < /heading > It is clear that usernames and password are not secure enough especially when protecting highly confidential information as human memory fails when long passwords consisting of letters and numbers are assigned , passwords can be stolen if written down , or key - stroke software can record the keys typed at login . To obtain higher levels of authentication that is almost fault proof further , more sophisticated measures need to be taken . Companies have introduced schemes whereby you need a swipe card that only works once or between certain times which is combined with a known password so that without either nothing authentication will not be valid . However this has not taken off because companies such as do n't fit card readers as standard on their PCs . Using biological characteristics are the most secure method of ensuring authentication as certain parts of the human body are unique . For example , fingerprints can be read via a scanner which is attached to a PC through the interface which would almost guarantee authentication , except moulds of fingerprints can be made to get around this system . As fingerprint scanners are falling in price this is a realistic measure for the near future . Retinal scans can be used also in a similar manner and these can not be recreated in any way but devices for these are n't cheap and would only be in place to protect governmental level data . Combining as many different authentication techniques such as a username , password , key card and retinal scan would be the most reliable way to authenticate people .",1 "I have the impression that language games and activities are quite embarrassig the very time in a new module , when you do not know the other people of the class . Also , I think in this moment it does not matter if they are in your mother tongue or in a foreign language - you just feel unsure about the whole situation . However , their great benefit is that they usually ease the tense atmosphere in the class , because you have an opportunity to get to know your classmates a little bit better ( , Memory name game , Find someone who ... ) . Then , after the or games , I think these activities can even be funny and enjoyable . Although some people might think that language games are a waste of time , because most of the time they have nothing in common with the actual topic of the lesson , I think that they can be of great value to the students . Even though these activities are called games , they are designed to provoke communication between students . As Harmer ( ) puts it , the games depend on an information gap so that student has to talk to a partner in order to solve the task . Therefore , as long as the students play them seriously and just speak in their foreign language , these games provide an excellent , authentic opportunity for them to practice their communication skills . They are a useful way of giving students of every level valuable practise , because they often involve oral strategies such as describing , predicting , simplifying or asking for feedback ( and Shaw ) . In my home country ( ) we often played language games at school or at university , especially in the modules for the future foreign language teachers . However , it was always dependent on the class whether I liked these games or not . When I felt comfortable in the class then I quite liked playing language games and I also enjoyed trying out new ones . Especially as a young school girl I loved to play a game , which name I do not know , but which is very easy to play . You and your neighbour were a pair and the teacher asked both of you a simple question ( e.g. what is the word for "" "" ? Answer : "" Dog "" ) . The one who answered it won , the other one had to sit down . This went till at the end there was just person left , who was the winner and was then called "" King "" . I will definitely include this game as a language teacher , because we all really adored it , even when we were a little bit older . In this module , I liked the "" whistle dictation "" quite much . I think this could be an easy way to let the students think about short definitions of words they are new to them . It is also a nice possibility for the teacher to check whether they know the correct meaning of the lexis or not . As I mentioned already in my Portfolio , in you have to decide before you begin your studies if you want to become a teacher afterwards or if you want to get a bachelor or master 's degree . Therefore , it is automatically more a long - term career , because many of the modules at university relate to our later future as teachers and we also have to do a lot of practical training at school before our final exams . To conclude , I have not changed my view about the long - term career of language teaching at all and this module confirmed me that I really want to become a foreign language teacher !","During , had again an unsuccessful discussion about the introduction of a smoking ban . The main question in this conflict between smokers and non - smokers is whether the ban should only include restaurants and bars where food is being served or whether it should also be expanded to pubs and nightclubs ( Loreck 2006 ) . Another disputed point of the smoking ban are its positive and negative effects on the economy . However , many countries around the globe have already a city- or countrywide ban , others like and will become smoke - free in ( Kielinger 2006 ) . Therefore , this essay will consider reasons that reject the ban and it will then explain some of the problems with this view . Afterwards , it will provide arguments in order to demonstrate that a smoking ban for all enclosed public places should be introduced in . It is the contention of smoking - supporters that the ban in should not include pubs and nightclubs , because there , no food is being served and teenager under the age of are not allowed to go there . They have the opinion that smokers should avoid exposing children and teenagers to cigarrette fumes , but as they are not allowed to be in these special public places , the ban is not relevant for them . However , a study of on the health risks of smoking ( ) revealed that cigarrette fumes have a very detrimental effect on the health of people under . It is an undeniable fact that most young adults love to go to bars and nightsclubs . Consequently , the smoking ban should definitely include these places to protect the young people from the health - damaging cigarrette fumes . Some people , who argue against a smoking ban in , may refer to an article by and ( 2004 ) . There , they maintain that previous studies on the health risks of smoking for non - smokers have overestimated the effect of tabacco smoke on both lung cancer and heart diseases . Although there is a controversy surrounding the health risks of long term exposure to hand smoke , a study issued in by Research on Cancer of concluded that passive smokers are endangered by the same or even higher proportions of carcinogens as active smokers , because they do not have the benefit of the filter . Moreover , , and ( 2004 ) discovered that , according to meta - analyses , lifelong non - smokers with partners who smoke at home have a greater risk of lung cancer , and those exposed to cigarette fumes in the workplace have an increased risk of . Therefore , a smoking ban for all enclosed public places is absolutely necessary to reduce the danger of hand smoke for non - smokers as much as possible . of the most common sources of resistance to a smoking ban comes from businesses of the catering trade which are concerned that they will suffer financial losses due to lost customers . In their opinion , the actual non - eating time will decrease , because smokers will leave immediately after they have finished their meal . Therefore , the rate of "" dine and dashes "" - where patrons declare they are stepping outside to smoke , whereas their intent is to leave - will increase . Indeed , according to ( ) , which polled nearly restaurant customers , respondents , especially non - smokers , stated that they eat out more often now because of the city 's smoke - free policy . In addition , a surgeon general review of studies ( ) points out that business may actually prosper . Thus , research generally indicates that business incomes are stable after smoking bans are enacted , because many patrons appreciate the improved indoor air quality . It has been argued by businesses that a smoke - free will have bad effects on the economy . In particular the reduced incomes on tabacco products and the following lower taxation revenue , so this argument goes , will weaken the economy of the country ( Fromm 2005 ) . While of course it can not be denied that a smoking ban could have some negative effects on the incomes of the tabacco industry , the health care costs can be reduced to a great extent . Researchers at , ( ) , found significant improvements in the health of bar staff in following the ban . They tested bar workers ' lung function and inflammatory markers a month before the ban came in , and again after it had been introduced . The number showing symptoms related to passive smoking fell from to , with reduced levels of nicotine in the blood and improvements in lung function of . Furthermore , a study showed ( Brown 2006 ) that in after the town of , introduced a smoking ban in , hospital admissions for heart attacks dropped . Admissions in neighboring towns without smoking bans showed no change . Therefore , the reduced incomes of tabacco products are out of all proportion to the dramatic savings in the health care costs . To conclude , a smoking ban for all enclosed public areas should be enacted in as soon as possible . , it has been established that cigarette fumes are bad for all people , especially for those under . Then , it has been proven that passive smokers are exposed to an even higher proportion of carcinogens , because they do not have the benefit of a cigarette filter . Moreover , surveys have discovered that catering businesses and the economy of the country will not suffer under the introduction of a smoking ban , but they might even prosper , because of more non - smoker customers and great savings in health care costs .",1 "Classical trade theory explains that the cause of trade lies in countries ' differences in comparative costs in production . economists , and , challenged this proposition in by identifying an alternative explanation for the basis of trade . Their model , also called the factor - proportions model , builds on 's theory of comparative advantage by predicting patterns of trade and production based on the differences in relative factor endowments between countries . Their results are summarised in : A country will export those commodities that intensively use its relatively abundant factor . In this essay we will analyse the model and its underlying assumptions in order to study the relevance of this model for modern policy - making . In its simplest description , model ( to be called H - O model hereafter ) deals with countries that use identical factors to produce identical goods using identical production functions , which show constant returns to scale . These assumptions are necessary ( but not sufficient ) to result in the equalisation of factor prices throughout the world . For this essay , we will use the basic approach to describe the model ; we will assume there are countries ( ) , commodities ( goods X and Y ) and factors of production ( labour and capital ) . Here we observe a fundamental difference between the model and the H - O model , the inclusion of a factor of production , capital . < fnote > Lancaster , K. ( 1957 ) , "" "" , : - 39 , p.20 < /fnote > More formally , these are the set of assumptions in which the model and theorem rely upon : < fnote > Lancaster , K. ( 1957 ) , "" A Geometric Treatment "" , : - 39 , pp.24 - 25 < /fnote > Countries H and F produce the same commodities , goods X and Y , using the same factors ( labour and capital ) and same production technology . Good X is labour - intensive in production and good Y is capital - intensive . The production functions for both goods involve the use of both factors , are homogeneous , convex and with constant returns to scale . There are fixed total supplies of the factors , which are perfectly mobile between industries within each country but perfectly immobile between countries . The production functions are such that the relative factor intensities are the same at all factor prices which are the same in both industries . That is , the labour- intensive good remains the labour - intensive good throughout . There is perfect competition in all markets and full employment of resources . There are no market distortions . That is , no transport or similar costs , no tariffs or other trade barriers . The relative endowments of the factors vary from country to country . We will assume to be capital - abundant and Country F to be labour - abundant . Consumer preferences are identical in both countries . Before going any further in our analysis is important to clarify the definitions of factor - intensity and factor - abundance . Good Y is said to be relatively capital - intensive and good X is said to be relatively labour - intensive if the capital - labour ratio used in its production is higher in the former sector : < fnote > Markusen , , , M. and Maskus , K. ( ) , , , , p.101 < /fnote > FORMULA ( Equation 1 ) The concept of factor endowments is defined , specifically , in terms of the ratios between capital stocks and labour forces in the countries . Thus if the capital - labour ratio in country H is greater in country F , country H is said to be capital - abundant and labour - scarce , whereas country F is said to be labour - abundant and capital - scarce . < fnote > Markusen , , , M. and Maskus , K. ( ) , , , , p.100 < /fnote > FORMULA ( Equation 2 ) < figure/>Thus the production possibility frontier of will be biased towards the Y - axis and the production possibility frontier of Country F will be biased towards the X - axis , as shown in the following diagram : < figure/>Since we are assuming that both countries have identical demand patterns , is sensible to expect relative factor prices to reflect factor endowments . Thus in autarky , Country F would have relatively inexpensive labour and would have relatively inexpensive capital . Given , the production possibility frontiers and identical community indifference curves , in autarky the countries will in equilibrium at points A h and A f , where the price ratio line will be steeper in than in Country F , as shown in figure below : < fnote > Because the slopes of the indifference curves are the same along any ray from the origin , in autarky the equilibrium price ration line will be steeper in than in Country F < /fnote>
FORMULA where FORMULA ( Equation 3 ) With free trade the equilibrium points for both countries will change . Due to the differences in prices , consumers in will want to purchase Good X from Country F , and consumers from will want to buy Good Y from Country H. These changes in the demand patterns for both good in both countries will start a price adjustment process that will continue until excess demands and supplies for both commodities in both countries have been satisfied . Production will continue to change until trade has equalised price ratios in the countries at some intermediate level p * . Thus is important to observe that trade will result in the equalisation of commodity prices in the countries . This price equalisation happens at points of equal slope ( marginal rates of transformation ) on both production possibility curves , points labelled Qh and , which also demonstrate than in free trade both countries will generally produce both goods . < fnote > Markusen , , , M. and Maskus , K. ( ) , , , , p. < /fnote>
Free trade in the H - O model provides aggregate gains from trade for each country as both nations end up consuming on indifference curves outside their production frontiers . In equilibrium , Country F exports the labour - intensive commodity X and the capital - abundant country H exports the capital - intensive good Y. This result follows the theorem : Given the assumptions of the model , a country will export the commodity that intensively uses its relatively abundant factor . The theorem holds however only on the basis of its strict and unrealistic underlying assumptions . In the real world , firms often experience economies of scale in production , markets do not follow perfect competition and product differentiation is used to gain competitive advantage . Total supply of factors of production is not fixed over time ; their supply varies due to factors such as population growth . In addition , nations have different tastes and hence different demand patterns . There are also market distortions like barriers to trade and transportation costs , and production factors can move across nations , although with certain limitations . When challenging the assumptions , some appear more fundamental than others , suggesting that theorem is only robust to its underlying assumptions up to a certain extent , given that it allows for some of them to be relaxed . Non - constant returns to scale will clearly invalidate the notion that country size is irrelevant for trade patterns and allowing arbitrary international differences in technology would also render the theorem generally invalid . With scale economies , trade can arise between countries that do not exhibit a pattern of comparative advantage , for example between identical economies . As shown in figure , identical economies with identical production frontiers would still experience gains from trade if specialises in the production of commodity Y and Country F specialises in producing commodity X. Both countries will end up consuming at a higher indifference curve , thus experiencing welfare gains . In the presence of increasing returns to scale countries will turn towards specialisation and the pattern of trade could be determined in a rather arbitrary manner . For example , it could be determined by , if that country entered that particular industry . < fnote > Markusen , , , M. and Maskus , K. ( ) , , , , p. < /fnote>
Whether holds in the presence of market distortions will depend on their specific type , suggesting that the theorem is not as robust as it appeared . In the case of monopolies and export subsidies , the theorem will not hold if their effects are strong enough to offset the comparative advantage given by factor endowments . An export subsidy , for example , would enable a labour - abundant country to export a capital - intensive commodity ; the extent to which the country can afford to export this commodity will depend on the size of the government subsidy . Import restrictions , on the other hand , although reducing trade will allow for any remaining trade to follow the H - O model predictions . Thus the theorem still holds in the presence of import restrictions . The following diagrams show the effect of import restrictions on trade , figure shows the case of free trade and figure shows the case of tariffs , where trade has been reduced as a result . < figure/>
Finally , given the differences in relative factor prices between nations , it is possible for the same commodity to be capital - intensive in a capital - abundant country and labour - intensive in a labour - abundant country . This case will provide a practical problem for model , since according to its predictions both countries should export the same good . In conclusion , model makes a series of strong assumptions in order to isolate the effect of relative factor endowments and show their significance as a cause of trade . Despite some of its assumptions being highly unrealistic , the notion that differences in factor endowments provide a significant explanation for comparative advantage and global trade patterns is undeniable . The model suggests that policymakers should focus on supporting the exportation of those goods that can be produced with resources in which they are naturally abundant . Hence , developing countries would benefit from exporting natural resource - intensive items such as raw materials and labour - intensive goods . Moreover , the implications of the model are more far reaching in terms of supporting the notion of free trade . Trade restrictions tend to lower the welfare of a country , as it constrains access to a greater choice of goods and better prices . Governments therefore should refrain from using these protective mechanisms . A final key implication for policymakers , specifically for those in highly populated countries , is that they should promote investment in human capital ( in terms of better education , better health and nutrition ) as to increase the productivity of their labour force . < fnote > Markusen , , , M. and Maskus , K. ( ) , , , , < /fnote >","< abstract> Overall Summary and the Main Recommendations To minimise costs , of cloth should be made internally and externally . I recommend purchasing of carding and combing time from another division for a maximum of £ , to enable internal production to increase to per week . Gaining the cost negotiation would save a substantial £ per week or enable external production to increase by . However , it would not change the optimal output solution . I would not recommend switching suppliers for a reduction if the negotiation is gained , because of their unreliability . Although , depending on their performance , this reduction could be more beneficial due to the price competitiveness of the industry than none whatsoever . < /abstract> Introduction The current and possible future costs and resources were analysed using solver in to find the best method to minimise production costs for the yarn manufacturing division , run by . < heading The present cost of meeting the contract and resources to be used . < /heading > The main objective is to minimise the total costs of production ( i.e. 15.I + £ ) . The decision variables are : I = The number of metres of standard width cloth produced internally per week . E = The number of metres of standard width cloth produced externally per week . The objective is subject to the following constraints : Internal production must be of the total amount supplied , ( i.e. I - E > = 0 , so , I > = E ) . The total output supplied must be per week , ( i.e. I + E > = ) . The machines are all constrained to the amount of available for their use ( these constraints are shown in the table below , taken from an sheet ) . Assume ' non - negativity ' ( as you can not produce negative amounts ) and a ' linear model . ' Assume vat A and vat B are used as one machine , as they both perform the same , identical task . < table/> B. The effect of using the extra of the vats for another product . < /heading > If the available time for the vat machines A and B decreases by , the resources available ( hrs ) for the vats would exactly halve . The reports show that both the slack and the allowable increase would reduce by , and the status is still not binding . This would not cause any major effects , but if vat use wanted to increase in future by per week , there would be a lack of vat capacity . < heading > C. Should the spare machine capacity be bought for carding & combing ? < /heading > At present , the resources for carding and combing ( ) have no spare capacity ( or no slack ) , making it a binding constraint . This lack of machinery is minimising internal production to per week , since the other machinery types have spare capacity . Therefore , more capacity should be bought in . Since the twisting machine has a slack of , of cloth can be made internally per week . This will enable of time to be bought in , so the twisting machine has no spare capacity and production can increase . ( The allowable increase of the twisting and machines are infinite , so the decision variables ( I and E ) will not be affected , making this capacity increase possible ) . The shadow price tells us that of time will improve ( decrease ) total production costs by £ . Hence , pay a maximum of £ for of capacity . Therefore , if capacity rises by , the total cost should be at most £ . < heading > D1 . Implications of the cost reduction of bought in yarn with the current supplier . < /heading > Assume the cost negotiation with original supplier succeeds , assuming all other things constant . This cost reduction will enable the quantity of bought in yarn to increase up to the amount that would make of cloth , ( if it is decided that production should increase after review ) . Or cost savings of £ could be gained , if production remained at per week . Still , the quantity of bought in yarn should minimised because it is £ per metre more expensive than producing cloth internally , so I and E remain at the same quantities . Even if the cost of fibre increases by £ 1 per metre , it would still be cost effective to minimise the amount bought in . The shadow price of the constraint had increased to -0.45 , ( providing the capacity does not increase by ) , implicating that for an capacity increase , a maximum of £ should be paid to the other division . < heading > D2 . Implications of the cost reduction of bought in yarn with the alternative supplier . < /heading > There will be more implications if the new supplier is appointed , since the reduction will mean that it is £ cheaper to buy in the yarn than to make it . Thus , to be cost effective , as much yarn as possible should be bought in . If of the total amount made is bought in ( i.e. enough yarn for of cloth is bought in ) , substantial cost savings of £ would be gained . Since more cloth would be produced externally , there is the spare capacity to increase internal production by per week if production increased after review . Hence , no extra machine capacity is required saving £ per week if the negotiation is achieved or a maximum of £ if it is not . However , the reliability of the alternative supplier should be looked up from their past behaviour . To what extent are they unreliable ? Does this unpredictability of supplies cancel out the cost reduction offered ? What is the quality of the yarn they supply ? What are the administrative costs and the effects on the workforce of switching suppliers ? Is the new supplier based locally ? Are there any hidden , extra costs involved such as a delivery charge ? Qualitative and quantitative factors must be considered . < heading if the cost of fibre rises by £ per standard width metre . < /heading > It is assumed that the increase of £ per standard metre of cloth only applies to and not the suppliers . If the reduction is gained by switching suppliers , it would be cost effective ( saving £ each metre ) for the company policy regarding the proportion of bought in cloth to be changed , to enable more yarn to be bought in . However , any unused machine capacity would create an opportunity cost . The possibility to rent out spare machinery would reduce this opportunity cost . < heading > F. Increasing the amount supplied under the contract in time . < /heading > In part A , B , C and E : the shadow price of the total output constraint is £ . Internal production can not increase without buying extra capacity . External production can increase by per week ( except for C where the allowable increase is ) , adding £ to the total costs of production each time of cloth is bought in . In part D1 : if the reduction is negotiated , an additional bought in metre would cost £ . In part D2 : the reduction from switching suppliers creates a good opportunity to increase internal production as m extra could be made per week . If of time is bought from another division ( pay as less as possible for this as external production is now cheaper then internal production ) , then internal production can increase by a maximum of per week . This increase in I is also still feasible if the 700hours of vat use is required in the future . < figure/> A limitation of solver: Only one coefficient can change at any one time in the linear programming model . The linear program must be reformulated and solved again if multiple changes are required .",0 "< quote>'We want a world where basic needs become basic rights and where poverty and all forms of violence are eliminated . Each person will have the opportunity to develop her or his full potential and creativity , and women 's values of nurturance and solidarity will characterize human relationships . In such a world women 's reproductive roles will be redefined : child care will be shared by men , women and society as a whole - We want a world where all institutions are open to participatory democratic processes , where women share in determining priorities and decisions ' . ( Sen and Grown , : - 1) As the above vision brought to light by ( ) clearly demonstrates , the development of the world has long attracted specialist interest . In this attention seems to have been centered on women 's issues . As a result , increasing empowerment in the world has become the key goal of many women 's non - government agencies ( NGOs ) . Through various projects these organisations seek to empower and improve the lives of a collection of world women whose existence is ' conditioned and shaped by the struggles against neo - colonialism , imperialism , capitalism and gender subordination ( and , : Note : ) . However it is often difficult to determine the degree to which this goal has been accomplished . Although empowerment has become the new ' buzz word ' over , there still appears to be some ambiguity over the actual meaning of this term . Thus after briefly tracing how concepts of women 's NGOs and empowerment have been reviewed , the focus of this paper will then concentrate on answering main questions . , in what ways do women 's NGOs empower women ? We must bear in mind that for many this process does not always support and benefit women . Furthermore it is crucial to consider that the route to empowerment needs to include both men and women if positive change is to occur . , what are the problems facing NGOs in this process ? How could these obstacles be dealt with ? In this it is important to consider the difficulties of measuring empowerment as well as the role which governments play . Lastly , what is the agenda of these NGOs and the facilitators who work for them ? Empowerment as a concept , carry 's the assumption that western women are themselves ' empowered ' in that they are ' modern ' and have ' freedom of choice ' . It likewise presumes that third world women are ' victimized ' and ' powerless ' . In addition western agencies have a degree of ' power over ' the women they wish to ' empower ' . What are the impacts of these practicalities ? All of this must be considered in turn before reaching a coherent conclusion about the extent to which NGOs empower world women . < heading > Introduction to Women 's NGOs and Empowerment Whilst women 's NGOs have always had a place within the arena of development , it was not until in did they dramatically come into focus . During this period , and indeed in that followed , many of these organisations became increasingly resolute on empowering world women . It was regarded that they seemed to be able to generate new concepts and strategies for gender justice , a task which parties and their institutions seemed incapable of accomplishing . For and ( : ) women 's NGOs offered , ' something new and important ' in that they ' dreamed of things that never were and asked , "" Why not ? "" And then made them happen ' . Whilst and ( ) paint a somewhat idealistic picture of NGOs , many critics are skeptical of the true ethos of these organisations . Whilst there is no denying that they are a useful phenomenon , it has been argued that many are in fact simply an ' arm of government ' ( and , ) . Moreover , for the more radical they do not represent true alternative visions as they are in fact ' thoroughly domesticated to the ideologies and agendas of the mainstream development institutions , donors and their client states ' ( Townsend et al , : ) . Bearing both view points in mind the important question now becomes , where does the truth lie ? Throughout this paper it will be suggested that both arguments are in fact branches of the truth . Good NGO practices can aid women in their pursuit for a better life . However it is essential that we engage in a critical analysis of the philosophy of these organisations if we are to fully come to grips with the extent to which they are able to empower women ' on the ground ' . With these thoughts in mind , a brief detour into explaining the notion of ' empowerment ' seems necessary . For Townsend et al ( 2004 ) ' empowerment ' is an extremely malleable word . For the most part it seems to be deeply ingrained within the ' governing culture ' of western capitalism . It has solidified its place within this dominant sphere as it is central to personal achievement and individualism ( Rowlands , ) . It can be put forward that as a concept it is built around the philosophy of power . Indeed according to ( : ) one can not begin to analyse ' empowerment ' without acknowledging that it , ' and foremost , about power ' . In this reflection , the process of empowerment should in theory work to the advantage of those individuals , i.e. world women , who traditionally have ' exercised very little power over their own lives ' . Power is a word which has many hidden meanings with affect the direction of change : ' power over ' ; ' power to ' ; ' power with ' ; ' power within ' ( Rowlands , ) . Thus it is important that agencies and organisations appreciate the complexity that each of these strands bring to the process of empowerment . Certainly , ( cited in , : ) brings into focus this idea that before organisations embark on this course they must be aware that to truly empower women they will have to overcome what she terms the ' central features ' of power : ' control of resources ' and ' control over ideology ' . For the former she is referring to extrinsic capability i.e. ' physical , human , intellectual , financial and self power ' whilst the latter describes intrinsic control of ' beliefs , values and attitudes ' . may perhaps reflect that both of these ' capabilities ' are linked to each other ; by controlling the power in the public world , it will lead to the strength of character required to combat domination in the private intrinsic world , or indeed visa versa . However as will be reviewed , the reality of situations for many world women can not be so readily applied to the scripted theories of academics ; a world woman can not have power bestowed to her , she has to take it as an active agent . Thus in this sense there is no guarantee or indeed a visible or predictable outcome in this process ; a pitfall familiar to many NGOs . < heading > Women 's NGO Strategies < /heading > Subsequently it is essential to review how women 's NGOs operate . By analysing various projects and programmes we can begin to understand the degree to which world women are empowered . According to ( cited in , : ) in order for organisations to be successful they need to recognize and move towards resolving the problems created by strategic and practical gender . These two burdens are central to the lives of women . She defines strategic gender as the ' base of women 's subjection ' , which can be broken down into core parts : ' the sexual division of labour ; sexual violence and the control of reproduction ' . In addition to this , they face the struggles of practical gender , which she considers to be ' experiences which are affected by class ' . ( ) believes that this framework is important but unfortunately often bewilders planners , in that they fail to appreciate how the complexities of these strands impact women in very different ways . In fact as Gianotten et al ( 1994:11 ) aptly point out , ' when gender differences are overlooked in the planning phase , projects are unlikely to respond to women 's needs and may even have negative consequences for women ' . In that the theme of this paper focuses on world women 's perceptions of empowerment and not western perceptions of what empowerment should be , it is important to address that whilst 's ( cited in , : ) interpretation of gender is significant , the concepts she uses must be modified to the desired collective . A way of explaining this further could be to take for example , women in a small village who wish to empower themselves . It is essential that NGOs understand that this notion of empowerment is inextricably woven to these women 's notions of self . It is almost like a village specific version of empowerment . Thus applying a universal characterization would not further the cause . True empowerment is a result of their very specific circumstances and experiences . Consequently , NGOs must allow for world women to define themselves what they believe strategic and practical gender to be . The importance of this should not be underestimated . In participatory and community driven development has seemed to be at the forefront of NGO planning . Schemes have been set up which allege "" full participation "" and "" true empowerment "" from the ground up . However , more often that not , they have failed to live up to the hype , with many turning out to be driven by male gendered interest , leaving ' the least powerful without voice or much in the way of choice ' ( , : ) . Bosch ( ) puts forwards that even projects which have been set up with the best of intentions will run into problems if the at the planning stage , facilitators fail to take into account the situations of the women that they are trying to empower . Simple factors , like for example if the time of the meetings are not convenient for women will impact upon the success of any campaign . An apt example of this is y programme ( Education and work ) set up by the women 's NGO , y Desarrollo de la Educacion ( CIDE ) in . This aimed to help train unskilled women and to assist their entrance into the labour market . This was achieved through personal development sessions combined with vocational training . However , whilst in the beginning women 's enrolment increased , these rates began to drop across of the initial implementation period . The reasons behind this shift are simple . Bosch ( ) emphasised that the times of the classes ' conflicted with dinner or did not leave enough time for the women to attend to their children 's needs ' . This idea is supported by ( 2003:1332 ) who argues that ' barrier to women 's participation is time ' . She goes onto point out that by ' holding sessions at times that women suggest as convenient as least allows the option to participate ' . As well as time , location of the meetings can also pose significant barriers when attempting to increase women 's empowerment . 's ( cited in , ) analysis of the early planning stages of ( ) in can help to explain the extent to which structural factors may exclude women . The aimed to "" open up "" new opportunities for women by focussing on their perspectives in relation to farming systems and by appreciating the pivotal role that they play in natural resources management . However it failed to deliver in that the locality of the meetings made it hard for women to even attend let alone contribute . ( cited in , : ) concluded that planning ' tends to emphasise formal knowledge and activities and reinforce the invisibility of women 's roles ' . These examples bring into focus the main obstacle towards empowering women ; challenging gender roles which have been culturally ascribed . It is these gender roles which place women as class citizens , and it is their class status which impedes efforts by NGOs to improve their economic , social and political situation . With this in mind it can be argued that in order for support systems to successfully empower women facilitators must ' head behind the curtain ' and enter the private sphere of the family . The way in which gender relations are created and sustained in the private sphere varies both in terms of geographic region as well as across time . ( ) places emphasis on NGOs understanding the gender relations structures that exist in the haven of the home . She adds to this by arguing that these structures are both dynamic and ongoing and as a result must be examined carefully . Undeniably for many women , challenging patriarchal manifestations , which more often than not ' are fiercely defended and regarded as "" natural "" or "" God - given "" is problematical ' ( , ) . The difficulty faced by many NGOs is therefore to try and ' persuade ' an already male orientated society that women 's empowerment is a right which they are entitled to as part of the ideal of equality and democracy . In addition it is essential to point out that the basic beliefs of gender equality are actually sustained in the charter 's of democratic states all across the globe , in for example , ' the Covenant on Human Rights ( ) , ) and for some countries in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women ( ) ' ( Nzomo , : ) . It is pivotal that NGOs keep the above treaties in mind world women attach great importance to these legal principles . To them , they are a continual reminder that situations may improve with time and participation ( Nzomo , : ) . So how can NGOs begin to disentangle this cultural framework which places women as class citizens ? For some organisations the answer seems to lie in assimilating men into empowerment programmes ; inviting men to participate alongside women will help to generate new attitudes which will come to improve female status . A pertinent example which best illustrates this is the y programme which was discussed earlier . After the women voiced their reasons as to why they were unable to attend sessions , ( : ) describes how ' programme officials gradually began to pay heed ' in that they ' rearranged class times so as to avoid conflict with family time ' . In addition to this positive change , facilitators went a step further , when they started to incorporate men into the empowerment process . This has been deemed positive as if NGOs are ' gender blinkered ' it results in minimal benefits for all parties ( , ) . Certainly Rowlands ( ) acknowledges that the main problem of empowerment lies in the fact that men fear that they will loose control of the family . Encouraging men to take part in tasks and projects with female members of the group , in this case , brought them closer to appreciating that they need not oppose or in fact fear giving a voice to women . Whilst Bosch ( : ) does acknowledge that this did not necessarily , ' openly oppose patriarchal structures inside the household ' it did make an important inroad into allowing other NGOs to pick up where this programme left off . Leading on from this , Hartsock ( : ) argues the extent to which NGOs will be successful in their pursuit to empower world women will largely depend on their ability to exercise and reproduce what she terms group ' energy power ' . Her thoughts are interesting in that they do not encompass the traditional idea of the domination of ' power over ' which is so common in development thought . Instead she considers the idea that power is itself ' generative ' and that this covers ' the power some people have of stimulating activity in others , and raising their morale ' . From this standpoint it can then be put forward that women 's NGOs should adopt this ' energy power ' perspective . By focussing on raising world women 's sense of self as a collective and basing this process on the beliefs and morals these women hold , surely a fruitful outcome would be guaranteed . In addition , ' if leadership wish to see a group achieve what they are capable of , it is a form of power which can persuade or open up new possibilities ' ( Rowlands , : ) . It can be argued that one of the best examples which the idea of group ' energy power ' can be applied is that to the work done by ( ) in . This establishment aims to ' improve the lives of very poor women economically and socially and to make them self reliant ' ( Sen , ) . Members of the NGO work at the grass root level and their main approach has been to build on the self worth of women through ' collective group empowerment ' . Nanavaty ( cited in , ) deems this to be more effective than individual empowerment , as ' with collective strength the woman is able to combat the outside exploitations and corrupt forces ... also her respect in the family and community follows soon ' . is a success story for many women 's NGOs and in this way it would not be unfair to consider it more the ' exception than the rule ' ( Nanavaty cited in , ) . However the importance of the work carried out by SEWA does bring to light the positive impact that good NGO practice can bring to the lives of world women . < heading > Women 's NGOs : Problems and Proposed Solutions With the above in mind it now becomes necessary to conceptualise the problems that NGO face in their bid to empower world women . As well as this , it is hoped that we shall come some way to presenting how these obstacles could be overcome . It has become clear that whilst academics , government officials and NGO facilitators have had their fare share of disputes in deciding the best route to empowering women , they all seem to unite under what they consider the main impediment to be : measuring empowerment . There are some who argue that ' empowerment lies beyond the sphere of what can be measured ' . Others dispute this , and have put forward that , ' measurement must be undertaken for there can be little point in funding an activity if it is impossible to tell whether or not it has been successful ' ( , ) . Whilst the latter statement raises a fine point , it would be naïve to assume that this measurement is non - problematic . Certainly , if NGOs allow for women to determine themselves as a collective what they consider empowerment to be , and how they wish to go about changing their situation to allow for this , complexities arise . The issue for support agencies then becomes focussed on how to measure or indeed plan and chart for unknown projects and processes . This issue warrants further examination and and Heinsohn ( : ) have come some way to providing this . They have hypothesized that the degree of empowerment can be measured by assessing the following factors : ' whether an opportunity to make a choice exists ( existence of choice ) ; whether a person actually uses the opportunity to choose ( use of choice ) ; whether the choice resulted in the desired result ( achievement of choice ) ' . By applying this theory to the practice of NGOs , an imperative point can be put forward . Whilst organisation can not have power over ' the use of choice ' or indeed the ' achievement of choice ' , in order for them to successfully empower women , they will have to have control over the ' existence of choice ' . For example , if a woman from after successfully empowering herself through various programmes decided to take the next step and send her daughter to school ; she would have exercised her ' use of choice ' . If she then began to gather information and found that a suitable school existed , her option to the ' achievement of choice ' would exist . However , if no suitable school existed , then ' neither would this option ' . Thus , the extent to which NGOs can empower women to ' make choices ' is heavily dependant on the geographical location of the individual . Furthermore if there is no option available for that woman to exercise her empowered right , then from the outset , even before the process of empowerment begins , a positive ' measurable outcome ' is unlikely ( and , : ) . Indeed it would be logical to argue that the level of development is an important component in the process of empowering world women . Tied to this , is of course , the extent to which governments are encouraging this progression . For example , as discussed above , would the introduction of accessible schools in areas aid women to exercise their empowered right ? Would governments be supportive of this right ? Evidence has shown than the extent to which NGOs can empower women is directly linked to the ethos and agenda of state institutions . For example , ( ) traces the history of women and their plight towards democracy . An important element of her argument lies in the philosophy and democratic principles of governments . She believes that NGOs stand a greater chance of empowering women , if on the ground women feel that their struggles are acknowledged and have central backing by those officials in positions of power . In relation to she puts forward that women ' are encouraged by the knowledge that their government has ratified the key international human rights conventions and hence can be called upon to honour its declared commitments ' ( Nzomo , : ) Without a doubt the link between governments , NGOs and women is one which should not be underestimated . Certainly Moser ( cited in , : ) brings to light a key consideration in the planning of empowerment programmes . She deems that the success of any NGO project is inextricably related to ' the extent to which the agency itself is able to accommodate the empowerment of the women and to what extent such empowerment is actually threatening to the state ' . An apt example of where empowerment programmes set up by NGOs can threaten state interests can be found in the study of . Here , empowered women , who were weary of their drunken husbands and the abuse they received as a result of intoxication , decided to ' raid and pour away the alcohol , hijack delivery trucks and burn down shops ' . These actions were documented and used as a case study in NGOs literacy empowerment programmes . The government 's response to this ; remove the story which was resulting in the ' humiliation ' of men ( Stein , : ) . In accordance , ( : ) highlights the challenges faced by NGOs in the world . She argues that they have almost certainly been faced with government disapproval . Generally speaking , ' the freedom to set up such associations or organisations is legally curtailed by most of the states ' . This ' legal curtailing ' takes on a variety of forms , from not being able to discuss ' political issues ' to financial supervision , to any decision made having to be ' approved ' by a government representative . As a result of this , it is not hard to see why some critics such as and ( : ) are sceptical as to the ' extent to which the ' non ' in non government is genuine ' . It would seem logical to argue that a way of getting around unsupportive governments could be for women 's NGOs to unite together in a supportive front . However , more often that not , of the problems that NGOs face in their plight to empower women , are actually created and sustained by differences within organisation themselves . ( : ) argues that spending too ' much time on bickering ' is distracting . Instead they need to concentrate on ' filling this vacuum and performing a useful function in mobilizing public opinion and making women 's issues visible ' . For example in relation to states , ( : ) argues that of the most common features which has been cited as a hindrance to the success of women 's issues is the idea that within the political arena and indeed the politics of the NGOs ' no one listens to the other ' . Moreover this ' lack of communication is seriously hampering a collaboration which could be fruitful for women ' . Furthermore , she points to evidence from and to highlight how successful networking between women 's NGOs and politicians is ' crucial to the successful institutionalisation of gender equality policies ' ( , : ) . Despite the importance of the issues discussed above it is not the main aim of this paper to present a solely negative view of NGO and government practice . In many cases which have been documented , supportive governments collaborating with NGOs have been highly successful in empowering and motivating women . of the main ways in which this can be achieved is through Women 's Movements . Sen ( ) illustrates the emphasis which was placed on women 's movements in the programme which operated in in a bid to reduce gender inequalities in education . The unique feature of this programme is similar to ( ) ' energy power ' in that it stressed and emphasised the imporantance of mobilizing women to enable them to collectively resist domination . The campaign has been highly successfully in raising social awareness of empowering women and in the words of ( cited in , : ) , < quote>'I am concluding with a sense of happiness and pride that now women are increasingly confident of tackling their issues independently . They do not wait for us to come here , but taken action and inform us after the action has been taken'. What this shows is that the extent to which NGO practices can empower women will in some cases depend on the organisations ability to work with and for women 's movements as well as within government policies to exact positive change . If this is achieved then programme and projects may come some way to providing the ' missing link ' for furthering women 's empowerment ( , : ) . < heading > Development : A Colonial Gaze ? < /heading > So having now evaluated the problems which NGOs face , attention can now be turned to one of the most important questions of all ; what is the true agenda of women 's NGOs ? The power that these organisations hold is undeniable and criticism seems to occur when there appear to be efforts to import ideas of western empowerment to world women . Accordingly , the success of empowerment programmes will heavily depend on the degree to which women 's NGOs take into account the particular history , culture and class of individuals they wish to help . Too often , western NGOs are ' guilty of stirring up discontent among women in developing countries by applying inappropriate culturally specific notions of female liberation ' ( , : ) . Afshar ( ) illustrates how western facilitators frequently undervalue both and norms of modesty and dress ; simply because these women choose to wear a veil or cover their heads and bodies does not mean that they are ' helpless ' and ' incapable ' and so must be ' saved ' by western feminist ideology . For many of these women , reserved dressing is part of their culture and moreover is something which defines their sense of being . It would be patronising as well as morally wrong for western women 's NGOs to assume that only ' lives like their own can be fruitful and empowered ' ( , : ) . In addition , ( 2005 : ) goes on to point out , quite rightly , that these beliefs are ' irritating ' as well as ' offensive ' since ' western agencies often come from nations which have oppressed these countries in the past , and arguably continue to exploit them in the present ' . With the above in mind , it can be put forward that the extent to which development agencies will have a positive impact can be directly linked to the type of training the facilitators who work at the grassroot level will have had . ' Facilitation , active listening , non directive questioning skills ' are all crucial here ( Rowlands , : ) . Whilst it is likely to be the case that many ' change agents ' will be ' outsiders ' , this should not prove to be a issue if these facilitators have ' self awareness ' . By keeping their own biases , priorities and opinions in check it will ensure that they have a positive impact on the women with whom they are working ( Rowlands , : ) . As with all things it is often easy to sit on the sidelines and pass judgment on the practices of NGOs . Whilst critical analysis is essential to further the cause it is important that we maintain a level of respect for these organisations . The role they have to play is often a very delicate and highly complex one , which can be likened to an ' alliance ' . Good NGOs are like allies in that they ' are not only supportive and in solidarity with you , but will also put their weight behind you in places where you need it , whilst leaving you in charge ' . Furthermore , ' allies are interested in you meeting your goals , because in some fundamental way that enables them to meet their goals are well ' ( Rowlands , : ) . This concept of an ' ally ' sustains the key theme throughout this paper ; in order for NGOs to empower world women , they must leave these individuals in charge of the direction of change and merely provide support . However it is important not to romanticise this idea of the perfect ' alliance ' between NGOs and the women they wish to empower . As is often the case , the reality of situations often dampens even the most well meaning intentions . NGOs face a ' dual burden ' of their very own . On hand they have to consider and take into account the women they wish to empower , whilst also ' complying with the requirements of their own accountability processes ' ( , : ) . A suitable example of this can be found if we are to take a look at the funding of these organisations . The type of funding , long or short term can create obstacles for many NGOs . For example , funding attached to a ' short term mission ' , will be coupled with pressure for easy , rapid and most importantly , noticeable results . Yet as many planners and leaders of such organisations have argued , the process of empowering women is a ' long term goal ' . Furthermore , as has been shown , it is debatable whether one would even be able to measure the level of empowerment as quantifiable data ( Rowlands , : ) . < heading > Conclusion - NGO 's to Empowerment : Ally or Enemy ? < /heading > It seems overwhelming clear that the principal challenge which faces both women and NGOs alike is to continue to uphold and further the process of empowerment . We must bear in mind that just being gender conscious is not enough ; these ideas and thoughts need to be transformed into strong state policies in order for women to gain the confidence to fight for their right to equality . As well as this , NGOs need to appreciate that third world women are not a homogenous group . Whilst there has to an element of universality in NGO planning for it to be realistic , there must also be aspects which differ in accordance to region , culture and religion of their participants . Without this consideration NGOs can not , and will not , reach world women . Experience tells us that government and NGO collaboration must be encouraged ; it is crucial if we are to discover improved ways to empower women . Furthermore , within the field of development all parties need to begin to trust in the other 's actions . Empowerment has been described as an ongoing process . In this way the vision of women 's NGOs projects need to be continuing . These organisations must expect to be involved for as long as they are needed by the women whom they are trying to empower ; a quick fix solution is not acceptable . Furthermore such a solution will not stand the test of time . In addition NGOs need to take an ' inside out approach ' in that they must begin to break down patriarchal relations within the private sphere before they can attempt to empower women in the public arena . Thus there can be no denying that NGOs create favorable conditions which can lead to empowering women . Although true empowerment must come from within , organisations , like a catalyst , play a crucial role in this process . As well acknowledging this we must also be careful not to paint an idealistic picture which has no basis in reality . NGOs need to keep in mind the social and cultural framework in which world women live their lives . Projects must be planned which take these factors into consideration , rather than simply deeming them to be ' backward ' . It is essential that both scholars and planners alike appreciate that empowerment is not simply a process which is done ' to ' women , or indeed , ' for ' women to make them more ' developed ' . world women are not undeveloped they merely need help in steering themselves in the right direction . Throughout this paper it is hoped that these issues have been adequately discussed . In terms of the future governments NGOs , women 's groups and world women themselves must continues on this long road to empowerment . These women must be supported and reassured that as their ' ally ' we have every intention of helping them reach the empowerment that they wish for themselves . Only when this is achieved can world women fully class themselves as class citizens . This should be the main aim of all women 's NGOs . Nothing less will do .","< heading > Introduction < /heading>'Feminist dilemmas in fieldwork are as much ethical and personal as academic and political ; they gnaw at our core , challenging our integrity , our work , and at times , the raison d'etre of our projects . Feminist dilemmas in fieldwork revolve around power , often displaying contradictory , difficult , and irreconcilable positions for the researcher ' ( , cited in , : ) . < /quote > As Hale ( ) aptly identifies social research is often a complicated and bewildering task . On hand researchers must consider the theoretical and conceptual frameworks of their chosen focus , whilst also placing importance on the practicalities of implementation as well as the role of ethics and power in this development . These layers are not always easy to separate and the interplay between design , process and practical issues is one which raises many questions of how best to represent , interpret and theorise the ' voices ' of research participants . Those coming from a feminist perspective may often find this interaction problematic as they are not only trying to showcase the ' lived lives ' of their respondents but are also aware that the highlighted issues need to be applied to a ' female sphere ' which more often than not has been sidelined out of mainstream thought . In addition , as some female researchers ' are moved by commitments to women ' as opposed to being motivated ' purely by their own careers ' ( , : ) the struggles they face are considerably greater than the average researcher . Indeed , these contradictions can often thwart the most well meaning aspirations of many feminists . This ' crisis ' is even more prevalent when "" world feminists "" study women from the "" world "" and the problems which arise from this need careful consideration . Thus after a brief detour into the background context of my chosen text , ' Nisa : The Life and Words of ! Kung Woman ' , the focus of this paper will then concentrate on evaluating the following issues : research design , epistemologies , dilemmas and problems of difference , and power and ethics in feminist investigations . creation of the life and words of her pseudonym is widely regarded as a classic text in the field of anthropology . Although did not initially start out as an anthropologist , her move to the district of with her husband in signified a change and she began to document the lives of women in the ! Kung tribe . After learning the language she began conducting in depth interviews with women from various age groups with varying life experiences . was such woman . From the start of the introductory account it becomes clear that impressed Shostak more than any of the other ! Kung women . She had a ' gift as a storyteller ; she chose her words carefully , infused her stories with drama , and covered a wide range of experience ' ( , : ) . 's emphatic technique led to her to being interviewed times by and the format and structure of these ' talks ' enabled for an observation into the unique lives of an up till then entirely self - regulating community . It was these transcribed discussions , coupled with 's own evaluations which constituted the bulk of her text . Accordingly , with the above in mind attention can now be turned to evaluating the research journey of and her personal memoir of . < heading > Research Design < /heading > Researchers aim to frame their studies in main ways : ontologically ; epistemologically and methodologically . According to Creswell ( : ) the best research tends to be written from ' within tradition ' which he elaborates as being ' ethnography , phenomenology , biography , grounded theory and case study ' . Although he does argue that too much ' purity ' in research , i.e. disregarding the importance of other approaches is not advisable , he maintains that identifying of the research options is essential especially for novices in the field . His theory can be applied to , who herself was new to anthropological research . Consequently , as her research story unfolded it became clear that whilst she did adopt the main approach of ethnography she did touch on elements of other theoretical concepts . Shostak 's rationale formed as a result of the lack of information available about the ! Kung tribe despite other anthropologists studying their way of life previously , < quote>'No matter whom I talked to or what I read , I did not come away with a sense that I knew the ! Kung : How did they feel about themselves , their childhood , their parents ? Did spouses love one another ; did they feel jealously ; did love survive marriage ? What were their dreams like and what did they make of them ? Were they afraid of growing old ? Of death ? Most of all , I was interesting in ! Kung women 's lives . What was it like being a woman in a culture so outwardly different from my own ? What were the universal , if any , and how much would I be able to identify with ? ( , : ) . < /quote > Her main aim was to thus discover the "" lived realities "" of the ! Kung and what their experiences meant to them . Such a broad base allowed for her to examine in particular the identities of women and the meanings that they attach to their ways of life . It is important to add that 's desire to research the relationships of ! Kung women in fact stemmed from her own journey and interest of the varied realities of females across the world . Her fascination was therefore rooted in her own principles and the movements which were taking place in the west in which females were questioning their traditionally assumed roles ; ' I hoped the field trip might help clarify some of the issues the movement has raised ' ( , : ) . Thus in identifying the ' theory - research gap ' which existed in western feminist literature ( Probert , : ) she was hoping to reshape the ways in which women 's studies was viewed in the developed world . Furthermore it can be argued that 's research design itself was aligned with a feminist research perspective . The in - depth interviewing methods she used are praised by feminist scholars as highlighting the intuitive desire which female researchers have to place themselves within their studies . In addition 's extended fieldwork in which she lived with and as a member of the ! Kung community is significant as through this it enabled her to identify more intricate and interesting patterns of behaviour than she otherwise may have missed . Indeed feminist 's in general regard such as inclusion to not only be a ' precious asset ' but also a ' distinguishing element of their research ' ( , : ) . According to ( ) an important element of any research design is planning for the eventual outcome , i.e. what happens once the fieldwork is over . What is significant about 's text is that throughout the chapters she is aware of the responsibility she holds to and the ! Kung tribe in general , < quote>'Perhaps the most important consideration was that after our work was completed we would leave . Then what ? .. Later we acknowledged the responsibility we would continue to have after we left , a responsibility to work with the San in their struggles to determine their future ' ( , : - 28). As a result she speaks to Nisa about her plans to take the stories which she has been told , translate them into , turn them into a book and give her and the community money from the royalties to help with schools , the well and other projects . She is upfront and honest with about her plans and constantly seeks to make sure her participant understands what this means . ( ) acknowledges that this is an important element of planning a good research design as from the outset it helps break down the "" predatory nature "" of fieldwork and research as by planning for , and engaging in reciprocity , it helps to counter some of the inequalities that are reproduced by ethnographic work . Undoubtedly such reciprocity keeps in mind the core foundation of feminist studies which is that what the researcher ' takes out ' in terms of knowledge , they must ' put back ' in other ways . This may take its form for example in book royalties , money , medicines , goods or gifts . However we must be careful when displaying such thoughts as they too , can be viewed as insensitive and condescending and can lead to forms of inequalities between the ' wealthy western researcher ' and their poorer respondents . < heading , epistemology "" is a buzz word commonly used in academia . However despite this recognition , its inherent meaning is far from clear . Theorists have used the term as a way of explaining , "" women 's knowledge "" and "" women 's ways of knowing "" however this conceptual framework has itself come under scrutiny . Sceptics are critical of the sweeping generalisation that unites "" women 's experience "" as category and thus have put forward that such a universal account ignores the different realities of the "" knowers "" and the social contexts of their lives ( , : ) . In addition to such ideas , of the other main obstacles to feminist epistemology has been the prevailing assessment of positivism . In other words , one can take this to mean that whilst positivist science is perpetuated and reinforced by the belief that successful research should uncover replicable "" truths "" and "" statistical facts "" , feminist research is driven by the importance of "" lived experience "" . In this way it has been described by ( : ) as , ' contextual , inclusive , experiential , involved , socially relevant ... complete but not replicable , inclusive of emotions and events as experienced ' . However problems occur when this "" lived experience "" is taken to be true for all women without consideration of their differences . Shostak ( : ) acknowledged this reality throughout her interviews with . She often reported , < quote>'Nisa did not fairly represent the mainstream of ! Kung life , either in her experiences or in her personality . None of the other women I interviewed had encountered such tragedy as , or had a comparable extravagance of personal style . Perhaps her story was too idiosyncratic an interpretation of ! Kung life ; perhaps it did n't generalise to other women ... what concerned me that might have emphasised negative experiences to the point where her narrative portrayed an extreme view of her culture , one not shared by many others around her ' . < /quote > This concern of reliability is important for any researcher . The relationship between the ' knower ' and the ' known ' between the ' truth ' and ' false experiences ' is one which needs full consideration in any epistemological project . According to feminist standpoint theory ( , ) a female researcher uses her position as a ' woman ' to gain knowledge and familiarity so as to create a common bond with her female respondents . In a similar way , Hartsock ( cited in , : ) argues that due to ' women 's universal position within the sexual division of labour and sexist oppression in general , they have greater insights as researchers into the lives of other women ' . However this assumes that all women are subject to patriarchal domination and 's ( : ) account of the ! Kung tribe actually disputes this claim . < quote>'Women 's status in the community is high and their influence is considerable . They are prominent in major family and band decisions , such as where and when to move and whom their children will marry . Many also share core leadership in a band and ownership of water holes and foraging areas .. in other words their influence may be greater that the ! Kung - of either sex - like to admit'. This analysis mirrors the uneasy dilemma of ' working in the west and finding it difficult to relate the issues of feminist epistemology adopted by western feminists to women in post - colonial nations ' ( , : ) . Indeed , the point above is worthy of careful consideration which herself identified ; whilst some traditions , through western eyes may seem to oppress women , they actually privilege women according to their specific experiences . Thus women 's ' standpoint ' will be different in non - western societies , post colonial nations and indigenous communities . With this in mind , 's text has been praised by not only anthropologists but also by feminists for its illustration of a tribe where the power of women is widely recognised from their own standpoint and not from a traditional western feminist epistemological perspective . < heading > Dilemmas of Difference & Privilege < /heading > When conducting ethnographic fieldwork it is important to remember that the researcher is usually the unknown outsider for whom the informant ' translates her culture ' ( Khan , : ) . It is this very exchange of knowledge which has been subject to controversy . As a result the following questions have been raised . What is the impact of difference between the researcher and the researched ? To what extent does this affect data production and analysis ? Do some differences such as language , race , age , nationality or sexuality matter more than others ? All of the above needs careful consideration when evaluating the validity of any feminist studies . of the main problems associated with ethnographic research is to do with the idea that researchers ' carry privilege ' and therefore can not begin to understand the plight of world women . This reaffirms 's ( : ) belief that only ' those who are in similar situations can understand ' and thus conduct research . However this can be , and has been disputed by many others who have argued that ' to assume that "" insiders "" automatically have a more sophisticated and appropriate approach to understanding social reality in ' their ' society is to fall into the fallacy of Third Worldism ' ( Sidaway , : ) . Furthermore sometimes those from a particular culture are unable , for various reasons to conduct research themselves . In this way having an ' outsider ' live with them and review their experiences can be somewhat refreshing as it gives them to chance to speak of their ways of life . One can argue this is the case of 's time with the ! Kung community . Here she tried to bridge the gap by doing everything she could to understand their lives , < quote>'I learned the language , went on gathering expeditions , followed along on hunts , ate bush food exclusively , lived in grass huts , sat around fires and listened to discussion , arguments and stories . Through this I gained an invaluable perspective ' ( Shostak , : 6). The impact was that then had as close to an ' insiders ' viewpoint as she could . As a result this made the process of interviewing that much easier than if she had not participated in all these activities . In addition , she maintained this new found position within the community through presenting herself in a way which she felt the ! Kung women would be able to relate to , despite their different realities . For example she drew on her role as a girl - woman who was recently married and was struggling with all the issues that come with rite of passage : work ; sex ; love and identity . Undeniably many other academics have used this approach to try and build a connection based on mutual experiences with their respondents . Hewitt ( cited in , : ) when conducting research in stated , ' local people could relate to my "" family "" which was a very important part of their lives . It established a conversation point through which I was able to gain important information about their lives ' . The other area of difference which impacted 's fieldwork experience was the generation gap between her and . Age is significant in the ! Kung community with elders gaining respect through their life experiences from the younger members of the tribe . One can see how recognised this when saying , ' I was young , and talked as if to guide me , as if she were talking to the woman I might become ' ( , : ) . Certainly she described how she often felt like a small child when would say to her , ' Wait , I 'm getting to that . Now , listen ' ( Nisa cited in , : ) . This highlights the significance of age as an essential element in research as , ' ideas of respondents are shaped and influenced not only in terms of structural categories like race , but also through the mediation of culture and generation ' ( , : ) . < heading > Bridging the Difference ? < /heading > The ideas expressed above are important elements of fieldwork and should not be forgotten . However with reference to 's unique experience with and the ! Kung community as a whole , it can be argued that she did try and bridge the cultural distance which existed between her and her respondents . Perhaps the quote which best characterised this success is spoken by ( cited in , : ) when she states , ' that is something that you , a woman , know about as well ' . This follows a conversation she is having with about pregnancy and sexual activity in which she uncovers her unhappiness about her relationship with her husband Bo , and explains that she feels if she had married another man she may have gotten pregnant after she lost her last child . What the above sentence seems to capture is 's recognition that she and do have a likeness and a common ground on which they can understand the other despite coming from different worlds . Furthermore it showcases that is not ' disempowered ' in her relationship with . She is not just answering questions , but is recalling her story . In addition , it reveals a touching bond between the researcher and the researched . The statement shows 's perceptiveness of 's aim to unearth the collective experience of what it is ' to be a woman ' . She not only appreciates that she is being asked to give details of her experience of living as a ! Kung woman but takes it a step further by acknowledging that sometimes biological resemblances can create a connection which surpasses social , cultural and political differences . Thus it is this simple gesture which seems to illustrate the bond between and as well as demonstrating that some stories are the same for all women regardless of where those stories are culturally and geographically rooted . Whilst it is important to keep the above thought it mind , we must be careful not to over emphasise this as a common experience for all ethnographic researchers . More than that , despite the closeness between and , their relationship was also characterised by obstacles of difference which sought to separate them . For example , often described how she did not believe or understand some of 's vivid accounts of her life , ' I accepted it as something I might not understand ... the final interpretation of this story and of some of the others will probably always remain subject to speculation ' ( , : ) . What this highlights is that for the researcher it is often hard to separate between the ' truths ' of the stories and the fictional direction they may take when being spoken . As ( : ) identified in her research , ' I was faced with the dilemma of where to draw the boundary between the imaginary and real , the past and present , the conscious and the unconscious ' . Certainly how the researcher chooses to interpret the account she is given by her respondents also poses problems to the validity of her write up . However perhaps we can put forward that all ethnographic accounts have an element of ' multiple truths ' to them , and that a good researcher will do her best to find these truths from within imagined realities of her respondent 's narratives . Hence having now discussed the elements of difference within research , attention can turn to the additional inequalities which accompany epistemological projects . < heading > Politics , in Fieldwork The problems of politics and ethics are now commonplace in feminist research . Indeed research for women , as opposed to research on women can bring a whole new set of obligations which need to be fulfilled . Ethnographic methods which seek to improve the lives of individuals through the research process have been characterised as ' ideal ' for women as they draw on traditional female strengths such as concern and empathy as well as ' a reciprocal relationship between the knower and the known ' ( , : ) . However closer inspection reveals that such strategies can in fact subject the ' researched ' to ' greater risks of exploitation , betrayal and abandonment ' ( , : ) as well as causing great feelings of guilt for the researcher . It is this exploitation which stems directly from the humanistic nature of ethnographic in depth studies which depend entirely upon a shared ' sisterhood ' within which ' an ultimate empathy is assumed to reside ' ( , : ) . According to ( : ) ' a feminist interviewing another woman is by definition "" inside "" ' the governing gender culture and this leads to ' minimising social distance ' . Furthermore other academics have put forward that women are able to effectively engage in worthwhile discussions with other women due to their ability to ' translate ' and ' fill in ' thoughts which may not be verbalised ( DeVault , : ) . However this leads us onto an interesting terrain ; to what extent can researchers ' fill in ' the unspoken words of women , who may not only be distant to them in terms of geography but also culture ? Certainly the assumption of a shared sisterhood is problematic not only for the respondents but also for the researcher . For example it can lead to a false sense of security coupled with unrealistic expectations of the interview process . Shostak herself found that in trying to find the perfect respondent with whom there was an instant rapport was difficult to say the least , ' I was no longer a sensitive interviewer , I wanted immediate understanding , immediate confidences ' ( , : ) . This brings to the forefront another dilemma in ethnographic studies , the idea of ' immersion ' . Anthropologists , for the most part , tend to use this technique when ' doing ethnography ' ( Wolf , : ) . Such a strategy involves acculturating into the native culture and so requires the researcher to ' downplay her privilege ' ( , ) . However this can lead to difficulties not only for the researcher but also for her participants . For example , found that in trying to live as a member of the ! Kung community she felt emotionally and physically drained . Furthermore in the beginning it did not help her gain initial confidents within the community . She describes her loneliness and her incapability to ' exert the necessary effort to gain acceptance ' ( , : ) . Clearly then whilst immersion does have its advantages in that in enables to ' view a culture from within ' ( Wolf , : ) it can be argued for the researcher it does pose some challenges . In reality after of fieldwork Shostak ( : ) describes that , < quote>'The strain of having been away from home so long , the continual pressure of adapting to other people 's ways , the hard work of collecting reliable information about their lives , and the demands of the physical environment had exhausted me . I wanted to be finished ' . < /quote > As well as these feelings of inadequacy for the researcher acculturation into another 's culture for the purpose of research poses significant inequalities for the respondents who may feel abandoned once the project has come to a close . Whilst one can not , and should not belittle the emotional rollercoaster of emotions which would have been subject too , perhaps it can be argued that may have been left feeling far worse off . Upon 's return to the village , turned to her and questioned , ' But now you have come back though you are clearly the one who has forgotten me ' ( cited in , : ) . Although one must be careful when drawing assumption of the relationship between and , as clearly the bond they shared was special , the above statement does highlight a key consideration in conducting ethnographic research ; although the researcher is a part of the field , she unlike her participants , has the ' privilege ' to leave once her work is completed . Thus it can be argued that this ' privilege ' can never really be hidden despite the ' immersion ' which may take place and so power inequalities will constantly reproduce themselves even through the most well meaning of intentions ( Wolf , ) . < heading>'Friendship ' or ' Friendliness ' : Where to draw the line ? < /heading > Attempts to deal with power and friendship is yet another ' contradiction in terms ' ( Oakley , ) which feminist researchers face . Ethnographic studies in particular emphasises the primary ' instrument ' which women hold and through this methodology female researchers are expected to use their resources of friendliness , empathy and concern to reach their respondents on a personal level ( , : ) . However according to ( : ) this can have a potentially damaging effect as such a technique unethically ' encourages friendship in order to focus on very private and personal aspects of people 's lives ' . Furthermore , Acker et al ( : ) have gone a step further by arguing that , ' given that the power differences between the researcher and researched can not be completely eliminated , attempting to create a more equal relationship can paradoxically become exploitation and use ' . With this in mind the question now becomes , did Shostak encourage a ' friendship ' with in order to gain more detailed insight into the life of a ! Kung woman ? . By reviewing the text it would seem that this was not the case . Shostak did not attempt to foster a ' friendship - like ' relationship with , or indeed with any of her respondents . She did not talk about herself , and her life back at home , nor did ever ask about either , < quote>'Although there were moving moments for both of us - an extension , so it seemed , of the intensity of our conversations .. I did not become 's "" best friend "" , nor did she become mine . She rarely asked much about me , nor did she seem particularly interested in my life ' ( , : > What this shows us is that did have a bond with which seemed to overcome ethical barriers which some researchers undoubtedly face . Indeed , one may go as far to argue that and the ! Kung tribe in fact maintained a significant level of power throughout her interviews , despite the view that ethical research is not possible between western researchers and world women ( Patai , ) . Shostak ( : ) refers repeatedly throughout her account of the tobacco which she and her husband would hand out to the community in return for their research help . She states that , ' the ! Kung demanded a relationship on their terms , not ours .. eventually we accepted ' . Whilst of course one must acknowledge that this ' business exchange ' of monetary goods for interviews is in itself a form of power inequality , it would seem for the most part that both the researcher and the researched accepted this as ' one of the rules of the game ' ( Shostak , : ) . The active power which seemed to command in her interviews with is not surprising to some academics . ( : ) disputes 's ( ) view by arguing that her respondents tended on the whole to ' affirm their power over her , the researcher ' . Certainly her ideas can be likened to , who would often end her talks with by simply declaring , < quote>'That is finished , is it not . Let 's talk about another now .. the wind has taken that away . I 'll tell you another now . I 'll break open the story and tell you what is there . Then , like the others that have fallen out onto the sand , I will finish with it , and the wind will take it away ' ( Nisa cited in , : ) . < /quote > Whilst the fact that was that much older than Shostak , and as a result may have had added to her confidence , the idea that it is the research respondents who hold the power to direct and contour the researcher and the research encounter is a significant element of in depth research and must not be forgotten ( , ) . In fact Shostak ( : ) herself states that , < quote>'Whilst I explained that I hoped we would review everything that had happened to her , for , she talked about lovers , mostly of the past . No matter how I tried to lead to discussion elsewhere , I met with little success ' . < /quote > Thus it would seem by using a ' speaker - centred approach ' ( , cited in , : ) Shostak gave Nisa the ability to identify and examine issues which were important to her as opposed to those which the she as the researcher may have been more interested in . With this is mind one can argue that the role of a researcher requires not only a respect for her respondents but also acknowledgment of their feelings . It must be remembered that even though the issues that participant 's may wish to discuss may be alien or indeed may seem insignificant , attempts must be made to listen , interact and record them in a professional manner . It is only with this consideration that inroads can be made into advancing academic understanding of feminist investigations . < heading > Final Thoughts < /heading>'After you leave , I will continue to live . I will see things around me and think about them , as you 've asked me to do . When I see something interesting , I 'll say , ' Eh , this is something Marjorie and I have talked about . Its very heart is here . Now , there is more about this to tell here . ' I will remember it and carry it around with me . When I see something else , I 'll carry that , too . I 'll carry all the things I have yet to see , and when you come back , I 'll give them to you ' ( Nisa cited in , : ) . < /quote > From reading 's text it becomes apparent that it was as much about her personal journey as an anthropologist , as it was about documenting the life and words of Nisa . What can be enjoyed is an honest account of her fieldwork experience , in which she openly discusses both the high and lows of her time living amongst the ! Kung community . Her descriptions are engaging and thoughtful in which she constantly examines who has gained the most from her research . Her research design seems hard to fault , and the in depth interviews she conducted do successfully transmit 's words and her lived reality without little intervention from her as the researcher . Perhaps the success of 's text is rooted in her apparent respect for . She continually makes references throughout the chapters to ' Nisa story ' . Certainly she states in the epilogue , ' whilst it was my work , certainly , and she has given what could be called informed consent to it ; it was her story ' ( , : ) . In addition , it is poignant that herself chose the name as her pseudonym for publication and indeed purchased animals with the book royalties she was given . Such was the bond between researcher and the researched ; it continued long after left and perhaps continues to despite 's death . Finally it would not seem unfair to argue that whilst the impact may have made on 's life , although positive , was on the whole fairly minimal , what took away with her was far greater . Her text presented the story of a women who she viewed as a ' distant sister ' and whose way of life coloured and changed the face of women 's studies in the western world .",1 "< heading > Introduction < /heading > The originally began with the establishment of The Suites in . Not until the serviced apartment- The Hockney Suites Edinburgh opened was its set up , in order to achieve the most satisfaction of business traveler , retain customer loyalty and offer higher quality of client services . As a successful business of luxury serviced apartment , The Suites , sitting in the most happening zone of central , has been considered as one of the most remarkable pioneers in the hospitality industry over . on its mission statement- "" Enjoying Flexibility and Comfort at Your Luxurious Home Away From Home "" , provides luxuriously furnished , extended stay accommodations and same standard of client services as any star hotel ( see Appendix 1 ) ; further , customers ' needs of privacy and homely feeling away from home are ensured during the stays with the Hockney Suites . Over , has made its brand reputable among the industry and customers , and also profitably operated others luxury serviced apartment in , along with units in , units in , and units in the rest of the world ( see Appendix 1 ) . Most lately , has noticed the gap between the rapid growths of Tourism in and its relatively slower development in infrastructure , such as accommodation ( , 2004 ) . Therefore , the emergence of market of serviced apartment in India- one of the world 's biggest economies in , has drawn attention and made the company looking for the opportunities to compete and stand out in the hospitality industry in . < heading > Evaluation of Business Environment < /heading > Business environment analysis will assist the global business to ( ): reduce risk of failure , identify the key environmental variables ( see Appendix 2 ) , aid strategy planning and decision - making , make more effective choice of market and marketing mix , as well as assess the risk of conducting business between the home country and the host country . Marketers hence need to recognize the similarities and differences of different countries that greatly influence the marketing of the business ( , ) . This section endeavors to analyze and compare the business environments of and the . < table/>India , one of greatest purchasing power in the world ( The Report : 's performance in ) , is also well - known for its mass population and speedy development , only to ( , ) . Throughout , 's economic situation and national development have prospered , making it appealing to many foreign investments ( , ) ; as a matter of fact , foreign direct investors now enjoy automatic entry to ( See Appendix 2 ) which led to the world 's largest recipient of by receiving in of ( , ) . Similarly , the , have had a strong economic growth ( database , ) and a - friendly climate ( refer to Appendix 2 ) in . Generally , and the have been sharing a global vision and democratic value for long , and the relationship in between was more improved as a result of signing a Joint Agreement by the Prime Ministers in ( , ) . This encouraged the nations to form the strategic partnerships ( , ) , continuously discuss , and subsequently corporate in the contemporary agendas ( see Appendix 2 ) involving terrorism , nuclear energy , science , technology , security , economic partnerships , culture and education ( , ) . From a technological perspective , and are both easy accessible by air and roughly have the same amount of international airports ( IHC London , , , 2006 & Visit , ) , while domestic flights are more common than in the due to its size of , up to approximately 60 destinations . Additionally , domestic flights within are very cheap compared to the . Nevertheless , the quality of airports has been especially concerned , indicated by the High commission of ( ) , which might then make effect on possible return visits . In addition , government has made more constant efforts than the in IT education and many kinds of technological development plans over ( Asialink , ) . consequently has become the IT leader and a central for outsourcing business services among the world ( Mipimasia , ) , leading to its ongoing growth of number of domestic and international business travelers ( Zavari , ) those who take part into the start - up period of the entry of new companies and frequent training ( Thaker , ) . < heading>3 . Factors of Serviced Apartment Demand in < /heading > Middleton & Clark put emphasis on economic variables in the countries or regions , while discussing the volume of demand , for the reason that it helps elaborating the pattern of tourists live ( ) . 's rapid economic growth ( see Appendix 2 ) creates vast demand for domestic holiday and business trips , as a result of the exchange rate ( per US$ ) , that currency is cheap compared to the . Consequently , its economic growth helps to attract foreign visitors . Adding up , refer to Appendix 3 , 's main overseas markets , the ( ) and ( ) , are experiencing a strong economic growth , which may further increase the tourist traveling to ( Travel and Tourism Forecast , ) . arrival ( see Appendix 3 - 1 ) over gave the evidence to place its tourism industry in the stage of "" "" in terms of "" "" ( , ) . Among all the international tourists , according to a study of world tourism organization in , there were holidaymakers whilst people visit for business purpose in all kinds ( , ) . Yet the continuously escalating economics offers the capacity of supporting tourism growth as well as being a criteria reflecting on numbers of trips for business purposes ( , ) ; therefore , the demand of international business traveler in and following future can be estimated optimistically . Aside from the volume of international tourist , domestic tourism also makes great impact on a nation 's tourism industry ( et al , ) . Experiencing general development of ( Mobility Drivers ) , its volume of domestic traveling as well increased , from a total of tourists in to tourists with growth of in 2004(Travel and Tourism Forecast , ) , and the surge of domestic tourism is expected to raise in the following , which may tremendously benefit hospitality businesses in ( of , ) . Purpose of domestic traveling differentiates depending on regions ( ) . For example , the southern states of account for the higher share of tourists for social travel ( ) , while the northern states share more tourists for business traveling ( , ) . A study on domestic tourism by during pointed out that of all tourists in traveled for social purpose ( Social - cultural Drivers ) ; that is to say , traveling for social purposes , overall , stands the largest percentage of trips across the country , and it may because of lower average expenditure for social trip of each household than other purposes of traveling ( , ) . Thanks to a healthy foreign investment environment ( ) , strong domestic travel trend and government 's emphasis on IT development ( technology ) , has moved itself firmly into the place of the world 's rapidly fueling tourism market . In fact , in a HotelBenchmark Survey by ( ) , hotel demand in is anticipated to grow at per annum in the following future , and much likely , prime cities will continue suffering from the shortage of hotel rooms supply as they already are at present ( ) . "" There is too much demand , "" said , on behalf of , who has announced to invest in for on ( , ) . Among this impressive demand of hotel accommodation in , in accordance with research conducted by , a consultancy firm , of the hotel business is extended stay ( , ) . Extended - stay products , consequently , is seen as a sector that offer tremendous potential , being estimated to occupy among hospitality market over the near future ( ) . < heading > Factors of Serviced Apartment Supply in < /heading > demonstrated a remarkably theoretical framework regarding competitive framework in to analyze the factors that influencing the supply of a market . The supply of serviced apartment in will then be criticized through these forces analysis- threats of entry , threats of substitute , bargaining power of customers , bargaining power of suppliers and rivalry among existing competitors ( refer to Appendix 4 - 2 ) . The attitude of government toward tourism has significant impacts on its tourism development ( Tourism Market Trend , 2004 ) . For example , "" "" ( www . IncredibleIndia.org ) , the project organized by , effectively enhanced visibility and increased awareness of as a tourism destination . On the other hand , foreign direct investment were permitted since ( , Government of , ) , which formed a warm welcome to foreign investors that diminish the barriers of entry and resulted in a impressive growth of suppliers in hospitality market ( Redfitt.com , ) . Although the volume of tourism in is speedily increasing ( see Appendix 3 - 2 ) , the number of visitor arrivals of is relatively scanty compared with other world 's tourist destinations ( see Appendix 4 - 1 ) . As a matter of fact , as a product of tourist destination can be more easily replaced by other tourist destination due to safety , health , and infrastructure factors ( , ) . That is to say , threats of substitute for suppliers immersed from an international competition perspective . Conversely , existing domestic competition is less intense since there amounts of serviced apartment or hotel residences is still little ( Thaker , ; Zavari , ) . It is suggested by the figures that the domestic threats of substitute and rivalry among existing competitors are lower ( refer to Appendix 4 - 2 ) , and therefore the bargaining power of suppliers stays insignificant . Last but not the least , the bargaining power of customers is regarded as low due to the shortage of current supply of hospitality accommodation , according to a research taken by ( ) . < heading > Market Attractiveness and Market Entry Mode 's economy has grown dramatically since ( see Appendix 2 ) . Its GDP growth went up in ( World Development Indicators database , ) , in turn it contributed a positive development to 's tourism ( , 2004 ) . The significant tourism growth is largely attributed to its economic reform , which for instance reduced the government control on foreign trade and foreign direct investment ( , ) . Thank to the strong connection between the and , moreover , companies are reckoned to be well positioned in making the most of this growing export and investment market . Just as mentioned , former PESTE analysis ( refer to ) has shown a general depiction of business environment in and 's forces competitive analysis ( refer to Appendix 5 ) in the previous section illustrated the recent competition of serviced apartment market in . Additionally , weighted 's forces analysis ( as Appendix 5 - 1 ) shows the factors that related to market attractiveness ( Porter , ) and hence offer the proof that is a market worth foreign investment in hospitality industry . Before entering a foreign market , a business company needs to take the choice and importance of the market entry mode into account ( and , ) . In that case , the business company then need to choose the most suitable mode in which the business will satisfy itself in the conflicting pressure of the foreign and domestic operating environment ( Paliwoda , ) and will secure for relocating its sources and facility from the home country to the host country ( , ) . There are numerous marketing entry strategies depending on different level of control , however , soft services firms , where production and consumption can not be decoupled such as health care , hotel and tourism ( Blomstermo et al , ) , have a tendency to opt for joint ventures , licensing/ franchising , or foreign direct investment/ ownership . Suppliers of soft services required higher control entry mode , and stressed ( ) . As a soft services supplier who attempts to entry an cultural distant country , it is also recommended by and Sharma ( 2006 ) to choose a high control entry mode ( such as or ownership ) from a perspective of industrial experience , with the intention of building up unique competence , on - site research , adaptation to the needs of the foreign buyers and markets , and customer relationships ( and Sharma , ; and ) . On the other hand , in real industry world , Lasalle Hotels- the global hotel investment services group- argued that , local existing residential property developers are better equipped and familiar with serviced apartment products compared with hotel groups those seeking for opportunities to enter serviced apartment sector ( , ) . That is to say , cooperating with local appears to be more practical and beneficial to a foreign entrant in the long - term view . Hence the more appropriate method of entry strategy for will be joint equity venture , in consideration with 's flavored investment climate ( refer to 2- PESTE analysis ) , estimated low cost and risk of entry , applicable knowledge of serviced apartment sectors in ( , ) , and also concerning its thriving domestic competition ( refer to 's forces analysis ) . < heading < /heading > Since has been a high - resource company for and providing luxury serviced apartment product to specialist markets , tends to adopt "" differentiated / multi - segmented "" marketing strategy in support of market targeting ( Blythe , ) . By means of normally concentrating on two or a few more selective segments ( "" selective specialization strategy "" ) , though they may not be closely related , the company aims to fulfill the needs of these specific niches ( , ) . Take it as an example ; "" corporate sector "" is the core target market ( Foxley , ) of The Hockney Suite , , while "" business traveler sector "" and "" extended - stay holidaymakers sector "" are regarded as secondary market segmentation . Owing to 's impressive economic growth , the concept of extended stay hotel , forerunner of serviced apartment , was firstly introduced into in response to ongoing expansion of demand for quality accommodations of medium or short - term stay from professionals and businessmen ( Zavari , ) . As a result , middle to senior management positions in many international companies ( such as companies , and so forth ) and IT , , and companies those who are in the formation stage would usually generates huge demand for serviced apartment ( Zavari , ; , ; , ) . Embassies and in also show needs for serviced apartment , in order to offer their consolers and senior members of staff medium to long - term accommodation ( Zavari , ) . Furthermore , single female business travelers ( Zavari , ) and visitors for medical tourism ( Foxley , ; , ) are also a prospective surge of the target market for serviced apartment . To sum up , supported by evidence above , "" Corporate sector "" ( cooperating with , IT , , , , Embassies , Foreign Commissions , Primary Medical Centers , etc ) will remain the core market segmentation of in . Other than that , sectors of "" Business traveler "" , "" Single female business traveler "" and "" domestic tourists "" are the segmentation that will make efforts to attract to a certain extent . < heading > Recommended strategic Orientation < /heading > Decision - making in a strategic management orientation in global marketing counts for the reason that it facilitates to determine the typology of its international expansion ( , ; , ; , ) . first classified the distinctive management orientations in late 60's- Ethnocentrism , Polycentrism , Regiocentrism and Geocentrism ( Perlmutter , ) . And then , The framework ( refer to Appendix 6 ) he proposed has been well - known and widely used to identify different strategic orientations over ( , ) . < heading > Ethnocentrism A company adopting ethnocentric strategy is associated with a home country management orientation and sees the overseas markets as secondary ( , ) . This approach is suitable for a minor scale of target market ( , ) or targeting home country customers in the host country ( , ) , with an assumption that domestic marketing strategies may be applicable to the overseas market . < heading > Polycentrism A company taking a polycentric approach implies a host country management orientation in appreciation with differences between domestic and foreign market ( , ) . Managers in the host country are recognized to know better than the home country managers ; further , its operation system and policies are developed autonomously based on foreign market conditions ( see Appendix 6 ) . This approach had been regarded as the most favorable international marketing policy in ( Wind et al , ) . < heading > Regiocentrism While the culture and economic development of the host country are similar to the home country , regiocentrism may be in use ( , ) . This approach points out that the company views the whole region as a potential market ( Wind et al , ) . Though the company recognizes the uniqueness of a region , it remains finding out an integrated regional management orientation ( , ) . < heading > Geocentrism Geocentrism is coupled with an integrated management orientation on a global basis ( , ) . Ignoring national boundary , the company involved with this management style is not fond of either the home or the host country orientation ( , ) , and wishes to deliver a standardized image of the company all over the world ( Wind et al , ) . It was ranked as the most appropriate future strategic orientation in a former study by Wind et al ( ) . As a medium - sized firm ( the size of the firm ) with international experience over continents ( experience in overseas markets ) , who may enter the serviced apartment market of with joint venture entry mode ( the nature of the product ) and then will possibly encounter large scale of both cultural difference and potential customers ( the size and degree of heterogeneity of the potential market ) , is suggested by the literature to choose a softer strategy ( Wind et al , ) , such as polycentrism or geocentrism . Thus , although used to implement regiocentric orientation for managing its regional expansions in , whereas now the company is opt for polycentrism as its strategic orientation for The Hockney Suites in . < heading > Brand Image and Positioning""The image and value attached to a brand is core to its positioning in the market "" ( , ) . The benefit from building up a brand may consist of expanding greater loyalty , greater power of suppliers , sales expansion and profit increase ( also supported by , ) , and that it enables the companies to survive unfavorable economic conditions ( et al , ) . will insist to market its serviced apartment product under "" The Hockney Suites "" , as the brand name has consistently stood for a good reputation and high awareness to customers ( , ) ; nevertheless , soft branding strategy will be chosen according to the needs of the target market and the business environment of , so as to maximum the better cooperation with its venture partner and to fit its polycentric management orientation ( , ) . In order to make certain that the target market recognizes and understands the brand image and the serviced apartment product among all the competitors ( such as , , Grand Hyatt Residences ) , the attempts to make emphasis on its distinctive and appealing characteristics to differentiate and position itself in the minds of target market ( , ) . Aside from the commodity elements mentioned in ( "" Antes""- quoted from ) that any luxury branded residences might have ( , ) , the unique characteristics ( "" Drivers""- quoted from Prager , ) of The Hockney Suites in will be : of all , individual and practical working space is included in each unit , which can flexibly be set up as temporary meeting room ; additionally , parking lot offer is guaranteed , since the central location of The Hockney Suites situated will increase customers ' needs in parking space ( strategy ) . , focusing on offering exclusive image , high quality of tangible and intangible elements with slightly cheaper price , compared with other branded hotel residences ( strategy ) . , due to primarily targeting middle to senior managers / business traveler , in room Internet Access and telephone help desk are provided ( strategy ) . Furthermore , British- luxury interior decoration is one of the principles of The product , aiming to form the phenomenon of upper class or celebrity lifestyle ( User strategy ) . < heading > Marketing Mix / Standardization and Adaptation Decisions < /heading>""Marketing mix is a set of marketing tools that the firm uses to pursue its marketing objectives in the target market "" ( , ) . Whether to adopt its marketing mix elements ( such as its product , packaging and so forth ) for foreign target market or standardize and sell essentially the identical elements in favor of significant cost saving , it is a fundamental task for international marketing ( Calantone et al , ; , ; ; Cavusgil et al , ; , ) . Amusingly , the both strategies ( adaptation and standardization ) however are normally used at the same time ( , ) . Instead of choosing either one , both typologies of standardization and adaptation will be carried out by in order to optimize effective marketing strategies at most ( , ) . Illustrated by ) , there are layers of product attributes that assist marketers to make better decision between standardization and adaptation : the physical attributes , the service attributes , and the symbolic attributes . will standardize its physical establishment of serviced apartment by representing luxurious interior décor ( physical attributes ) , adapt its housekeeping and maid cooking services system ( service attributes ) with regard to different cultural lifestyle and eating habits from the . < heading>9 - 1 The Hockney Suites Greater Delhi The names the new international organization as "" The Hockney Suites "" for being seated in - the most rapidly emergent area of in ( ) , where the Master Plan for notified in ( . Net ) , including the metropolitan area of and several neighboring satellite towns . Gurgaon is located in the area with impressive emergence of IT companies and international firms . It also enjoys an excellent location and the convenience of transportation , which is away from , away from . Currently , 5 - stars branded hotels ( Trident , ) and luxury serviced apartments ( , NK 's Exclusive ) are dominating the serviced accommodation market . Yet , newly - completed malls ( , , Regent Plaza , and Galaxy Mall ) and new malls under construction for now will enrich the city life in the near future . And , these are all the significant evidence suggesting the magnitude of purchasing power , fueling population and cheaper cost of real estate development of the area ( , ) . Therefore , sited near and Khandse Road and facing the great northern meadows , The Hockney Suites will become a new landmark of that possesses an elegant garden in front of the marvelous - level buildings , composed of rooms and studios included . < heading>9 - 2 Pricing ( to . Price / Quality Positioning Strategy)9.3 Distribution < /heading > From a hospitality perspective , distribution is associated with the degree in which the business makes it easier and more efficiently to be reached by target market ; while distribution channels are normally operated by the firm itself , referral network or intermediaries , such as tour operator and travel agent ( , ) . In order to assist target market obtain the information about The Suites and then possibly make the reservation , will develop the distribution channels by all means and cooperate with the following intermediaries- conference and meeting planner , corporate business travel agent , travel agents and likely , incentive travel house ( , to motivate existing loyal customer to experience new product of in , as a reward . < heading>9 - 4 Marketing Communication ( to Appendix 6) Conclusion < /heading > In terms of the existing hospitality business in , serviced apartment sector is not only a new perspective but still on a small scale of basis , however , this market has commenced to bloom and the potential is evaluated as positively high as mentioned above . Serviced apartment sector mainly provides an alternative to the corporate companies or institutions in and international business travelers , who are in need with extended - stay accommodation and desire to be pampered in the comfortable and private space . Evidences confirms the timing of entering the market at this moment is positive for and the aims of surviving in the foreign area and then making profit are achievable . However , the dynamic competition in , among all the existing firms and new entrants , especially luxury branded hotel residences , is also predictable . should actuate and prepare for the next good step for The Hockney Suites , such as developing more practical marketing plans applicable to the local conditions , assessing customer satisfaction regularly or renovating the internal facilities occasionally , with the expectation of managing a continuous hospitality business with profit returned .","< heading > A brief history During , agricultural research and extension services have been delivered at a national scale , in the form of top - down transfer of technology systems . The green revolution technology promoted by them has been successful at achieving macroeconomic growth in the agricultural sector and at improving the efficiency and quality of commercial farming , but it has not helped the poorest farmers ( Chambers et al , ) . While having various strengths , such as a nationwide coverage ; the encouragement of close and periodical links to research ; an ordered structure that simplifies supervision , monitoring and evaluation and offers career opportunities for field staff ; some level of participation of farmers in the planning sessions ; regular training of the extension agents ; and an unified extension system where farmers have to deal with agent , the national extension services , based on the concept , have also many important weaknesses fundamentally of methodological nature ( even without considering external limiting factors , such as the policy environment , and the financial aspects ) . Resource - poor farmers have not been reached by the service , due to agents relying on "" contact farmers "" who comprise of the total farmers and are commonly better off . Thus , the rate of transfer of the delivered messages to the remotest , poorest non - contact farmers is low . Moreover , the system is focused on general messages and standardised techniques designed to maximise impact in the short term , which are not adapted to the local environmental , social and/or economical conditions and which do not take into account the risks that poor farmers face when adopting innovations . The large scale of the operations further increases the difficulties of delivering technologies that are appropriate for each location . Additionally , as participation of the clients is very limited , comprising only the installation of on - farm test plots by contact farmers , indigenous technical knowledge is hardly recognised and used ( et al , , and Feder , ; et ) . As a general consequence , the lack of participation of the farmers , as well as inadequate ways to measure the effectiveness of extension ( using general , quantitative indicators not directly related to its quality ) , has lead to a weak accountability towards the clients and their real needs and thus to much less real impact than expected ( and Feder , ) . With the development of commercial agriculture , private extension services have been established in many countries , offering advice to farmers rich enough to pay for it . But subsistence farmers , living in remote , complex , diverse and mainly rain - fed areas , still need publicly funded help in order to improve their livelihoods . Paradoxically , these farmers are the ones that have been systematically neglected by conventional extension ( et al , ) . This is why many institutions have started to change the extension approaches , trying out more participatory methodologies that aim to grasp poor farmers ' real demands and needs , and reducing the scale of the delivery agencies . < heading > What is needed instead ? The new approaches However , there is still a large range of different understandings of participation , both in its purpose and its practical application . Basically , main levels of participation can be distinguished ( Scherler et al , ): < list > Contribution of beneficiaries in form of "" cash and kind "" . This aims to reduce the costs of the interventions and to increase the level of appropriation of the innovation by the clients ( instrumental view).Participation and institutional building in order to increase the local capacity for reaching the projects ' objectives ( functional view).Participation as a process involving the relationships of different interest groups affecting the community ( both from inside and outside ) , with the goal of improving the balance of powers influencing development initiatives and use of resources ( socio - political view). Despite many organisations still work at the level of participation , in which farmers still do not have a say in the problem definition and the search for solutions , it is the and rather the level that need to be achieved . In order to do this , our understanding of extension needs to change : The new approaches are based on the concept of facilitation , whereas "" rather than extension providing answers to farmers , the aim ( ... ) is to enable farmers to define their own problems and develop their own solutions "" ( et al , , p. ) . Cross - sectoral interventions are needed , where agricultural technology development is integrated with institutional and capacity building . This goal requires multidisciplinary approaches that address technical and social issues at the same time . Empowerment and community participation must be the basis of the solutions , so that the process focuses on raising farmers ' critical capacities and on sharing knowledge with them . Thus , farmers are provided with a basket of technical options and the criteria for identifying their problems and choosing or developing the most suitable solutions , combining foreign knowledge with their own and adapting them to their local conditions . Additionally , assistance must be offered for developing rural institutional frameworks that ensure sustainability and encourage the dissemination of the successful innovations ( , ; et ) . The extension agents ' role is to assist in this process , acting as facilitators and mediators . Researchers provide access to external knowledge and technical options , help in the experimentation encouraging the farmers to take control of it and learn from it , and provide them with tools for analysing and systematising their findings ( et al , ; , ) . < heading > Outcomes of these new approaches There 's evidence that decentralised participatory research and extension experiences show higher levels of adoption of agricultural and natural resource management technologies ( et al , ; , ; and , ) , because the technologies developed are relevant and appropriate toward the real needs of the population . But participatory approaches have other positive outcomes that reach beyond the mere spreading of agricultural technologies ( , ; Braun et al , ; and , ; Okali et al , ; et al , ; and , ; , ): The relationship between farmers , development professionals and scientists is improved : local traditional knowledge and capacities gain in legitimacy in the eyes of professionals ; farmers ' capacity to raise demands on the formal systems is increased , and thus the feedback to scientists for the development of useful technologies is accelerated . The intervention is more legitimate : the project team is accountable not only to the intervening organisation or the donors , but directly towards farmers aswell . Therefore farmers more easily accept the intervention outcomes as theirs , so that local support and direct involvement of the beneficiaries increase the sustainability of the project . People are "" empowered "" : their knowledge , innovative capacity and confidence are improved , helping them to respond to problems and/or opportunities in different situations . There is more equity in the access to means of production by different groups or individuals in the community , because participation implies the negotiation of interests among these groups and provides space for the poor and marginalised in collective decision - making . Poverty is reduced because most of the promoted technologies are labour - intensive , providing employment for the landless and near - landless . Food security and children nutrition are enhanced due to increased production security . Natural resources and the environment are managed in a more sustainable way . < heading > Lessons to learn There are some aspects , fundamental for the definitive success of participatory research and extension , which most experiences presented by the literature still do not describe clearly . Thus , the following questions may be raised : How are participatory extension and research projects managed ? What are the costs involved in their implementation ? What are the needs in terms of institutional framework , human and technical resources and structural conditions in order to achieve success ? What kind of success indicators can be used for their monitoring and evaluation ? Are their outcomes sustainable once the intervening agency has left ? Is it possible to scale them up beyond the community level ? What kind of training do extension agents need in order to respond to the new challenges posed by participatory approaches ? How can their hierarchical , teaching , paternalistic and often self - important attitude be changed into one that is more facilitating , inviting , promoting , encouraging and supportive ? Additionally , the following risks should be taken into account and prevented : < list> In decentralised extension systems ( et al , 2004):""Misuse "" of extension agents , for example for local political campaigns . More difficulties in organising links between extension and research , especially when extension is decentralised but research remains in a central body . Higher costs of training staff , due to economies of scale . Increases in staff size due to a more demanding approach . Less financial sustainability , because of higher costs . A possible solution for reducing the financial risks is to work in partnership with local farmer associations , which are more able to recover costs ( through membership fees , for example ) . < /list> In participatory , demand - driven projects ( Scherler et al , ; , ; , 1998): Limited time and attention given to achieving changes in staff 's attitudes and behaviour due to pressure for producing visible results rapidly . ""Shopping list "" made by villagers , demanding especially infrastructure , because they anticipate to possible funds for such expenses from the intervening agency , and not because of a real need . This demonstrates that also the villagers are also used to an output rather than a process orientation . To overcome these problems , methodologies such as needs analysis , priority ranking , etc need to be introduced. The questions , risks and threats mentioned above clearly show that implementing participatory extension and research means much more than training the staff in new methods and techniques and releasing them to the field . As stated by Scherler et al ( , p. ): "" If extension workers are supposed to change attitudes and behaviour , the organisation has to adjust its structure , the roles and responsibilities of staff at different levels , as well as its overall strategy . But there is also a need for new forms of outside cooperation with other organisations and parties involved "" . < heading > General management Institutionalising participatory approaches implies a redefinition of the roles of all actors involved . For example , the job descriptions of extension staff should be modified to include the additional tasks required by the participatory approach , such as work planning and budgeting ( et al , ; et ; Scherler et al , ) . Informal communication channels within the organisation are useful for improving the relationship between staff members , enhancing participation and changing its top - down culture . Thus , mutual trust and solidarity , a sense of respect and responsibility and changes in behaviour towards people ( especially subordinates ) need to be developed ( et al , ; Scherler et al , ) . Decision - making needs to be shared between senior officers , extension personnel and the clients themselves , so mechanisms that allow for appropriate fora between them need to be developed ( Scherler et al , ) . Being able to accept mistakes and problems and tackle them in a proactive manner is crucial in the iterative learning processes used in participatory approaches . Feedback mechanisms need to be established in order to progressively learn from past failures and successes ( et al , ; et ; Scherler et al , ) . Flexibility is fundamental , because there are no pre - established or predictable outcomes of extension , which depend on farmers ' needs and demands ( Scherler et al , ) . Cooperation with other institutions / public agencies is needed in order for integral solutions to be found when there are problems outside of the mandate of the extension system ( Scarborough et al , ) . The differences among rural communities ( gender , wealth , property rights , dependence on common property resources , degree of reliance on agriculture for livelihood ) need to be considered in order to facilitate processes of negotiation between them , to achieve better distribution of knowledge and to improve the targeting of the rural poor ( Garforth and , ; et al , ) . Cooperation with existing organisations and farmers networks can strengthen the system , enhancing its effectiveness , efficiency and equity of provision and access . Farmer organisations are a vehicle for participation , for increasing accountability and for clients to pay for the services . But care need to be taken so that these organisations do n't reinforce previous patterns of exclusion ( and , ) . Budget availability at district level is a major requisite for a good decentralisation framework . It allows for decentralised planning , implementation and decision - making ( Scherler et al , ; , ) . Finally , it should be remarked that frequently not only extension is needed to improve farmers ' quality of life , because there are underlying structural issues affecting their livelihoods . Thus , integration within an holistic development programme , managed at the local level is required to best suit local needs and conditions . < heading > Role of training Training has a mobilising and motivating effect and is the entry point for organisations to move towards participatory approaches . But it is not enough to enable staff to completely master the methods and techniques of participatory extension and research , which needs a longer learning process . For institutionalisation of participation , training courses need to be integrated into a mid - term organisational and personnel development strategy focused on the problem - solving capacity of individuals and organisational units ( Scherler et al , ) . Some hints to improve training of staff are : A "" living "" participation in normal working situations is more effective than a formal training . Extension agents need to feel how it is to be able to take part in decision - making , as well as the opportunities and responsibilities related to participation . Thus , the organisational culture needs to be changed in order to allow extensionists space for active participation , communication and cooperation . ( , ; Scherler et al , ) . The existence of many approaches to participatory extension and research can cause confusion of terms and methodologies . It is useful thus to present all the approaches and then ask the extension workers themselves to develop their own approach , including all steps , the methodologies and techniques to be utilised in each of them and the performance indicators ( et ) . Training can be used for changing the top - down relationships within the organisation . It is normally carried out in a top - down manner , attending specialists and officers , then supervisors and in the end field workers . But when delivered to field workers , training can create a situation where extensionists know more than their superiors , causing discomfort , generating more demand for training and allowing for changes in the hierarchical structure ( et ) . The training programme should include following topics ( , ; et al , ): < list > Farming systems . The interactions between agriculture and the physical and socioeconomic environment . Development of good analytical skills . Development of communication skills and the ability to work with communities and groups ( facilitation skills).Participatory rural appraisal . Participatory problem - solving . Facilitation skills should be important in the training curriculum . < /list> Incentives and motivation In public organisations there are few incentives for staff to work more or with more enthusiasm because of fixed salaries and of promotions depending on of service and age rather than on performance . Thus , some changes need to be done in order to improve the incentives and create the motivation for change : Supervision should be oriented to performance rather than control of individuals or groups , so that productivity and accomplishment of goals become the main motivators . Performance - oriented bonuses and advancements , and qualitative rather than quantitative indicators of performance ( such as measuring the extensionists ' documentation of indigenous knowledge ) are useful for achieving this task ( et al , ; , ; et al , ) . Additionally , farmers ' demand for improvement of the extension agents ' performance should also be used as an indicator , for by means of staff appraisal by the clients and by close interaction with farmer associations ( et ) . The general idea that the poor community needs the assistance of the state and has the right to be served free of charge should be abolished in order for extension staff to stop having a paternalistic approach ( , ) . < heading > Attitudes and behaviour Changing the attitudes and behaviour of extension staff is a major challenge , because they normally feel superior to farmers and because of the rigid hierarchical structures of public institutions which condition them to think and act in a top - down manner . These changes , needed for an appropriate facilitating interaction with farmers will not only affect the relationships between field workers and clients , but also the ones between superiors and subordinates in the organisation . These changes take place at a personal level . Thus , a collaborative atmosphere should be developed within the organisation , where the fears to lose power and control are reduced and where new forms of relationship can be arranged ( et ) . A simpler , more horizontal organisational structure would also help to increase participation and collaboration between all kinds of staff . Only when participation is institutionalised within the organisation , will the relations at the interface between service providers ( this is , the extension agents ) and the clients ( the farmers ) be improved . Nonetheless , this is also an iterative process . Working together with farmers has shown to increase the cultural identity and pride of extension workers , because they mostly grew up in farming families and this recognition of farmers ' value is a recognition of their own roots . In turn , these feelings significantly improve their personal motivation and dedication and help to change their attitude towards farmers ( et ) . < heading > Our goal As a conclusion to this briefing paper , it shall be remarked that the goal of this initiative is to build a local , decentralised , non - bureaucratic , effective , efficient and demand - driven agricultural technology development and extension service in order to achieve a real improvement in the quality of life of the poorest farmers . It should aim at encouraging sustainable agricultural systems , preserving and making use of the local traditional agricultural knowledge , promoting more equity in the distribution of knowledge and generating self helping initiatives by the farmers . Hard work lies ahead in order to achieve these outcomes , but with everybody 's collaboration and with appropriate coordination with other sectors or institutions within the agricultural sector this will become the new reality in our district .",0 "< heading > Introduction The aim of these laboratories is to provide an introduction to some of the features of a microcontroller ( ) from the M16C family as well as those of a program that provides an integrated development environment ( ) for the creation and testing of application programs . The codes and comments are written and programmed in which provided the integrated development environment required . The microcontroller had 7 segment display devices and push button switches . The port responsible for the segments output was port P0 and the port responsible for the enabling the LED 's output was port . With reference from the handouts the main objective of these laboratories was to carry out the following : < list > To study and understand how to relate and B to this program To comment on every line of this program To change the delay section of the program Assi1.c and observe the action To modify the program Assi1.c to rotate continually one segment clockwise on LED use SW1 to stop / start the rotation of the segment in the Assi1.c programTo determine the missing codes required to drive the display devices to show the current value of the count as decimal numbers ( ' tens and units ' ) on LED 1 and LED 2 in Assil2.c Theory I used the Appendix A to determine how the two 7 segment display devices must be driven on a time - multiplexed basis and to identify the microcontroller I / O pins involved and the voltage levels required to activate both particular display device and the individual segments . I used the Appendix B to determine the special function registers associated with the I / O pins used . The Appendix C for the codes given With the knowledge I had and understanding the lectures notes I wrote the codes and comments for the programs < heading > Apparatus: The hardware elements featured in the laboratories were : the microcontroller input / output ( I / O ) ports , segment display devices and push button switches . I connected the board to a PC and powered up both boards . The codes and comments were written and programmed using which gives integrated development environment required for creating and testing the applications . With the reference from the handouts given , the program files Assi1.c and Assl2i.c carried out the following operations : Assi1.c- It keeps a running count ( mod ) in the LED 2 display It contained an incomplete program for the microcontroller to count ( modulo ) the number of times switch SW1 was operated and display the result . < heading > Working Explanation: SW1 -It is drive by using K register ( R16 ) and has PIN20 which is connected to the microcontroller through way connector CN4 - A and has been assigned Port8 bit . Port 8.2 direction register is used to set the direction and port is used to set it low or high . When it is pressed it grounds the port making it active low . < picture/>
7 Segments display device- which is a bit port , is responsible for the segments display and one bit is assigned to the each segment as shown below : < picture/>Port 0 direction register is used to set the direction of the segments and register is used to set it pulled high or low . Here as shown in figure , OE is always active low as it is connected to ground and according to the function of it displays only the active low from all the inputs . Here the input is the 7segments . < picture/>LED1 & 2 : The connection details of the and the port responsible for the enabling process are as shown above . The LED has an Enable pin . This is controlled by port bit 0 for LED and port bit 1 for LED 2 . Port P1 direction register is used to set the direction of LED and register is used to set it low or high . < figure/>
Collective working of both LED and Switch : < /heading > Firstly , the direction of switch SW1 is set to input . The port responsible for SW1 is P8.2 and by using the direction register(mentioned above),PD8.2 is assigned . The code for this application is PD8.2==0 ; Now , the direction of both has to be set to output . The port is responsible for LED1 and P1.1 is responsible for . Using the information on direction register , and PD1.1 is assigned value . The codes for this application are : < quote > PD1.0==1 ; PD1.1==1; To set the direction of segments to output , PD0 is responsible . Here , all the bits of bit port has to be assigned to output . Also , all the port directions registers of all the segments has to be assigned . This can be done by using bytes to represent all the bits of port . < table/>Here , 8 + 4 + 2 + 1=15 = + 2 + 1=15 = , 0x0FF is assigned to PD0 . The code for this application is : < quote > PD0= 0x0FF. In order to assign a particular segment as output , that particular segment direction port register is assigned and the rest are assigned . When SW1 is pressed , the port is set low , ( P8.2==0 ) . A condition statements can be used to set the operation of LED and segment under the control of the SW1 . The commands are given for the enabling of LEDs and segments , using the port register responsible for them . All the port registers are assigned value pulled high . In order to display a particular segment , only that segment is pulled low i.e. assigned value , others are assigned . The codes for setting all ports low are : < list > P0=0 ; - for segmentsP1.0=0 ; - for ; - for LED2 Codes Explanation: Assi1.c#define Chip_3062x - Chip definition for full version of software include "" stdio.h "" # include "" iom16c62.h "" unsigned char dis_code [ ] = { 0x0FE , , 0x0FB , , , 0x0DF } ; < /quote > Char dis_code behaves as an array and has been assigned values for the segments to be displayed . In order to assign the segments of LED in byte form this code were used . As mentioned earlier the segments were assigned to bit . In order to display segment ' a ' the bit assigned is , hence P0.0 is assigned to segment a and similarly for b , c , d , e , f ports . In order to display segment ' a ' , P0.0 is assigned low and rest is assigned high . < table/>Hence , total bits + 4 + 2 + 1=15 = + 2=14 = E Therefore , 0x0FE Respectively for b , c , d , e , f , ports will be pulled low only . P0.6 and responsible of segment ' g ' and decimal point will always remain high . The byte are written in sequence order of the segments in order to make a rotation . int count ; - count assigned as integer and is used as a counter for the loop displaying rotation void wait ( unsigned long delay ) Here , the delay variable is changed from integer to long as when high values of delay were assigned it result an error . When delay value is decreased the time , the output on the LED is displayed , became shorter , resulting the result not easily recognized by eyes . Hence , high value of delay is required in order to display the result for sufficient time to observe the results . There is also another way of changing delay , by using another loop inside delay function which carries it on for long . < quote > { while ( delay ! = perform the while loop by decrease the value of delay by until it is 0 delay-- ; - decrease the value of delay by before it has been decremented } void main(void ) { PD0 = 0x0FF ; - As mentioned earlier in working explanation , PD0 is the port P0 direction register and it set the direction of all port bits to output . = ; - As mentioned earlier in working explanation , is the direction register and it set the direction of the enable to output . PD1.1 = ; - As mentioned earlier in working explanation PD1.1 is the Port PD1.1 direction register and it set the direction of the enable to output . PD8.2=0 ; - As mentioned earlier is the port PD8.2 direction register and it set the direction of SW1 as input . / * Set the port bits.*/ P0 = 0x0FF ; - As mentioned earlier in working explanation P0 is the register and it set all bits of port as off . Hence , all the segments are turned off . P1.0 = ; - As mentioned earlier in working explanation is the port register and set port bit high and hence , is turned off . P1.1 = ; - As mentioned earlier in working explanation P1.1 is the port P1.1 register and set port bit high and hence , is turned off . Hence , there will be no output on count = ; - variable int count is assigned value 0 to count while ( ) - to perform while loop { < /quote > The modifications to display result on SW1 can be done in ways : displays the result when SW1 is pressed and stop when it pressed again at the start of the program the segment rotation is displayed and when SW1 is pressed it stops the rotation until released . Here , the program codes and comments are written for method , although the method can be perform just by changing "" if(P8.2==1 ) "" to "" while ( P8.2==0)"",meaning perform the operation of rotation while SW1 is pressed . < quote > if ( P8.2==1 ) { - perform the loop from here to display the output on LED1 As mentioned earlier , SW1 is assigned to port bit . Hence , port . Also , assigning the register of to , set high . If SW1 is not pressed perform the loop displaying the output on . < quote > P0 = dis_code[count%6 ] ; < /quote > P0 , which represents the segments of LED is given the value of byte codes from dis_code . In order to choose the segment to be displayed count%6 is assigned to dis_code meaning it will display the segments in sequence order they are written . < quote > P1.0 = enabled on , by pulling it low , hence will display the result P1.1 = ; - off , by pulling it high , hence will not display the result LED1 represented by is enabled by setting , the P1.0 ON . is set of by setting the port responsible for it OFF . Here , by keeping only LED1ON , will display the result on only . < quote > wait ( ) ; - delay function Value of the delay is changed for proper display , using wait function . < quote > count++;}- to increase the count value by , before it has been incremented . < /quote > Suppose the value of count is , x = count++ ; assigns the value to x before it has been incremented . Count value is increased each time the loop is over . < quote > } - End of loop to display output on This program is written for the microcontroller embedded in the development board . Before the lab , the program contained incomplete codes for the microcontroller to count ( modulo100 ) he number of times push button switch SW1 is operated and display the result . LED1 represents place and represents unit place . After modifications , it now displays numbers from when SW1 is pressed each time . After reaching , the LEDs turn off when SW1 is pressed and once again when SW1 is pressed , it starts the count from again . For displaying numbers from , the is switched off , as only is needed to display unit place . < list> Ports usage: P0- 8bit port which controls the segments of the LEDP1.0- Port1 bit to enable LED1P1.1- Port1 bit to enable Port8 bit for push button switch SW1#define Chip_3062x - Chip definition for full version of software include "" stdio.h "" # include "" iom16c62.h "" unsigned char dis_code[10 ] = { , , 0x0A4 , , , 0x92 , , , , 0x98 } , < /quote > Define the lookup table for the LEDs in terms of bytes and helps display number ' 0 - 9 ' on the LEDs . behaves as an array and has been assigned values for the numbers to be displayed . In order to assign the segments of LED in byte form , for each - 9 numbers this code were used . As mentioned earlier the segments were assigned to bit . In order to display segment ' 0 ' the bit assigned are , , hence P0.0 is assigned for segment a and similarly for b , c , d , e , f ports . In order to display segment ' 0 ' , all the ports responsible i.e. P0.0 - P0.5 are assigned low and rest is assigned high . < table/>Hence , total bits 4=12 = C and 0 Therefore , 0x0C0 is the byte for displaying ' 0 ' Respectively for , the byte codes are , 0x0A4 , , , 0x92 , , , , 0x98 . The byte are written in ascending sequence order of the numbers . < quote > int count ; - count assigned as integer and is used as a counter for the loop displaying count void wait(unsigned int delay ) - Variable Delay function to help display output for sufficient time to be recognised by eyes . { while(delay ! = 0 ) - perform the while loop by decrease the value of delay by until it is 0 delay-- ; - decrease the value of delay by before it has been decremented } void main(void ) { PD0 = 0x0FF ; As mentioned earlier in working explanation , PD0 is the port P0 direction register and it set the direction of all port bits to output = ; - As mentioned earlier in working explanation , is the direction register and it set the direction of the enable to output . PD1.1 = ; - As mentioned earlier in working explanation PD1.1 is the Port PD1.1 direction register and it set the direction of the enable to output . PD8.2=0 ; - As mentioned earlier is the port PD8.2 direction register and it set the direction of SW1 as input . / * Set the port bits.*/ P0 = 0x0FF ; - As mentioned earlier in working explanation P0 is the register and it set all bits of port as off . Hence , all the segments are turned off . P1.0 = ; - As mentioned earlier in working explanation is the port register and set port bit high and hence , is turned off . P1.1 = ; - As mentioned earlier in working explanation P1.1 is the port P1.1 register and set port bit high and hence , is turned off . Hence , there will be no output on while ( ) - to perform while loop { if ( P8.2==0 ) perform the loop if SW1 is pressed < /quote > As mentioned earlier , SW1 is assigned to port bit . Hence , port . Also , assigning the register of to , sets low . Hence , If SW1 is pressed perform the loop displaying the output on . < quote > { wait(10000 ) ; -delay function if(P8.2 = = ) -perform the loop if SW1 is pressed { + + count%100 ; - the value of count%100 is increased after it has been incremented while(P8.2 = = ) function to perform if SW1 is still pressed . wait(10000);- delay function if SW1 is still pressed from the while condition } } /*for displaying ' units ' place*/ Here , for , we do not want to display , the counter should start from hence , the following commands were used . < quote > if ( count%100==0 ) if the value of count%100=0 then set the port for segment device off . Otherwise follow else statement P0 = 0X0FF ; - Set all bit of ( all segments ) off . Hence no output number is displayed when the value of count is . else { P0 = dis_code[(count%100)%10]; Port 0 is given the bytes for the segment displaying numbers - 9 through char array dis_code . The number to be displayed is operated by the value of ( count%100)%10 . Here , we had to use count%100 as it does not result in error when the count reaches . As count=100 and only count%10 is used , it gives the value . But we want it to start from again . Hence , ( count%100)%10 is used instead of count%10 . < quote > P1.1 = ; - is set low and hence will be on wait(100 ) ; - delay function to display the result more sufficient time P1.1 = ; - off } /*for Displaying ' tenth ' place*/ if ( count%100<10 ) - if the value of count%100<10 then set the port P0 off , as we do n't need to display numbers from . It is only when the count reaches P0 = 0x0FF ; - Set all bit of ( all segments ) off . Hence no output number is displayed when the value of count is . else { - if the value of count%100 is not then perform the following P0 = dis_code[(count%100)/10 ] ; is given the bytes for the segment displaying numbers - 9 through char array dis_code . The number to be displayed is operated by the value of ( count%100)/10 . P1.0 = ; - LED1 is set low and hence will be on wait(100 ) ; - delay function to display the result more sufficient time P1.0 = ; - Set LED1 off } End else condition for displaying place } End if condition of when SW1 is pressed } - End main < /quote> Observations: When the programs were executed the results obtained was as expected . For the assignment , there are methods were used to show how SW1 is used to control the rotation in different ways . The result obtained by using the st method was when SW1 was pressed only then the rotation started and when released it stopped . Under the nd method the rotation started when the program was executed , but when SW1 is pressed it stops the rotation and when pressed again it starts the rotation . In both methods , the delay function was observed and it affected the time for which the output is displayed . If the value of delay is more the more time the output is displayed meaning it gives sufficient time for the eyes to recognize the changes . For the nd assignment , when the program was executed it turned off both LEDs and when SW1 is pressed it , displays . Each time it is then pressed it shows the count from on both LEDs . Though is set off when the count is . When count reaches it turns off both LEDs and when pressed again it starts the count from again . < heading > Conclusion: From my observations , the program codes functioned as required and therefore I met all the requirement of the tasks .","Before this project I felt that the factors needed for a successful business were motivation , coordination , planning , opportunity , future prospects , teamwork , etc . Having completed this project I feel I have better understanding of how these factors can help and work to establish an effective team . We initiated our business plan , by having many brainstorming sections . As we had many envisioners in our team we had a wide range of undemanding , easy , and straightforward to very complex , high tech and challenging ideas about many products and services . We subsequently researched on each idea regarding the engineering behind it and what new can be done in the product to make ourselves different in the market or to come up with a different product . We had a good thought to have a voting among the team to decide upon our business idea which I think made people feel more involved in the project and in the planning process as well . I feel this was a major part of the success of our project . Our idea was to make desktop phones which can work on both internet broadband connection and normal telephone line . The motivation was basically to make phone calls absolutely free after time investment . As all members in our team were electronic engineers , it helped us design the phone easily . Therefore , I have learnt that technical knowledge is very important part of the evolution of a start up business . Our team consisted of mix skilled members . We had envisioners , enactors , leaders and followers . We all had electronic engineering background as common between us . There was a good understanding and co - ordination in the team . We also had fine communication and we could decide easily what role each of us was playing in our team . We believed in team work which I think made many problems simpler . Alex decided to lead the team , and as he had the necessary skills to delegate work effectively . We had many productive group meetings at regular interval of time which helped us for the upper level pitch . In those meetings we divided the work among ourselves and each member had to research about the topic given to them . So that in the next meeting we could discuss about it and try to think of what more could progress our plan . Our short meeting with our lecturer gave us numerous guidelines about what part of the business which we have not considered or looked upon to improve our plan . As I had the research and analyzing skills I was given the topic to investigate and make a report of the competitors and market entry barriers . I was also asked to find out the basic cost of outsource this product in or . To find out this I used the mentel , fames and other university provided business databases and some search engines like google , yahoo . This project has therefore helped me to confirm my own skills , and knowing this will help me in future projects . In addition to this , I used to think of any ideas or factors which we could consider to make our business plan more efficient . Over all , I felt as we had productive meetings and as we all functioned effectively as a whole team the final presentation was well structured and tried to cover all the topics needed to attract the investors . In my opinion , I have learned that good team work and dedication are the most important factors which lead to success .",1 "< list> Introduction Organizations are "" entities that enable society to pursue accomplishments that can not be achieved by individuals acting alone "" ( Gibson et al . , 1988:5 ) . Based on this definition , it is logical to conclude that the organizations ' effectiveness is directly related to human behaviour , as organizations are made of people . But how people and different interests can affect an organization ' goals and the activities required to achieve them ? Is the external market interaction fundamental for the survival of an organization ? This study will discuss and critically analyse the goals , structure and culture of a particular organisation called ISNAR and how human behaviour affected its design and its future . Those questions will be addressed during the discussion < fnote > I have chosen ISNAR as a case study because I was fortunate to be part of ISNAR team from ( until its closure ) when I move with my programme to ( in ) , where I remained until . The critical analysis presented in this paper is a result of my experience , my observation and several personal communications with members of the EPMR team and external consultants , as a kind of survey to understand , at the political and managerial level , what really happened during the closure of ISNAR . < /fnote> Background < /heading > ( ISNAR ) , a non - profit organization , was established in by ) on the basis of recommendations of an international task force . ISNAR 's organizational goals , structure and culture were influenced by a re - structuring phase ISNAR went through from . In fact , this restructuring was as a survival strategy . When finally , during , and 's main donor decided to close the organization . ISNAR was officially shut down as an independent organization in . However , as several projects had already been well evaluated in terms of performance and relevance , and were still fully funded , an alliance with a sister organization called ( ) was approved by both Boards of Trustees . < fnote > The official agreement is available on ISNAR website URL < /fnote > In and ISNAR was evaluated by ) team and the results of its evaluation included far reaching of criticism of 's weak performance in supplying services to stakeholders and the limited impact of its activities compared with the level of investment it demanded . The committee was composed of external experts and members of the donor community . The conclusion of this evaluation was that ISNAR had a relevant mandate ( supported by the stakeholders ) and its existence was necessary in order to fulfil the actual needs of national agricultural research organizations ( NAROs ) , but a series of changes were necessary , especially in ISNAR 's strategic management . The report clearly identified mismanagement as one of the reasons why ISNAR lost its focus and was not able to fulfil stakeholders ' needs . ISNAR management recognised the need for a new paradigm of innovation systems , partnership and sustainable development : unfortunately when it was already too late to maintain the interest of its main donors . < fnote > According to ( ) , the term strategic management refers to the managerial process of forming a strategic vision , setting objectives , crafting a strategy , implementing and executing the strategy , and then over time initiating whatever corrective adjustments in the vision , objectives , strategy , and execution are deemed appropriate . < /fnote > Nevertheless , the impact of the EPMR report was evident throughout a series of changes made in the organization during and to avoid closure . A new road map was in a process of being designed , part of the management was laid off , several researchers were dismissed , a more transparent attitude by the new management had appeared and new areas of research had emerged . Unfortunately , the damage caused by previous mismanagement proved to be terminal and the organization was finally closed down . The following sections of this study will focus on ISNAR 's goals , structure and culture from , when the last road map was developed and implemented . < heading > Goals of ISNAR According to the literature , the meaning of ' goal ' has several similar definitions , such as "" specific target that an individual is trying to achieve "" ( et . al . , ) , or an "" intention behind a decision or action "" ( , ) , or even a "" high - order target which aims to make something better or prevent something bad happening "" ( ISNAR , ) . All descriptions pointed to the same direction , a definition of what is wanted , for then acting in how to realise it . The goal of an organization is usually defined in very early stage , when the organization is created . In the case of ISNAR , and the other , this was slightly different , as ISNAR was constantly redefining its strategy and its mission . For example , when ISNAR was created , the common goal of the and its was to increase sustainable food production in developing countries , with great emphasis on protecting biodiversity . Later on , goals moved from focusing on food production to facilitating the generation of knowledge for fighting poverty , and finally embracing an institutional innovation systems approach . < fnote > In this context , research goes from analysis of inputs and outputs to analysis of processes , structures , networks , organizations and institutions ( see Hall et al 2005 ) < /fnote > The ISNAR 's goal and mission presented below was developed during an internal program review , in . < quote > ISNAR seeks to contribute to the generation and use of knowledge that fosters sustainable and equitable agricultural development . ISNAR 's mission is to help bring about innovation in agricultural research institutions to increase the contribution of research to agricultural development for the poor . ( ISNAR 's website) Source : URL < /fnote > Although ISNAR 's mandate was re - introduced during each revision period , or , this form of correction was not enough to avoid loss of focus and the growing distance between its actions and the organization 's goal . of the reasons was because individuals in the organization ( specially the top management ) had their own goals , which sometimes differed from the organization 's goal , leading to a culture of individual 's goal settings . The literature shows that setting specifics goals increase performance because it helps the individuals to know what they are supposed to do ( Gibson et al . , ) , but this only works for simple jobs . setting is often seen as a complex and difficult to sustain when dealing with complex jobs such as research or accounting , which are not always easy to measure , being clearly the case of ISNAR . When observing the goal of ISNAR and the process of redefining it ( from ) , it was clear the management had a tendency to follow the agenda of and . At the same time , the launched the , ISNAR designed programmes related to the to address some of the issues demanded by , 's main donor . Due to a necessity to fulfil the donors ' expectations , a crucial element was left behind ( consciously or not ) by the top management and BOT ; ISNAR created the programmes , but did not have the expertise to implement them in a coherent and sustainable way . Or even worse , ISNAR did not have a competitive advantage , as much more capable organizations were addressing the same issues . As the projects started to emerge from the new road map , the researchers ( and the top management ) were not able to convince the donors to fund them , being more and more reliant on core funds , ultimately leaving a debit of in ISNAR 's account . < fnote > The Millennium Development Goals ( ) are ( ) eradicate extreme poverty and hunger , ( ) achieve universal primary education , ( ) promote gender equality and empower women , ( ) reduce child mortality , ( ) improve maternal health , ( ) combat HIV / AIDS , and other diseases , ( 7 ) ensure environment sustainability , and ( 8) develop a global partnership for development . < /fnote > As pointed out by et . ( ) , the main challenges faced by the ( and consequentially ISNAR ) were related to ( a ) strong pressure to produce impacts on poverty reduction , which demand different approaches from the classical research areas , taking into consideration an ' innovation systems ' approach ; ( b ) dealing with complex environments , the approaches needed to be more interdisciplinary and integrated into a single discipline to solve a common problem , shifting from programmatic procedures to conceptual framework and modes of integration ; ( c ) understanding the external environment to define priorities , in a time where rapid changes in science , technology and globalization occurs ; ( d ) competitive funding environment , which leads to a disconnection between the strategic plan of the organization and the reality , forcing the organization to adopt a ' flexible frame ' ; and ( e ) strategic thinking and planning process of not just managers , but every research , challenging the role and profile of scientists for delivering agricultural research for human development . Sadly , this account clearly illustrates how some organizations define their goals not based on their expertise , or not targeting their clients , but their financial sources . But are the goals of financial organizations different from the needs of the beneficiaries ? Based on the , and are addressing the critical issues to improve livelihood of least developed and developing countries , but the intermediary organizations are struggling to provide better services ( according to their own goals ) and be consistent with the goals of donors . With this challenge , there is a tendency of organizations , such as , to build alliances among themselves , disappear , or to merge with national organizations , in order to reduce costs and be efficient . The programmes of ISNAR will be described in the coming section , when the organization 's structure will be discussed . < heading > Organizational Design ( structure and regularities) Gibson et . al . ( 1988:430 ) define an organization 's design as "" consisting of managers ' decisions and actions that result in a specific organizational structure "" . According to the authors , structure is "" the formal pattern of how its people and jobs are grouped "" and it is an important cause of individual and group behaviour , as the way the span of control is arranged will influence the division of labour , the delegation of authority and the functionality of its departmentalization . Span of control is also related to the top management 's view about the number of levels they should have in their organization ( , ) . < fnote > Span of control refers to the number of people reporting to a given superior ( Hodgetts , 1990:147 ) or to how relationships are structured between leaders and subordinates in organizations ( Bohte and Meier , ) . < /fnote > Although there are of organizations in the world , doing similar activities or not , organizations are unique in terms of structure and its way of operating and managing . ( , as illustrated in Figure , identified key organizational variables which determine an organization structure : < list > Purpose / goals ( aims and goals of the group)People ( those who constitute the ( activities to achieve the organizational ( technical aspects of the internal environment)Culture ( values guiding the organization)External Environment ( external market , technological and social conditions affecting the organization 's activities)
The organizational variable ' people ' , identified above by , was acknowledge by ( ) , who identified basic common elements to any organization , when observing the levels of power in an organization . They are as following : < list > The operating core - professionals responsible for the basic tasks related to production and services , The strategic apex - high level managers responsible for the overall organization , The middle line managers - connecting the production to the top management , The technostructure - analysts with the responsibility of forms of standardization in the organization , andThe support staff - professionals providing support services for the organization. Still according to ( ) cited by ( ) , there are distinct configurations for organizations , and each one is associated with the domination by of the elements listed above , depending on who controls what . The structural designs to managers are ( a ) the simple structure ( dominated by the strategic apex ) ; ( b ) the machine bureaucracy ( dominated by analysts ) ; ( c ) the professional bureaucracy ( dominated by the operating core ) ; ( d ) the divisional structure ( dominated by middle managers ) ; and ( e ) the adhocracy ( dominated by the support staff ) . Organizational structure can be tall or flat , depending on the power distribution . Tall organizations tend to have decentralized authority , many authority levels , and narrow spans of control ( , ) . In the other hand , flat organizations have centralized authority , few authority levels , and wide span of control . However , that does not mean that flat structures are better than tall structures , each structure must be suitable for the situation , the management characteristics , the subordinates , and the work itself . The organizational structure adopted by ISNAR was tall in its design , having a divisional structure with middle managers ( project leaders ) linking the projects ( production ) to the top management ; its design also indicated a decentralized authority , many authority levels ( middle managers having authority to make decisions ) , and narrow span of control . The operational level of ISNAR had thematic areas : ) policies for institutional innovation for agricultural research ; ) linking research organizations and stakeholders in changing context ; ) learning for institutional innovation ; ) management of new technologies for agricultural research ; ) building capacity to respond to cross - sector demands ; and ) entrepreneurial partnership to support agricultural research . The Figure shows the ISNAR organizational structure , where the projects were carried out by each thematic leader ( middle managers ) , based on a plan developed at the end of each calendar year , together with the project budget . The project leaders had their own teams which were composed by senior researchers ( with ) , researchers ( with or not ) and support staff ( with higher education or not ) , from different background and with several different expertises . The span of control of each thematic leader was related to its capability to manage the project budget . In other words , once the project leader raised the necessary funds to carry out the projects , he or she had total control on how and where the resources were utilized , being committed only to give the necessary percentage of overhead to the administration and finance office . The projects were discussed between the project leader and the program director , but only as a formality , as the design and evaluation of the projects were responsibility of project leaders . The project leaders and the top management were also responsible for contacting the ' external environment ' . < figure/>The overall advantages of tall and divisional structure , according to Robbins ( ) and ( 2004 ) , are related to its opportunities for career development , responsiveness , the accountability , and the benefits of a specialized team in each unit , as they are able to process information as if they were organizations themselves . However , an important consideration must be made when relating to the goals , as the units tend to override the organization 's goals . In this design , the headquarter makes the strategic decisions related to the organization as a whole . On the other hand , the overall weaknesses of a divisional structure are related to its long lines of communication and decision making , and the duplication of activities and resources , as units may have a training office each , increasing the organization 's costs . Conflict may occur in a divisional structure model , since there is little incentive for cooperation . That was clear the case with ISNAR , as MTPs rarely worked together in the same project . As a divisional structure , ISNAR adopted a decentralized approach . Decentralized structures have several advantages on a hierarchy model , as vertical layers ( typical on hierarchy structures ) tend to have high management costs , limited accountability , low productivity of managerial work , and misunderstandings that occur due to poor communication ( , ) . Internal communication was generally poor in ISNAR , as the organization did not have a culture of sharing information . More on this topic will be addressed in the coming section . < heading indicated by Robbins ( ) , organizations have personalities and those personalities are called organizational cultures . The author also suggests that organizational culture "" refers to a system of shared meaning "" . The common understanding of what the organization is and how employees should behaviour are related to dominant values , the philosophy of the organization , basic assumptions and beliefs of members of the organization . In Figure , ( 2004 ) illustrates important interrelationships between the organization and internal / external forces . < figure/>Cole ( 2004 ) notes that the founders or their successors define the purpose and the goals of the organization based on the kind of culture they want to see . The culture of ISNAR was indeed defined by its founders and their ideologies , and also by its initial employees ' views . Robbins ( ) argues that organizational culture can change , as it may be appropriate for certain time and conditions , as culture is influenced by several external factors , shown in Figure . This was the case of ISNAR , where the structure of the organization changed from a centralized to a decentralized approach , from a hierarchical to a more flexible approach , reflecting in its culture . The process of culture changing was observed by the staff when the organization 's new road map was launched , in . The new culture demanded ISNAR 's employee to focus on projects supporting the new paradigm of innovation systems ( changing tasks ) , work closely in partnership with other projects / professionals from the organization , and communicate directly to the middle and top management . New categories of performance evaluation were included , due to a cultural change , such as number of publications and fund raising abilities . However culture can not be precisely defined but rather perceived ( , ) cited by ( 2004:105 ) , there are some key aspects of organizational culture , identified by the author , that are significant , as presented in Figure . < table/>Supporting the ideas of ) found that culture implies the existence of certain dimensions of characteristics that are closely associated and independent . Those key cultural characteristics are presented in Figure , with samples of those characteristics linked to ISNAR 's culture . < table/>The ISNAR organizational culture changed due to its political circumstances . Robbins ( ) identifies several situational factors for changing organizational cultural , among them are "" dramatic crises "" , which suits the case of ISNAR , where the crisis was caused by a financial break , the influences of cultural changes and the organization restructuring process . Staff participated in of the restructuring phase , the elaboration of the organization structure and witnessed the cultural changed . However , the time was not sufficient to determine if the new culture was accepted and committed to by all its employees , since the new organization survived only for after the new culture was in place . According to Robbins ( ) , would represent a rapid adaptation to the new culture , or being more likely . < fnote > Sample of such crises include financial setback , the hostile takeover of the local organization by another organization , the loss of a major customer , or a dramatic technological breakthrough by a computer ( Robbins , 1990:457 ) < /fnote> Conclusion This study has shown that organizations are run and controlled by human beings with different perceptions , values , status , leadership , motivations and personalities , which have an immediate impact on organizations ' culture , structure and how to achieve the organizations ' goals . Based on the literature review and individual observations , the perception of 's management ( including top management , middle managers and ) was conflicting with the needs of its beneficiaries , and more important , inconsistent with the organization 's mission . An organization may have a clear goal , chooses its suitable structure , or have a culture incorporated by all its members , but if the organization 's goal does not lead to expected ( by donors and by the users ) outputs and outcomes , it is inevitable that the organization will lose its scope and may end up like ISNAR , closing down . It is fundamental for the sustainability of organizations to follow the ' market ' needs , delivering efficiently and effectively its goods , specially for development organizations , which are working with the aim to improve people 's life .","< heading > Introduction Objectives of this study The present study aims to discuss the implications for extension practice of changes in thinking about extension from ' transfer of technology ' to ' communication to support innovation ' . In order to discuss this topic , this study will present an overview of what innovation is , what transfer of technology focus , and the reasons why there is a need to shift from transfer of technology to an innovative approach in the extension practices context . < heading > Rural Extension In the context of this study , rural extension is defined as assistance to individuals living in rural areas ( farmers or not ) in helping them to identify and analyse their problems , and being aware of opportunities for improvement ( see Adams , ) . Extension was usually associated with increasing food production and encouraging economic development , having the function of promoting knowledge and transferring technology between farmers and researchers ( or farmers to farmers ) ( Leeuwis , 2004:17 ) . As a way of rethinking the roles of extension services , Van den Ban and ( ) raised several questions regarding the meaning of extension and its intervention in farmers ' decision - making and problem - solving capabilities . In , the concept of extension has changed , as it is understood that extension is not just a question of conveying a message or adopting technologies , but is much more related to shifting interdependencies and co - ordination between various actors ( ) . < heading > What is Innovation ? < /heading > Before starting to discuss on the topic proposed , it is important to understand what innovation is . The literature shows that innovation is the implementation of a new or significantly improved idea , good , service , process or practice which is intended to be useful or perceived by individuals . According to ( 2005 ) , the concept of innovation "" refers to the search for , development , adaptation , imitation and adoption of technologies that are new to a specific context "" . ( ) suggests that "" working with and re - working existing knowledge , rather than generating new knowledge , is the dominant activity in innovation "" . Since the definition of innovation is understood , models of innovation will be presented in the coming sections . < fnote > Based on Dosi G. ' . In : ( , , , p222 ) . < /fnote> Transfer of Technology - a linear model of innovation Transfer of technology is defined by ( ) cited by ( ) as "" the process by which science and technology are diffused throughout human activity "" . The technology transfer ( from the to the , from International to National , from research to extension to farmer ) was highly used after the green revolution , which aimed to increase food production and improve strains of wheat , rice , maize and other cereals in . When extension was designed , it focused on spreading knowledge from universities and/or centres of excellence , to farmers , emphasising the mode . The literature suggests that technology transferred from developed to developing countries faces several limitations , as developing countries often can not utilize the technology properly , for presenting a lack of socio - economic conditions to do so . The same theory can apply on transferring technology from research centres to farmers . The top - down approach used in the past , and still present in , was identified as a linear model of innovation , focusing on an instrumental / persuasive way of transferring a new technology . As illustrated in Figure , the linear model of innovation indicates that innovation originates from scientists , who utilize communication workers ( also called extension workers ) to transfer it to farmers , being a "" directional line between science and practice "" ( ) . < figure/>The linear model shown above suggests that basic science leads to applied science , which causes innovation and wealth . According to Arnold and Bell ( ) , this ' technology push ' or ' science push ' idea is mistaken , as policies based on this model tend therefore to be counter - productive . Within the linear model , scientists claim to transfer ideas to farmers , but the other way round is also valid , as often scientists contribute from farmers ' ideas , as suggested by in Chambers et al ( ) . The author shares his experience when working for ( CIP ) in , where the technology the scientists learned came from farmers , when scientists observed farmer practice in , and . The literature suggests that the technology transfer approach targets middle to large farmers , or so called ' early adopters ' , as farmers in this category are in a better position to take risks in case of failure , have better access to information / education or are equipped with proper resources to adopt or try a new technology ( see , ) . Transfer - of - technology ( ) model is linked to formal ( R&D ) in farming system , excluding resource - poor farmers , who do not benefit from formal research and extension . and ( ) suggests that the "" criterion of excellence "" is not on developing a research in a station or in a laboratory , or even targeting rich farmers , the real challenge is on spreading new practices among the resource - poor farmers . Issues related to the sustainability of mode have been highly discussed . The literature indicates that the technology introduced is generally adapted and modified , and the spread of the technology is a "" powerful indicator of its appropriateness , profitability and probable sustainability "" ( CIDA , ) . In , the concepts of have been changing and transfer is seen more as exchanging that really transferring technology . From a research done by in , with and , interesting elements of the technology transfer came out , not necessarily being ' technological ' aspects , as shown in Figure . < figure/>From the research done by in , it was suggested the change of terms , from Technology Transfer to ( ) . Hoekman et al ( 2004 ) suggest that international technology transfer ( ) is important when considering economic development and the acquisition and diffusion of such technology expects to have a growth in productivity . But who are those technologies targeting ? Are those technologies available to resource - poor - farmers , who do not benefit from formal research and extension , and who are responsible for of global agriculture , and produce of the world food ( , ) ? Clearly not . Nevertheless , agricultural technology transfer is in the agenda of many internal donors , such as , which has just released a credit of to to help finance a project which aimed to test innovative models for agricultural technology generation , transfer , and application ; which is expected to generate additional farm income in . < fnote > Source : URL : 20471139 ~ menuPK:282869 ~ pagePK:64020865 ~ piPK:149114 ~ theSitePK:282823,00.html < /fnote > In this context of innovation , communication is seen as a step forward when dealing with technology , development , improving livelihood and poverty reduction , specially in developing countries , as presented in the following section . < heading > Communication - an interactive model for innovation In the context of rural extension , communication is used as an interactive model for innovation , where knowledge flows in rural areas as a basic resource . Communication is seen as a tool for collaboration between those who have knowledge and those who can benefit from it ( see Hoekman et al , ) , seeking to improve their lives on their own way , being able to make appropriate decisions and improve their well - being ( see and Rolls , ) . In this context , communication plays an important role in facilitating the information exchange between extension workers / researchers and the beneficiaries . The study done by ( ) shows clearly the old paradigm , where the author indicates that much attention had been given to the training of extension workers in technology transfer , but not enough attention were given to the mechanisms which enable the extension agents to transfer and multiply his / her skills and knowledge . With the re - think of the uses of communication for rural innovation , the Figure shows the approaches used from a linear to an interactive model . < fnote > According to ( ) , communication is the imparting , conveying , or exchange of ideas , knowledge , and information . < /fnote>
In this context , communication ( horizontal and bottom - up ) plays an important role in "" providing information , forums and mechanisms of interaction "" for redistribution of resources ( see , - 3 ) . Being innovation the result of an interactive process between many actors , including companies , universities and research institutes , communication is essential , as individual organisations rarely possess all the knowledge necessary for the whole process of innovation ( see , ) . As a result , extension workers need to combine scientific , design , engineering and operational knowledge from different sources , altering the extension practices being carried on for . As seen earlier , "" innovation does not follow a linear path that begins with research , moves through the processes of development , design and engineering , and production , and ends with the successful introduction of new products and processes . Rather , it tends to involve continuous feedback loops between the different stages "" ( , ) . Following this theory , ( ) argues that innovation suggests a network of actors that provide communication channels linking organizations and individuals . Still according to , the networks can be both formal and informal , being informal links very important , as such links foster trust between the various parties . This results in both parties knowing each other 's needs , and knowing the nature and quality of the goods and services on offer , reducing risks and transaction costs of the interactions . < heading > What are the implications for extension practices ? < /heading > The model of extension emphasizes the technical knowledge of the extension worker , being able to ' convince ' the users to adopt such technology . While the communication to support innovation approach emphasizes the way information flows in the process , structure and network of institutes to change and develop its capacity to deliver a service ( see Hall et al 2005b ) . Agricultural professionals , according to the literature , should not focus on agricultural science and technology knowledge sources , but instead , they should pay more attention to the behaviour of the system that produces this knowledge . Often transfer of technology is seen as a response for development , and development is seen as assuring the existence of elements of an infrastructure . Unfortunately , less attention has been given to the ways in which particular facilities have been used and to the "" ability of people to use and benefit from them "" ( and Rolls , ) . The literature also indicates that technological change is seen as the heart of social and economic change , but in the other hand , innovation ( and thus social and economic change ) results from both technological and institutional development . The extension practices currently used by developing countries follows a model of industrialized countries . During a recent presentation in , Professor illustrated the general features of agricultural innovation systems , as presented in Figure . < table/>As indicated in the Figure , the extension practices , undertaken in the past by industrialized countries , are not suitable for the actual needs of developing countries , in order to eliminate poverty and bring development , in a sustainable way . The extension practice will have to be adjusted according to resources available in developing countries to match the innovation perspective . The main issue related to those changes in extension practices is related to investment in human capital , where professionals need to learn how to work in partnership , changing behaviour and attitudes towards users and providers . ( ) suggests that the "" success of innovation relies hugely on the ' framework conditions ' - in other words policies , laws , rules , and other cultural aspects - and the basic infrastructure of the system "" . The author also indicates that the innovation approach needs investments not only in the research that generates knowledge , "" but in the quality and effectiveness of the pipe , and in the processes , mechanisms and institutions that will use the knowledge once it emerges "" . < heading > Conclusion The study concludes that since the linear model of innovation has proved inefficient to fulfil the needs of farmers and those involved in the food chain process , specially the poor - resource farmers , an interactive model emerged in a tentative to empower rural communities to make better decisions and determine the framework for the agriculture and rural development sector , in a participatory way . Based on this study , innovation is seen as an interaction among multiple stakeholders , where perspectives are shared and knowledge flows through interactive learning . The process , rather than the content is emphasized and innovation plays a crucial role in the process , which brings concepts and ideas of behaviour and attitudes towards agricultural science and those involved in the process . Communication , being the tool to support the innovation process in rural extension , should be encouraged in any stage of planning , monitoring , evaluation and impact assessment of agricultural projects in order to achieve sustainability and improve livelihood or rural communities .",1 "< abstract> Abstract Semiotics , that is , the science of signs , and the use of organisational analysis , can be used to great effect throughout the development lifecycle of an e - commerce system . This document attempts to apply these theories and relate to the business functions and associated IT strategies to demonstrate their usefulness . This will also attempt to relate a measure of personal understanding and experience along with information provided from thorough research from a multitude of resources , both in print and electronic . < /abstract > Many consider e - Business , and the design of e - Business systems , to be a modern discipline , something that has only occurred with the coming of the 90 's , , and the World Wide Web . However , contrary to the belief of many unfamiliar with the field , has been used to supplement and enhance business practice for now - and the coming of the Information Age only builds upon this . Semiotics is an even older discipline . Historically employed in the fields of psychology and linguistics , many working in the Information industry have now begun to realise the potential and the value of employing this science in the development of information systems . The step in the design of an E - Commerce system for business is to put aside many of the preconceptions . Many such ventures have turned disastrous , with large companies emerging from with huge , unwieldy organisational structures , and attempting to follow the ( initially , very successful - seeming ) suit of the Dot Com enterprises that sprung up . These lightweight organisations were able to initially succeed due to their rapid ability to change to keep up with market trends , and to adapt their organisation to their business model and tailor it to the demands of electronic commerce . Too many leaders of big business , with , as stated by Chu and Smithson , ' large companies with rigid bureaucratic structures that spanned the globe'[8 ] , have made the mistake of assuming that merely technological changes need to be matched- employ the right computer systems , design a leading - edge system , and all is well . This was , all too often , disastrous . Semiotics and techniques detail the necessity to describe organisations , and the E - Business systems they wish to employ , in terms of communication - capturing the stages , processes and actors involved , so that E - Business can be aligned to support the business functions , not be at odds with them . The addition of to support or more business functions can be , according to , achieved through distinct models , based largely on the degree of integration of the system with the business , and largely dependent on environment and type of product or service , and industry within which the organisation operates [ ] . These models are , ranging from the most integrated to the most separate system integration : Separate organisation , organisation , Semi - Autonomous organisation , Fully integrated within informatics service , and Fully integrated organisation . These models describe ways in which an organisation can support business functions through the employment of either in - house , in a carbon - copy organisation set up to deal purely with electronic transactions , or through a - party , to a fully integrated system . and state that ' An e - commerce system can not be treated as a trading tool isolated from business norms . Benefits are gained from the way we use e - commerce systems , not from their technological components.[9 ] ' . Time and again , authors and experts in the field stress the importance that should be treated as an aid and supplement to support existing business functions - not as a ' bolt - on extra ' or ' magic bullet ' . The design of an E - Commerce system almost always is preceded or more processes of user requirements determination specification . When designing such a system to support the alignment of the IT infrastructure and existing business practice and processes , correct requirements specification is a necessity - and Semiotics and can help . < table/> The day - to - day business functions and operations are governed by a number of social norms - both formally represented in codes of practice , established procedures , and rules , and informal norms that form the culture of an organisation . Accurately determining these norms and building them in to the design of an E - Commerce system as constrains and assumptions allows business functions to be better represented . For instance , this Author was responsible for assisting in the re - development of a medium - sized secondary school network , upgrading the network management software and operating system . Part of the upgrade gave users the ability to change their logon passwords at their workstations . However , it is the accepted practice that all students other than the form must come to the IT Support helpdesk to request password changes due to them commonly changing passwords and subsequently forgetting them- thus generating a high volume of password reset requests . It is generally accepted that the younger students must come to the office to request a change of password , to dissuade them from changing their passwords unless absolutely necessary . This is an example of a business norm - no where was the practice documented or specified - it is just a generally accepted and established practice . The ability to disable personal password changes at the workstation had to be represented in the design of the new system - an example of analysing , specifying and representing business norms in development of IS / IT systems . At the time , however , the requirements for the new system were not accurately specified , to the degree where norms such as this were not considered and remained unrepresented in the system . A better method of eliciting user requirements to take into account such norms and requirements was needed - and this is where Organisational Analysis can help . MEASUR ( Methods for Eliciting , Analysing and Specifying Users ' Requirements ) is a technique for social - level analysis of an organisation to model business systems and assist in uncovering , exposing and documenting in a logical and structured way the underlying norms of an organisation . MEASUR includes major methods for using Semiotics to determine requirements : ( PAM ) , ( SAM ) , ( ) , , and . These methods will not all be explained in detail , as many volumes of information on them can be found , with the references in the appendix of this document providing at least a good grounding in them . It is of their applicability to the design of E - Business systems that is of particular interest . The underpinnings of any successful systems are cases where technology has been used to support business functions , norms , processes , and allow the management to concentrate on what they do best - that organisation 's business - with technology acting as the enabler for enhanced or expanded activity . writes ' At , most organizations with their own web sites consider themselves ' wired ' , but they are simply using the web site for old - style marketing and information purposes - somewhere to post a glorified product catalogue [ . Almost inevitably , shoehorning organisations into technology , and forcing unwelcome change or detrimental practices on an organisation for the sake of the technology will lead to failure . Businesses and organisations wishing to make best use of IT need not an IT or E - Commerce strategy - they need business strategies that embrace , along with its opportunities and risks [ 2 ] . It is through semiotic theory and organisational analysis that the social , interpersonal , and communication aspects can be considered when designing E - Commerce systems , rather than the technology - lead approach all too often taken by organisations . Before the design of an E - Business system , it is important to examine exactly the types of E - Business implementations that exist , from an organisational point of view . Typically , there are types of E - Business : Business - to - Customer ( B2C ) , Business - to - Business ( B2B ) , and Business - to - Employee ( B2E ) . Each type of E - Business features the most basic unit conceptualisation of its communications between related parties - the transaction . and define a transaction as ' A unit of business activity , such as purchasing a product , making a banking deposit , or reserving an airline seat [ 6 ] ' . It is by analysing these transactions , and discovering the semantics and pragmatics that govern them , that we can begin to understand the underlying business processes and encapsulate them , and support them by building technological solutions around them . By understanding how the signs associated with these transactions are created and communicated within the context and culture of the organisation(s ) , areas where technology can be applied to achieve benefit can be readily identified . such method for semiotic analysis of organisations will be examined and applied to the issue of designing an E - Business system - that of . This specifies divisions of the structure and function of signs ( within an organisation , in this context ) into which we can divide the business process of , for example , an on - line shopping website . Such an example is given below : < list> Division HCISocial World - Exchange of funds , expectation for delivery of correct item(s)Pragmatics - Intention of user to browse and discover information , and/or buySemantics - Familiarity with concepts of searching , shopping carts , etc . IT - Web page interface- tables , text , images , buttons , formsEmpirics - TCP / IP , HTTP , HTML , ASP , other web protocolsPhysical World - Telephone lines ( analogue / ADSL digital / ) , fibre optic , satellite internet connection HCI - Human - Computer Interface < /fnote > This provides a very broad overview of how a transaction over an online store might be broken down into the component levels to examine the signs used in that communication . Further division could be made to examine all the use cases of a potential E - Commerce system to determine the exact underlying processes and business norms that are reflected , and indeed must be adequately represented , by these electronic interactions between the concerned parties , be they customers , other businesses , or employees . After creating a simple model such as that demonstrated above , further Semiotic Diagnosis can be employed to enhance the model of the business processes that will later be aligned to the functions to be supported by . The more detailed techniques prescribed by MEASUR can be employed to better understand the signs and functions of a business and how they can be transformed by the application of technology . Organisational structure analysis is also key to successfully aligning business processes to a new system . defines the structure of an organisation in aspects : ( the way tasks and responsibilities are delegated ) , ( the relationship of powers and authority ) , and ( which govern expected ways of working ) [ ] . For example : A telephone - based retailer of tickets for concerts wishes to expand into by offering their services via the World Wide Web . Their organisation can be examined ( in brief overview ) in terms of its structure : : Team A sources tickets from concert promoters and venues ; takes telephone orders and processes payments ; handles the fulfilment of orders and dispatch to customers , and deal with quality and customer satisfaction issues . Chain of Command : Each team is managed by a Team Leader , who co - ordinates their team ; A small team of middle - managers co - ordinate inter - team communication and interaction ; An even smaller team directs policy and strategy of the entire company . are accepted by card only ; A maximum of tickets are permitted to be sold per transaction ; Customers must receive tickets before schedule date of concert ; The company allocates tickets in seating areas at their discretion . The structure of the organisation has been identified ( in this very simple example ) and the E - Business functions can now be mapped on to it : Division of Labour : Team A is responsible for updating the website with new tickets ; Team B handles customer queries regarding E - Payment , sent by email or web - form feedback , and maintain E - Payment links with bank and website ; receives processed orders as output from the system and fulfils the order , logging dispatches using barcode scanners , so that the system can email the customer when their tickets have been dispatched . Chain of Command : The Team Leader is responsible for the co - ordination of the particular functions of their team with regards to their interactions with the system and its proper use ; The middle - managers ensure that procedures are followed and the system is used to its full potential and that the correct data is passed between teams ; The management direct online marketing and strategy , and ensure that the IT infrastructure is providing value and return on investment ( ROI ) . ; The system accepts secure payment through the website by credit or debit card ; of the same ticket can be added to the shopping cart per transaction - and customers ' IP address and account information ( particularly delivery address ) are used to determine which customers have already equalled their quota for any given concert ; Details of successful transactions are passed immediately via electronic mail to the fulfilment team , and they are required to scan an envelope barcode when tickets are dispatched . Each transaction is time - stamped and those that are about to exceed the accepted limit ( ) are reported by email to managers automatically ; The system automatically allocates seating areas when the customer chooses the number of tickets they require ( this is explained by a dialog box that the user must accept before proceeding ) . This very simple example demonstrates how Semiotic and organisational analysis can be used to capture snapshots of the social issues that need to be reflected in an organisations ' strategy . It puts it in the context of a simple E - Commerce system , but when expanded upon and extended , could be used to model all manner of systems , be they B2B , or Another example is given . A E - Commerce system designed by this Author for selling DVDs online to support the existing functions of a small high - street retailer in ( this is a fictional example , based on project work ) can be analysed in terms of ( SAM ) . In order to accomplish this , certain components of the social and technical level of the process of selling DVDs online need to be identified . Agents ( representing roles taken on by individuals when interacting with the organisation within this context ) , Affordances ( patterns of behaviour and possible activities dependent on the agent(s ) in question - the ontological dependency , and the norms and objects , can all be represented in a Norm Analysis . Part of this includes a diagram such as that shown . < figure/>The diagram demonstrates a highly simplified representation of an aspect of 's business processes through analysis of norms . Stakeholders , that is , all parties with an interest in the success of the business ( customers , shareholders , employees , and more ) interact with system and play the roles of buyer and seller , using the organisation ( and in the case of the E - Commerce system , website ) to enable those interactions . states ' This method gives a means to specify the general patterns of behaviour of the agents in the business system [ 1 ] ' . In the case of this example , an agent could be a customer ( role ) coming to the business via the website and purchasing a product , and the business ( in its role as ) fulfilling that order . Each interaction can be broken down and defined in terms of the layers discussed earlier . Other components of MEASUR , such as and can be used to describe other communications within the business and articulate them into diagrams and useful formats which can be applied in the design of an E - Commerce system to supplement business activities with electronic versions of these communications and signs . The use of Semiotic theory and techniques such as MEASUR represent only part of the solution of modelling organisations to align IT and business practices in E - Commerce design . Other techniques exist to take these extracted , refined and modelled business norms and turn them into models of the actually system in more technical terms . Unified ( ) allows for the actual process of development of an Information System to allow interactions between proposed electronic elements to be modelled and to represent business norms using a specific , scientific notation and to translate those norms and elements into equivalents that can be programmed in to a system as constraints and assumptions . Such a process is beyond and , as such , the scope of this document , however it is important to be aware of tools such as for their usefulness in processing information gleaned through semantic and organisational analysis techniques . It is hoped that this document has provided , firstly , an explanation and justification for a need to analyse the social concerns in terms of business signs and communications when designing an E - Commerce system , and , and overview and explanation of some of the techniques for determining requirements , discovering and representing business norms , and analysing structural considerations , and using this information to ensure that business processes are in alignment with the technology . of the key themes this document attempts to stress is the use of technology as an enabler to support business functions - not for its own sake . The organisation that bears this in mind at all times and uses semiotics to build technology , where value can be added , around those social and communication structures can succeed in supplementing and enhancing their activities on - line .","< heading > INTRODUCTION < /heading > In accordance with the wishes of the client , , this document has been prepared as a successor to the Phase A documentation presented at an earlier stage in the project named on the cover page , and serves as a report on the activities undertaken towards the implementation of the client 's requirements detailed in the report for This report aims to inform the client of the steps taken to translate the designs , ideas , and foremost , the requirements identified during earlier stages in the project , and demonstrate how these designs have been implemented through the use of , , and HTML technologies to deliver an interactive , web - based E - Commerce solution . of the core requirements have been identified and expanded from the Phase A designs to produce a system which embodies the framework of the larger system and fulfils the major aspects of the intended uses . Upon this framework , further extensions can be easily built , due to it 's modular , structured and re - usable design and code in order to fulfil more of the user requirements in future stages of implementation , beyond the scope of this documentation . < heading > References The implementation of the design for can be found at the following URL from campus : URL A number of external references were used in the design and implementation of the system . They are credited here : "" ASP In A Nutshell "" - A. Keyton "" ASP.NET For Dummies "" - 0 - 7645 - 0866 - 0 W3 Schools - URL ASP Free - URL W3C Cascading Style Sheets Information - URL < heading > REQUIREMENT : < /heading > In order to fully analyse and demonstrate how each of the user 's requirements specified in section A of the project have been implemented , it is helpful do document each requirement in a structured manner , along with testable conditions , and to list assumptions and constraints . Due to time constraints , the client has requested that a ' cut - down ' set of the original , rich requirements , be selected and implemented , in order to form the framework for the wider application in a short time . As such , core requirements have been extracted and expanded upon in the table below , along with the associated assumptions and constraints , detailing the semantics of each requirement to be implemented in the design of the web application . Motivation The client , , wish to create an on - line presence in the form of an interactive web page , in order to expand their market share by retailing on the internet as well as their current mail - order and telephone ordering activities . Customers should be able to use the site to view , search for , and buy any number of tickets for football matches in all the leagues and competitions in through the portal . As such the site should be able to allow individual customers to register for an account , to allow purchases to be made , and in the future , the option to create a more personalised experience for the user based on past purchases , favourite teams , and browsing habits , in order to make existing customers feel more valued and increase loyalty and return visits and sales . The web application shall allow visiting users easy access to browse for a ticket for a specific fixture or fixtures by league , country and team . There shall be a means to search for a particular team using keywords , and within a specific league or competition , and have matching results accurately displayed , with each result linking directly to a team 's page . Each team shall have a personalised page featuring summary information about that team , and a list of that team 's fixtures in all competitions . Each fixture shall link to a page with information about that particular match , from which it is intended a user will be able to purchase a ticket(s ) . There shall be a facility for new users to "" sign up "" for an account on the website by selecting a username and password , and entering their contact details , in order that they might make purchases and log - in on returning visits , their details being stored by the system to save the user from re - entry of their information with each purchase . Additional As a further extension to the above set of basic requirements , team and fixture pages should have the ability to display the club or team crest for each associated team in a fixture , in order to create a more user - friendly and visually appealing look . These badges should be retrieved dynamically for each club and fixture information page using the database system connected to the web application . Assumptions Users of the website will be located ( by virtue of their registered address ) in and wishing to purchase tickets for domestic leagues and international competitions . Visitors to the site will be using a client using pixel resolution and displaying a minimum of colours , and a browser capable of executing client - side programming . , and connection to it , are via a secured connection and server over which personal information and passwords can be transmitted , and on which such data can be stored . Constraints The implementation must be installed for operation on the server . The implementation shall use ASP , VB Script and an Access Database . No other technology than that indicated in constraint iii may be used in the submitted implementation . Club badges and logos are to be stored on the web server and access and displayed as dynamic images . The facility on the site is restricted to the accuracy of the ' LIKE ' function it is implemented using . Customers will not be able to select specific seats in a given football ground , but will be allocated them automatically ( thought this could be changed with future additions ) . COMMENT Development of the website demonstrated a number of recurring patterns and themes . Foremost of these is the "" development curve "" experienced during coding . Laying the initial foundations , structuring the pages and code , and considering designs and possible solutions to problems proved a slow and painstaking process . However , as sections of code were written and page layouts defined , creating new areas of the site became increasingly easier - code could be re - used , formats duplicated , and linking header files containing database connection information and Cascading Style Sheets ( CSS ) to give the site a common theme gradually reduced the workload and dramatically cut down the time to develop new areas of the site . The work was full of difficulties , the majority of which were solved using a trial - and - error approach , commonly involving commenting out extraneous sections of code in order to find a working base from which more and more sections could be commented back in , to find erroneous lines . Some of the errors encountered including using , ASP and reserved words as names for variables , data type mismatches ( whereby the scripts on the page attempt to submit or retrieve a particular data type that does not correspond with the database 's data type or the user ' input ) . However , through these difficulties a great deal of insight into the development of ASP - based web applications has been gained , including the differences between the Classic ASP used here and 's current product , ASP.NET . The final result though has been thoroughly successful in achieving the functionality required , and forms a good framework for the addition of further features due to it 's modularity and layout .",1 "< heading>1 . Introduction < /heading>'Biomass ' is the broad term given for matter of biological origin . is defined as ' The total mass of all the organisms of a given type and/or in a given area ; for example the biomass of trees ' ( 6 ) . in all versatile forms represents an important contribution to global primary energy use . The World derives of its primary energy from biomass ( ) . It is an important energy source ( ) for ¾ of the world 's population in developing countries . forms an important role in the natural carbon cycle ( fig.1 ) . Mankind 's intervention of the natural biomass system can interrupt the carbon cycle , which has been linked to climate change . < figure/>2 . effecting climate change . < /heading > We are using biomass in an unsustainable way , for example using up wood fuel faster than new trees can grow . Besides slope instability , landslides and mudflows this can also lead to desertification - less land for biomass energy crops , or land for re - forestation . In we have cleared ha of tropical rain forests to grow palm oil of which is for bio - diesel production . This hampers the fight against climate change , the very problem bio fuels are supposed to overcome ( ) . < heading>2.1 . Deforestation is a major cause of climate change . When trees are cut down and put under the plough they cease to absorb atmospheric CO 2 . They decay , and along with disturbed or bare soils re - emit stored CO 2 into the atmosphere ( ) . The rate at which is estimated to be 1.6 Gigatonnes CO 2 / yr , equal to of the total annual human - induced CO 2 emissions ( ) . < heading>2.2 Fertiliser use . Energy intensive land use leads to land / soil degradation which requires the use of artificial fertilisers to maintain production levels . Fertiliser production requires the energy intensive inefficient ' process ' to fix into NO 2 and ( ) . Fertilisers account for of human induced emissions ( ) . Animal Fertiliser requires land clearance to graze animals , which also produce methane . < heading>2.3 Bio fuels < /heading > look like an attractive alternative to our dependence on fossil fuels . They can appear ' Carbon neutral ' by recycling CO 2 back into the atmosphere . Bio - fuels include ; wood , animal dung and crop residues for traditional cooking and heating , involves the incomplete combustion of fuel in non - optimum conditions . Results in significant quantities of greenhouse gases . These include methane ( contributes atmospheric methane ) , un - burnt hydrocarbons ( ) , di - Nitrogen oxide ( ) and CO 2 ( 3%)(2)(1 ) . We could reduce emissions by utilising cleaner burning fuels such as charcoal , or biomass - sourced methane or ethanol in stoves instead of wood ( ) . fuels from cane derived ( ' Pro - Alcool ' Brazil)(1 ) and Vegetable Oil Bio diesel ( ) . CO 2 / NO 2 emissions vary according to source , process , and whether fuels are burnt at or blended with fossil fuels . wastes ( ) and municipal waste ( landfill gas ) can provide useful energy that would have otherwise been lost to atmosphere . For of methane in atmosphere is from landfill ( ) . has a global warming potential over , and averaged over this time each kg of CH warms the earth times more than the same mass of CO 2 ( ) . Combustion produces CO 2 + water , so it 's better to burn than to release it into the atmosphere . < heading>2.4 and processing < /heading > account for the conventional energy used in intensive crop production , irrigation , machinery fuel , labour , processing energy and chemical use , and biomass becomes a less environmentally sound alternative . Unless processes optimise energy sourced from locally sourced biomass or power generated from renewables . For example , for Bio - diesel , process waste oils using energy from renewable sources , and process / distribute close to source reducing transportation . < heading>3 . Climate change effects on Biomass3.1 Increasing temperatures < /heading > will alter global weather features such as the intensity of the phenomenon , the distribution and intensity of pressure systems and associated precipitation , storms , flooding and drought events . These will affect biomass in both its natural environment and for commercial operations . Increased evapo - transpiration by plants will condense into more cloud cover - blocking valuable solar radiation for plants to photosynthesise . Increased drying decreases crop yields , water resource quantity and quality . Warmer climates increase the risks of pests , disease and forest fires . Ice caps and glaciers melt increasing sea levels . Increased sea temperatures will expand the oceans further , flooding biomass production on low coastal land . Increasing vegetation decay releasing methane , and in the long term reducing productive land area . < heading>3.2 Increasing atmospheric CO2 levels . < /heading > This will increase crop yields . This increase would be counteracted by the risk of water shortages for example in and , and by shortening of the duration of growth in many crops . is likely to experience overall positive effects , whereas crop production in may be threatened . < heading>4 . Conclusion ; management . < /heading > Sustainability , education , management , and efficient use of biomass are vital factors in helping to reduce our effects of climate change . fuel crops ( wood / bio fuels ) need to be grown in a sustainable way so that we replenish crops as we use them . Producing and distributing biomass close to their source to reduce transport requirements . Recycling production by - products , for example where sugar cane fibres are burnt for electricity generation their ashes and washings can be returned to the soil as a nitrogen rich fertiliser ( ) . < heading>4.1 Managed fuel crops. For example using fast growing willows or poplars as an important source of fuel for either cooking / heating or electricity generation . A practice known as ' Short rotation arable coppicing ' ( 7 ) . < heading>4.2 Efficient use of bio fuels. In developing countries greenhouse gas emissions could be significantly reduced by the use of more efficient stoves that burn either biomass - sourced methane or ethanol fuels ( ) . Using charcoal to replace wood as fuel . < of ha with new trees would be an attempt to reduce atmospheric CO 2 , trees act as a vegetation based ' carbon sink ' ( ) . Reforestation and grassland restoration would help put CO 2 back into soil storage too . These processes are collectively termed ' Carbon sequestration ' . For example to sequester all the 's continuing carbon emissions in trees would require new forests to be planted over an area the size of and ( 7 ) . To conclude , our production , processing and use of biomass can emit greenhouse gasses such as methane and carbon dioxide , which contribute to global warming and climate change . It 's our responsibility to ensure our practices reduce these emissions to a minimum .","< heading > Introduction A Petters ACI bhp ( ) single cylinder diesel engine was tested under laboratory conditions running on both standard , and an alternative ( R.M.E ) ' Bio - Diesel ' fuel . Various key parameters of the engine , run on these different fuels , such as mechanical efficiency , indicated thermal efficiency , brake thermal efficiency , specific fuel consumption and brake mean effective pressure were deduced by taking a series of measurements over a range of loads in order to then plot values on graphs . < heading > Methodology Theory To compare the relative performance of these fuels we need to calculate main efficiencies : The brake thermal efficiency , where : FORMULA Which includes all energy losses from the engine . The mechanical efficiency FORMULA where : FORMULA Which includes only mechanical losses from the engine . The Indicated thermal efficiency FORMULA where : FORMULA Which ignores the mechanical losses in the engine . < heading > Method The mathematical equations used to work out these efficiencies ( see . Appendix ) require the measured values of engine load , engine rpm , fuel and airflow rates , and exhaust , air and inlet temperature readings . The parameters were measured as follows : < heading > Load . < /heading > The engine drove an electric dynamometer through a shaft to a torque meter consisting of a torque arm and a spring balance . The electrical power was dissipated through a resistance bank cooled by a forced air draft . The amount of power dissipated ; therefore the load on the engine could be adjusted using a rotary rheostat on the load bank . A voltmeter and ammeter measured the power being absorbed by the load bank . < heading > Engine speed . < /heading > Under each load applied , the engine speed in rotations per minute ( rpm ) was set at rpm . This was done by adjusting the engine throttle and measuring the speed using a digital optical tachometer in conjunction with a reflective plate placed onto the rear surface of the flywheel . < heading > Torque . < /heading > Measured by adjusting tension on the spring balance by turning a knurled edged disk on a threaded suspension bar until a pointer on the balance pointed to a fixed mark on the frame . The value in 's could then be read off the spring balance needle position . < heading > Fuel Consumption . < /heading > Measured by turning off the fuel from the header tank so that the fuel ( or Bio diesel ) was supplied by a graduated tube . The time taken for the engine to consume of fuel was measured using a stopwatch . < heading > Temperatures < /heading > were taken via digital temperature sensors located on the engine components to measure ambient air temp , and Exhaust temp in degrees Celsius ( C ) then converting to Kelvin ( K ) . < heading > Air Pressure Drop . < /heading > A manometer measured the air pressure drop across a calibrated orifice plate hole located inside the engine air box . The manometer was set to an inclined position to make reading subtle pressure drop measurements easier . This inclination angle was taken into account when equating formulas by using the sin tangent of this angle , which was . Multiplying the manometer reading in by a factor of ( sin = ) gave an accurate reading of the pressure difference . < heading > Indicator Diagrams . < /heading > Sensors were connected between the engine block and an oscilloscope then to a computer data logger program , which measured both cylinder pressure and volume . Plots of pressure against volume gives an ' indicator diagram ' . The area enclosed by this diagram gives a measure of the ' indicated power ' , the work done by the fuel in moving the piston up and down the cylinder every stroke . All of this indicated power is not available as useful work in engine ' brake power ' as some is lost in friction driving things like pumps , valves etc . < heading > Order of which measurements were taken: Set Load using rotary rheostat on the load bank . Set engine speed to rpm under each load applied , using a combination of engine throttle adjustment , and the digital optical tachometer . Measure Torque by adjusting tension on spring balance by turning knurled edged disk until the pointer on the balance points to a fixed mark on the frame . The value in 's can then be read off the spring balance needle position . in in . Repeat all steps for each desired load. The graphs shown in figures were generated using the raw data obtained on both the lab sheets and spreadsheets in the attached Appendices . < heading > Results
Discussion of findings4.1 The Mechanical Efficiency < /heading > graph ( fig.1 ) shows that for both fuels as the load increased , mechanical efficiency decreased . At a higher load than tested the engine would therefore have stalled due to lack of power . The appears to have a higher mechanical efficiency over . < heading>4.2 < /heading > graph ( fig.2 ) shows that for fuel the thermal efficiency rose as the load increased from to around From 15N the thermal efficiency rose only slightly to a peak at around 's load . The engine therefore would have been at its most thermally efficient at this load and temperature . From 's load the thermal efficiency decreased , as more of the energy in the fuel was lost as heat as the engine became too hot . followed a similar trend to but burnt at a higher temperature at every load and so was overall less thermally efficient . appeared most thermally efficient at 's load , with thermal efficiency tailing off rapidly above this load . < heading>4.3 < /heading > graph ( fig.3 ) shows that for both fuels as the load increased to approx 's , the brake thermal efficiency increased at similar rates . Above 's load however , both fuels continued to increase brake thermal efficiency but at a lesser rate with performing better overall Compared to . Both fuels seemed to give maximum brake thermal efficiencies at around 360 - 380 N m-2 of , above which their brake thermal efficiencies either dropped significantly ( ) or remained constant ( ) . < heading>4.4 The power loss due to Friction < /heading>(fig.4 ) shows that when the engine burnt fuel on average of power was lost due to internal friction . faired better in that of power on average was lost this way . having a good natural lubricating property over could explain less friction . < heading > The Air / Fuel Ratio < /heading > for both fuels decreased as the loads increased for both fuels . Diesel ranged from at load to at 50N load . ranged from to at 47N load . This higher ratio could be explained by the presence of excess on the molecules . More means the fuel requires less air with which to burn . ( ) < heading > Fuel Consumption < /heading > rates for were higher than possibly due to the fact that Vegetable oils have a lower cetane number ( ) compared to ( ) and overall lower energy density of MJ kg-1 compared to MJ kg-1 for . ( ) < heading > Heat Losses . < /heading>(Fig.5 ) Shows that when the engine was burning at loads between 0 and 15N a greater amount of power in was being lost through heat out of the exhaust system than the engine was producing in ! At loads above 15N the engine only just managed to produce slightly more power ( max of 0.35kW ) than the exhaust power loss ! The greatest heat loss was through the air - cooling system ( air cooled finned engine block ) . At maximum engine power output ( 3.64kW ) a massive was being lost to heat the air . The total heat power loss was therefore - a frightening fact .. performed in a similar way to though its total loss was higher at < heading > Indicator Diagrams < /heading > of pressure crank angle show the - stroke cycle very clearly . Both figures 7 & 8 demonstrate graphically that as the piston is pulled down and the new fuel / air mix is drawn into the cylinder , volume increases and pressure remains constant . When the piston travels back up the cylinder to compress the mixture , the volume decreases and pressure increases . When ignition takes place the pressure decreases and volume increases as the piston is pushed downwards . On the exhaust stroke volume decreases and pressure stays the same , as the exhaust value remains open . The line at constant pressure represents the pumping losses like the air / fuel mix being sucked in , and exhaust blowing out . The area enclosed by the curves represents the power - the cyclic work done . ( Figure ) shows a typical P / V plot trace for when the engine was running at a low load . ( Figure shows that as the load was increased and the engine was working hard , the area within the cyclic trace became greater . The exact loads for each figure are unknown as there was some uncertainty as to which P / V plot corresponded to which load from the data logger . Some data produced returned values . < heading>4.8 < /heading > To conclude appears to perform better than it 's renewable counterpart being more thermally efficient with overall engine efficiency higher than . Diesel fuel consumption was lower , and less energy was lost as heat . did perform well loosing less brake power to friction than .",1 "The idea of affirmative action programmes ( AAPs ) in is now firmly entrenched and rooted in the collective conscious of the nation as well as in the volatile political landscape of public policy . Despite the recent protests over the expansion of reservation policy to include other backward classes , it is well - known that affirmative action as a government policy in is there to stay . This Paper examines the feasibility of the expansion of in , and whether the question of ' creamy layer ' should be considered in greater detail than it is done by the present political establishment . In , the legislature passed a bill reserving seats for Other Backward Classes ( OBC ) in aided higher educational institutions , notwithstanding huge protests and objections against the said proposal by the students and many political theorists . The question is should more castes and communities be included in the quotas in educational and professional institutions , especially when even in the prevalent system , quotas are not implemented properly and are not benefiting those who indeed need them the most . < heading > Philosophical Basis of AAP < /heading > The philosophical justification of is based on the rectification and redressal of past or historical wrongs like the caste system in , slavery and discrimination against coloured people in , apartheid in etc . It is also an aspect of reparative justice , i.e. , compensation for past atrocities , and has become an integral part of the notion of ' justice ' . opines that the "" proponents of broad affirmative action policies often find themselves in this dilemma since they believe that the primary principle of justice at stake is a principle of non - discrimination . But oppression , not discrimination , is the primary concept for naming groups - related injustice . So affirmative action policies need not be seen as an exception to the principle of non - discrimination . Thus , if discrimination serves the purpose of undermining the oppression of a group , it may not only be permitted , but morally required "" . < fnote > Iris Marion Young , and the Politics of Difference(1990 ) , at p. - 195 < /fnote > The main argument against lies in the intergenerational nature of the problem . The commonsensical ' grudge ' against AAP happens to be : Just because my forefathers had oppressed and discriminated against certain groups of people , why should I be held responsible for the past injustices and be made to compensate for the same ? This becomes acute in cases wherein person / s committing the past atrocities can not even be traced after the passage of time and therefore making it difficult to hold someone accountable for the former acts . This tendency to compensate only the victims who have suffered discrimination , whether in the past or present , is a product of the theory of individual rights which has mostly dominated the western conception of rights and justice without taking into account any possibility of group rights . In view , "" claims can be inherited , thus overcoming the generation gap created by individual rights discourse . "" However , this has been criticised as too broad and vague since "" claims are not merely inherited , they are also interrelated as a group or unit . It is the deprivation which connects the generation , it is not genetic ; the connection lies not so much in nature as in nurture "" . < fnote > , "" "" in ( ed . ) Reverse Discrimination ( ) , , NY : Prometheus Books at p. - 46 < /fnote> Arvind Sharma , Reservation and Affirmative Action : Models of Social Integration in and ( 2005 ) Sage Publications India Private Limited , at p. < /fnote > Moreover , is also criticised on the grounds of dilution of ' merit ' and promoting ' inefficiency ' . If certain disadvantaged people are given special leverage in educational institutions and relaxation of marks in competitive exams like engineering , medicine etc then it goes against the criteria of merit since less meritorious students get admitted on the basis of their caste identities . However , ' merit ' is not a static element which is genetically inherited but is a ' social construct ' i.e. , a product of environmental factors like family background , school education , financial resources , etc . So equality does not mean only formal equality but substantive equality , i.e. everything being equal , people are to be judged on an equal basis but when inequality exists , there needs to be unequal criteria . Thus , if is considered as a part of reparative justice , then the question of departure from the principle of equality does not arise , since justice should not only be construed as a juridical concept but also as a political concept . calls this problem the "" impossibility of impartiality . Any attempt to reduce the task of defining justice to a procedure is inherently flawed as it is impossible for the person to construct the procedure in a way that is certain not to reflect his or her social location "" . However , this approach of political justice and disregarding any juridical notions of justice has been criticised by on the ground that "" the formal protections that form a part of a system of justice - in the form of settled procedural norms giving equal weight to individuals in the process of decision making , protecting rights , etc - are especially important to members of marginalised groups for symbolic as well as protective reasons . So politicizing the domain of justice does not mean abandoning altogether the rule of law , proceduralism , or rights "" . < fnote > Iris Marion Young , and ( ) : at p. - 249 < /fnote> , "" Justice : Political Not Juridical "" ( ) ) Political Theory at p. < /fnote > Any attempt to elucidate on the concept on the distributive justice would be incomplete without mentioning ' A Theory of Justice , wherein he "" envisaged an ' original position ' in which members of that society initially did not have any idea how they might end up once the ' veil of ignorance is lifted ' . In such a situation , argued that all members would accept a dispensation which made special provision for the disadvantaged and that social and economic inequalities are to be so arranged that they are to the greatest benefit to the least advantaged "" . In this process , the issue is whether would have advocated for affirmative action with regard to notions of reparative justice ? This has been explained by who uses ' conception of distributive justice to justify reparation claims for victims of historical wrongs . According to , at the original position , not ' individuals but representatives of family lines ' would make sure that at least for generations , inheritance can be passed over out of concerns of love and well - being for their children . extends this right to family inheritance to several generations since the family lines are not just about generations but form an important part of the family history , hence making these bequests integral to family legacy and in the formation of the individual 's identity . < fnote , A ( ) at p .29 < /fnote> , "" "" ( ) Ethics at p. - 134 < /fnote> between the model and the Indian model The evolution of has a long chequered history in both and wherein its justification has constantly been debated and contested . In the the term ' affirmative action ' was used in in an executive order issued by the late President in order to urge the contractors to take affirmative action to employ all candidates . In , was passed to eliminate discrimination in employment and various measures were undertaken to improve the socio - economic conditions of the population which was approved in vs. , ) where decided in favour of affirmative action but rejected the implementation of strict quotas in the college admissions and observed that "" the attainment of a diverse student body clearly is a constitutionally permissible goal for an institution of higher education "" . < fnote > , "" "" ( ) South Central Review at p. < /fnote>(1978 ) < /fnote> , "" "" ( ) South Central Review at p. < /fnote > In the , "" while AAPs are required for government contractors ( public and private ) , the adoption of AAPs is voluntary for most other organisations since the structure of AAPs involves a system of goals and timetables with specific identification of the problem areas "" . Also , the major universities like , , , etc have long followed AAPs to encourage coloured students for opportunity enhancement resulting in a significant diversity in the composition of the students ' body and also providing considerable prospects for individual and economic growth of the students . In contrast , in , there are a fixed number of quotas mandated by disadvantaged groups including ( SCs ) , ( STs ) , socially and educationally backward classes ( SEBCs ) and ( OBCs ) . Though recently instituted , is also actively implementing AAPs in the areas of education , employment , housing etc for the majority black population who were hitherto denied any socio - economic opportunities in the apartheid era but it is too early to comment on the effectiveness of the said policies . < fnote > and , "" The tale of cultures : Attitudes towards affirmative action in and "" ( ) at p. < /fnote> The Experience In , in addition to the constitutionally mandated quotas reserved for the SCs and the STs , the current government has passed a bill implementing quotas for the OBCs in the central government aided institutions of higher education following the recommendations of in thereby reserving a total of of the seats for the backward classes and castes . Predictably , it was criticised for promoting ' caste politics ' and deemed as an extremely divisive measure which would divide the society on the basis of caste identities as if they already did n't exist ! In the midst of this upper caste hysteria , the real issue was somewhere lost , that of providing equal opportunities to all sections of people and to eliminate discrimination and structural disabilities of the impoverished sections . Admittedly , reservation is not the only method of creating an equitable society but it is one of the workable models and has been functioning though not with complete success in a hierarchical , caste - ridden society like for long . It is no doubt that the policy has been implemented in a faulty manner and should have been much more effective if adopted properly but this loophole can not not overshadow the efficacy of the policy per se . According to social scientists like , , etc the purpose of reservations in favour of backward communities has become meaningless since it is consistently used by the politicians to enlarge their vote banks by including more and more castes into the ambit of the quota system . Also , the most deprived sections lack the basic necessities of life and , in effect , can not take advantage of the reservation policy whose benefits are largely cornered by the economically advanced groups of the backward castes thereby totally nullifying the intention of the said policy . Thus , instead of providing caste - based reservations , the government should provide economic incentives , interest free loans , free primary education , employment schemes etc to improve the socio - economic conditions of the backward communities . However , others argue that instead of abolishing the policy altogether , the Government can put a clause debarring the non - deserving candidates from the ambit of reservation . has also limited the extent of quotas to of the total seats of any educational institution thereby creating a reservation policy whose benefits would percolate down to the socially and educationally most backward classes and castes . < heading > Lack of Demographic Data In the recent expansion of quotas to OBCs , it was contended that since there was no appropriate data about the exact number of OBC population in the country , how did the government reach the figure of quotas for them , as quotas are normally demographically proportionate to the present population of the respective communities ? According submitted in ( which was set up to determine the criteria for defining SEBCs and to recommend steps for the advancement of SEBCs ) , the OBC population including both and constituted of of 's total population , but it recommended quotas for them due to directive of maximum quota . However , this was criticised as being too large and not representative of the actual population of OBCs since it was arrived at without any Census data to indicate the caste of citizens . Hence the figure of OBC population remained disputed till recently when the latest expansion of reservations took place . Thus , according to , "" there is a case for a systematic survey and assessment of the current social context , which would allow for a more systematic listing of other backward classes , avoiding as far as possible the errors of unjustified inclusion or unfair exclusion "" . < fnote > Arvind Sharma , Reservation and Affirmative Action : Models of Social Integration in and ( 2005 ) Sage Publications India Private Limited , at p. < /fnote> Jayati , "" based in Higher Education "" ( 2006 ) Economic and Political Weekly at p. < /fnote> Question of ' The issue of ' creamy layer ' has been the most contentious debate in the entire discourse of reservations in . It is argued that class and not caste should be the criteria of reservation since not all forward caste people are economically well - off and do n't have access to socio - economic resources in order to live fulfilling lives while not all people belonging to backward castes suffer from economic deprivation and lack of adequate opportunities . Within the constitutional mandate of reservation based on castes , it is contended that economically privileged sections or the ' creamy layer ' should be kept out of the quotas since they can compete on their own . and Satish Deshpande have proposed an alternative model of affirmative action "" which not only acknowledged caste disadvantages but also gender and class inequalities by clearly linking caste identities to measurable empirical indicators of disadvantage inorder to de - essentialise caste "" and to focus attention on other socio - economic indicators to determine the same . < fnote > Yogendra Yadav and , "" and in Higher Education "" ( 2006 ) Economic and Political Weekly at p. < /fnote > Hence , in any formulation of AAPs , the question of ' creamy layer ' is to be kept in mind since it should not be used as political instrument to satisfy competing caste interests . Thus , the government can limit access to quotas in educational institutions and government jobs to generations only wherein the family would be sufficiently uplifted through AAPs and afterwards , their descendents would not entitled to reserved quotas and would have to compete with general category students . Further , children of , and Class I officers of the backward castes should be kept out of the purview since they have received similar education and other opportunities as others . Though the question of ' creamy layer ' is confined to economically advantaged sections amongst the backward classes , it is noted that social discrimination does not cease with upward economic mobility as caste discrimination is still rampant in all levels of society , both rural and urban areas and that AAPs can only help to an extent alleviate the conditions of the impoverished sections but can not change hostile societal attitudes . In opinion , if one talks about justice from the perspective of prejudice then reservation policy should be eternal since caste discrimination in originated back and its removal in terms of customs and behaviour would take ! So the government needs to formulate such AAPs which would eliminate structural disabilities that characterise the present social structure in terms of equitable distribution of social , economic and cultural resources and hope that prevalence of these policies would remove age - old societal prejudices also . < fnote > Class Discussions in module ' Approaches to Global Justice ' , LLM in IDLHR , , batch < /fnote> Reaction of the Judiciary The Indian Judiciary has had a contentious relation with the constitutionally prescribed AAPs being implemented by the legislature from time to time whose validity stems from Articles of the Constitution : Though deals with prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion , race , caste , sex or place of birth , etc , Art . 15(4 ) states that < quote>(4 ) Nothing in this article or in clause ( ) of shall prevent the from making any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and . < /quote > Similarly , deals with equality of opportunity and non - discrimination in matters of public employment but Art.16 ( 4 ) provides that < quote>(4 ) Nothing in this article shall prevent the from making any provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward classes of citizens which , in the opinion of the , is not adequately represented in the services under the . < /quote > Thus , Arts 15(4 ) and ) of the form the crux of the AAPs in and have undergone various and often conflicting interpretations by . In vs. , the observed that Arts 15(4 ) and ) are enabling provisions with the object of achieving equality before law and equal protection of laws as enshrined in Art.14 but it warned the government against excessive reservation and to uphold public interest by maintaining efficiency in professional and technical education . But this was reversed in of vs. wherein it was held that Art.16 ( 4 ) is not an exception to Art . ) and ( ) but a categorical assertion that equality of opportunity could be carried to the extent of making reservations . < fnote>(1963 ) < /fnote> Parmanand Singh , "" Right to Reservation : A Rejoinder "" ( ) SCC ( Jour ) at p. . < /fnote>(1976 ) SCC < /fnote> Parmanand Singh , "" Right to Reservation : A Rejoinder "" ( ) SCC ( Jour ) at p. < /fnote > This controversy was laid to rest by a - bench decision of in v. wherein the decision in ' case was reversed and it was held that Arts 15(4 ) and ) were only enabling provisions and did n't provide a fundamental right to reservations and viewed that no preferences for the backward groups would be constitutionally permissible ) since clause(4 ) exhausts all power of backward class preferences .. Thus , it was opined that "" Art . 16(1 ) is a fundamental right whereas Art . 16(4 ) is an obligation of the . "" Further , the court set the limit of maximum quotas in institutions of education and employment and also held that reservations in super speciality courses like PG medicine , technical and sophisticated forms of engineering , etc are not permissible . < fnote>1992 Supp . ( ) SCC < /fnote> Ibid . at p. < /fnote > Moreover , the judiciary has also disagreed with the government 's attempt to introduce quota in private - unaided higher educational institutions . In vs. of , the held that efforts to implement quotas in private educational institutions constitute an encroachment into the rights of the private individuals to set up institutions of higher learning and the has no power to force them to enforce quotas resulting in the passing of rd ) by the parliament providing a sub - clause ( 5 ) to Art . of the stating that "" nothing in this article or in sub - clause ( g ) of clause ( ) of article 19 shall prevent the from making any special provision , by law , for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes or in so far as such special provisions relate to their admission to educational institutions including private educational institutions , whether aided or unaided by the , other than the minority educational institutions referred to in clause ( ) of . "" . < fnote>(2005 ) 6 SCC 537 < /fnote> Conclusion In the end , it can be said that AAPs whether as a means of social justice or as a mechanism of ' vote bank politics ' have become endemic to the socio - political structure and one can only device methods to make it more efficient and well - organised in order to avoid creating undue fissures and caste hostilities in the societal fabric . Though the basic premise of AAPs is to uplift the conditions of SEBCs , it should even strive to accommodate people and communities who are impoverished not only due to their castes but also due to their gender , regions , race , class , sexual orientation etc . In this context , the question of ' creamy layer ' becomes important to consider since all efforts should made to execute AAPs among caste and communities who deserve the most . The Government should appoint requisite social and political scientists to find out the exact empirical data of people who are living below the poverty line in addition to other socio - economic indicators along with their caste denominations in order to discover the correct castes and communities who require reservations . Also , attempts to use AAPs for pure electoral gains should be thwarted and should not be extended to each and every caste significant for political interests . Thus , "" one needs to demonstrate in an open and accountable fashion that affirmative action is not about ' appeasement ' of particular castes or communities but about abolishing continuing sources of tangible disadvantage in our unequal and unjust society "" . With the latest debates of reservations in the private sector as well as for the community in , the needs a hard look and rigorous analysis about its implication and relevance for the future generations . < fnote > Yogendra Yadav and , "" and in Higher Education "" ( 2006 ) Economic and Political Weekly at p. < /fnote > _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _","In his book in an Anthropological Perspective defines the phenomenon of human - wildlife conflict as : < quote > relations of rivalry or antagonism between human beings and wild animals which typically arise from territorial proximity and involve reliance on the same resources or a threat to human well - being or safety. Whilst , this quotation concisely highlights the elemental features of human - wildlife conflicts , it fails to incorporate the numerous complex issues this umbrella idiom covers . In fact , human - wildlife conflicts are multifaceted and assume a variety of forms . Therefore , whilst this essay will address the elements of competition and predation that create the primary issues of conflict , including ; overlapping of land resources and water resources , animals foraging , mobility and economic development pressures like tourism and road development . I will mainly target and discuss the symbolic representations that may be attached to human - wildlife conflicts and conclude by addressing the future of human - wildlife conflicts . There does appear to be a considerably higher number of reports on people- wildlife conflicts within the tropical regions of the world . However , it is not a phenomenon restricted to the tropics . Conflicts between humans and wildlife are universal . Conflicts occurring in the tropics are topical because the developments are recent , in comparison to those countries in the northern hemisphere , where wild predators and livestock were hunted to extinction during . Therefore , although I do provide several anthropological studies conducted in tropical regions , I have also included examples of studies recorded in . Conflicts arise from competition , this can take the form of ' horizontal ' competition i.e. between species that share the same trophic level , or ' vertical ' predation , which occurs between species at different trophic levels . When these relations overlap ' garden hunting ' occurs , this usually entails wildlife being killed when they come to feed on crops etc and this feeding pattern is used as a kind of hunting bait . This occurrence is evident within the elitist sport of fox hunting practiced in . The foxes prey on the ' game birds and domesticated livestock ' that live on farmer 's land and ' the hunt ' is given permission to chase and kill the pest . < fnote > Ibid . , p. . < /fnote> Ibid . , p.3 . < /fnote> Marvin . G. ' The problem of foxes ' in Knight , , ( ): Natural Enemies : in an . Routledge : . p.189 . < /fnote > Fox hunting also provides an excellent example of people - wildlife conflicts actually arising from people - people conflicts . reports on the ' growing calls for fox hunting to be banned ' by conservation groups who view it as unnecessary slaughter , in conflict with rural populations who view it as a vital method of pest control . It seems human - wildlife conflicts are heavily influenced by social determinations , with many disputes occurring from a conflict of opinions between humans towards wildlife . Conover highlights that : < fnote > Ibid . , p.189 . < /fnote> tolerance of human - wildlife conflicts depends upon what is at risk . That is , people are least tolerant of threats to human health and safety , more tolerant of threats to their personal or community economic well - being and most tolerant of nuisance problems. Conover , . ( ): conflicts : . Lewis Publishers : . < /fnote > Those who suffer directly from wildlife damage are called ' stakeholders ' and it is these groups that often influence the government 's decisions on wildlife disputes . Indeed the notion of establishing a ' cultural carrying capacity ' ( i.e. the maximum wildlife population which society will accept within an area ) has been suggested but was determined too difficult because it involved a large diversity of opinions . < fnote > Ibid . , p. . < /fnote> Ibid . , . < /fnote > Indeed , these differing opinions on wildlife damage give rise to many forms of human - human conflicts . , wildlife can cause conflict by enforcing human social divisions , as is present in a rural population living on the outskirts of in . The population is a conglomeration of different immigrant tribes , each with a different language , however the are the original inhabitants . In an attempt to reduce percentage of crop raiding caused by baboons living in the forest , the non - native ' Zairois , ' from neighbouring , are given land closest to the forest . Their crops get raided and therefore act as a buffer for the rest of the population . , human divisions can occur in conflicts over wildlife . The wolf may be viewed as a resource for the hunter , but a pest for the farmer or shepherd upon whose livestock the wolf preys . , an element of these conflicts which is often ignored , is the probability that human - wildlife conflicts are used as an outlet to provide a focus point for blame , when human social divisions occur . For example , logging in the rainforest and its subsequent destruction of fragile ecosystems has become the locus for frictions between the government and conservationist groups . However , the issues of the immediate monetary gain from logging and potential presence of unknown medicinal herbs and plants in the forest , are the true issues of dispute . Ironically , conservationism also creates human - wildlife conflicts instead of dissipating them . Conservationism operates on the assumption that nature should be protected from human resource appropriation . Therefore , the standard response to human colonisation of animal territories is to remove them and establish a protected area for the wildlife . However , whilst the competition for land resources is reduced , the threat of poaching and hunting by the populations removed , remains and even increases because these populations do not benefit from the establishment of the protected area , with revenues gained from tourism often going straight back to the government . This occurred in when were opened up to tourist groups for gorilla viewing . The gorillas became habituated to the tourist groups and no longer harbouring a fear for humans they came down the mountain , during the night to raid the crops of the local farmers and often became aggressive and violent when approached . The local communities did receive a small percentage of the revenue gained from tourists , however the amount was not enough to compensate for the damage caused by the crop raiding . Similarly , et al conducted a case study in and Mongolia exploring various incentive programs for conserving the native snow leopard . They soon discovered that the local populations would ' derive virtually no benefits from wildlife conservation ' and therefore had to adopt new methods , like the manufacture of handicrafts . In another study , anthropologist reported on the present status of the human - elephant conflict in in , . He highlights that although the convergence between humans and elephants has always existed , the conflict has recently deteriorated further due to the rapid growth of elephant and human populations and the expansion of agricultural land . These factors have reduced the elephant 's habitat and occupied some of their migration routes . However , legislation requires migratory routes to be built into and out of the National and according to 's research in elephants came to during the rainy season , this number increased to in and to elephants in , he concludes it was because the ' Kaele region ha(d ) become a wet season refuge for elephants . "" During their migration crop raiding occurred at a time ' when crops were maturing or ready for harvest ' meaning farmers were unable to plant another batch , causing of [ farmers ] to lose their entire annual harvest . "" It has been suggested a team of technicians and local informants could be employed to defend the farms located on the vicinity of to avert the elephants during their migration . < fnote > Mishra , C. , Allen , P. , McCarthy , , , , , A. , & H.H.T.Prins , ( ): The role of incentive programs in conserving the snow leopard . In , 17(6 ): . p. . < /fnote> Tchamba , , ( ): History and present status of the human / elephant conflict in the - Logone region , , . In , - 41.p . . < /fnote> Ibid . , p.37 . < /fnote> Ibid . , p.38 . < /fnote > Often human - wildlife conflicts arise from humans invading wildlife habitats . However , reports on a new occurrence called ' commensalism , ' where people - wildlife conflicts have adapted to perform as interfaces , where it seems some wildlife have been able to adapt successfully to humanised environments . and have found that the wolf in demonstrates this acclimatisation . The canid usually feeds on wild herbivore species , however , after analysing their scat and stomach contents , it was discovered that wolves in have adapted to feed mainly on other food resources like , fruit , rubbish and domestic ungulates . According to the optimal foraging theory , wildlife ' tend to feed in a manner that maximises their nutrient intake in the minimum possible time . ' ( as cited in ) This theory explains the wolves ' adaptive behaviour . It seems livestock is ' left unguarded in the countryside ' and proves an easy , collected target , whilst rubbish and fruit needed not be chased or hunted and therefore no energy is expended . Merrigi and state that shepherds originally tolerated the wolf , however its long absence has made its reacceptance difficult and by preying on domestic ungulates , wolves have acquired the status of pest . On other hand , it seems this conflict has been culturally institutionalised , through children 's stories and games etc where the wolf is portrayed as cunning and evil , which exacerbates the problem . < fnote > Knight . op.cit . , p. . < /fnote> Meriggi , A. , & S. Lovaris , ( ): A review of wolf predation in southern : Does the wolf prefer wild prey to livestock ? In , ): . p.1562 . < /fnote > The symbolism associated to certain species often creates human - wildlife conflicts . notions of pollution that suggest ' dirt ' is just ' matter out of place ' ( Douglas 1966 ) can be applied to human - wildlife conflicts , where pests are simply wildlife out of place , they somehow transgress the subscribed boundaries established by humans . concurs that : < quote > much as we may define a weed as a plant in the wrong place , or a pollutant as a perfectly respectable chemical in the wrong place or in inappropriate concentration , so some animal pests too are only pests when in inappropriate numbers or in the wrong context . < /quote> Knight . op.cit . , p.14 . < /fnote > I earlier referred to the wolves ' status as a pest perhaps resulting from its sinister portrayal in children 's stories and games . The same culturally institutionalised epithet is applied to the fox . In classic tales like 's Fables and Beatrix Potter the fox is portrayed as a ' sly , amoral , wily , cowardly and self seeking creature . "" These negative connotations can not fail to influence human perception of the creature . Interestingly , structuralist models of animal symbolism classify the world into groups , but phenomena that resist classification are deemed anomalous . According to ' foxes have a special anomalous or ambiguous status because they straddle the boundary between field animals and remote wild animals . "" They inhabit a liminal , negative symbolic sphere . Knight suggests another possibility that ' underlying many people - wildlife conflicts are ideas of balance and reciprocity , with respect to which the behaviour of this or that animal may be deemed to be problematical . ' < fnote > Marvin.op.cit . , p.190 . < /fnote> Knight.op.cit . , . < /fnote> Ibid . , . < /fnote > In this respect , foxes apparent tendencies for feeding frenzies in hencoops , upset this balance and incur the anger of the farmer and establish a conflict . In conclusion , anthropology as a discipline has huge potential for helping to resolve human - wildlife conflict issues . reports that ' anthropology provides a cultural contextualization of wildlife that could help achieve a more locally sensitive wildlife management policy ' and he suggests the implementation of a : < fnote > Ibid . ,p.5 . < /fnote> wildlife damage manager [ as ] a professional ' buffer ' between wildlife and humans , protecting humans form animals , while at the same time protecting wildlife from humans . The wildlife damage management professional needs to be able to understand humans as well as he or she understands wildlife. Ibid . , p.5 . < /fnote > Indeed whilst there is no panacea for the conflict issues , I concur that it is vital to consider the human element of the conflict issues , as discussed in article ' people should not suffer impoverishment from wildlife preservation . "" The solution is to adopt community - based management schemes that involve the local population in conservation projects . Finally , it becomes clear that the term ' people ' of the people- wildlife conflicts is not a static term , but rather one that carries many connotations . As I highlighted earlier , it appears that human - wildlife conflicts are a consequence of wider , far ranging conflicts between human populations whether local , national or international and certainly not restricted to the tropics . < fnote , , ( ): and Local Communities- Ethical Issues and Debates . In , ( ): . p. . < /fnote >",0 "< abstract> Abstract This study investigated whether university females had significantly more disordered eating than a control group of non - university females . It was hypothesised that low self esteem as a result of leaving home for the time , and having to integrate a new peer group would be the cause of this . Questionnaires were used to measure participants eating behaviour , body shape satisfaction and self esteem . Attitudes towards the new peer group were measured using specific questions on the self esteem questionnaire . It was found that students did have significantly more disordered eating than the control group , although having low self esteem and integrating a new peer group were not significant causes of this . It may be that low self esteem and having to integrate a new peer group play a part in increasing eating deviancy in students , although these may not have been shown to be significant because they combine with other factors associated with university life such as stress and depression . It was clearly found , however , that females have far more problems with their eating than females who are not at university . < /abstract> Introduction Eating disorders are becoming an increasing problem . The concept of the thin body ideal is being internalised through the social setting and causing more people , particularly adolescent females , to resort to severe dieting techniques ( , ) . Unhealthy eating attitudes are an immensely important area of research as it has been shown that of young women participate in intense dieting practices at some point in their lives ( , , and Drewnowski , ) . Eating disorders are an issue affecting of people worldwide , with of the population having a diagnosis ( and , ) . It is likely the incidence rate for eating disorders is higher than this , although many people suffering from them deny the problem and therefore do not seek diagnosis or treatment . Research in this area is particularly important as it appears that more and more people are developing the disorders and concealing them . Once the causes for eating disorders have been fully investigated it may be possible to accurately identify individuals who are predisposed to suffer with their eating behaviour . There are many factors which may trigger an eating disorder . , Gauvin , and ( ) found significant causes to be peer pressure to be thin , social reinforcement and body related teasing . They present the argument that as peer relations are very important in adolescence , if the social group values the thin body ideal highly then individuals aspire to achieve this , even through deviant eating patterns . In addition to this , , and ( ) found that the media plays an important role in the internalisation of the thin body ideal and increasing body dissatisfaction , and therefore , contributing to the development of eating disorders . These can be considered social influences over eating behaviour and are directly linked to how the individual perceives themselves in relation to others . This appears to be a highly influential factor for eating pathology because if a person 's evaluation of their body does not meet the real or imagined body ideal set by peers , or by the media , then deviant eating behaviour seems to be the coping technique adopted to achieve what is believed to be desirable ( , ) . Believing that your body is inadequate and not acceptable to social standards is captured overall by low self - esteem . It has been shown by ( ) that low self esteem is a significant contributor to eating pathology . It appears that it is a combination of low self esteem , peer and media pressure to be thin , and an internalisation of the thin body ideal that predominantly triggers eating pathology . The present study is concerned with investigating the combination of both internal and external factors within a particularly vulnerable group of individuals , university students . Moving away from home for the time is one of the most stressful life changes a person will ever have to adjust to ( , , ) . This study intends to investigate whether eating behaviours become more deviant during of living away from home at university compared to a control group of non - university participants . Moving into halls of residence at university entails integration into a new peer group , which may heighten feelings of insecurity and low self esteem . It has already been shown that low self esteem is a significant contributor to disordered eating behaviour , and this may combine with students seeking the thin body ideal in order to successfully integrate with their new group of friends . When adolescent girls are beginning new friendships they believe it is important to be thin , and compare themselves to other members of the group ( , ) . Attainment of the thin body ideal was also found to be a common topic of conversation ( , ) . This is particularly important when investigating the effect integration of a new peer group has on eating behaviour as it is likely that when girls first start university and are making new friendships , this is a safe topic of conversation as body concerns an issue many girls have as a common ground , which may increase pressure to be thin . It is likely that the low self esteem associated with moving away from home for the time will enhance the desire to be slim to make a more favourable impression on the new peers . This is because many believe the more attractive you are , the more likely you are to be popular . and ( ) ( as cited in et al , ) found that physical attractiveness is linked to more positive peer relations and social acceptance . Students may resort to disordered eating to increase their chances of achieving the thin body ideal , and therefore , increase their chances of being popular within the new group of friends they are living with , and also to counterbalance low self esteem . It is also important to study students as the majority of previous research has centred upon participants aged . It has been shown however that eating disorders are prevalent up until ( Vanderlinden , , , , ) . It is therefore important to study eating behaviour of older adolescents ( hence first year university students ) , as this seems to be an area which needs enhancing . Assessments will be made using ( ) ( , , as cited in and , ) to measure eating deviancy , ( SERS ) ( Nugent and Thomas , , as cited in and , ) to measure self esteem levels and the Body Shape Questionnaire ( BSQ ) ( Cooper , Taylor , Cooper and Fairburn , , as cited in and , ) to measure body shape dissatisfaction . group influence over self esteem will be measured using a revised version of ( as detailed in the method section ) . It is hypothesised that having to integrate a new peer group and low self esteem will lead to more deviant eating behaviour in university girls compared to a control group of matched age participants . Females only were used as eating disorders predominantly affects this sex by a ratio of females to males ( , ) . < heading > Method Participants An opportunity sample of female volunteers participated in the experimental condition . All were year students living away from home for the time in halls of residences at higher education institutions , , , and , aged . An opportunity sample of female volunteers also participated in the control condition , aged and were at university . Written consent was obtained from all participants . < heading > Materials Eating deviancy was assessed using ( see appendix ) and Self - esteem was measured using SERS . This questionnaire was altered slightly for the experimental group to measure the effect the new peer group was having over self esteem levels at university . The word "" others "" in the original questionnaire was changed to "" my new friends "" for the experimental group only , for example , question originally presents "" I feel others do things much better than I do "" and this was retained for the control group . For the experimental group however the question was changed to "" I feel my new friends do things much better than I do "" . Participants were informed , using prose instruction , that the term "" my new friends "" meant the new friends they had made since arriving at university ( see appendix for a copy of both questionnaires ) . Body dissatisfaction was measured using ( see appendix ) . questionnaire entailed all components , counterbalanced to reduce any order effects , creating types of questionnaire . < heading > Procedure Of the participants , in each group completed each type of questionnaire , with the experimental group receiving the revised questions for SERS . Instructions as to how participants should answer the questionnaires and use the provided scales were issued in written form at the beginning of each questionnaire . Before participants were asked to participate , they were asked to sign a written consent form fully explaining ethical concerns and withdrawal rights . Data was collected from participants in isolation to ensure privacy , and collected from , , and . venues were chosen to increase generalisability across the university environment . All questionnaires were scored according to the original criteria . marking only occurred on the round of scoring for SERS , where only the questions referring to "" others "" and the "" new group of friends "" were assessed . This was done to more fully investigate the effect a new peer group had over the individual 's self esteem levels ( and therefore their eating behaviour ) . For included and excluded questions please see appendix . Data was collected of term in order for new peer groups to be classed as "" new "" . < heading > Data Analysis In order to investigate whether self - esteem levels were lower and deviant eating behaviours were higher in university girls than a control group of non university girls , between subjects multivariate analysis of variance ( MANOVA ) and 's correlation co - efficient were used to analyse data . To check the assumptions of the could be relied upon , a distance identified outlier , it was decided to keep this in however as outlier is not going to effect the assumptions of the . To more fully investigate the effect integrating a new peer group may have on self - esteem levels , and therefore eating patterns , an independent samples t - test was carried out between the means for the experimental and control group for SERS . This time however only the questions referring to "" others "" or "" new friends "" were included , out of the original questions . This was to see whether self esteem levels relating to peers were significantly different between the groups . sample t - tests were also conducted to investigate whether there was a significant difference between the experimental group and the normative values . A 's product moment correlation co - efficient was used to investigate the relationship between the dependant variables . To measure the strength of the correlations Cohan 's ( ) criteria was used ( as cited in , ) . < heading > Results The graph below compares the means and standard deviations for the experimental group , control group , and the normative means for the dependant variables ; , and SERS ( for a table of exact findings see appendix ) . < figure/>It can immediately be seen from this that there are higher levels of eating deviancy and body shape dissatisfaction for the experimental group although the control group have slightly lower levels of self esteem . The - way between - subjects was performed to investigate the dependant variables ; eating attitudes , self esteem and body shape satisfaction . The independent variable was whether participants were university student living away from home ( experimental group ) , or matched age non university student ( control group ) . There was a significant difference between the experimental group and the control group on the combined dependant variables : F ( ) = , p= 0.008 ; Wilks ' Lambda = . When the results for the dependant variables were considered separately , the only difference to reach statistical significance using a adjusted level of , was eating attitudes : f ( ) = p < 0.002 . The magnitude of difference between the means of the experimental group 's scores for and the control 's was moderate ( eta squared = ) . After consulting the means for the experimental ( , ) and control group ( M14.88 , ) for the scores for it is clear that the experimental group is significantly higher than the control . Body shape satisfaction scores were not significant using a adjusted level of or using a significance level of : f ( ) = p > 0.079 . Self esteem levels were also not significant using a adjusted level of or using a significance level of : f ( ) = p > 0.838 . An independent t test for SERS including only the questions relating to "" new friends "" or "" others "" found no significant difference between the means for the experimental group ( M=4.53 , SD=18.59 ) or the control group ( M=2.65 , SD=16.82 ) where t ( ) = , p > 0.544 . The magnitude of difference in the means was very small ( eta squared = ) . A sample t test compared the means for the experimental group ( M=19.88 , SD=10.66 ) with normative means for ( M=15.6 , SD=9.3 ) . This showed that the experimental group had significantly more deviant eating behaviours than the normative group t ( ) = , p = . A samples t test showed a significant difference for between the experimental group ( M=102.27 SD=34.08 ) and the normative group ( M=81.5 SD=28.4 ) where t ( ) = , p = . A samples t - test also showed a significant difference for SERS between the experimental group ( M = SD= ) and the normative group ( M=0 SD=0 ) where t ( ) = , p = . This illustrates that all dependant variables for the experimental group were significant when compared with the established normative values . A product moment correlation coefficient was used to investigate the relationship between the variables measured by , and SERS . For the experimental group there was a medium positive correlation between the scores for and ( r = , n = , p < 0.0005 ) with shared variance . There was also a medium positive correlation between the scores for and for the control group ( r = , n = , p < 0.005 ) with shared variance . This shows that high eating deviancy correlates with high body dissatisfaction for both the control group and the experimental group . The scores for and SERS scores were also correlated . For the experimental group there was a medium negative correlation ( r = -0.447 , n = , p < 0.0005 ) with shared variance . There was also a small negative correlation between scores for and SERS for the control group ( r = -0.285 , , p < 0.02 ) with shared variance . This shows that high deviant eating behaviour correlates with low self esteem for both the control and experimental group . < heading > Discussion The most general conclusion which can be drawn from the is that there was an overall significance between the experimental and control group on the dependant variables ; scores for , and SERS . There was however only a significant main effect for , which means that there was only a significant difference between the groups in their eating behaviour and not in their self - esteem levels or body shape dissatisfaction . When an independent samples t - test was conducted between the control and experimental group for the revised measure of SERS , where only questionnaires relating to the new peer group were included , there was still no significant difference between the . This suggests that experimental participants had no more self esteem issues regarding their "" new friends "" than control participants had with "" others "" . There was , however , only a non significant relationship for self - esteem between the experimental and control group used in this study . When a sample t test was conducted between the experimental group in this study , and the established normative mean specified by ( ) , there was a highly significant difference . After consulting the means it was clear that the experimental group had lower self esteem than their non clinical control ( although the experimental group did not have lower self esteem levels than the control group used in this study ) . It may be that low self esteem does contribute to disordered eating behaviour in university girls , although it was not shown to be significant with the due to generally low levels of self esteem amongst the control group . In students however this may combine with several other factors linked with disordered eating not investigated in the study , for example , stress and depression ( Vanderlinden et al , ) . The control group of participants ( not at university ) may not resort to disordered eating to try and counteract feelings of low self esteem as they may not also have to cope with depression and stress and being away from home for the time . Data for the experimental group was also collected from . This is a performing arts theatre which may encourage outgoing , confident students . It may be that this had an effect on the overall self esteem levels for the experimental group and caused them to be higher than they would be if a non performing arts university had been selected . If a non performing arts institution had been selected then first year university students may have had significantly lower self esteem levels than the control group . It is therefore clear from the results that although year students do have significantly more deviant eating behaviours than a control group of matched aged participants , it is not attributable to low self esteem and having to integrate a new peer group , as the t test investigating the influence new friends had proved also not to be significant . After correlating the results using a 's product moment co - efficient it can be seen that there was a medium strength negative correlation between scores for and SERS , showing that high eating deviancy did correlate with low self esteem levels . Although this did not prove to be significant in the there was shared variance with r = -0.44 . When and SERS were correlated for the control group there was only a small negative correlation between the with shared variance with r = -0.28 . Correlations do not indicate cause although it does show that low self esteem correlates more strongly with disordered eating for the experimental group . The fact that there was no main effect for on the suggests that the disordered eating patterns are not caused by body image . This might be because being at university does not increase body dissatisfaction and therefore cause more deviant eating behaviours . Although there was a stronger correlation between and for the experimental than control group , body image alone can not be considered a significant difference in disordered eating between the experimental and control group . Although low self esteem and integrating a new peer group have not been shown to be significant factors in causing disordered eating behaviour for university students , it has been shown that they do have significantly more deviant eating behaviour than the control group . This may still be indirectly a result of being in a new peer group , as shown by the findings of ( ) ( as cited in et al , ) who found that physical attractiveness is linked to more positive peer relations and social acceptance . Attitudes towards attractiveness and the benefits attractiveness can bring are established from an early age . This tends to be well known and seems to have internalised as a concept in young girls ( , ) . This was also supported by et al ( ) who found that more popular girls are more likely to have eating disorders . This suggests that girls who want to be popular , or want to maintain popularity tend to resort to severe eating behaviour and are under the assumption that slimness and attractiveness equals popularity . If this is the case then integrating a new peer group may be a significant factor on eating behaviour in students . This study investigated the affect new peer group had over eating by measuring insecurity felt amongst new friends . It may not be that individuals feel insecure with their friends , but that they feel competitive amongst their new friends and engage in dieting tactics in order to establish themselves as the most attractive , thereby increasing their chances of being popular . This could not be established from this study which concentrated on the effect new friends had on self esteem levels . et al ( ) found that peer group influence was the single biggest influence over disordered eating . Another explanation as to why year students may have significantly more deviant eating behaviour may reside in the element of perceived control . Individuals with the propensity to suffer from disordered eating tend to have a deficiency in their ability to influence their own environment ( , ) . They feel that they can not control their surroundings or their lives and so resort to controlling the thing that they feel they do have control over , their eating behaviour . Being independent and moving away to university may increase the sense of lost control and therefore present a crisis in self worth ( , ) . This may increase disordered eating as the individual may increase their control over their dieting behaviour as they feel a decrease in control of their circumstances . If this were the case , then it may be that the individuals already have the eating problems and it is just that moving away from university , and the challenge and stress accompanying this , enhances rather than causes the eating deviancy . It may be beneficial to compose a longitudinal study investigating how university affects eating patterns before and during university as opposed to comparison with a control group . It may be that in this study self - esteem levels and integrating the new peer group were not significant due to a number of confounding variables . The SERS questionnaire was established in . As it is now it may be that there has been an increase in the levels of self esteem of the population in general . This could be why when the experimental group was compared with the control group there was no significant difference , but when the experimental group was compared with the normative values ( ) identified , there is a highly significant difference . It may be that the questionnaire needs to be modified to account for this possibility . It is also possible that social desirability bias may have played a role in self esteem and peer group influence not being significant , as nobody wishes to portray themselves as having low self esteem and participants may not have liked to admit that they did feel inferior to their friends , despite the fact that the questionnaires are anonymous . People who are low might not want to recognise or express this due to reaction formation . The format of the questionnaires may also have proved a problem . To increase reliability and validity established questionnaires were used to create one . The main problem here is that all used a slightly different scale . This may have caused confusion for participants , who might have used the wrong scales whilst answering questions . Experimental care was however taken by explaining in prose form at the beginning of each questionnaire that a different scale was being used for each section . The scales were also repeated every time questions continued onto a new page so participants would not have to rely on memory to use the scales . Human error may however have meant some participants may have used the wrong scale for the questionnaires . Other issues may have influenced results such as whether participants had a boyfriend at university . This may have increased self esteem levels and reduced the effect a new peer group may have had over individuals who had boyfriends . Also the distance from home participants were may have had an effect . Participants living closer to the university may not have had such low self esteem as they are still relatively near to their parents . In further research it may be beneficial to account for these individual factors . Due to the fact that integrating a new peer group and low self esteem have not been shown to be significant causes of the difference in eating deviancy between the control group and the experimental group , there appears to be plenty of scope for further research . It may be beneficial to stay with a new peer group and self esteem levels but use different methodology to ascertain what influence these have over disordered eating practices . It is clear that although these were not shown to be significant they do have an effect and it may also be beneficial to look at the effect of a new peer group in a different context . Instead of viewing it from the stand point of a feeling of inferiority to peers as this study does , it may be possible to study it from a competition of popularity standpoint , led by the research of at al ( ) and et al ( ) . Depression and family factors may also play a role in increasing disordered eating behaviour in students and more research may be needed in this area . It may be that a new questionnaire needs to be established particularly looking at these issues to ensure validity and to ensure it is up to date and relevant to this generation . Further research may also look at the prevalence and causes of disordered eating for male students . It is however important to stay within the region of students as clearly there is an effect of going to university on students eating behaviour . This can also be supported by et al ( 2004 ) who found of undergraduate women think they have an eating disorder , which is far higher than the national predicted prevalence rate of .","< heading > Introduction Current research in relation to housing around the world estimates that people live in inadequate housing conditions in urban areas alone and that people are homeless . Further , on the Right to Adequate Housing has reported that the housing and living conditions around the world are deteriorating . < fnote , Why Housing Rights ? < URL > at . < /fnote> Miloon Kothari , ' Actions to Promote the Realization of the Right to Adequate Housing ' in , and ( eds ) , Dignity and Human Rights : ( 2002 ) , . < /fnote > Over , numerous human rights legal instruments in relation , either directly or indirectly , to housing and living conditions have been negotiated at the international level , demonstrating the willingness of the international community to focus attention on the various manifestations of the housing crisis . In addition , and other international organisations have increased their focus on the international right to housing and ) has arguably devoted more attention to this right than to any other within its ambit . < fnote > Established under ECOSOC Resolution . < /fnote> Matthew C.R. Craven , , and Cultural Rights : A Perspective on its Development ( 1995 ) . < /fnote > However , despite the existence of this established international legal standard , it is clear that a significant gap persists between the theoretical human rights norms and the realities of many local communities . As is often the case in relation to many human rights , "" [ t]here can be no doubting that the oft - cited gap between law and practice ... is sadly alive and well when it comes to housing rights . "" In an attempt to narrow this gap , housing rights advocates around the world have pursued a variety of human rights strategies in domestic settings , such as community mobilisation , political campaigning for domestic legislative reform , advocacy before regional and international bodies , and legal challenges before courts of all jurisdictions . < fnote > , Sources No . : ( 2000 ) Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions 5 < URL > at . < /fnote > This essay focuses on aspect of the legal approach , namely the use of the international right to housing in domestic courts , and examines the potential for this strategy to effect practical benefit for housing conditions at the local level . To this end , the scope of the international human right to housing will be outlined in the section of this essay . , the extent to which the international right to housing is regarded as justiciable , and the basis for judicial reluctance in this regard , will be considered . Finally , the benefits of , and challenges to , the adoption of this legal approach as a strategy for the amelioration of inadequate housing and living conditions will be evaluated . < heading > The Human Right to Housing The human "" right to housing "" refers to the body of international , regional and national law which elucidates the general and specific regulation of the dimensions of the right to adequate housing and living conditions for all people around the world . At the international level , numerous treaties and related documents recognise the right to housing , outline its relevant components and describe its obligations . In this regard , , the human rights standard to recognise housing rights , states : < fnote > , ' through Advocating for the Human Right to Housing : Notes from ( ) , . < /fnote> COHRE , Legal resources on housing rights , < URL > at . < /fnote>""Everyone has the right to a standard living adequate for the health and well - being of himself and of his family , including food , clothing , housing and medical care and necessary social services , and the right to security in the event of unemployment , sickness , disability , widowhood , old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control . "" < /quote> Universal Declaration of Human Rights , GA Res 217 A ( III ) , [ ] , UN Doc A/217 ( ) . < /fnote > The most significant articulation of the right to housing at an international level , ) of ( ICESCR ) states : < fnote , General Comment 4 : The Right to Adequate Housing , sess , [ ] , Doc E/1992/23 ( ) < URL > at . < /fnote>""The State parties to the present recognize the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and for his family , including adequate food , clothing and housing , and to the continuous improvement of living conditions . The States Parties will take appropriate steps to ensure the realization of this right , recognizing to this effect the essential importance of international co - operation based on free consent . "" International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights , opened for signature , art ( entered into force ) . The ICESCR recognises the right to housing as part of the larger right to an adequate standard of living ; however , under international human rights law the right to adequate housing is generally now understood as an independent , free - standing right . < /fnote > Responsibility for monitoring party compliance with the rests with . Its General Comment 4 , intended to interpret and define ) of the ICESCR , is widely deemed to be the most authoritative interpretation of the right to housing . < fnote > COHRE , above no 7 . For a useful overview of the approach of to the scope of the right to housing , see , above no 4 , - 349 . < /fnote > Notably , states that "" the right to housing should not be interpreted in a narrow or restrictive sense which equates it with , for example , the shelter provided by merely having a roof over one 's head or views shelter exclusively as a commodity . "" . In this regard , notes that ) must be understood as referring not just to housing but to "" adequate housing "" , a concept which includes each of the following factors : legal security of tenure , availability of services , materials , facilities and infrastructure , affordability , habitability , accessibility , location and cultural adequacy . < fnote , above no 9 , [ 7 ] . < /fnote> Ibid [ 8 ] . < /fnote > The right to housing has been reaffirmed either explicitly or implicitly in a number of additional international human rights instruments , including ) , the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women , and the Convention on the Rights of the Child . < fnote > International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , opened for signature , art ) ( entered into force ) . < /fnote> Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , opened for signature , art 5(e)(iii ) ( entered into force ) . < /fnote> Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women , opened for signature , art 14(2)(h ) ( entered into force ) . < /fnote> Convention on the Rights of the Child , opened for signature , art ) ( entered into force ) . < /fnote> The Justiciability of the International Right to Housing < /heading> The Justiciability of Economic , Social and Cultural Rights Generally Historically , the ICCPR and the ICESCR have been perceived as representing "" generations "" of human rights , with the economic , social and cultural rights of the latter attracting categorisation as progressive , purely aspirational and consequently non - justiciable . However , the notion that all rights are indivisible and interdependent has been stated and reaffirmed many times . Further , human rights activists , scholars and lawyers have convincingly established that many aspects of economic , social and cultural rights are justiciable through the evolution of innovative methods of creating paths for making such rights justiciable through public interest litigation . < fnote > Asbjørn Eide and , ' Economic , Social and Cultural Rights : A Universal Challenge ' in , and ( eds ) , ( 2nd ed , ) . < /fnote> See generally : and ( eds ) , International Human Rights in Context : Law , Politics and Morals ( 2nd ed , 2000 ) - 286 < /fnote > Following the conclusion of and the accompanying expansion of the international human rights regimes , domestic courts around the world have made increasing use of international standards , whether official treaties or related documents , to assist in local decision - making . This trend has been encouraged by , among other things , an increased willingness of jurists to consider relevant international legal findings or sources , a broader awareness of international legal standards by local advocates , and the widespread dissemination of material on international norms by non - governmental organisations . The globalisation of the world ( in its various guises , whether economic , social or technological ) has intensified this development through an increased ease and rate of transnational communication . < fnote > , , and Jane Connors ( eds ) , Women 's Human Rights : Leading International and ) xiii . < /fnote> Anne - , A New World Order ( 2004 ) ch . < /fnote> Litigating the International Right to Housing In relation to the international right to housing specifically , the Special Rapporteur for the Right to Adequate Housing has emphasised the need for justiciability of this right "" in courts at all levels ... in order for states effectively to respect , protect , promote and fulfil "" this right . < fnote > , ' Priority Issues and Impediments to Realizing the Right to Adequate Housing ' in , and ( eds ) , Dignity and Human Rights : ( 2002 ) , . < /fnote > has explicitly confirmed that the legal principle of justiciability and the provision of domestic legal remedies are applicable to the right to adequate housing . According to , the provisions might apply to : "" ( a ) legal appeals aimed at preventing planned evictions or demolitions through the issuance of court - ordered injunctions ( b ) legal procedures seeking compensation following an illegal eviction ( c ) complaints against illegal actions carried out or supported by landlords ( whether public or private ) in relation to rent levels , dwelling maintenance and racial or other forms of discrimination , ( d ) allegations of any form of discrimination in the allocation and availability of access to housing ( e ) complaints against landlords concerning unhealthy or inadequate housing conditions "" and , in some legal systems , "" class action suits in situations involving significantly increased levels of homelessness "" . < fnote , above no 9 , [ ] . This affirmation by was made in the wider context of confirming that many aspects of economic , social and cultural rights generally are justiciable . < /fnote> Ibid . < /fnote> Ibid . This is not an exhaustive list . < /fnote> Framing a Legal Claim Using the International Right to Housing < /heading > The international right to housing may be used in the context of founding a right of action and/or to assist in the interpretation and application of domestic or regional law . The manner of use will depend primarily on whether the treaties to be relied upon have been incorporated into the domestic laws of the relevant nation - state . < fnote > , ' General Approaches to in ( ed ) , Human Rights of Women : National and International Perspectives ( ) , . < /fnote> Ibid 356 - 368 . < /fnote > Although it is generally the case that courts will construe national law in conformity with their countries ' national obligations ( even where the relevant treaties have not been expressly incorporated ) , in the absence of formal incorporation of the international right to housing , the justiciability of housing rights may be hampered by the tension resulting from the balance between a country 's international obligations and the protection of its national sovereignty . In particular , courts may be reluctant to award remedies in cases that require government implementation of specific policies necessitating significant budgetary consequences . Appropriate remedies in housing rights cases may necessitate national or local government bodies to expend considerable resources , for example , to conduct large - scale community resettlement or improvements to housing to meet minimum standards . In such situations , the risk exists that courts will defer to the separation of powers doctrine and argue that such cases involve issues that are appropriately dealt with by governments , with deference to their finite resources , rather than by courts . < fnote > This is an issue in relation to the justiciability of many economic , cultural and social rights . < /fnote> See for example : , above no 27 , , . < /fnote> at . < /fnote > The challenge for strategic litigation involving housing rights is to encourage the harmonisation or reconciliation of these conflicting considerations in favour of the human rights beneficiaries . The principal strategy in such circumstances has often been to ask courts to acknowledge the socio - economic dimensions of civil and political rights since these are more likely to be actionable , thereby promoting the bridging of generations of rights and strengthening the basis for an active judicial response . < fnote > Ibid [ ] . < /fnote> The International Housing Rights Law in Domestic Courts Outcomes of Relevant Cases < /heading > The benefits of , and challenges to , the adoption of this legal approach , with its goal of a reduction of inadequate housing and living conditions , is evaluated below , through a consideration of the major patterns emerging from relevant cases and the experiences of housing advocates . Over , there have been numerous strategic litigation and judicial test cases on housing rights issues , with both positive and negative results . As example of a successful outcome , quoted directly from General Comment No 4 and held that a housing rights plan involving the eviction of 900 people from private property , who were subsequently forced to live on the edge of sports field in horrendous conditions , was flawed due to its failure to uphold the right to housing by progressively addressing emergency relief . < fnote > See for example : COHRE , , < URL > at for descriptions of cases in , , , The , , and . < /fnote> Grootboom v. , et al . Case No . ( ) . < /fnote > A further example of success was documented in in relation to the continued forced eviction of persons without prior notice , where the judgment led to the negotiation of comprehensive plans for resettlement , developed by communities , architects and international agencies . As the right to housing was not directly justiciable through , the claim successfully linked the international right to housing to the rights to life and livelihood . < fnote > Ask v Government of Bangladesh ( ) . < /fnote> Abul Hasnat Monjurul Kabir , ' Litigating the Right to Adequate Housing ' ( 2002 ) Asia - Pacific Journal on Human Rights and the Law 97 , - 117 . < /fnote > On the other hand , possibly an equal number of cases had no direct impact , failed to achieve their objectives or led to contradictory results in relation to other similar jurisdictions , or even the same jurisdiction . In , housing rights suffered a setback when its disregarded human rights and 's obligations under the ICESCR in relation to the displacement of of tribal people in connection with the construction of . Again in , gave preference to environmental protection over housing rights in relation to people living in poverty in informal settlements . < fnote , above no 30 , and ch . < /fnote> Kothari , above no 23 , 71 , discussing v and Others ( ) . < /fnote> Ibid , . < /fnote > While it is beyond the scope of this essay to provide a comprehensive analysis and outcome summaries of the myriad cases which have applied the international right to housing at a domestic level , the lessons learned from the outcomes , both positive and negative , contribute to an understanding of the advantages of this type of strategic litigation . < heading The impact of claims that are founded using the international human rights framework is significant . This framework is a highly recognised and authoritative discourse which adds weight to housing rights issues by affirming the legal nature of these rights . It provides a conceptual framework for courts to integrate the norm , standards and principles of the international human rights system into domestic policies , in circumstances in which governments are subject to both positive and negative obligations and the realisation of the right to housing , in all its forms , is necessarily a progressive one given the expenditure of often limited resources . < fnote , above no 31 , . < /fnote> See generally : Craven , above no 4 , - 332 in for a discussion in relation to the progressive realisation characteristic of the right to housing and the implications for governments . < /fnote > Official recognition of the international right to housing , and with it the corresponding pressure on governments to respect , protect and fulfil its relevant components , provides individual and group claimants with a legitimate avenue of redress in relation to housing rights violations . The right to a legal hearing based on a claim framed by international human rights may be as significant as the remedy itself , particularly in circumstances where many suffering such infringements come from poor communities and minorities , where such groups exert minimal social or political power and courts are sometimes the only official institution that will listen . < fnote , above no 31 , . < /fnote > Such recognition provides a solid foundation upon which local communities , non - governmental organisations , housing rights advocates and others can more forcefully assert the demand for adequate housing for everyone on the basis that housing rights are human and legal rights , not merely equivocal policy objectives . In this way , merely the use of international human rights law in a domestic setting can become an instrument for empowerment and a long - term strategy to compel policy - makers to take housing rights more seriously . < fnote > Leckie , above no 5 , 6 . < /fnote > In addition , an approach which emphasises the indivisibility and interdependence of all human rights is likely to improve the likelihood of a successful outcome , as it both strengthens and expands the understanding of the right to housing and demonstrates how a judicial response to housing rights issues can have a wide impact . has confirmed that "" having access to adequate , safe and secure housing substantially strengthens the likelihood of people being able to enjoy certain additional rights . "" < fnote > Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights , Fact Sheet No . : . < /fnote > has confirmed that the right to housing is "" integrally linked to other human rights "" , which most noticeably include the rights to : safe drinking water and sanitation ; health , education , freedom of expression ; freedom of association ; environmental hygiene ; attainment of the highest level of physical and mental health ; access to resources ; access to basic services , schools , transportation and employment options . The Special Rapporteur on the Right to Adequate Housing , among others , has made reference to the identifiable nexus between poverty and human rights . < fnote , above no 9 , [ 7 ] . < /fnote> Kabir , above no 36 , , - 106 . < /fnote> Kothari , above no 23 , 65 . < /fnote> Key Issues Identified by Housing Rights Advocates Following a succession of housing rights cases around the world , several key concerns have been recognised by advocates as important considerations when pursuing a legal approach based on the international right to housing . At the outset , careful case selection is imperative , and ought to be founded on an informed understanding of the extent to which housing rights are considered justiciable in the relevant jurisdiction . Whether the litigation utilising the international right to housing has succeeded has often been dependent upon the extent to which courts exercised judicial restraint , such restraint generally increasing as the selected claims extended along the continuum of the duties to respect , to protect , or to fulfil , with their progressive impact on the respective state resources . In addition to establishing connections between a number of human rights , as noted above , some advocates have employed a strategy of including within their claims detailed examples of alternatives to the treatment of people suffering housing rights violations ( with considered input from relevant community members , architects or examples from other jurisdictions ) , for the court 's consideration , therefore making it easier for courts to comprehend the parameters and viability of the remedy sought , rather than expecting the court to design new policy itself . < fnote , above no 31 , . < /fnote> , ' The Right to Housing ' in Asbjørn Eide , and ( eds ) , ( 2nd ed , 2001 ) - 158 . < /fnote> Further , housing rights advocates have identified the implementation of court orders as the most essential , but most problematic , task in ensuring that litigation is ultimately effective in ensuring practical impact for local communities and therefore a successful translation of the international standard to realities . This was demonstrated in the case , where , following its successful outcome , the difficulty lay in the task of ensuring the realisation of the court 's orders through appropriate and vigilant monitoring . < fnote > Ibid , . < /fnote> Ibid , . < /fnote> Relevance of Complementary Strategies In addition to seeking the appropriate framing of judicial remedies , namely supervisory rather than declaratory orders , housing rights advocates have emphasised the importance of implementing the court 's orders in conjunction with complementary non - litigious strategies , in particular , a "" public or political campaign or the intense involvement of the affected communities "" . As litigation alone has been shown not to have the capacity to address all housing rights issues , placing the application of international norms in domestic courts within a wider political strategy has proven to provide a more holistic approach to , and ultimately greater success in , the correction of violations of housing rights . < fnote > Ibid 18 . < /fnote> Ibid . In this regard , it is important to look to domestic institutions which are able to effectively adjudicate and enforce economic , social and cultural rights as well as coordinating complementary strategies . See generally : , ' Harmonising International Human Rights Law and and Policy : the Establishment and Role of the Human Rights Law Resource Centre ' ( ) . < /fnote > Where cases fail , housing issues or broader social movements surrounding them may suffer a setback from obstructive legal precedents . Further , opportunities for direct action may be forfeited and communities may suffer the consequences of false hope . However , a successful judgment with failed implementation may result in less long - term practical benefit for local communities than an approach involving complementary strategies , even where the litigious aspect disappoints . Housing rights advocates contend that combining litigation with a complementary social mobilisation strategy , including media campaigns and political lobbying , will generally act to lessen the detrimental consequences of unsuccessful cases as the litigious effort and negative judgment , if publicised appropriately , may act as a catalyst for more nuanced future cases which enjoy greater support from communities and advocates , as well as political change even without the originally desired legal outcome . < fnote , above no 31 , . < /fnote> CONCLUSION The purpose of this essay was to examine one of the human rights strategies applied by housing rights advocates in a domestic setting , namely the use of the international right to housing in domestic courts , in order to consider the potential for this strategy to effect practical benefit for housing conditions at the local level . The discussion above reveals that this approach has yielded some very successful outcomes and , even in circumstances where the actual legal outcome was not favourable , the strength and authoritative nature of the international human rights regime lends weight to the legitimacy of housing rights in local settings generally . This is particularly enhanced when combined with a complementary social mobilisation movement in relation to the particular issues . Accordingly , housing rights advocates would be wise to consider this as a central strategy , where appropriate in the circumstances , but at the very least , a significant component of their wider housing rights campaigns .",0 "In the quest to discover the essential nature of the nexus between 's political rule and theory it will be necessary to consult a variety of his writings to gain an insight into the development of his thought . What may become clear with a close reading is that there are some core principles that remained unchanged throughout his life in contrast to other immediate and improvised policies that he latched onto or jettisoned at will , according to circumstance . Furthermore , the sophisticated interpretations of some influential historians will add weight to the analysis and in an attempt to show the correlation between Leninism and Bolshevism Nikolai Bukharin and will offer a wealth of information . Despite the limited chronological framework it will be of seminal importance to assess prominent works from the formative period prior to in order to witness how his thinking deviated from or remained true to his early beliefs . Wartime thoughts on and Russian Social Democracy and his speech in on the anniversary of "" Bloody "" will provide an insight into 's revolutionary physiognomy and his socialist outlook in the immediate run up to revolution . Reaching further back will help to create a more complete picture of Leninism . Perhaps the earlier texts portray his political philosophy in its purest form before it became compromised by the expediencies of governance . The Tasks of the Proletariat in , or the These s as they have became known , The and Revolution and 's resolutions at stand out from his work published after the revolution . In addition , his Letters From Afar , , Economics and Politics in the Era of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat and his writing On are of significant merit . has undoubtedly been both ' praised beyond hyperbolae and damned with savage invective ' . In fact , ' acerbic clashes in interpretation were inevitable ' in historiography concerning . The present writer has found very little evidence that points toward a possible obloquy ; however , the motivation here is not to produce a hagiography on an all ready well published theme . Neither will any attempt be made to speculate on the personal or psychological state of the man . This has already been achieved to some extent in superb volumes by and particularly in his : A Biography in which the author intended to give a ' sense of personality ' to an immense politician . That said it will be necessary to reflect on 's in order to provide a well - rounded examination of his political development . < fnote > James E. Connor ( ed . ) , : On Politics and Revolution ( , ) , p.xi < /fnote> Robert Service , : A Political Life Vol.1 , , ) p.4 < /fnote> Robert Service , : A Biography ( , ) , p.xii < /fnote > opinion is that some commentators have been ignorant of ' the theoretical underpinning of 's thought ' . The idea here is to assess the political leader , to show coherently , consistently and convincingly that had a distinct strategy for the development of socialism in . The problems encountered in transposing his thought into reality will be mentioned but that does not detract from the deep sense of intellectual conviction involved in his work . A dissection of The State and , one of the most critically important and thorough of 's works , will serve as the perfect point of departure for a comparison of theory and policy during these decisive . It will be used to set out a broad framework of 's thought and as a reference point to which both early and late discourses can be related to show the consistency of his ideology . It would need an immense literary undertaking to analyse every element of continuation and every element of digression in 's writings . Therefore , this paper will take a sizeable chunk of work compiled , and before , in order to highlight the major theoretical dogma that exists throughout and will consider the following fundamentals : organisation , production and the role of the party and society . Also , it will endeavour to explain the gradual move of from the conjectural opponent of the autocracy and bourgeoisie to the party as sponsor of the realistic functions of government . < fnote > , 's Political Thought : Theory and Practice in , ( , ) p.310 < /fnote > Richard Pipes has detailed the ' origins and Bolshevism ' and ' the intellectual formation of young ' expertly . His construction of ' phases ' which influenced show how he picked up various elements that he combined to produce Bolshevism . From he was a sympathiser with the populist movement and ' the wing of . At this time he believed that techniques of conspiracy combined with the restlessness of the narod would ignite revolution and culminate in a violent coup d'état . In , was disillusioned by the potential of the peasantry and heralded the more emphasis on the urban workers as the driving force behind unrest . Yet , he ' continued to cling to the techniques of terror and power seizure ' . By Lenin became a bedfellow of the movement ' of the Western type ' . He championed the ideal of progress , that all classes would revolt against the tyranny of tsarism and the bourgeois liberals would provide the stepping stone to social revolution . In he ' lost faith ' in both the frail proletariat and the fickle bourgeoisie . The ' undemocratic philosophy of socialism ' that he found solace in resulted in a ' peculiar amalgam ' of and orthodox Marxism . < fnote > Richard Pipes , ' The Origins of Bolshevism : The Intellectual Evolution of Young Lenin ' , in ( ed . ) , Revolutionary ( , ) < /fnote > Pipes ' use of the idea of democracy here falls foul of the paradox . Initially he states that thought that ' socialism presupposed democracy ' then says that the shift to Bolshevism was undemocratic . A quick clarification may be in order . Indeed , was adamant that socialism was the only way to rid the world of the evils of exploitation . Furthermore , he did believe that one party as the representative of the oppressed masses could carry the weight of revolution on its shoulders and should explicitly , and violently if necessary , guard itself against opposition in order to do so . The fact that ' socialism presupposed democracy ' meant that a redefinition of the term was needed and it should be kept in mind . It was not the Western liberal democracy , or contemporary notion , of political choice . He believed that social revolution was the way to realise mass participation in the governing of the socialist state , economic rather than political freedom and therefore ultimate egalitarianism . Hence , Bolshevism in 's mind , and in this sense , was a form of total democracy . When used negatively by it meant the former , when used in a positive sense it comes to mean the latter . The dual usage of the word is quite unavoidable without an effective replacement . < fnote > , : Profiles in Power ( , ) p.84 < /fnote > At began to consolidate his political thought more coherently and in he compiled What is to be ? as the urban proletariat rocketed out of the control of the nascent political organisations that wished to direct it towards revolution . Partially this work was stimulated by 's dismay at the infection that had spread into with the phenomenon of urban boom . The so - called ' economists ' wished to assist the proletariat in their immediate financial aims . The danger was the de - railing of historical progress . The socialists were compelled to drive the working class to fulfil their role in history , a role that they were for the most part unaware of . They had to be politicised and revolutionised . Convincing them to settle for economic rewards in an unfavourable political climate was heresy and it would see them blinded by bourgeois smokescreens . The ' limited vision of a struggle for a fuller pay envelope and some token representation in sham bourgeois parliaments ' was anathema to . He began to ' stress the need for political action ' . < fnote > Connor ( ed . ) , : On Politics and Revolution p.xix < /fnote> Edward H. Carr , ' , ' , in , Revolutionary p.286 < /fnote > The Bolshevik period was one in which adapted Marxism to a new age . This was an age where social values were not subordinate to market forces but where economic and political planning was essential in overcoming social ills and exploitation . Some have accused of distorting Marxism to suit his own ends . believed that substitutionism had crept into Bolshevism , whereby the party replaced the proletariat as the vanguard of the revolution . While 's assumption was quite correct it becomes problematic , especially given the merit of idea of the necessity of having to adapt 's theory to suit a new age . It was not done to suit individual political aspirations . The problem arises in the fact that and were working in different eras . Great caution must be exercised in this respect . In ' concurring with the opinion expressed by ... [E.P ] Thompson ... said that down to the moment of his death was still puzzling over the question of how socialism could be introduced in conditions ' . Clearly there is some accord regarding the notion that ' was essentially a nineteenth century thinker whose theories could not be adopted tout court in the ' . To add emphasis , was forced into ' reinventing the revolutionary project in the conditions of imperialism and colonialism - more precisely : after the politico - ideological collapse of the long era of progressivism ' . In light of this , the interpretations of and that was a hard and fast , despite seeming ' obvious ' , appear to stand strong against the more shaky claims of those who have denounced as ' a nationalist , above all , or a megalomaniac ... or simply a pragmatic politician without a consistent theoretical system of ideas ' . In his early works of the , and What is to be ? Lenin provided ' socialists ... [ with ] a rationale for direct revolutionary activity . They had to involve themselves directly in the bourgeois revolution lest that the revolution fail [ stunted by the grip of autocracy ] and thereby delay the more important socialist revolution ' . < fnote > Carr , ' , in , , ' The Relationship of Bolshevism to Marxism ' , in , pp.319 - 323 < /fnote> Ruben , ' The Relationship of Bolshevism to Marxism ' , in , Revolutionary p.350 < /fnote> Slavoj Žižek ( ed . ) , Revolution at the Gates : A Selection of Writings from ( , ) p.11 < /fnote> Morris Slavin , ' Comparing the "" Old "" and "" "" on : A Review Article ' , in , , ( ) p.1220 < /fnote> Connor ( ed . ) , : On Politics and Revolution p.xxii - xxiii < /fnote > In , composed what turned out to be a very acute analysis and an imaginative account of at a time when was swamped with jingoism . and concerned itself with class conflict and the bourgeois nature of the impending war . asserted that the proletariat had no interest in fighting and consequently he attacked those members of that broke the institutions unity by supporting their national governments . More specifically saw the war as a move to destroy socialism , a ' nationalist stultification of the workers , and the extermination of their vanguard so as to weaken the revolutionary movement ' . He thought that the people had allowed themselves to be ' hoodwinked ' by the capitalist military machine and that had been drawn into playing a puppet role in alliance with and . military resources were being sapped in order to assist them in liquidating as an imperialist competitor in order to bolster monopoly capitalism in those nations - the imperialist aspiration of was no different one must add . The autocracy also had considerable gains to make , particularly in increasing it 's strangle hold on the satellite nations of the and and crushing the tide of revolution . But , socialism had suffered a schismatic blow . In this study presented his feelings on the revolutionary status of socialism . He reiterated the idea that the nation was ' most backward and has not yet completed its bourgeois revolution ' . This document provides an extra vista on 's transition from populist ideology through utopianism , in , to guarantor of state capitalism and popular reform with the new economic policies ( ) . As in every realm of world history marked a watershed where developed a malleable political machine around certain inner principles , rejecting the western model . He hoped could propel the shift to communism in . < fnote > Vladimir Il'ich , ' and Russian Social Democracy ' , , in Special Subject Documents : , : , The Fall of Tsarism and the Rise of Bolshevism ( 2004/2005 ) pp.657 - 659 < /fnote> The State and is unrivalled in importance as the most coherent of 's theoretical works . It differs somewhat from the realpolitik hypotheses that are seen as synonymous with Leninism . has pointed out that in this sense and can at a glance appear to be anomalous . A direct comparison can usefully be made between this piece , compiled in exile in , and What is to be ? The former was not designed to be a didactic treatise aimed at instructing the concrete development of revolution . The and has been criticised for being utopian , a label of derision that himself levelled at his opponents regularly . However , he castigated such attacks by referring to the sections in his book concerning the era of socialist transition and the need for a semi - state which would be an ' apparatus that would gradually "" wither away "" as its functions were ... replaced by the "" natural "" cooperation of all members of society ' . This was realistic and strict adherence to theory of historical progress . Moreover , 's strategy for ' universal bureaucracy ' was criticised as anarchist and yet again defended . Since the capitalist system had reduced the nature of administration to very simplistic modes of "" filing and checking "" it was explicitly realistic that everyone and anyone could perform official duties and for "" workingmen 's wages "" . This would ' prevent the development of a professional , elitist bureaucratic system ... and would be under the control and direction of the "" armed proletariat "" . Barfield describes it as ' simplistic and utopian ' , or perhaps more accurately , ' naïve ' . For instance , in relation to the citizen militia just mentioned , presumed that law and order would be self - perpetuating under socialist conditions : ' the armed people ' would naturally impose themselves ' with the ease and simplicity shown by any crowd of civilised people , even in modern society , stepping in to put a stop to a brawl or to prevent a woman from being assaulted ' . How sad that realism determines this to be a somewhat farfetched postulation . < fnote , < /fnote > Nevertheless , Barfield announces that it ' is quite amiss to neglect the work ' . It can not be ignored because by definition it ought to be simplistic , and perhaps idealistic if not utopian , as a blueprint theoretical guide for the future of communism . The book was completed , as it was published , before . Those who place it in the period and consequently describe it as a reaction to the ambiance of radicalism that was fervent at this time are mistaken . This becomes increasingly clear given the fact that the book was ' compiled in the sober confines of the library ' . Added to which , ' few revolutionaries anticipated revolution in , and was no exception . It is against this pessimistic background that the ideas expressed in must be viewed ' . The and Revolution was 's most forceful and lucid hypothetical undertaking . It is true to his interpretation of Marxism and predominantly void of the concrete political practicalities that were to fill his other works . < fnote > Rodney Barfield , ' 's Utopianism : State and ' , in , , ( Mar. , ) , < /fnote> Barfield , ' 's Utopianism ' , pp.49 - 55 < /fnote > As asserted , was preoccupied with specific social relationships and The and Revolution was no exception - but the major focus was on the ' relationship between the state and society ' in general . entered a discussion of the development of the state under the rule of the proletariat . The objective of the worker state ' would be the eradication of all class - based discrimination ... classes themselves would disappear ... class struggle would cease ... [ and ] the state would consequently "" wither away "" . During this process , there would inevitably be an ' intermediate epoch ' where a "" dictatorship of the proletariat "" would continue the struggle to dissolve the old apparatus of capitalism and prepare the ground for ' the inception of a fully classless and communist society ' . The "" proletariat organised as the ruling class "" was the only way to effect social revolution and The and Revolution presumed that the ' presentation of the revolutions of and 1917 ... [ would ] confirm the genius of ' . Immediately a trestle framework , not without its gaps , was visible within which was to set about the task of landscaping society in preparation for the switch to communism . was expounding grandiose conviction rather than calling out for urgent and particular action . < fnote , The and Revolution p.xiv < /fnote> Lenin , The and Revolution p.50 < /fnote > The transitory epoch identified , from his studying of , was to be pockmarked with a plethora of characteristics that were unavoidable . In particular the proletariat was going to have to wield the sabre of bourgeois bureaucracy in order to nationalise and popularise state offices . This was supposedly easy since the bourgeoisie had perfected and simplified such processes . Until a time when the ' whole of society ... [ operated as ] a single office and a single factory with equality of labour and equality of pay ' a massive expansion of the bureaucracy was inevitable . By creating mass participation in state affairs both the bureaucracy and the state would begin their demise . The ' complete eradication of bureaucratism ' would ensue and ' the introduction of complete democracy for the people ' would become possible . himself proclaimed that the embryonic socialist state in such circumstances "" was only just emerging from capitalist society and which thus in all relations - economic , moral and intellectual - bears the imprint of the old society from whose womb it emerged "" . Until the eventual realisation of communism freedom was still compromised . helped crystallise his belief that ' every state ' is repressive by nature hence ' every state is un - free and non - popular ' . To safeguard their own interests ' the labouring people need a state to suppress the resistance of the exploiters ' . In fact , adhered to 's belief that the aim of socialism was the "" conquest of democracy "" , at least democracy in the bourgeois sense . Suppression and the removal of so - called democracy were essential ' in order to free humanity from wage slavery ' . enthused over ' assertion that "" the proletariat has the need of the state not in the interest of freedom but in the interests of suppressing its adversaries , and as soon as it becomes possible to speak of freedom the state will cease to exist "" . < fnote , The and Revolution p.91 < /fnote> Lenin , and Revolution pp.99 - 105 < /fnote> Above all else coercion was essential to ensure there was no opposition to disrupt the revolutionary agenda . This was to be directed at the ' minority ... the former ruling class ' and hence , ' according to ' , it would be a temporary measure and ' low in scale ' . The period which was to be governed by the "" dictatorship of the proletariat "" was geared toward developing the economic , productive and organisational prerequisites for communist society . Economic equality was impossible at this stage as economic incentives would have to be dished out to the former experts of capitalism in order to achieve the necessary levels of modernisation and production . declared that needs must and that was in dire need of ' the latest technology ... to be ubiquitously diffused ' . Once the necessary levels of production and economic know - how had been reached it was possible to embrace socialist ideals . A huge monolithic national industry was envisioned by where all those capable would become "" employees and workers of a single national state ' syndicate ' [ and do ] their proper share of the work "" . emphasised that he believed he was not professing something new but that the true essence of Marxism had to be ' recapitulated if ever ... [ its ] true intentions were to be restored to . In this sense he continued to attack those who sought a revision or mediation of 's work . In and Revolution he mimicked repudiation of and agreed that the latter was ' failing to recognise ' the central themes of Marxism . < fnote , The and Revolution pp.xvii - xxi < /fnote > In support of and criticism of 's supposed deviation or misinterpretation of it is possible to argue that ' to abrogate formal electoral procedures ' and advocate violent dictatorship was not . What is more , since the urban workers were a minority group across never mind in agrarian ' any conceivable dictatorship of the proletariat would be ... minoritarian ... and would likely resort to mass terror ' . This is difficult to refute , but it is merely the exemplification of an interpretative schism that was not uncommon amongst those who attempted to diffuse Marxism to the general populace . It becomes futile to engage in the ' libertarian ' versus ' authoritarian ' scrap since quite clearly demonstrated a penchant for both . The dichotomy often sits uneasily but that does not make the book obsolete . Quite the opposite - it becomes a useful guide to the political economy - ' below the surface ... lies a stratum of assertions and assumptions which tell us a great deal about the kind of future political life regarded by the author as being desirable ' . < fnote , The and Revolution pp.xxii - xxix < /fnote > However , the optimism that leaps from the pages is not completely unbridled . An undertone of realistic caution is also present - ' the phase of communism cannot ... produce justice and equality : differences in wealth , and unjust differences at that , will still exist , but the exploitation of man by man will have become impossible because it will be impossible to seize the means of production , the factories , the machines , land and so on as private property ' - an intoxicating blend of idealism and reality that appears wildly incomprehensible to a closed mind given the experience of . It becomes clear that hoped that ' his chapters would have global applicability ' given his belief in the supra - national homogeneity of the working - class but at the same time he exhibited an ' awareness that each country would need a set of policies appropriate to its social and economic characteristics ; he was very far from the belief that a uniform programme was sensible ... thus adjusted the grand designs of The State and Revolution to his perception of 's peculiarities ' . Additionally , asserted that ' by virtue of its economic role in large scale production ' the proletariat was the natural leader of the exploited people - it was not ruling in its own specific interest but in the interest of the poorest sectors of society , the majority - by definition it was representative of the most significant portion of the populace and therefore not minoritarian . It was carrying out the revolution for those agrarian labourers ' who ... [ were ] incapable of waging an independent struggle for their own liberation ' . < fnote , and Revolution p.84 < /fnote> Lenin , The and Revolution pp.xxxiii - xxxv < /fnote> Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin and , The ABC of Communism ( London , ) p.109 < /fnote> Vladimir Il'ich , ' The Tasks of the Proletariat in , Apr. 1917 , in Special Subject Documents : , : , The Fall of Tsarism and the Rise of Bolshevism ( 2004/2005 ) p.19 < /fnote> Bukharin and , The ABC of Communism pp.45 - 49 < /fnote > Bukharin and Preobrazhensky outlined highly practical solutions to the problems of production and organisation . To modernise and engender the conditions to allow the greatest possible levels of production was crucial . The intellectuals were well aware of their goals and in of they expressed that it was "" essential ... to secure a universal increase in the productive forces of the country ... all other considerations must be subordinated to practical aim - a rapid increase , by all available means , in the quantity of goods urgently needed by the population "" . There were no new ideas thrown up after the seizure of power : ' in the well known article Will ? written by ' shortly after , he argued that the means of production "" should be wrested from the control of the capitalists "" and "" subordinated to proletarian "" . Idealistic theorising was clearly marginalised to a somewhat greater extent over but it remained the omnipresent undertone of Bolshevism . Likewise , practical assertions had by no means been avoided previously . < fnote > Bukharin and , The ABC of Communism pp.33 - 34 < /fnote > It was in that socialism crept toward . The delved into concrete policy more noticeably than ever . In terms of productionism ' the communist method ... must present the following characteristics : in the place it must be an organised society ; it must be free from anarchy of production , from competition between individual entrepreneurs , from wars and crises ... communist society is organised throughout ' . Equally , ' the foundation of our whole policy must be the development of productivity ... we must stick to point of view , [ we ] must drive the nail home ' . Hence , production for the good of humanity rested on disciplined and altruistic organisation . It was not expected to result in a rapid resolution of contemporary hardship therefore the latter quality was crucial in order to achieve the necessary ' organisation for the administration of economic life ' . The communist utopia was never reached , but the practical theories that Bolshevism pursued were politically and economically shrewd in their conception and application . A brilliantly brief and concise appraisal of of history is worth quoting almost in its entirety : ' in after the revolution , the population of the , in spite of the ravages of world wars ... [almost doubled ] from to over 200 million ' . This was mirrored by ' enormous urbanisation and a shift from ' a high proportion of illiteracy or semi literacy to total literacy and a widely diffused standard of secondary and higher education ... the had become the industrial nation in the world ' . This was the great success of 's socialism . Unfortunately the strategy he laid out did not achieve the abstract revolution of social values and the readjustment of mankind to true natural cooperation and humane interaction but it did affect the short term preconditions that he hoped would propel towards the upheaval of capitalism . He assured the industrial revolution of his peripheral nation . < fnote > Bukharin and , The ABC of Communism pp.113 - 114 < /fnote> Bukharin and , The ABC of Communism pp.315 - < /fnote> Bukharin and , The ABC of Communism p.394 < /fnote> Bukharin and , The ABC of Communism p.35 < /fnote > With the realisation of the ' stage ' of the revolution in Lenin again attached hopes for the future on the successful seizure of power by the workers . This period of revolution saw the crystallisation of ' fundamental political forces ' . Namely , ' the tsarist monarchy ... bourgeois and landlord - Octobrist - Cadet ... ( of which Kerensky and Chkheidze are the principle representatives) ... [and ] the of Workers ' Deputies , which is seeking to make the entire proletariat and the entire mass of the poorest part of the population its allies ' . had exacerbated the impact of and saw an extremely rapid reversal of fortunes in favour of the socialist movement . Economic collapse was pending and the autocracy appeared bankrupt , the people and the soldiers joined together in a harmony of discontent , tsarist officers failed to support because he appeared increasingly inept . Circumstances prevailed against the monarchy and the liberals flooded into fill the power vacuum bringing a socialist contingent with them . This was the conception of , it was born in . had commented that ' side - by - side with this [ bourgeois ] government ... there has arisen the chief , unofficial , as yet undeveloped and comparatively weak workers ' government ... the of Workers ' Deputies in Petrograd ' . Increasingly it became apparent that the promises of the liberal régime were empty and it became the role of the proletariat to ' open the eyes of the people to the deception practised by the bourgeois politicians , teach them to have no faith in words , to depend entirely on their own strength , their own organisation and their own weapons ' . Yet again , the insistence was on ' transition ' and politicisation . The vanguard of the people had to nurture the shift from ' the stage [ achieved in ] to the ... to enlighten and organise this mass ' . < fnote > Christopher Read , From Tsars to ( , ) < /fnote> Lenin , ' Letters from ' pp.8 - 9 < /fnote > 's much coveted "" s "" , written under the heading The Tasks of the Proletariat in in , provide a gold mine of literary sub texts and orthodox theory . The traditional viewpoint suggests that this work was an attempt to launch the revolution and propel the into power - an opportunistic tract . appeared to have wavered on his belief that the implementation of a democratic , liberal régime was a necessary prerequisite for the development of socialism . At the time when this was written he championed the overthrow of as the time was ripe for the completion of the socialist revolution because the current political order was detrimental to the movement . The reason for this volte - face has been challenged by in his article called ' 's of . Frankel referred to the assumption that ' to attempt to stage a socialist revolution before the bourgeois order had established itself would be an act of irresponsible utopianism , was bound to fail , and would thus delay the ultimate victory ' . The initial stance of scepticism taken here mimicked the traditional viewpoint before entering into a more nuanced analysis in which the true essence of the "" April These s "" is effectively unearthed . Frankel states that ' he did not claim that was ripe for socialism . For the time being , only the transitory and preparatory steps ... could be taken ' . To be sure , encouraged ' a patient , systematic , and persistent explanation of the errors of ... [ ] tactics , an explanation especially adapted to the practical needs of the masses ' . It was an erudite appraisal of the contemporary situation but it remained true to his ideal of progress - what had changed is that the had to be aware of the rapid pace of change that was occurring grâce á the imperialist skirmish that had enveloped . The politically conscious revolutionaries had to make the people aware of ' the chief sin of the petty - bourgeois bloc ... it resorts to empty phrases to conceal from the people the truth about the governments class character ' . In an attack on the opposition of wrote in that they had reduced the revolution ' to a state of subjection to the imperialists ' . believed that if the maintained their policy of opposition to then time would ' show the masses their true leader - the organised urban proletariat ' . In that respect , ' the imperialist war has hastened developments fantastically ' . < fnote > Jonathon Frankel , ' 's of , in , , ( ) , p.117 < /fnote> Frankel , ' 's of p.118 < /fnote> Frankel , ' 's of p.135 < /fnote>'Reports and by ' , The ( April ) All - Russia Conference of the R.S.D.L.P. , in Special Subject Documents : , : , The Fall of Tsarism and the Rise of Bolshevism ( ) pp.62 - 63 < /fnote> Vladimir Il'ich , ' To What State Have the Socialist Revolutionaries and the Revolution ? ' , , in Special Subject Documents : , : , The Fall of Tsarism and the Rise of Bolshevism ( ) p.298 < /fnote cognition of the importance of the proletariat in the situation slightly altered how he conceived the revolution to unfold . At he had readily advocated the notion of uninhibited revolution developing of its own accord . The nature of society , and perhaps the precedent of , had taught him that this was possible in the towns but that ' in the villages the social revolution ... would have to be inspired and led ' . The ' revolutionary force ' par excellence that was the peasantry would provide the key to the success of the revolution but not independent of the proletariat . After Lenin realised that it was necessary to abandon western brands of socialism and advance a peculiarly version which came to be known as Bolshevism . By , Frankel has argued , ' had thus developed a fully fledged strategy for revolution which envisaged a dominated dictatorship , rooted in the , committed to open - ended violent change ( including full - scale land distribution ) and pledged to extend the revolution to ' . had always been sure to reject ' half - baked , semi - anarchist ideas which envisaged the speedy implementation of the maximal programme and the seizure of power in order to carry through the socialist revolution ' . He was certain that to win over the peasants the bourgeois revolution would have to affect the minimalist programme of land redistribution and basic social reform , some representation in the and so on . Once this had been assured the masses would be convinced of the benefit of revolution and the tsarist monarchy would have been decisively defeated . Why then in did come to believe that was ready to experience the proper socialist revolution ? The "" April These s "" hit a ' new note of urgency ... but the strategic doctrine remained in all essentials unaltered ' . Without doubt the key to the extreme catalysis of the process was . The effectiveness of the as a body for socialist representation had materialised and was showing signs of compromise under and turn - coats . Hence , ' the revolution had gone much further than anticipated and control of the state had already passed from the feudal to the bourgeois class ... at the same time the power of the was so immense that they in fact constituted ( albeit in passive form ) the long - awaited dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry . By handing over government to the bourgeoisie , this dictatorship had betrayed its historical mission ' . < fnote > Frankel , ' 's of pp.119 - 123 < /fnote > Lenin ' concluded dramatically ' that "" to this extent the bourgeois or bourgeois revolution in is completed "" . Indeed , ' this analysis of the political situation revealed his usual mastery ' . It was a call for socialist revolution , it was a denunciation of the bourgeoisie but it fitted perfectly with 's doctrine . It was not until that began to encourage that the socialist revolution must arm itself immediately to avoid subjection to the military rule of the counter - revolutionary right . He believed that ' military leaders , with the deliberate or semi - deliberate assistance of ... have seized actual state power and have proceeded to shoot down revolutionary units at the front ' . This left an ultimatum ; ' either complete victory for the military dictatorship , or victory for the workers ' armed uprising ' . Having mauled felt that the too had become corrupted by liberalism and had become obsolete , the slogan "" All power to the "" was to be resigned to a period that had ' passed irrevocably ' . This was a temporary sentiment . A characteristic reversal of policy rested on the condition that ' new elections must be held immediately ' in the . They symbolized the perfect body for proletarian representation but had been spoiled by being assimilated into the and debacle . also abandoned the idea of caution . The situation had ' matured ' and the revolution had to steamroller the forces of reaction . It was now or never . He recognised that the had to cope with a minority status and thus he called for newly elected to become the basis of the socialist government because his party was beginning to win over the workers ' in the 's key urban centres - Petrograd and . < fnote > Frankel , ' 's of pp.124 - 127 < /fnote> Vladimir Il'ich , ' The Tasks of the Revolution ' , , in Special Subject Documents : , : , The Fall of Tsarism and the Rise of Bolshevism ( ) pp.383 - 407 < /fnote > In opposition the were political masters . Under 's direction they steered a steady course constantly adjusting to circumstance yet adhering unerringly to their ideals . It was much easier to offer opposition in the atmosphere of disaster that haunted war torn . The got a rude awakening when it was their turn to entertain the want of the masses that they had stirred up . Unpopular decisions had to be made in order to ensure ' economic revival ' , to heal ' the very severe wounds inflicted by the war upon the entire social organism of ' . The tasks of the revolution were to secure a decisive majority , crush the opposition including the remnants of the bourgeoisie and to bring about complete , disciplined organisation . For the latter to succeed it was ignorant of necessity to deny that ' without the guidance of experts in the various fields of knowledge , technology and experience , the transition to socialism will be impossible , because socialism calls for a conscious mass advance to greater productivity of labour ' . Predictably this would mean the use of bourgeois officials , managers and technocrats but ' every thinking and honest worker and poor peasant will admit , that we can not , immediately rid ourselves of the evil legacy of capitalism ' . The positive facets of this legacy had to be harnessed for the good of the revolution and the negative un - socialist principles ignored in the meantime . < fnote > Vladimir Il'ich , ' , Apr. , in Special Subject Documents : , : , The Bolsheviks in Power : The Founding of a New Order ( 2004/2005 ) pp.646 - < /fnote belief in productionism originated in the development of industry and production line methods . Taylorism and the ideal of ergonomics seemed to provide the perfect basis for extending productivity in 's eyes and when coupled with the ' introduction of the best system of accounting and control ' the socialist tide would be unstoppable . He thus scribbled a ' Draft Plan of Scientific and Technical Work ' . Its tone was antithetical to capitalism but was swamped in visionary hopefulness - it planned the ideal future of the modernising process but it seems somewhat utopian . The rejection of society 's subjugation to market forces was very and it reaffirmed the need to plan and control the economy in order to benefit the whole of society . Concretely speaking it was not a complete washout . Its conception saw the convening of to set up a number of expert commissions for the speediest possible compilations of a plan for the reorganisation of industry and the economic progress of ' . denounced the procrastination of ' economists ' and ' literati ' on this issue and announced that they must ' stop ... twaddle about the plan in general , and get on with a detailed study of the implementation of our plans , our mistakes in this practical business , and ways of correcting them ... The whole point is that we have yet to learn the art of the approach , and stop substituting intellectualist and bureaucratic projecteering for vibrant effort ' . < fnote > Lenin , ' p.664 < /fnote> Vladimir Il'ich , ' Integrated Economic Plan ' , , in Special Subject Documents : , : , The Bolsheviks in Power : The Founding of a New Order ( 2004/2005 ) pp.553 - 554 < /fnote > The publishing of in was an attempt by to harness the powerful theory of with the expedient requirements needed to modernise and drive it towards communism . It was not , however , given the complex political language going to be , as intended , "" an elementary textbook of communist knowledge "" . It does exude imperative significance though as a treatise designed to echo central party sentiments , the sentiments of Lenin , and it proposed an analysis of the political situation which was very much in accordance with principles . In prior to the publishing of the book , had clashed with over the issue of economic policy . However , the matter - of - fact pursuit of socialism in the wake of civil war drew the closer and too ' welcomed the emergency measures of as a fore taste of the future socialist order ' . This period exemplified the attempt to marry the ideological shibboleths of , and of The State and , with practical contingencies , the preservation of the revolution and party hegemony . The decision to alter policy stimulated internal dissent , particularly from the self - proclaimed Left Communists . They denounced 's ' espousal of the forms of capitalist industry ' . The leader retorted unremittingly , slamming their opposition as ' childish exuberance ' and that if relaxed economic policies , ' state capitalism ' , took root then that ' would be a great success and a sure guarantee that within socialism will have gained a permanently firm hold and will have become invincible in our country ' . Once in power , it was the prerogative of the government to establish the correct economic conditions conducive to socialism . had theorised about a transitory epoch , as had , and decided that it had to be prolonged to ensure the survival of the revolution . After all , according to theory ' it is one and the same road that leads from ... large - scale state capitalism ... to socialism ' . < fnote > Bukharin and , The ABC of Communism p.17 < /fnote>'Theses of , , in Special Subject Documents : , : , The Bolsheviks in Power : The Founding of a New Order ( ) p.152 < /fnote> Vladimir Il'ich , "" Left - wing "" Childishness and , , in Special Subject Documents : , : , The Bolsheviks in Power : The Founding of a New Order ( ) pp.688 - 693 < /fnote> Realising the growing discontent began to purge of political opposition during . said that the decision to dissolve the meant the extermination of ' 's and last democratic parliament ' . The measure was taken to avoid the betrayal of the socialist revolution because parliamentary political organisation was regarded by as the ' expression of the old relation of political forces which existed when power was held by the compromisers ' . To allow it to convene was an ' obstacle in the path of the revolution and the power ' , therefore the opponents of Bolshevik economic policy duly failed to understand ' the concrete forms and stages of the transition ' . was tendered as an alternative democratic safeguard . It was vaguely based on the revolutionary model as a manifesto of the revolution in and its influence was explicit in the title . It was passed on proclaiming ' as a federation of national republics ' . The inclusion of a clause concerning the creative freedom of the people was mere phraseology designed to disguise the penchant for tight centralisation and rigid discipline . The ability ' to decide independently at their own representative congresses of whether they wish to participate in the federal government and in other federal institutions , and on what terms ' was never recognised . The implementation of the constitution was controlled form the outset by the party , a classic example of the substitutionism that they were not afraid to exert . The public manifesto was closely guarded , monitored and opposition or external institutions infiltrated and repressed if necessary . < fnote > Victor Mikhailovich Chernov , ' 's , , in Special Subject Documents : , : , The Fall of Tsarism and the Rise of Bolshevism ( 2004/2005 ) pp.180 - 181 < /fnote> Read , From Tsars to p.189 < /fnote>'Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People Adopted by the All - Russia Congress of ' , in Special Subject Documents : , : , The Bolsheviks in Power : The Founding of a New Order ( ) pp.76 - 78 < /fnote> Read , From Tsars to pp.199 - < /fnote > of encapsulated the more pragmatic balance of party policy that was to follow . It was conducted in a dismissive and apologetic manner , albeit with the usual imaginative , idealist attitude towards the future . It also warned against the dangers of bureaucratisation in the bourgeois style that would lead to an irrevocable schism between the party and the narod . The set forth guidelines on party size and membership to ensure "" the qualitative composition "" of the proletarian component . To protect against the party becoming "" infected with bureaucratism "" the resolved to enforce ' closer links with the membership of local and trade unions ' and ' written reports ' had to be frequently submitted regarding regional initiatives . Equally , party workers were to be constantly reassigned . To tie the periphery inextricably to the centre the party wished to ' win "" decisive influence "" and "" complete control "" in all organisations of working people such as unions , and rural communes ' . This move spelled the effective marginalisation of the soviet as an institution and enabled the party to increasingly assert its total domination . Other institutions became mere ' transition belts between the party and society as a whole ' . < fnote > Read , From Tsars to pp.211 - 216 < /fnote > The Bolsheviks began to cement the dictatorship and determined that the ' deprivation of political rights and any kind of freedom are necessary as temporary measures in order to defeat the attempts of the exploiters to retain or re - establish their privileges ' . It became clear at this point that and his party , although maintaining the ideals of crushing the bourgeoisie and smashing the state machine - ideals taken directly from and and given primacy in The and Revolution - were not concerned with the vehicle of progress so long as the end goal was to be achieved . That , issues of nationality , education , economics , distribution , housing , labour protection and social security as well as public health were included in resolutions designed to benefit the welfare of the populace and to ensure that ultimate freedom and equality would be achieved . Religion was to be detached from the state and resigned to the wilderness but open oppression here was to be avoided at all costs because it would no doubt provoke a knee - jerk backlash and ' religious fanaticism ' . In terms of ' money and banking ' the state must control and nationalise all financial resources in order to provide impetus for the foundation of a single national bank of the republic ' . The resemblance to 's book written and prior to the seizure of power is remarkable here and despite the tightening of party control the ultimately free communist paradise was not forgotten . < fnote > ( ed . ) , Resolutions and Decisions of ( Buffalo , ) p.59 < /fnote> McNeal ( ed . ) , Resolutions and Decisions of pp.63 - 73 < /fnote > At the next assembly had to yet again go on the defensive , countering attacks on ' the character of party leadership and on economic policy , especially questions concerning industry and labour ' . factions emerged as dissident , the so - called ' Democratic Centralists ' and the ' Workers ' Opposition ' . The former were against the style of leadership which they dubbed ' vertical centralism ' which involved the rule of a minority clique or increasingly a single personality . ' The question of trade union organisation , on which Bukharin reported ... evoked debate from several sides ' and the Workers ' Opposition were prominent here . However , yet again the maestro was able to flatter the quarrelling groups and his apparent compromise ' was accepted by a majority ' although no formal record of ' the actual count ' was ever recorded . accurately concluded that ' the lesson of [ this ] ... seems to be not that 's leadership was in danger but that the party would produce divergent factions if something was not done to curtail them ' . The growing authoritarian nature of Bolshevism was eventually to be extended into the world of culture . Nothing could be left outside the realm of the proletarian state if complete socialist consciousness was to be nurtured . ' The world outlook is the only true expression of the interests , the viewpoint , and the culture of the revolutionary proletariat ' , culture was thus to be strictly defined by the party as the representatives of the people 's vanguard . < fnote > McNeal ( ed . ) , Resolutions and Decisions of pp.98 - 100 < /fnote> Lenin , , ' On , in Special Subject Documents : , : , The Bolsheviks in Power : The Founding of a New Order ( 2004/2005 ) pp.476 - 477 < /fnote finally confirmed his definitive status as sacrosanct party leader at in and he drove the implementation of his new economic policies home . McNeal affirmed that this congress was focused ' around the question of trade unions , the revolt ... and the necessity to change economic policy in order to save the country from total collapse ' . It was ' probably the most important gathering of 's career ' . The real success was stamping out the dissent that had flared up at the previous meeting , announced that ' our efforts should be more united and harmonious ' . That way the would not concede an inch of ground to their external enemies . Also , the final concession to the peasantry was made with the acceptance that ' the small farmer does not want the same thing as the [ urban ] worker ' . Hence , the party needed to 're - examine our policy in regard to the peasantry . The state of affairs that has prevailed so far can not be continued any longer ' . hoped to improve the ' mentality ' of the petty commodity producers ' through the material basis , technical equipment , the extensive use of tractors and other farm machinery and electrification on a mass scale ' . In order to satisfy the peasants , to align them with the party and achieve a rapprochement as well as succeed in realising large - scale production by securing an agricultural revolution . had to make sure that a ' certain freedom of exchange ' did not spiral out of control and render socialist tendencies in the countryside impotent . He assumed that if the state managed distribution then the proletariat would yield political power by dictating how goods were released into circulation thus achieving the synthesis of economic and political power . The peasantry would be at the mercy of the workers , goods would be received by each according to need and the opportunity to secure tools and products to enhance production in the meantime would fuel the transition . The ' surplus grain tax ' too was replaced by ' a tax in kind ' . An elementary free market economy was to provide ' a certain quantity of goods ' in order to keep industrial production ticking over . < fnote > McNeal ( ed . ) , Resolutions and Decisions of p.115 < /fnote> Vladimir Il'ich , ' Speech at the Opening of the [ Tenth ] ' , Mar. , in Special Subject Documents : , : , The Bolsheviks in Power : The Founding of a New Order ( ) < /fnote > In reality ' the programme was economically self - defeating because the peasant had little incentive to produce any surplus ' since any profit was siphoned back into the hands of the state . The arrival of the communist party , , single - party hegemony in and the so - called dictatorship of the proletariat was not heralded as a triumph by many outside the government . dismally uttered ' my heart is numb with despair ; something has died within me . The people on the streets looked bowed with grief , bewildered . No one trusts himself to speak ' . Another commentator , , resolved that ' the libertarian principle ... [ which ] was strong in of the Revolution ... [ was ] hopelessly bankrupt ' . Damningly , she declared that ' never before in all history has authority , the government , the state , proved so static , reactionary and even counter - revolutionary in effect . In short , the very anti - thesis of revolution ' . What history has witnessed compared to what had hoped his party could encourage ended up residing at different ends of the socio - political spectrum . No "" triumphal march of soviet power "" was achieved , ' it ... was halted in its first winter ' . Quite simply , ' prognoses were wrong ' . < fnote > McNeal ( ed . ) , Resolutions and Decisions of p.117 < /fnote> Paul Avrich ( ed . ) , The in ( , ) pp.163 - < /fnote> Frankel , ' 's of p.140 < /fnote > The peasantry represented the difficulty in appeasing the populace that and his party faced . As the ' most backward strata of the exploited ' they had lain dormant up to the revolution of and had come to show that they had a tremendous energy . That uprising had failed because ' the peasants were too scattered , too isolated from each other in their actions ; they were not organised enough , not aggressive enough ' . They still symbolized the proletariat 's "" true comrades "" , their "" most faithful and valued allies "" but they were a constant thorn in the side of . came to realise that the peasantry was not a homogenous unit quite early in his career and as a concept it conjured up an abundance of political white water for him to navigate . However , ' it received little attention in . Its authors too were perplexed by the backward nature of agriculture as a hindrance to industrial progress and they eventually postulated the question ' how is this mass of petty producers to be incorporated into the general system of the socialist economy , now in the course of construction ? ... In the place , it is clear that forcible expropriation is here quite inadmissible ' . Suffice it to say that the socialist ideals that were offered as a means to assimilate the peasantry were ignored . Proposals to provide ' fuel and raw materials ... financial aid ' , the inclusion of ' the home worker in the general scheme of social production ' on the precondition that they ' organise themselves into artels or cooperations of production ' failed to materialise . The assimilation of the peasantry to the socialist cause was naïvely regarded as somewhat inevitable given ' the correctness of the proletarian path ' . Supposedly , ' their own practical experience of revolution ' would show them the light . < fnote > Vladimir Il'ich Lenin , ' , , in Special Subject Documents : , : , The Fall of Tsarism and the Rise of Bolshevism ( ) pp.791 - 798 < /fnote> Frankel , ' 's of p.137 < /fnote> Bukharin and , The ABC of Communism p.36 < /fnote> Bukharin and , The ABC of Communism pp.328 - 330 < /fnote> Harding , 's Political Thought , Vol.2 p.319 < /fnote > Lenin himself had tried to broker a resolution of peasant - proletariat - party divisions by insisting that the ' should try to establish for the labourers , the very poor peasants , and the peasant bourgeoisie . The logic of this proposal was transparently clear : the party would seek to turn the lowest tiers into a stronghold powerful enough to intimidate - or "" paralyse "" - the richer peasantry ' . The attempt to divide and conquer peasant enclaves was decidedly unsuccessful . Left unresolved the peasant problem was the tide that rolled in on since it was the essence of ' the problem of capital accumulation [ which was ] necessary to finance an expanding industry ' . In summary , ' as the period of the proletarian dictatorship and the slow transition to socialism prolonged itself indefinitely , the issue of relations between the worker and the régime became in practice increasingly acute ' . The genius of was shifting immediate policy in reaction to the harsh political climate in order not to chain himself to a sinking ship as the had done in while maintaining the true nature of his interpretation . It was apparent that ' surely sought to match doctrine and policy even though he was not always able to do this clearly and effectively ' . Eventually , with the cessation of civil war hostility and the increasing animosity towards war communism ' the were once again called upon to woo the mass of the peasantry ' . adopted in with the official consent of the party after the Tenth held in . < fnote > Frankel , ' 's of p.129 < /fnote> Read , From Tsars to pp.97 - 99 < /fnote> Bukharin and , The ABC of Communism pp.36 - 38 < /fnote> Frankel , ' 's of < /fnote > The State and had heralded an exemplary and often admirable transition to communism but features ' which emphasised local initiative , mass participation and popular self - determination ' were forgotten . Censorship , the Cheka , the subordination of factory committees to trade unions which in turn were reigned in under state control , the vast power of to dictate policy , the sheer dominance of the central authorities in general and the violent requisitioning of grain were all unfortunate measures that the resorted to in order to strive towards maintaining the socialist revolution . They may not have had specific long standing ideological formulations behind them but there was a constant pragmatism to 's writings and one can not help but feel that they were somewhat inevitable themselves , despite the adherence to a ' visionary faith even when contemporary circumstances appeared grimly disillusioning ' . There had been no hesitation in resorting to ' political ruthlessness ' in times of crisis but when the civil war ended these policies became popularly questionable . < fnote , The and < /fnote > When the was written , with the civil war in full swing , the ' single overwhelming task that confronted [ the régime] ... was to restore order in the countryside and to bring food and fuel to the towns . Utopian visions of the future that now seemed inconceivable remote were irrelevant to the task . Bukharin symbolically abandoned the extreme of revolutionary idealism for the extreme of administrative prudence ' . In action , so did , in word he remained a revolutionary to the grave . Not surprisingly he enveloped the history of Bolshevism perfectly : ' when a new class comes on to the historical scene as the leader and guide of society , a period of violent "" rocking "" , shocks , struggle and storm , on the one hand , and a period of uncertain steps , experiments , wavering , hesitation in regard to the selection of new methods corresponding to new objective circumstances , on the other , are inevitable ' . The adoption of Marxism to provide a strategy for revolution in the backward socio - economic and political state of was masterful . This was no mere revision either , especially since ' had never stated precisely how the proletariat would come to appreciate the revolutionary role that history had thrust upon it ' . Moreover , ' lived and died a ' . < fnote > Bukharin and , The ABC of Communism p.50 < /fnote> Connor ( ed . ) , : On Politics and Revolution p.5 < /fnote> Robert Service , : A Political Life Vol.2 , Worlds in Collision ( , ) p.293 < /fnote >","It appears that we can all succumb to a blurred and particular view of the past . prejudices can effect even the simplest discussion of history . There will be a conscious attempt here to provide an ultimately objective critique of the above statement made by in . A reading of recent historical work concerning these powerful characters provides a variety of opinions . Clearly , believed that life and premature death secured him quasi martyrdom and a sympathetic remembrance . He may have felt that the fighter was more likely to be idolised than the politician . However , a theme central to this essay will be the discussion of whether the portrayal of as simply a revolutionary soldier and freedom fighter is especially accurate . In any such investigation , it is important to outline the social , political and economic climate of the time and also to dissect the lives of the men in order to understand the way they have been depicted in history . This essay will juxtapose historical commentaries of the lives of and , while providing the political context within which both men worked . It will then be possible to remark upon the extent to which comments made have been corroborated by historiography . In this assessment , and combined with an analysis of recent historiography , it is necessary to weigh up the political ambition , the political achievement and the mystique of both and in order to comprehend their role in history . It is quite possible that they realised a greatness and heroism that surpassed their concrete , quantifiable success , and it is the aim of this paper to discover how historians have recognised them and if this is congruent with statement . believes that had all the qualities of a great man . He had the intellect , posture and charisma of an outstanding politician , and was ' the senior surviving officer of , yet he is not renowned for his revolutionary tendencies . We can further add tribute to - the fact that he guided almost to complete independence from , a feat which had been the chief aim of nationalists and for . But , on a reading of recent historical work has failed to be remembered in a very positive light . It becomes imperative to pose the question , why ? reminds us that ' it is easy to highlight the technical skills both of and his party : and it is dangerously easy to highlight their constitutional agenda to the detriment of other issues ' . However , believes that ' de Valera ranks among the major figures of . Few other international politicians of comparable standing spent as long in the political limelight , even , with whom he crossed swords on occasion , appears something of a pygmy ' . Praise indeed , but it is apparent that not all historians feel the same way . Has therefore suffered as a result of political or social issues ? Did his agenda not suit majority opinion ? Had achieved something that overshadowed what on paper appears to be nothing short of a magnificent political triumph ? Or , in fact , is it unfair to suggest that has received an ill reputation amongst the majority of historians ? < fnote > , , ( , ) p.289 < /fnote> Pauric Travers , ( , ) p.5 < /fnote > In the political context , has been criticised for failing to provide much social reform and for lacking any real economic policy . It is possible to dismiss this criticism if it becomes apparent that he had absolutely no intent concerning social or economic reform . Considering what was trying to achieve it is impossible to amount this to his being politically inept . believes , and it is true , that party , , provided a relatively unsubstantial social policy and that 1930s was still rife with economic turbulence . The apparent protectionist zeal of at the time was born out of pragmatism , rather than the consequence of any higher ideology . Although , it could be said that the leaders of other nations , when faced with the great economic depression of the era , felt hard pressed to break free from the shackles of their laissez - faire shibboleths , was a shrewd enough politician to recognise its benefits . That said , the economy under made little progress and was still highly reliant upon imports and the market . Perhaps it is too easy with hindsight to deconstruct the economic strategy of a politician and party which was concerned with more pressing issues . In fact , ' the main focus of the attempted disengagement form was not economic ' , since freedom form was the primary aim of and , surely it would be inappropriate to over criticise their lack of economic policy . < fnote , , pp.290 - 291 < /fnote > De Valera 's political aspiration was the resolution of independence , working within the framework of the , and in his ' administration , he had ' placed an indelible stamp on the self - image of twentieth century ' . We can therefore begin to concentrate on this element of his life in the public sphere , disregarding any more specific critique of his policy . It is to his credit that he pursued a new constitutional road to self - determination ; in any case the political climate of would have proved to be a turbulent nemesis for radicalism in . Clearly , the domestic problems which occupied the attention of politicians at the time - most saliently , and the increasing threat from - were influential in terms of the ease in which concessions were made to , but the political manoeuvrings of made sure that ' it was also the case that they had little choice but to acquiesce ' . In the same way , it is true that politicians had ' turned form mollifying the to the more intricate task of appeasing the . Again , we can attribute triumph to and his Fàil compatriots ; it was they who had rejected militancy , preferring amicable negotiations which proved to be much more positive in their outcome . himself regarded the conciliation made by the in as his most resounding political victory . It was this intrigue within the boundaries of the which allowed it to be dismantled . Surely , such a profoundly successful strategy means that deserves a much more empathetic writing in history . < fnote > , : ( , ) p.132 < /fnote> Another accolade deserves is that he not achieved amicable concessions and diminished the threat of violence form , but he had elevated , in opinion , the situation to the level of international diplomacy . As put it , had placed ' very firmly within the international context and as a series of interlocking diplomatic settlements forged between and and ' . This was a u - turn of previous policy that had somewhat sidelined the situation . politicians had become fearful of the threat of an - German rapprochement . 's ' relatively weak bargaining position ' , was thoroughly , and rightly so , exploited by to its maximum . On the other hand , had quite admirably revealed ' that there [ was ] no time for keeping open old sores ' . had galvanised a cordial relationship with politicians on an unprecedented scale . Against any argument made concerning the flaws in the economic and social policy of , one can point out that was ultimately prepared to ' sacrifice economic well - being in what he saw as the wider national interest ' . However , as points out there were critics ' who challenged the hegemony of ... and [ also ] radicals who rejected the narrowness of vision and deplored the backwardness of the country he ruled ' . For the most part though , he had taken a completely acceptable and justifiable attitude at a time which was perfect to settle arguably the greatest problem had ever encountered , with the exception of . Economic , social , cultural and religious problems within could not be mended until had a government in place that represented the will of the majority . It is , therefore , futile to argue that had listed his priorities incorrectly . < fnote , , p.299 < /fnote> Travers , p.48 < /fnote > One of the trickiest periods Fàil had to encounter was . For many the securing of neutrality for ranked as one of greatest achievements . historians have tended to create an ' intricate and defensive ' historiography of wartime . This is understandable ; it was a complex fusion of political stratagems , with the main purpose being the maintenance of unity and symbolic rejection of rule - it was also pretty widely accepted amongst 's diverse population . It was at a time when had boosted his credentials . He was attacked for playing host to ministers from the Axis of Evil , yet managed to manoeuvre so that his reputation remained unscathed and that the cause of nationalists emerged undamaged . Post - bellum was cast in a similar mould to that of . embarked upon a relatively large scale social and economic welfare programme following the precedent of and . However , throughout the economic climate was never really bettered and eventual downfall can be attributed to the realisation that the economy was slipping even further behind the standard of other nations . Fàil was defeated in , yet that defeat was ' long in coming and ... narrow when it came ' . It is not surprising if we recognise Fàil as being synonymous with ' a romance , spiced with chiliasm , cultural ideas , social reformation and personal loyalties forged through war or ... through patronage ' . had managed to strike a successful equilibrium between the quest for independence and eclectic political appeal . What is more was that at the time he was the embodiment and epitome of of sentiment , for many still remains the personification of independence . In , per cent of voters were still ' prepared to judge on the basis of its creed rather than its record . This is the true measure of the party 's success and of its leader 's stature ' . It still remains to be seen then , why has been subjected in some intellectual circles to a critical historiography ? < fnote , , p.303 < /fnote> Travers , p.48 < /fnote> Travers still believes that has a healthy reputation amongst most historians , however he does point out that for some he remained a ' divisive figure ' , and that there was a substantial number of men and women who did not ally with his policy . Also , even the staunchest of lost faith in as his expedience and pragmatism became superimposed over the nationalist principle . Perhaps , when he made that statement in , suggesting that his critics would prevail in his writing into history , he was overtly conscious of the fact that expediency could not ensure him a legendary celebration . However , those more sympathetic historians must agree that the last thing the independence cause needed was another martyr , another uprising or another civil war . really needed a man like to take on politically and constitutionally to snatch the nation back form the grip of . A narrow vision may be , but a vision that placed independence above all else . has said that ' de Valera 's ultimate achievements were political sovereignty and psychological independence ' . He elaborates , making us aware that under had experienced the ' entrenching of stable democratic politics ' . In contrast , has said that in terms of recent historical work there has been a trend towards the ' demonisation of and the deification of ' . < fnote > Travers , p.49 < /fnote> , , ( , ) p.382 < /fnote > It appears that the complexities of modern politics have been bundled together as ' polar opposites ' , vs. in any discussion of and . We can point to theory , as does to explain why this might be the case , as a symptom of the nuances of culture . Prager believes that the ' modern state has to reflect the collective consensus of its constituency ' . He says the split between Treatyite and Anti - Treatyite groups has deep cultural roots and is the manifestation of division between "" enlightenment values and norms "" , based on principles of the individual , democracy , consensus and parliamentary tradition , amongst others , as opposed to the culture of Gaelic romanticism which harbours Anti - Treatyite sentiment . The latter is fuelled by tradition , , republicanism and militarism to mention but a few . This goes a long way to explaining why some historians prefer to idealise the character traits of which pertain to this model , ignoring the fact that he was also a moderate politician towards the end of his life , having realised the need to follow the route that eventually became allied with . The dominance of Fianna Fàil in was a consequence of being able , for the most part , to appeal to both these strands of political culture . It was they who ' were better able to integrate the public into the new state ' . , who has attempted to ameliorate 's model has accepted that spoke ' the language of both pragmatic nationalism and romantic moralism ' , but he feels that he abandoned romantic Gaelic principles , preferring to guarantee his own status as a political heavyweight . There appears to be a tendency amongst such historians to champion traditionalism , and thus to demean expediency and constitutionalism . himself and much recent historiography appears to be guilty of what he has called ' nostalgic rhetoric about a pastoral ' . The pursuit and eventual accomplishment of self - determination has left a cultural vacuum in , and the writing of history has provided an outlet for attempts to define a specific culture to follow political autonomy . may well be better suited to , and has received a more favourable treatment . < fnote > Regan , p.379 < /fnote> Regan , p.380 < /fnote> Regan , p.381 < /fnote > Regan highlights the ' ascendancy of militarists within the ( ) movement after ' , which he believes ' ensured an escalation of radical rhetoric and the primacy of over more moderate views ' . It is this method of gaining independence which has been championed recently , and approach to "" rid the country of the enemy "" has been widely saluted . had also said , of the and dominion status within , that it provided "" freedom , not the ultimate freedom that all nations desire but the freedom to achieve it "" , the more moderate is often overlooked . It is the fact that seemingly ' remained true to the revolutionary republic ' , that has seen him idolised . The idea of a glorious revolution and the seizure of power from , as in all contexts , had always maintained a romantic stigma - modern day nostalgia is the major pre - condition to this current wave of historiography I feel . It has been to the detriment of adherence to realpolitik ; his skill and his political acumen have , to some extent , been swept aside . Some recent historians have preferred to see as a political vulture , who managed to achieve independence off the back of the groundwork done by . In particular , this is how he is poignantly portrayed by in the film , directed by . < fnote > Regan , , pp.43 - 45 < /fnote> ( Dir . ) , , and ( 1996 ) < /fnote > Regan points out that it was who attempted to argue that ' the treaty had to be accepted not for what it was but for what it would become through a process of undefined evolution ' . He believes that this was the true essence and brilliance of the approach . also voices the conviction that it had been who suggested that should be seen as the stepping stone towards realising hopes . However , surely this was no different to the approach taken by , but attributing much more success to rather than is symptomatic of this current swathe of historiography . does allow an insight as to why those who reject the moderate stance do so . He says that ' also served to challenge ... parliamentary democracy , majority rule and legitimacy ' , grievances that ' had existed within the revolutionary movement ' . It was he who appeared to be the rebellious fighter . , on the other hand , had ' prepared for a compromise built on the acceptance of parliamentary democracy and majoritarianism ' . Unfortunately , many overlook the fact that had come to the conclusion that this was the only viable option , having exhausted the militant road to independence with the cessation of civil war hostilities . It would appear that while both had a revolutionary background , and achieved a great deal for independence later through constitutional methods , a notion also backed by , it is the latter that takes the accolades because of his apparent adherence to traditionalism . historians have elevated so highly because of his old fashioned , , masculine character traits . revered his "" tireless , vigorous , almost turbulent hard work "" , as well as his "" daring "" and "" enormous momentum "" . This conforms to the romantic , idealistic vision of . It is possible , that for all his political nous , had failed to develop any lasting enigma of . < fnote > Regan , < /fnote> J. Bowyer Bell , : The IRA ( , ) p.100 < /fnote> Regan , , ( , ) p.101 < /fnote > has become an icon ; he is represented and portrayed as a freedom fighter and a revolutionary . He initiated an unprecedented underground war in , and he pertained to the ' revolutionary idée fixe ( which was ) at work in revolutionary thought ' . Contrary to popular historical opinion , there is an element amongst some historians that believes it was he who brought the ' struggle for independence on to the international scene ' , not de Valera . He did so uncompromisingly , until compromise became the only road to victory , which is a fact that many tend to gloss over . What prevailed as the image has become synonymous with is ' militant nationalism combined with the willingness to sacrifice oneself for the cause ' . had also once adhered to the very same principle , but what was it that led many to forget his role in and portray him solely as an opportunist politician ? Bowden believes that fitted the role much better , a rural who slotted perfectly into the niche of a ' deep and pervasive cultural regeneration in , fostered by organisations such as . Recent historiography has been massively influenced by the ' revival of and the assertion of a distinct national identity ' . was , ' in terms of the underground , a far more significant man than the often absent . It was this ' underground democracy ' that has great integrity amongst some recent scholars . < fnote > , ' The Irish Underground and , , , , ( ) pp.8 - 9 < /fnote> Bowden , ' The Irish Underground ' pp.9 - 12 < /fnote > The search for a distinct culture , and the reasons why had become irritated with rule provides an explanation as to why the characteristics expounded , or at least appeared to have expounded , were much more aligned with sentiment and the sentiment that has now been absorbed by some historians . Allowing us to understand why has suffered in some historiographies . believes that the ' perceived marginality of within the provided the soil from which the nationalism could grow ' . Also , a ' religiously coloured sense of history , identity and allegiance ' , is why the north - east section , 's , ' failed to succumb to nationalism ' . Religious and economic explanations were the immediate causes of the southern feeling of detachment form the rest of , as well as the ' inborn hate of things ' , which he believes ' all Irishmen inherit ' . Opposition to rule had been present in since the very first Elizabethan conquest , and it ' took the form of a Jacobite reaction . Inevitably nationalism as it emerged in was to bear the marks of this long gestation ' . also emphasises the actuality that ' Catholicism and nationalism were inseparably linked in the consciousness of the people ' . To be was , according to this school of thought , to be , agrarian , nationalist and . Apparently , is inherent in culture then , and if not , then simply a huge desire for national self - determination is one of the key criterions of . Nationalism also seems to be a great characteristic of being , which helps to explain why those historians attempting to write history disregard the wordy , scholarly politician , preferring to bestow the accolade of securing independence firmly upon . In the article by , it is possible to draw great comparisons with and . was born into the romanticized peasantry which venerated ; in fact he had once advised a couple considering adoption to choose from "" peasant stock from as it has more good blood in it than either middle or upper class "" . This is the exact sentiment that has penetrated deep into the sub - conscious for and has a great deal of influence in historical writing . < fnote > Richard , "" "" : and , , Past and , ( ) p.176 < /fnote> English , "" "" , p.176 < /fnote> , "" but a "" : in , , , , ( Jul. , ) p.610 < /fnote> English , "" "" , < /fnote > There may be a component of the intelligentsia which still adheres to these beliefs , which has affected the way history has been written . The alignment with the ideal of ' an insurrection as a means of redeeming the nation from its apostasy ' may well be seen as the best way to reach independence according to some . The revolutionary modus operandi endeared men such as into the hearts of the majority - ' the posthumous rallying of the people behind the rebel cause was to ... elevate to a position of electoral dominance and provide the background of sympathy and support necessary for the conduct of a guerrilla war against the ' . The reversion to this attitude amongst historians , in what may be seen as a continuation of the attempt to rediscover , can explain why it is who has been written into history in a more compassionate light . ' Necromancy or Magic of the Dead ' , was then , and always has been , of great authority in such situations . believes that ' it played a vital part in maintaining the people 's determination to continue this struggle ' . was of the original rebels who has been forgotten as a result of his political pragmatism , he had been one of the leaders of the ' rank and file republicans ... fighting for both Faith and Fatherland ' , but he has been eclipsed in historiography by . < fnote > Newsinger , "" but a "" , < /fnote> Newsinger , "" but a "" , pp.624 - 626 < /fnote > reiterates the need to remember that , and , were ready to accept a compromise political solution to the constitutional problem upon the realisation that militancy had become obsolete . reached the same conclusion , only earlier and has suffered from appearing to be unwilling to fight to the end . ' The arguments later propounded by and in favour of the were based on the belief that the IRA had reached its limit ' , according to . In that sense was prepared to fight for ' extravagant hopes ' , whereas became criticised for being too ready to accept ' modest reality ' . Somewhat overly optimistically , believes that even and were too ready to accept defeat , however prolonging the violence would surely only prolong the inevitable defeat - and , perhaps , damaged the political headway that was becoming increasingly successful . In the end the failure of the IRA was rooted in its lack of military organisation , not through any lack of dedication or initiative , but through the simple lack of resources . Townshend uses Vo comment made in - "" he who speaks of the army , speaks of discipline "" - to cement his opinion that the IRA suffered defeat because of the ' failure to subordinate the army to any single legitimate authority ' . There is a micro - scale debate between Bowden and Townshend concerning the issue of IRA organisation , and the reasons why it failed to secure independence through military means , however it becomes insignificant since the same goal was achieved through the more admirable route of moderate constitutionalism . The problem for is that this is not as glamorous as a bloody revolution in the popular realm . The public idolises fighters not politicians . < fnote > , ' and , , , , No.371 , ( ) p.343 < /fnote> Townshend , ' , p.344 < /fnote > Regan has produced an excellent essay concerning the need to apply caution to the portrayal of in history . clearly has a fondness for , which is understandable - he had an ' undeniable romantic quality ' . However , it is important to be aware that images of are intended to show him in a particular light ; namely , in full military dress to emphasise the fighter and soldier which has found an ' apparently ambivalent market place ' . Despite this , had little in the way of a ' readily identifiable or accessible ideology ' , and there has been little in depth analysis of his life and work as yet . He has said that , ' historians ... with or brave exceptions , have preferred not to roll up their sleeves and delve into the barrel of eels which is ' secret and above all contradictory revolutionary career ' . thinks this is the main reason why the mystique has become so popular , as an ambiguous figure he represents a plethora of identities . The fact that Collins ' ideology is so vague is a major reason why there can be little criticism or rejection of his life and work . , on the other hand as the ' apotheosis of the pragmatic politician ' , was in the public limelight for , has had numerous biographies written and has been rejected by many historians . < fnote > , ' Looking at Mick Again : Demilitarising ' , History Today , , ( ) pp.17 - 18 < /fnote > De Valera has been eclipsed by the well captured and photogenic . His ' visual presentation ' and ' visual appeal ' , have aided his elevation to iconic status . Regan reckons that ' elements of fantasy and denial in the militarist projection of which are mirrored in biographical treatments ' have the same effect . Collins is often ignored as an ' administrator , politician and ultimately state - builder ' , admirable characteristics , which were also part of make up . So why then has survived unscathed ? The ' populist , almost pulp fiction , biographical genre which has grown around Collins ' , can be added to the fact that he fits the mould ; he was rural , masculine , militant , , nationalist and . is often misleading , or at least unnatural and controlled . He is usually depicted in motion to give the impression of dynamism and constant movement . is critical of this blurred view of , yet maintains a sympathetic tone throughout . Many have been ' too easily seduced by the romantic , militarist image of ' . However , one can regard this as a breath of fresh air in a world which is overly keen to deconstruct heroic historical figures - but clearly unwelcome in an objective analysis . It is necessary to also consider the ' less glamorous but perhaps far more important and in the long term influential : the administrator and the state - builder ' . Surely , this would consign the popularity of to the same fate that has suffered , ' would posters of Collins behind his ministerial desk sell on ? ' Perhaps , perhaps not . < fnote > Regan , ' Looking at Mick Again ' , < /fnote> Regan , ' Looking at Mick Again ' , p.19 < /fnote> In history the greatness of has for the most part been recorded at the expense of , and in that respect his statement made in has proved to be correct . historians pertaining to a model of , republicanism and nostalgia have preferred to oust and deify . However , objective historical accounts do not deny that was a great politician and worthy of immense tribute . For those who have attempted to write history under the aegis of nationalism , is not considered a heroic figure . The complexities of political culture may have coloured their view and it is important to be aware of such nuances when entering any discussion of historiography .",1 "Following his inauguration as President of , on , commenced with putting his New Deal policy into effect . This unique programme of legislation was formulated in response to , during which the nation had plummeted into a situation of inconceivable destitution and despair , as a catastrophic repercussion of on . The evaluation of the New Deal , in retrospect , raises questions not only of its short - term success , regarding whether it achieved its ultimate objective of lifting the country out of depression , but also of its long - term impact on . This evaluation is synonymous with the debate on whether the New Deal was ' revolutionary or evolutionary ' , echoing historical notions of continuity and change , in which historians and political scientists , notably , have played down its revolutionary characteristics . < fnote > Wallace Davies , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , p.62 < /fnote> Chalmers Johnson , ( , ) < /fnote > It is essential to consider the provenance of studies on the success of the New Deal , specifically including the personal background of historians . For instance , historians who endured , and thus directly experienced the effects of the New Deal , may be ' tinged with a pinch of compassion ' when surmising its level of success , however , ' as time passes , historians feel a little less personally involved with the New Deal and less defensive about it ' and thus may be readily critical of its achievements . < fnote > Paul Conkin , The New Deal ( , ) , p.105 < /fnote> Wallace Davies , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , p.71 < /fnote > Interpretations of the New Deal , and its success , diverge between right and left wing classifications , the latter continuing to dominate its historiography . Left wing historians , such as and , believe the New Deal was unable to wholly depart from liberal reformist ideals and therefore incapable of completely reviving the collapsed economy . More positively , centre - left historians , for example , observe the New Deal as being a fundamental reform and enduring success of the political system . At the other end of the historiographical spectrum , those from the right wing school , including , attack the New Deal as being an ultimate betrayal of traditional liberal values of laissez - faire , thus allowing elements of Communism to burgeon in . Within this range of interpretations there is not an absolute denial that the New Deal was successful to a certain extent in its preliminary achievements , however there exist discrepancies concerning the degree of its long - term impact . < fnote , , Towards a New Past : Dissenting Essays in ( , ) < /fnote> Paul Conkin , The New Deal ( , ) < /fnote> , and the New Deal , ( , ) , and The New Deal : A Documentary History ( , ) < /fnote> Robert Higgs . Crisis and Leviathan : Critical Episodes in the Growth of American Government ( , ) < /fnote > The Great Depression signified an unforeseen departure from the earlier prosperity of and left in a state of emergency . The explicit purpose of the New Deal was as a response to this situation , thus its success should be measured according to the extent to which it brought the country out of depression and stimulated the economy , by presenting an overview of its chief policies . The epoch of the New Deal is divided into distinctive phases , the and , in accordance with the objective of its policies ; namely relief , recovery and reform . The First New Deal , spanning , specifically focused upon relief and recovery : ' the tremendous emergency of the depression had produced an insistence that government undertake the tasks of unemployment relief and economic recovery . "" In the whirlwind of created a plethora of ' Alphabet Agencies ' , employing the fiscal tool of deficit spending . < fnote > Wallace Davies , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , p.74 < /fnote> Dennis Brogan , and the New Deal ( , ) , p.35 < /fnote > Early relief campaigns to provide shelter and food were combined with policies of recovery , commencing with the Emergency Banking Act ( - Steagall Act ) in . This succeeded in restoring the nation 's confidence in the financial system by proving the solvency of banks and ensuring the security of money deposited in them , persuading people to utilise them again . ( NIRA ) became law , in , with the intention of remedying the dire situation of unemployment and industrial disorganisation , and has been labelled ' the governments most elaborate scheme to revive industry . "" Its success depended on the supplementary agencies that it established for designated purposes : ( AAA ) , ( ) and ( ) . These were key components of the New Deal and ' welding these different elements together was a triumph ' , implying their combined involvement in its success . < fnote > Wallace Davies , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , p.46 < /fnote> Wallace Davies , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , p.61 < /fnote > The New Deals agricultural programme , commanded by the , benefited farmers by limiting production within the existing system , which marginally increased their income . However , its success is lessened because it diminished farmers ' entrepreneurial independence , and it did not have an immense effect on the economy as a whole . , of , subsequently proposed increasing production under a reformed system , representing of the ironies with which the New Deal was riddled , and exacerbated the constraints of the New Deals success in agriculture . The was the most successful division of the , formed to pump state funds into construction works schemes , of which there existed over , in the hope of stimulating industry . The was somewhat successful in its attempts to bring the country out of depression , by creating an influx of work for of starving people , although it did not equal pre - depression levels of employment . The majority of projects led to the erection of structures that stood as marked successes of the New Deal , for example ' bridges ... schools , and hospitals ' , leaving the with something to show for its vast expenditure . Furthermore , workers retained their skills , which afforded them increased job opportunities in the future . < fnote > , and the New Deal ( , ) , p.86 < /fnote > Although initially considered the keystone of 's New Deal programme , the ' became an object of great controversy after the initial flush of enthusiasm ' , and was declared unconstitutional in following the ruling in v. . The success of the dwindled as a result of its over - zealous attempts to regulate all areas of business , as opposed to concentrating its efforts on major industry . Hence , it did not succeed in its efforts to stimulate demand and arguably brought closer to socialism , by allowing Presidential intervention in commerce . Nevertheless , the social reforms promoted by the , for fixed minimum wages and shorter , must not be undervalued . < fnote > Wallace Davies , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , p.47 < /fnote > Another successful aspect of the New Deal was the ' most admired ' , formed in , which targeted the demoralised youth . The prime focus was upon young male victims of the depression , of whom the had employed in their camps by . The work of these youths in forestry , flood control and fire prevention , highlights the success of the New Deal in both soaking up excessive numbers of unemployed alongside improving the self - esteem of the younger generation . < fnote > , and the New Deal ( , ) , p.35 < /fnote> Dennis Brogan , and the New Deal ( , ) , p.35 < /fnote > , of , generated work among farmers , in programmes aimed at reactivating regional hydroelectric power via the construction of dams , in addition to controlling flood problems along the tributary system . It was ' maybe in the long run its most fruitful innovation ' , embracing the long - term material benefits of the New Deal . < fnote > ( Jr. ) , ' The Broad Accomplishments of the New Deal ' , in , ( ed . ) , The New Deal : Revolution or Evolution ? ( , , ) , p.33 < /fnote > The Federal Emergency Relief Administration ( FERA ) was also established in , under the leadership of , for managing the provision of direct relief in the form of grants to badly affected states , and was debatably another ' of the most successful parts of the New Deal . "" Most of the achievements of FERA stemmed from its auxiliary organisation , . The objective of this relief organisation was to provide work for those deemed unemployable by absorbing them into state projects , and it largely succeeded in giving assistance to ' those who had lived on the margins of poverty . ' < fnote > Wallace Davies , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , p.41 < /fnote> Alonzo Hamby , The New Deal : Analysis and , ) , p.5 < /fnote > As progressed , and the immediate dilemma of unemployment and destitution had been confronted , the New Deal emerged , in . Its continuation was aided by 's landslide victory in the Presidential elections , clearly implying that ' the verdict of the people on the New Deal at the time was overwhelming approval ' , and it survived until the advent of in . < fnote > Wallace Davies , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , p.62 < /fnote > This phase ventured forward opportunistically with a more radical ' reform conscious ' agenda , encompassing ( WPA ) , the Emergency Relief Act , and the Social Security Act . Although the was crucial in generating even more jobs , it is the latter that has been described as ' the most significant symbol of the entire New Deal ' , implying its success in establishing a scheme of unemployment insurance and old age pensions . The social security system is emblematic of the New Deal as it is still present in , although now encompasses a greater selection of the population , such as teachers and farm labourers , who were excluded at the outset . < fnote > Wallace Davies , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , p.56 < /fnote> Wallace Davies , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , p.58 < /fnote > Notwithstanding its successes , this phase was judged as ' vulnerable ' in comparison to its precursor . It has also been postulated that it ' represented a false smoke screen ... a permanent rejection of real planning ' as a result of 's increasing level of indecision , haphazardness and insouciance . < fnote > Paul Conkin , The New Deal ( , ) , p.87 < /fnote> Paul Conkin , The New Deal ( , ) , p.71 < /fnote > The precipitous recession of the economy in was a deeply intensifying factor in the disillusionment of the New Deal . The significant impact upon state of employment , which remained at an intolerable level of in , fewer than it had been in , enhanced this disenchantment . Furthermore , ' the ill - fed and ill - housed and the alienated and desperate , still existed , in spite off the New Deal and in spite of all that welfare . "" The ultimate failure of the New Deal in its endeavours to ' lift the nation entirely out of depression ' rested in its inability to completely solve the overwhelming issue of unemployment and ' hard - core poverty . ' < fnote > Alonzo Hamby , The New Deal : Analysis and , ) , p.4 < /fnote> Paul Conkin , The New Deal ( , ) , p.81 < /fnote> Alonzo Hamby , The New Deal : Analysis and , ) , p.4 < /fnote> Alonzo Hamby , The New Deal : Analysis and , ) , p.5 < /fnote > However , it is significant that appreciated that they had ' only come part of the way ' , although they recognised that even their narrow success surpassed the achievements of earlier governments . Despite the fact that 's solutions were incomplete , it is justified by that ' all great problems are insoluble ' , thus the New Deal was capped in terms of successes . < fnote > , and the New Deal , ( , ) , p.347 < /fnote> ( Jr. ) , ' The Broad Accomplishments of the New Deal ' , in , ( ed . ) , The New Deal : Revolution or Evolution ? ( , , ) , p.34 < /fnote > Although the depression had petered out by , it confirmed that ' the New Deal had not yet mastered economic cycles ' , demonstrating that its reforms were incomplete , ' imperfect , abortive , or ambiguous ' idealistic policies . Furthermore , a spiralling national debt of denotes the fact that there was increasing expenditure on relief and reform , yet there were few concrete successes ensuing from it . Davies goes to extremes with his radical claim that ' there is nothing the New Deal has done ... that could not have been done better by an earthquake ' , in terms of establishing scarcity and putting survivors to work . < fnote > Paul Conkin , The New Deal ( , ) , p.98 < /fnote> ( Jr. ) , ' The Broad Accomplishments of the New Deal ' , in , ( ed . ) , The New Deal : Revolution or Evolution ? ( , , ) , p.34 < /fnote> Wallace Davies , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , p.67 < /fnote> Wallace Davies , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , p.69 < /fnote > Only with the armaments boom of did secure full employment and restore prosperity . On the other hand , it is ' conceivable that New Deal measures would have led the country into a new cycle of prosperity even if there had been no war ' , as some gains had already been made in terms of reducing unemployment and , given time , it is argued that the New Deal would have been able to independently rehabilitate . < fnote > , and the New Deal , ( , ) , p.347 < /fnote > Although it is believed that the New Deal recognised underrepresented minorities , such as Negroes , contends that they ' remained a submerged and neglected caste ' , outside of the margins of the contemporary equilibrium . It is important to identify that the successes of the New Deal did not always apply proportionately across the social spectrum . < fnote > Paul Conkin , The New Deal ( , ) , p.93 < /fnote > Nevertheless , ' the shortcomings of the New Deal vanish in the general perspective of its supreme success ' and it was arguably ' quite successful in alleviating conditions and softening the brunt of the depression . "" It had ' performed its necessary tasks well ' by securing jobs for many of unemployed and , largely as a result of this organised labour system and stabilised economy , ' most were better off ' and enjoyed an improved standard of living . Furthermore , the New Deal was adventitiously successful in restoring confidence and reviving faith in democracy , the banking system , and the economy . < fnote > ( Jr. ) , ' The Broad Accomplishments of the New Deal ' , in , ( ed . ) , The New Deal : Revolution or Evolution ? ( , , ) , p.34 < /fnote> Wallace Davies , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , p.50 < /fnote> ( Jr. ) , ' The Broad Accomplishments of the New Deal ' , in , ( ed . ) , The New Deal : Revolution or Evolution ? ( , , ) , p.32 < /fnote> Wallace Davies , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , p.49 < /fnote > In the long - term , the New Deal marked an era in which the President , for the time in the history of reform movements , ' took the reins of government ' and played a greater interventionist role . The ' prestige ... power ' and legislative function of the President was significantly enhanced by the epoch of the New Deal and , accordingly , became central in federal government , which itself had deeply broadened its influence in economic affairs . < fnote > Richard Hofstadter , The Age of Reform ( , ) , in , , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , < /fnote> Wallace Davies , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , < /fnote > Moreover , a form of ' subsidised , regulated welfare capitalism still stands ... as the core of domestic politics ' , citing the New Deal as being prophetic in ' setting themes for subsequent political discourse ' , commencing with President 's . Essentially , the New Deal ' did initiate changes that led to long run success ' , including the maturation of the system of capitalist production that the economy remains based upon . Its accomplishments are thus ' still and essential part of the fabric of society today . ' < fnote > Paul Conkin , The New Deal ( , ) , p.103 < /fnote> Paul Conkin , The New Deal ( , ) , p.103 < /fnote> Paul Conkin , The New Deal ( , ) , p.103 < /fnote> Edwin Rozwenc ( ed . ) , The New Deal : Revolution or Evolution ? ( , , ) , p.vi < /fnote > In conclusion , 's New Deal did a ' remarkable job of handling an emergency of tremendous magnitude with no previous experience whatsoever . "" Although it did not immediately succeed its objective of lifting the nation out of , this does not diminish the role of the reform agencies nor the long - term successes upon , both politically and socially . < fnote > Wallace Davies , The New Deal : Interpretations ( , ) , p.41 < /fnote > Conkin wonderfully and succinctly reviews the course of the New Deal : ' the New Deal solved a few problems , ameliorated a few more , obscured many , and created new ones ... only with trepidation will the student of history try to sum up the results of the New Deal . ' < fnote > Paul Conkin , The New Deal ( , ) , p.106 < /fnote >","A new age of transportation commenced in 1830s when the railroad , from to , went into operation following of agitation for an enhanced mode of transport . The revolutionary birth of the railroad was greeted with the ' enthusiastic consensus that railways were sublime and that they would help to unify , dignify , expand and enrich the nation ' , through the prosperity that would be garnered from increasing trade and development , which would be facilitated by the railroads dynamism . This new medium of transport did indeed have an immense impact on the nations ' economy as it stimulated industry as well as agriculture , by enabling farmers to retail their crops in distance markets only accessible by railroad . However , it was not always a case of improvement as regional specialisation tended to occur , and thus many experienced prosperity at the expense of others : ' it brought immediate economic disaster for some , feverish land speculation , and long term economic disaster for all . ' < fnote > , ( , ) , p.45 < /fnote> , as Second Creation : Technology and ( , ) , p.179 < /fnote > Yet negative economic views must not detract from the advantages of the railroad as its importance ' spilled over into countless other dimensions of life ' , primarily the social and cultural spheres . The railroad transformed life and culture dramatically and was vastly significant in generating popularity for the most renowned amusement resort in turn - of - the - century , , which was situated at the northern tip of in . However , it would only become so renowned as a result of the importance of the railroad , and thus its importance was crucial . < fnote > Pauline Maier [ et al ] , Inventing America : A History of , Volume , from ( , ) , p.570 < /fnote > From began their long romance with the railroad ' and were awed by its ever - increasing scale . Over thirty thousand miles of track were laid , and by ' the railroad had grown ... to become the central channel of life and commerce ' with passenger cars in service . The railroad held the country together in an extensive interlinking web of of railroads as well as trans - continental lines . < fnote > Nye , , p.65 < /fnote> Statistics cited in , The Machine in the Garden : Technology and ( , ) , p.180 < /fnote> Nye , as Second Creation , p.171 < /fnote> Statistics cited in [ et al ] , Inventing America , pp.568 - 9 < /fnote> Statistics cited in [ et al ] , Inventing America , pp.568 - 9 < /fnote > The vast expanse of land covered by the railroads allowed for the transport of tourists en masse to resorts across different states , highlighting the importance of the railroad in generating widespread popularity for . As highlights : < quote>'Atlantic City 's development as a resort community , [ began ] in as the brainchild of enterprising businessmen , who saw profits in the linkage of worker and beach via the railroad . ' < /quote> , ' Sodoms by the Sea ' , in , Vol . , No . , ( ) , < /fnote > The completion of the and Reading railroads , running between , and ( * after ? * ) , was extremely significant in generating popularity of the resort as it enabled pleasure - seekers to travel there from a wide expanse of surrounding states , including , , , , and even . In , ' people made the trip from to , emphasising the importance of the railroad in generating popularity for the mass resort . Furthermore the bridge across , constructed by in , meant that railcars could avoid the transfer across . This allowed tourists to travel a more direct route to and cut down travel time and expenses , generating further popularity for the resort especially among the less well off . The railroad was thus an indispensable means of delivering people to this seaside resort , and it would not have grown so popular without the railroad , as there would not have been the same level of accessibility thus would not have had the vast numbers of visitors . As Youngman asserts : ' As to the means of reaching the directions are extremely simple ... -'Apply at any railroad ticket office . '' Accordingly the popularity of became nationwide , as people across the country were able to travel there by this advanced means of transportation . < fnote > , Boardwalk of Dreams : and ( , ) , p.22 < /fnote> M. D. Youngman , ' , , North American Review Advertiser , Vol . , No . , ( ) , p.18 < /fnote > The public imagination was captured by the railroad . It possessed an irresistible appeal for the majority of the population as it gave them the opportunity to experience greater things , such as the enjoyment of the distant seaside resort of . The importance of the railroad in generating popularity for this resort can be seen because it ' opened the ... great sequoias of tourism ' by encouraging low fared excursions . Furthermore , the ' railroad - the very means of transport which made tourism on a large scale possible - [ was itself ] exciting to watch ' , because it was something new and elating . The railroad had an overwhelming physical presence in daily life and found it ' thrilling , and proved passionately fond of everything connected with it ' , including , yet they were more interested in their own experience than concerning themselves with the economic and labour implications of the railroad . < fnote > Nye , , p.76 < /fnote> John F. Sears , Sacred Places : in ( , ) , p.87 < /fnote> Nye , , p.71 < /fnote > Many , ranging across the social spectrum , saw the railroads as a magical wonder . They rode them for the novelty sensation of the experience , revelling in exhilaration at the panoramic vistas of the natural world they observed as they passed through at great speeds . It was the sense of danger at the speed of the railcar that increased its appeal , and rode the railroads for mere recreational purposes . ' Such advances could not fail to increase human happiness ' and the feeling of liberation felt at what was , then , the fastest passenger service in history . Therefore , the railroad can be considered a popular tourist attraction in itself and would have made travelling long distances , for example to , increasingly appealing because people would also have the experience of the journey . < fnote > Nye , , p.46 < /fnote > However , railroad journeys , especially in its early stages , were not always comfortable as a result of the thunderous noise and heat of the engine , poor ventilation as well as hard seats and shuddering carriages . Some historians have asserted that : < quote>'after a few years ... railcars no longer amazed , and some began to find them squalid ... The ... called the railway car ' a moving stable ' that was overcrowded and poorly ventilated : ' one 's feet rest in an ice - bath of bitter air , and one 's head reels in a burning , deoxygenised atmosphere . ''**'Travel in , The , , p.479 , cited in , as Second Creation , p.177 * * < /fnote > Yet , as time passed , luxury railcars enhanced passenger comfort , with introducing sleeping cars . The improved comfort of railroad travel may have encouraged more to embark upon long distance journeys to . In itself the electric railway , commonly know as ' trolley cars ' throughout , stretched and attracted a large number of tourists , especially those interested in electric traction . invented the system in with the intention of cutting down pollution and providing a comfortable , cheap and speedy method of transport . The trolleys were immensely popular and in alone separate trips were made in of its use . < fnote cited in , ' A Good Record for , Science : A Weekly Newspaper for all the Arts and Sciences , Vol . , No . , ( , ) , p.1 < /fnote > Throughout and reigned as and the "" national playground "" ' and attracted of people , the majority of whom were only able to be there as a result of the railroad . As could cater for tourists at a time , alongside its permanent population of , it relied upon the deliverance of these large numbers of people via the railroad . < fnote > Smith , Boardwalk of Dreams , p.11 < /fnote> As more people visited , due to the railroad , it grew into a popular mass resort ; with people being stimulated its invigorating climate , its pure white sandy beaches and lukewarm sea . Also , alongside these natural assets stood its impressive and rolling wicker chairs , amusement piers and dance pavilions , elegant restaurants and colossal hotels , such as the . In addition to its unique and wholesome atmosphere , the sheer luxury of the resort attracted vast crowds throughout . The railroad made it possible for people to escape the stifling heat of the city and soak up in the fresh and salty air of . It prevailed as an unrivalled resort , considered by many contemporaries as the ' finest watering place in the world . "" Amongst its social whirl of urban public space and symbolic mass culture , provided an array of spectacles and rides on its , including roller - coasters , the Tilt - a - Whirl , wild animal shows and its biggest attraction the Diving Horse . The dawning of a new age of technology in , as focused on by , also allowed for the use of lighting and mechanics to enhance shows and rides . The railroad enabled from across to experience these wonderful new attractions and the ruse of danger a number of them provided . < fnote>'The of the North ' , p.13 - 14 < /fnote > The popularity generated by the railroads had a distinctive class element , as many of the lower working - class were unable to afford to travel to , hence the resort was free of the objectionable ' rabble ' . , of the keenest historians of , underlines that the ambience of the resort was largely for the lower middle - class and white - collar workers : ' the nouveaux bourgeois . "" The location of , and thus the significance of railroads , was important in this respect as it was within striking distance of ' all of the medium sized , industrial cities ... and ... attracted a distinct segment of the middle class . "" Tourists travelled great distances to to demonstrate their membership of a particular class and proclaim their identity as part of a consumer mass audience . The resort was therefore popular as it provided those who could afford it with an escape from ordinary consciousness and the harsh realities and drudgeries of working life : < fnote > , By The Rise and High Times of That Great American Resort , ( , ) , cited in McArthur , ' Sodoms by the Sea ' , p.389 < /fnote> Smith , Boardwalk of Dreams , pp.7 - 8 < /fnote>'a few days off , expensive clothes , fancy food , and a ride in a rolling chair were their just reward for , maybe even of hard work and playing by the rules . ' Smith , Boardwalk of Dreams , p.20 < /fnote > popularity was largely derived from the public illusion it created of upward social mobility . It allowed people to be seen as better than they actually were in a public demonstration of their personal success in making it into the middle class : ' families came to not to fade into the background , but to see and be seen , to show of that they had made it in . "" Segregation was a vital factor in this ' levelling up ' spectacle as the lower middle classes not only had to act rich , but had to ensure that others were stepped over and held down : ' both things had to happen for the fantasy to work . ' < fnote > Smith , Boardwalk of Dreams , p. < /fnote> Smith , Boardwalk of Dreams , p.21 < /fnote > The Boardwalk was the pinnacle of , described by contemporaries as ' the wonder of the world ' * * and enduring as the vision of utopia . The Boardwalk was the idea of hotel - owner and railroad conductor , and it was to become : < fnote > * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * < /fnote>'the city 's signature attraction , its th Avenue , its d'Elysee , its front door , its equator , and , just like in the game of , its most valuable real estate ... the only boardwalk anywhere in the world that deserved to be spelled with a capital B.' Smith , Boardwalk of Dreams , p.22 < /fnote > The Boardwalk was a formal and exclusive arena that allowed tourists the occasion to imitate the upper class by showing off in their finest apparel , exuding respectability and decorum : ' pretending to be rich was a virtual requirement , the ticket for admission . "" They would act out the dream of upward mobility , whilst seated on a rolling chair that was being pushed by a black man . would remain the most popular mass resort in all the time that it was able to stage this fantasy of racial dominance of the imagined well - to - do . < fnote > Smith , Boardwalk of Dreams , p.34 < /fnote > In conclusion , it was not the railroad alone that generated the popularity of , as the resort was successful in creating popularity through its attractions . However , although it had the means of enticing vast swathes of the population to go , they required the means to transport them there , thus it would not have developed into the popular mass resort that it did as without the importance of the railroad . Although faded into the past when opened in , it can not be denied that in , with its ' sweep of colour ... riot of sound and chaos of movement , it 's ribbons of rolling chairs , towering hotels , noisy amusement piers , and armies of people , was a mass resort . "" The importance of the railroad in this process is unequalled and without it would not have thrived as it did as the most popular mass resort in . < fnote>*****Huneker , , p.312 , cited in , Boardwalk of Dreams , p.34 * * * * * < /fnote >",1 "Since there has been an important shift in the way how technology generation for agricultural development is being promoted . Leaving the conventional top - down , transfer - of - technology schemes , NGOs , public sector and international institutions have more and more progressed towards participatory research and extension approaches . Proponents of this change have argued that traditional , public - funded , on - station research does not address the needs and problems of poor farmers in "" complex , diverse and risk - prone "" areas , because their physical and socioeconomic conditions are too different from those at the research stations . This marginal agriculture takes place in rain - fed , diverse and fragile environments and is characterised by its small scale , complexity and lack of access to markets and resources , in profound contrast to the monocropping , high - input , large - scale farming systems promoted by conventional research ( Chambers et al , : p. xviii ) . It has been asserted that the high levels of diversity among these poor farmers make it unlikely that a specific innovation can be appropriate for a large number of users ( Sumberg et al , ) . Therefore , national agricultural research and extension agencies , as well as private institutions working with agricultural and rural development projects , are aiming at a broader participation of farmers themselves in some or all the stages leading to decision - making for technology adoption : problem identification , research design , implementation , and monitoring and evaluation ( Okali et al , ) . An important part of the latest literature on agricultural research deals with the benefits that have been accomplished in many parts of the world as a result of this increase in farmers ' participation in research and the progress from contractual to collaborative and collegial relationships between farmers and scientists as defined by ( ) . The idea is that cooperation between organisations and local people can create extra benefits ( synergies ) by exerting pressure on the formal sector to be more effective . The level of local participation and thus the potential synergies to be achieved will depend , however , on the objectives of the project : more involvement of the formal sector will be promoted when general outcomes applicable to a wide range of contexts are sought , while the goal of meeting local farmers ' needs will promote more collegial relationships ( Humphries et al , 2005 ) . There are , nonetheless , some critics of these new participatory approaches , who claim that "" little synergistic benefit should be expected in bringing farmers ' experimentation and formal experimentation into closer contact "" . According to Sumberg et al ( ) , synergy is only achieved when the knowledge generated by cooperation is greater than the sum of the knowledge generated by each of the parts ( formal researchers and farmers ) involved . They sustain that synergy can only be attained among collaborators that are not too homophilic ( thus lacking enough differences to bring about really new findings ) nor too heterophilic ( thus not being at all able to communicate with each other ) . As farmers ' experimentation is fundamentally similar to formal experimentation ( "" adaptation experiments "" based on comparison of new technologies against a control , see and ( ) and Ashby et al ( ) ) , they conclude that farmers ' participation should not be regarded as synergistic but "" as a partial substitute for the adaptive end of the formal research spectrum "" , with the aim of adapting or specifying new technologies to the diversity of local conditions ( Sumberg et al , : p. ) . Another major criticism argues that farmers ' knowledge can not be straightforwardly incorporated into the scientific stock of knowledge , because its logic , contents and interpretation are specific for the cultural , economic , agroecological and socio - political context , from which it should not be removed in order not to lose its relevance . Thus , it is not possible to build generalisations from farmers ' experimentation , and its outcomes are not applicable to other realities . ' and researchers goals seem to be irreconcilable , because when experimenting , farmers seek to develop solutions for the present , ever changing conditions of their fields , while researchers look for general outcomes applicable in any scenario and any time ( Scoones and , ; ) . Not only in their objectives , but also in their methods are scientific and farmers ' experimentation different . So for example , farmers usually have qualitative rather than quantitative methods for data collection ; they do not generally control non - experimental variables or use repetitions to reduce undesired effects ; they do not keep formal records of their data but remember their results for using them in new comparisons ; and their experimentation and the interpretation of results are limited by gaps in their knowledge ( Braun et al , 2000 ) . All this makes it very difficult to bring scientific rigour and indigenous "" informality "" together . Attempts to reduce these methodological differences have also been criticized by claiming that the efforts being made to add a "" more systematic and scientific base to farmers ' own research "" by means of training them in experiment design , management and analysis , imply a lack of confidence in local skills and only emphasise the positivist view of how research should be done , contributing to the loss of local experimentation methods ( Okali et al , : p. ; and , ) . Finally , some other issues that could complicate the task and/or reduce the potential impacts of bringing farmer and formal experimentation into closer contact are : the unequal power relations and the diverse nature of the links between different groups of interest both at the local and the macro level ; the difficulties of matching not only farmers ' and researchers ' , but also institutional , governmental and donor 's agendas ; the time - related differences between farmers ' priorities ( generally short - termed ) and long - term research programmes ; the geographical distance from the work at the community level and the decision - making centres ; the skills required for farmers to participate in experimentation ; and the broader structural issues influencing poor farmers ' livelihoods beyond the agricultural technological aspects ( Okali et al , ) . Although there are many constraints that limit the applicability or the scaling up of participatory research interventions , it is clear that the traditional research and extension system has not worked equally for all farmers and that therefore a change is needed . Furthermore , many real cases have evidenced major actual and potential benefits for poor farmers . , poor farmers have been traditionally excluded from the technological achievements of public - funded research , situation that has to be addressed . As already said , formal research has been ( and still is ) driven by the government 's macroeconomic agenda ( see as an example INIA , n.d . ) , by the donors ' agenda or even by the personal interests of researchers themselves . It is aimed at achieving yield increases for commercial monocrops and is conducted in research stations or universities under controlled , ideal conditions without significant restrictions in terms of material , financial or human resources ( although it can be argued that many poor countries have major restrictions for large investments in agricultural research as a whole , the statement above is meant with respect to specific technologies under development to which resources have already been allocated ) . These conditions are non - existent for small farmers in marginal , complex and diverse areas , so that the outcomes of formal research are not applicable for them ( Chambers et al , ; Braun et al , 2000 ) . Thus , conventional research is useful only for commercial or resource - rich farmers , who are in the capacity to pay for these services and therefore do n't really need a state - funded system , and therefore it is essential that resource - poor farmers have a word in the definition of the research agenda , so that research investments would be better oriented to appropriate technologies that can satisfy their actual needs under their socioeconomic and cultural conditions ( et al , ; et al , ; Humphries et al , ) . Participatory research interventions , such as local agricultural research committees or farmer field schools , have succeeded in linking farmer experimenters with formal research systems , allowing farmers and scientists to develop a common language and understand each other better . These interactions have showed positive outcomes further than the ones directly related with productivity enhancement at the farming level : they contribute to legitimate local knowledge and capacities in the eyes of development professionals and scientists ; accelerate and improve the feedback between farmers and researchers for the development of useful technologies ; increase the local capacity to raise demands on the formal system ; and help farmers to gain access to useful information , technologies and skills . Farmers then gain in capacity to do research by themselves , in new technological choices , in confidence as their results become positive , and in power to decide how to manage better their livelihoods ( Braun et al , ; , ; and , ) . As an evidence that synergies do arise in such experiences , ( IPRA ) project developed by ( CIAT ) in can be mentioned . In a series of tests , IPRA found out that research without farmers ' participation in the early stages "" ran the risk of developing technologies of little relevance and of low probability of adoption "" ; that farmers ' experimentation without guidance obtained lower yields and different conclusions than trials with the help of researchers ; and that the early interaction between both led to the selection of technologies that had been previously discarded by researchers working on their own ( Braun et al , ; , ) . Furthermore , the criticism related to the existing differences in farmers ' and formal experimentation methods and goals can also be regarded as an opportunity for both formal and rural research systems to improve : researchers have experience outside the local environments that could be useful to local people , while farmers have a long tradition of experimentation , technology development and engagement in real - life problem solving that could enrich and help to focus the formal research system ( , ) . It is not only a matter of maximum yields and efficiency , it is more likely a matter of obtaining the best possible results , at lowest possible risk levels , with scarce resources and harsh conditions and considering the social and cultural context of the community . Scientists need thus to incorporate risk assessment and social science considerations when developing and promoting new technologies , aspects that are naturally taken into account by farmers when making decisions . All of these arguments support the view that it is positive and desirable to bring farmer experimentation and formal experimentation into closer contact , and that this proximity has already generated synergies in a number of projects . Nonetheless , there are still constraints that need to be addressed : attitudinal issues ( researchers and extension workers regarding themselves as "" superior "" than local farmers ) ; strategies for achieving adequate , sustainable , bi - directional links between local actors and researchers ; the costs associated with the work at the local level and eventually with more varied research demands from many localities ; the institutional framework ( farmer organisations ) needed to be able to have influence at the national level decision - making ; the issue of trying to keep local and decentralised research systems and all the institutional and resources requirements to establish them at national levels . In addition , other different , underlying issues should not be undervalued : The main constraints for poor farmers to improve their livelihoods are not generally of technological but of structural nature . So , issues such as poverty , exclusion from markets and financial resources ( credits ) , environmental risk and insufficient education should not be forgotten but be addressed at the same time or even before the technological , research - driven ones . Therefore , closer interaction between researchers and farmers should be promoted , but in a framework of integrated , sustainable development .","Achieving equality of opportunities and social justice is one of the main goals of human development ( UNDP , ) . However , there 's evidence that inequality has been increasing at all levels , from the very macro , being enhanced by processes of economic liberalisation and globalisation , to the inter - local , related to competition and flows of capital and labour , to the intra - local ( although reports on increase or decrease of inequality are contested at this level ) , because of local market dynamics , rural - urban differentiation and social group differentiation ( Fuentes , ; , ) . Although it can be relatively straightforward to recognise , analyse and therefore try to reduce inequality at the macro- and meso- levels ( for example using ( UNDP , ) ; or by means of econometric studies , such as the one conducted by ( ) on the basis of various independent studies in different countries ; or the one developed by and Fuwa ( 2004 ) for the specific case of the ) , many local intervention projects fail to appropriately recognise intra - communal difference , leading to increased inequality , persistent poverty and thus failure to achieve the expected development results ( Welbourn , ; , ) . Thus , although in theory there is a large pool of research on social difference which confirms that rural communities hardly ever are homogeneous and that the poorest groups can have different attributes , outsiders still continue to treat communities as being uniform ( Welbourn , ; , ) . This paper intends to present an overview of the dimensions of social difference at the intra - communal level , and the challenges they represent for development interventions . To illustrate these , some issues related to family planning will be used as an example . < heading > The dimensions of social difference According to Welbourn ( ) , major dimensions of difference can be recognised within communal life : age , gender , ethnic or social group and poverty or wealth . Although the are from biological nature and the last ones socially defined , shaping economic and political distinctions , they all have an important influence on peoples ' perceptions , priorities and access to resources and opportunities and their analysis can lead to a better understanding of how the community functions . The importance of age can be regarded from the point of view of dissimilar cultural values , perceptions , demands and priorities between generations , which are enhanced by the rapid development of communication technologies , the perception of new and better opportunities away from home or from the family 's traditional livelihoods and the increased mobility of younger people to urban areas . However , it is also associated with the increased vulnerability of older people , because of higher levels of dependence , their lack of access to regular income sources , ineffective social security systems , changes in family structure that reduce support for the elderly , poor health , exclusion from health care and educational services , inadequate shelter , malnutrition and a general neglect of their basic human rights ( , . ) . Gender disparities in nutrition , health , mortality , education , rights of ownership , access to resources , access to the labour market , freedom of movement and dressing , participation and in general in quality of life are among the profoundest kinds of inequality ( UNDP , ; , ; , ) . At the same time , men and women tend to have markedly different social and economic roles in the village and thus different knowledge , perceptions and priorities . Men are inclined to manage all that is modern , market - led and large - scale , while women usually deal with most local diversity : home gardens , non timber forest products , domestic livestock , internal organic linkages of farming systems ( such as recycling of agricultural residues and manure for fodder and composting ) as well as the care of the children and house . The problem is that all these female activities remain mostly unnoticed because they are small scale and scattered throughout , and their products are scarcely or not at all marketed ( , ) . Inequality related to ethnic background can be easily recognised at all levels both in developing and developed countries . See for example et al ( 2004 ) , for patterns of inequality among racial groups in , including income , education , health and political participation differences ; or UNDP ( : ) for unequal health status among racial and ethnic groups in the , which can be closely related to differences in insurance coverage , income , language and education ; or et al ( 2005 ) for a study of the increase in differences in employment and income opportunities between castes in , , as a result of greater or lower access to schooling . Poverty and wealth , although recognised and accepted as social differentiation dimensions , are often misinterpreted by outsiders ' surveys . For example , in a case study by ( cited by , ) when using property indicators for assessing wealth , a family living in a good house was considered better off , while another one having a cardboard cottage was considered poorer , without taking into account that the one was rented and the one was on land the family owned . In this case , local people 's assessments are far more appropriate and reliable , because they are based on deeper knowledge of local uses ( , ) . Additionally to these dimensions , there are other sources of difference , such as : capability , which comprises different skills that enable people to respond to varying conditions ; health status , including physical and mental well - being and disabilities ; level of education ; livelihood strategy or occupation ; types of assets ; quantity and quality of relationships and social connections ( social capital ) ( , ) . Although location is another source of difference , for example when comparing urban and rural areas ( UNDP , ; , ) , this aspect will not be considered extensively here because the focus of this essay is in intra - communal social difference . Although in the previous paragraphs social difference has been regarded as a source of inequality and injustice , it has also a fundamental functional role in poor households . Diversity and complexity represent part of the strategy of poor people to reduce vulnerability and achieve some more security , by allowing households to have a larger range of sources of food , income , support and generally means of survival ( , ) . A significant part of this diversity is accomplished through the different roles of each member of the family , which are determined by their social characteristics : "" On any one day , adult may be collecting firewood , another preparing food , cooking , cleaning and washing , another herding cattle , another mending an implement , another working for a neighbour , and another working in an office in a town , while the small children collect jungle greens as food , weeds and grass as fodder , and twigs and leaves as fuel "" ( , : ) . Both because of the negative aspects of social differentiation ( consisting in inequality of opportunities and of quality of life ) and of its positive outcomes ( determined by diversification of livelihood sources within households ) , it is vital for development interventions to be able to identify these differences and their role in shaping the lives of the client group . An interesting example lies in projects working for the provision of family planning advice to communities . In a study conducted by Welbourn ( ) in , she found out that both dimensions of gender and age , but also the local traditional concepts of wealth and status interacted in people 's attitudes towards family care : while the majority of women said they did not mind having more children and some said they were afraid their husband would not want them to use contraceptives , young men did not see the necessity of family planning because they perceived the population to be decreasing ( because of migration ) . Even so , they were interested in having more time between children , but stated that women did not want to . When older men were asked , they did perceive an increase in population and a shortage on land and they believed family planning was an urgent need . They also affirmed that it was women who were not interested in contraception , because they competed with one another for children . The truth was , there were customary values influencing women 's preferences : traditionally , families with more children were allowed to ask the local chief for more land in order to divide it amongst the sons ; thus , women were glad to have more children because that would mean managing more land . At present , however , as there is no new land available , this rule does no longer apply , although women appear to be following it still . This local case clearly illustrate the need to know the opinions of all groups involved before designing the intervention strategy : reproductive health officers would not have been enough to introduce family planning to this community , because some anthropological issues were lying behind . Furthermore , if men had been excluded from this survey ( as is often the case in family planning research and interventions , then most probably the project would have resulted in failure . A very different case can be observed in a rural community in ( Adongo et al , ): A study conducted among young and old women , young men , opinion leaders and compound heads revealed that few women regarded it as their role to make decisions about birth control , because they and their children were the property of the family and social values are against contraception ; that women wanting nonetheless to use contraception had to do it without family or social support ; and that , as in the case of , children have high value in cultural , economic and social terms , so that having high mortality risks , women prefer to have more children in order to ensure the survival of of them . In this case , women 's position within the couple , the family and the community society seems to be an important source of possible conflict . In order to increase women 's opportunities for reproductive health , the strategy should be directed to the community as a whole , with the aim that the traditional leaders support family planning and transfer these new values to the commune and the individual households . < heading > Challenges to organisations involved in development interventions The above mentioned very local examples can contribute to illustrate how social differences affect people 's opinions and preferences and roles within the community , and why they need to be considered in order to have successful results in any kind of intervention . As shown , these dimensions of difference interact with each other , which makes their analysis even more difficult . It is sometimes not enough to talk about women and their needs , but about the special needs of single mothers , divorcees , poorer wives , old widows , lower caste spouses , ... ( , ) . Things become even more complicated when trying to assess income and family resource distribution , because data are normally surveyed on the basis of households . Observations have shown that households are not necessarily harmonic and altruistic bodies where all members cooperate and where resources are distributed equally . Within them there are always "" competing claims , rights , power , interests and resources "" which need to be accounted for by means of researching what happens inside households ( , : ) . Failing to recognise these difference may lead projects to increase the gap between the poor and the better - off , which should be the opposite of what is expected . For example , the strategy of building local institutional frameworks to enhance participation without consideration of structural disadvantages of the poor can lead to an over - representation of the most favoured ones , because the poorest are less able to exercise agency effectively , have fragile and limited social relationships and frequently can not afford ( in terms of time , transportation or other costs ) to represent their own interests ( , ) . Thus , empowering is positive depending on who are empowered and how their new power is used . If the empowered ones are exploiting outsiders or a local elite , then this is not good for the poorer and disadvantaged . In this sense , differentiating groups and interest can help to refine the target of the intervention in order to empower the really poorer by giving them confidence to confront others and defend their position ( , ) . However , a balance is required between depth of analysis and manageability of this diagnostic , which should be an input for the intervention design , not an end in itself . Therefore , recognising that differences may exist and trying to identify the most relevant dimensions that shape inequality and affect community cohesion in a specific location , by means of participatory appraisal methodologies , should be the main task in this stage ( Welbourn , ) . Differences within and between communities - at all levels and of all natures : age , gender , social group , poverty , and other social characteristics - exist everywhere and are relevant , so identifying and taking them into account should be part of any good intervention project . Efforts should therefore be made in order to improve projects ' and programmes ' targeting and thus reduce inequality , recognise sources of conflict and opportunities of joint action . ",1 "< heading > Introduction: The Polymerase Chain Reaction ( PCR ) was discovered by in , for which he was awarded in . The polymerase chain reaction is a method of amplifying a sample of DNA exponentially in a shorter and simpler way than previous methods . Due to its simplicity the polymerase chain reaction has been adapted to significantly change the way certain medicinal and biological practices are carried out ; "" In terms of its power to drive biological research , the advent of the polymerase chain reaction can certainly be compared with the discovery of the techniques of molecular cloning "" . In biology the process is used in the analysis of messenger , as well as the amplification of DNA fragments for analysis . It has also been used for DNA sequencing , such as in . In medicine the polymerase chain reaction can be used to detect small amounts of nucleic acid , as in the diagnosis of disease . It can also be used for the detection of genetic mutation , new and known ones , such as the mutations that cause cystic fibrosis and muscular dystrophy . < enote > A F Markham . A Tool for Molecular Medicine . 13 1993 , , - 447 < /enote> Ibid < /enote> Ibid < /enote> The method of the polymerase chain reaction: The polymerase chain reaction is a simple procedure that only requires components . To start with a pair of primers are needed , for each end of the target sequence . A primer is a short oligonucleotide that is complimentary to a sequence of DNA that flanks the DNA sequence that needs to be amplified . Also needed are all of the deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates ( dNTPs ) that are the building blocks of DNA ( see figure ) . Each dNTP contains the sugar deoxyribose , which forms the sugar backbone of the DNA molecule , a triphosphate group , and of bases : , , and Thymine . These bases give the dNTP identity and are complimentary to each other : Adenine to and Cytosine to , which causes DNA to be double stranded ( see figure ) . < figure/>
A heat - stable DNA polymerase enzyme is the last component . This enzyme joins dNTPs together to form a complimentary strand to the template DNA . The polymerase chain reaction consists of cycles of the same experimental steps ( see figure ) . At the sample DNA is heated to oC. This melts the double stranded DNA helix into separate strands . The DNA is then cooled to 54 oC ; just cool enough to allow the primers to anneal to the beginning of the flanking DNA sequences on both strands . The mixture is then heated to 72 oC , which is the optimum temperature for the DNA polymerase enzyme . The enzyme then extends the primers using the different dNTPs to form the complimentary sequence to the DNA , which can extend beyond the target sequence . The previous steps are then repeated in a new cycle , causing primers to anneal to the new single strands of DNA that were formed on the previous cycle . This creates new short single strands of DNA that include the primer sequences and the target region , as well as new long DNA single strands like the ones produced in the cycle . A cycle of the steps sees the production of double stranded versions of the short single strand created in the cycle . This is the product wanted from the polymerase chain reaction . Ideally the amount of target DNA will increase exponentially according to the formula n , where n is the number of cycles performed . After cycles the original amount of DNA will be increased a . < enote > , , . and Company , edition < /enote>
The polymerase chain reaction can be used in its simplest form as just described in medicinal chemistry , but adaptations of this technique have been developed to specialise in certain areas . of these adaptations is the quantitative polymerase chain reaction . This technique is used to amplify specific messenger in a cell in order to have a large enough sample to physically measure . The messenger will be amplified in the same reaction as a control sequence of known quantity in the cell . As both sequences will be amplified at the same rate the original amount of messenger can be deduced through the comparison of the amplified messenger against the amplified amount of the control ( see figure ) . This technique is used to compare the levels of a specific messenger in different cell populations , which can be used to discover whether a genetic mutation is being expressed in different tissues of the human body . < enote > A F Markham . ( note supra ) < /enote>
The application of the polymerase chain reaction as a HIV diagnostic tool: The polymerase chain reaction is also used in the detection of HIV viral DNA . HIV is , which causes the destruction of the patient 's immune system and can lead to the condition of AIDS . HIV has main types : HIV-1 and HIV-2 . These types have different rates of transmission from person to person and also different prognoses of infection . This means that the different infections require different diagnosis techniques and treatments , in order to be effective . The polymerase chain reaction can be used to discriminate between the types and whether a single or dual infection is evident . Antiretroviral treatment can slow the virus 's progress in the body , and so early diagnosis of the disease can considerably increase the quality of life the patient has left . Antiretroviral treatment uses HIV antibodies to destroy the HIV DNA present in living cells , but the high rate of mutation in the HIV DNA means that it can not be completely eradicated , making the disease incurable . The polymerase chain reaction can be used to detect mutations in the HIV DNA and help adjust treatment accordingly . < enote > R , Kannangai , , , , , , , , . A peptide enzyme linked immunosorbent assay ( ) for the detection of the human immunodeficiency virus type-2 ( HIV-2 ) antibodies : an evaluation on polymerase chain reaction ( ) confirmed samples . 2001 22 - 46 < /enote > To diagnose HIV using the polymerase chain reaction , primers are made that are complimentary to a flanking sequence of a particular gene on the viral DNA . A sample is taken from the patient and all genetic material extracted . This genetic material is then subjected to the polymerase chain reaction using the specially made primers . If there is any HIV DNA present in the sample this will be amplified and available to analyse . This technique can also be used to detect HIV . Not only can the polymerase chain reaction be used to diagnose HIV in the place , it can also be used to track the progress of patients , and determine how well they are responding to treatment . When patients are treated with antiretroviral drugs the quantity of HIV can drop below detectable levels when using conventional methods . A quantitative method of the polymerase chain reaction can be used to measure the levels of HIV in the patient . This measurement can then be used to determine the level of expression of the HIV virus in the body , as described earlier . This is an important marker in telling whether the patient is responding well to the drugs they are taking . Therefore the polymerase chain reaction can be a useful tool in making the treatment HIV patients receives more efficient . < enote > Francesca Vitone , , , Re . Quantitative DNA proviral detection in HIV-1 patients treated with antiretroviral therapy . < /enote > As mentioned , the polymerase chain reaction can be used to detect mutations in the HIV viral DNA . This is important when trying to determine the source of therapy failure . A method of the polymerase chain reaction , called reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction ( RT - PCR ) is used to do this . RT - PCR involves taking messenger from the infected cell and , using a reverse transcriptase enzyme and dNTPs , transcribing the single strand into double stranded circular DNA . This DNA wo n't be exactly representative of the template DNA that the messenger was transcribed from , as all non - coding sections of the messenger will have been removed before it is released into the cell . However , mutations in the non - coding DNA will not have any effect on any proteins produced and therefore are negligible . The transcribed circular DNA is then amplified using the traditional polymerase chain reaction technique , using DNA polymerase and the dNTPs : dATP , dGTP , dCTP and dTTP . The amplified product is sequenced in order to detect any mutations along the target gene ( see figure ) . Knowledge of which mutations have taken place is important in knowing which treatment to give the patient next . < enote > Kristel Van Laethem , , , , , , . A genotypic resistance assay for the detection of drug resistance in the human immunodeficiency virus type envelope gene . 123 25 - 34 < /enote>
The advantages of the polymerase chain reaction: The advantages of using the polymerase chain reaction as a diagnostic tool for HIV are numerous . The polymerase chain reaction is known for its speed and simplicity . cycles of the polymerase chain reaction can increase the amount of the original DNA sample a . This quantity of genetic material can be achieved in . This is much faster than older , slower methods of DNA amplification , such as semi conservative replication . This means that results can be retrieved much more quickly , speeding up the diagnosis . Also the polymerase chain reaction requires only a small amount of genetic material in order to work . In theory strand of the target DNA is needed in order to amplify it , as long as it is complete and undamaged . Therefore , diagnosis can be made at far earlier stages of HIV infection than previously achieved , which can improve survival times . The simplistic and automatic nature of the polymerase chain reaction also means that it takes far less time to train people up in how to use the technique ; "" the complete beginner can start to perform polymerase chain reaction experiments and generate meaningful results within at most "" . This means that the time taken and cost of training people to diagnose HIV can be significantly reduced . Another advantage is that the dNTP sequence of the target area of DNA does not need to be known in order to amplify that region . All that needs to be known is the sequences at either side of the gene as the positions of the primers makes sure that the DNA polymerase enzyme will automatically copy the area of interest . This means that mutations in the HIV genome will not effect its amplification and therefore the mutations can be copied and analysed . < enote > , , . ( note supra ) < /enote> A F Markham . ( note supra ) < /enote> , , . ( note supra ) < /enote > The polymerase chain reaction is also extremely specific . It will only copy the target area and almost nowhere else along the DNA strand , due to the high levels of stringency at the high temperature of the reaction . Stringency is the how good the match is between the primer and its target . This can be controlled by temperature and salt levels . At high temperatures there is an extremely good match of primers to their targets , ensuring that they do not attach elsewhere on the DNA and cause non - target DNA to also be copied . Therefore , the results achieved through this technique will have a high level of accuracy . This is important in eliminating any false - positives or false - negatives in HIV diagnosis . Some conventional methods of diagnosis try to detect anti - HIV antibodies , which do n't discriminate between different types of HIV leading to the wrong type of infection being diagnosed . In study it was observed that many immunoblot assays , a conventional method , could produce false - positive results on dual infection with HIV-1 and HIV-2 , when in fact only HIV-1 was prevalent . It was shown that a polymerase chain reaction method could prevent these false positives from occurring . The high specificity of the polymerase chain reaction detection of HIV-2 meant that it could be used as a standard to compare new more selective assays to . < enote > Ibid < /enote> R , Kannangai , , , , , , , , . ( note supra ) < /enote> The disadvantages of the polymerase chain reaction: However , there are also disadvantages to the polymerase chain reaction . Although it has high specificity , this only works under certain conditions . The length of the target DNA sequence is a factor in the level of specificity . If the target sequence is too long then it is difficult to ensure that the target sequence will be copied in its entirety and accurately . Also if a primer sequence appears more than once in a DNA molecule then the primer may attach to area , causing the experiment to copy sequence or the wrong sequence completely . This can occur when certain subtypes of HIV-1 are present in the patient , causing false negative results . This is apparent in a documented case of an tourist who contracted HIV while on holiday in . The patient displayed the symptoms associated with HIV and so was tested . HIV-1 proviral DNA PCR test where taken and after infection and repeatedly gave negative results . after infection did the HIV-1 proviral DNA PCR test give a positive result . Due to this discovery there has been caution about using for detection of HIV and it is recommended that any results should be followed up by a conventional method of diagnosis . < enote > Philip Cunningham , , , , , . False negative HIV-1 proviral DNA polymerise chain reaction in a patient with primary infection acquired in . 2003 26 - 169 < /enote> Summary: Overall it seems that the benefits of the polymerase chain reaction can not be ignored . The faster and more accurate diagnosis of HIV patients is so important in ensuring that all patients are able to make the most of the time they have left . The polymerase chain reaction also has a use in tracking the progress of HIV patients . Only the polymerase chain reaction has the sensitivity to detect HIV levels after antiretroviral treatment . Without this analysis tool the true state of HIV patients would not be known and their treatment could not be adjusted accordingly . Even though the specificity of the polymerase chain reaction is sensitive to its conditions , these conditions can be controlled so the optimum specificity can be achieved for every situation . The impressive speed , overwhelming simplicity , high sensitivity and great selectivity show that the polymerase chain reaction is too much of a useful tool in molecular medicine to dismiss over its few faults . It has developed so much in that it 's impossible to predict what it will be used for in , "" The clinical usefulness of the polymerase chain reaction thus seems to be limited only by the power of our imagination in identifying specific targets . "" < enote > A F Markham . ( note supra ) < /enote >","Religion permeated all spheres of daily existence in early modern , playing an indispensable role in society , culture , economics and politics . Thus religion had a widespread affect on people 's lives that can not be underestimated . However , a pessimistic tone has often prevailed in the historiography of early modern religion from historians of the traditional school of thought , for instance and . They believe that the era was marked by a decline in the late medieval , in comparison to the flourishing religion of the high Middle Ages , which evoked widespread discontent . This outlook implies that religion did not have a resounding affect on people 's lives , and when it did it was predominantly negative and may have resulted in people abandoning or reforming their faith . On the other hand , revisionist historians , such as and in their studies of and who has examined religion on the continent , have adopted a more optimistic approach . They believe late medieval religion exhibited signs of vitality , and discontent with the was not as extensive as had been previously suggested . < fnote > , The Waning of the Middle Ages : a Study of Forms of Life , Thought and Art in and the in the Fourteenth and ( , ) < /fnote> , , ) < /fnote> Eamon Duffy , ( , ) < /fnote> , , Politics and ( , ) < /fnote> Aroud - Jan Bijsterveld , ' Reform in the Parishes of Fifteenth- and , in ( ed . ) , and New : Essays on , c.1470 - 1630 ( Aldershot , ) , pp.21 - 38 < /fnote > A range of religions existed in the early modern period , for example in the and , following a schism in in . Christianity was considered to be the dominant religion across territories , with the Pope at its spiritual head in : ' 's were conditioned to see , as well as to think , in terms of . "" However , there existed international differences in the conduct of the laity ; whereas religion existed in by < fnote > John Rigby Hale , Renaissance Europe ( , ) , p.217 < /fnote>'drawing its strength from popular ideas and a traditional strength of devotion rather than doctrinal knowledge , [ this ] was not shared by those educated in continental . ' < /quote> , Devoted People : Belief and Religion in ( Manchester , c1997 ) , p.148 < /fnote > Such variations are significant because people responded to religion in diverse ways , reflecting its affect on different cultures . It must also be taken into account that the early modern period was set in a context of instability and vulnerability , following a period of warfare , political strife and economic stagnation . The devastating pandemic of , which devoured of 's population , had a dramatic impact on the course of religion in . The affect of religion on people 's lives in the aftermath of such turmoil , and the escalating momentum of uncertainties which inevitably ensued , was . Some experienced spiritual malaise and turned away from religion , having become cynical of the due to its inability to offer an explanation in times of hardship . However , in this age of precarious living many sought additional reassurance through heightened religious sensibilities , in the hope that they would be saved from future catastrophes by God 's providence : ' while the present could only be viewed with pessimism , there might be hope for the future : the age of darkness would give way to the age of light . ' < fnote > Helmut Georg Koenigsberger , and , in ( , ) , p.87 < /fnote > Religion consequently had a powerful emotional grip over people 's lives , especially as it governed the rhythm of life in terms of behaviour , sexuality and morality through the ethical framework defined by the . The institution of was therefore responsible for shaping and imposing a disciplined system of belief on its adherents , whether devoutly or nominally religious , intended to cajole them into living pious lives . has argued that although religion provided a context of normality in people 's daily lives , it was unable to format a structure for life in its entirety . Nevertheless , ' for a minority offered a distinct mode of living , a more formulated code of action and experience to be followed as closely as humanly possible ' , indicating the intense affect of religion on the lives of highly devout people . ' There were other reminders too of the power of religion in the lives of people ... their names held echoes of the bible or the lives of the saints ' as revealed by in his study of records , where biblical names predominated . < fnote > Robert Norman Swanson , Religion and Devotion in , c.1215 - 1515 ( , ) , p.102 < /fnote> Gillespie , Devoted People , p.21 < /fnote > Religion also had an undoubtedly significant affect on people by offering ' a forum and a structure for their social life . "" The Church calendar and religious festivals shaped the cycle of , highlighting the integration of religious and secular life in the regulation of time and space . In terms of time , bells punctuated people 's routines . Furthermore , people were expected to observe the and ' stop all manual labour on of saints in order to devote themselves to worship . "" Examples of religion dictating space can be seen where market places were located in squares , like the market at in . There were also processions focused around vicinities in celebration of patron saints , for instance the in . The waves of feverish religious activities in this sphere indicate that ' religion was deeply engrained as a social habit ' , and had an unavoidable impact upon people 's lives . < fnote > , ( , ) , p.15 < /fnote> Ibid , p.10 < /fnote> Hale , , p.231 < /fnote > A myriad of religious symbols and the veneration of relics of saints , who were considered channels to God as well as specialist patrons in times of crisis , also affected people 's lives . In early modern ' the appetite to visualise the faith , and , in the case of relics and cult objects ... to touch , was as strong as ever . "" Details of saints lives proliferated in a range of contemporary hagiographical literature and ' provided edification for the laity ' and a role model for how they should live their lives . The Cult of the Virgin Mary flourished in this era , as people found her easier to conceptualise because of her human origins , and numerous prayers were directed to her . This zealous worship and faith in saints indicates the resounding affect of religious figures , as they provided a means by which people structured their lives . < fnote > Ibid , p.240 < /fnote> Swanson , Religion and Devotion , p.161 < /fnote > as a tangible object alone had an overpowering affect on people 's lives . The sheer dominance of spires on the landscape , and the multitudinous sounds of bell ringing and hymns diffusing from , had an unavoidable impact on everyday life . As asserts , everywhere there were ' visual reminders of the reality of God 's presence , in the shape of funeral monuments in churches and wayside crosses on the roads ' , alongside the infusion of religion into early modern art and music , highlighting the material prevalence of religion in people 's lives . Indeed , ' the physical appearance of city , town and village was dominated by , implying that religion was neither wholly rural nor urban in its concentration but dispersed . Though it must be observed that the rural masses were remote from urban theological academia and thus the priests were ' born of the same stock as their congregations . "" This may have affected the way in which religious ideas were disseminated and consequently the ultimate impact of religion on people 's lives , underscoring urban and rural variations . < fnote > Gillespie , Devoted People , p.20 < /fnote> Hale , , p.218 < /fnote> However , all practiced the Sacraments as they were considered to be channels to God 's grace , through which they could secure divine intervention . The religious ceremony of Mass was therefore of pre - eminent importance in liturgical worship and the focal point for popular piety , because the was a sacred place in which God was present . In this atmosphere the clergy were able to transmit His word through their sermons . However , these were generally in and so their influence on the laity is difficult to gauge , similarly with religious texts , due to illiteracy . Nevertheless , the affect of Mass on people 's lives was still substantial as people were expected to reverently attend services and receive . As emphasises , it is difficult to draw quantitative conclusions on numbers of people attending services and , and it is impossible to measure lay motivation . ' For those who attended mass it was so much part of their world that they did not feel it worthwhile to record the nature of that experience ' , and this silence of sources makes it difficult for historians to accurately comment on the affect of Mass on people 's lives . However , < fnote > Gillespie , Devoted People , p.90 < /fnote>'detailed evidence on consumption of hosts and payment of offerings has been used to argue for large - scale non - attendance and non - reception of communion ; but it is hard to evaluate what this actually means in terms of spirituality , or how far that picture is applicable to the rest of . ' Furthermore , there is evidence suggesting that many attended Mass and Communion because of communal pressures , often being forced by their landlord or powerful neighbours , thus religious allegiance was sometimes involuntary . In early modern , many people were not inclined to attend Mass and ' the attractions of the ale house or remaining in bed were real alternatives to a service ' , from which it can be inferred that religious practice did not appeal to a minority of people . Others believed that God 's omnipotence meant he was accessible beyond the prescribed ecclesiastical structure of the ; hence it was not necessary to attend Mass. Nevertheless , it is undeniable that the practice of religion had a dramatic affect on people 's lives , and the numbers voluntarily attending Mass and Communion was probably significantly high , especially in a time of heightened religious fervour . < fnote > Gillespie , Devoted People , p.21 < /fnote > The key sacrament of penance was also of crucial importance , impinging on virtually every aspect of people 's lives , particularly when concepts of heaven and hell preoccupied people 's minds and there were anxious fears regarding the fate of the soul . Upon death , most people were considered to have the remenance of sin so had to be cleansed in the external flames of purgatory to purify their soul and make them fit for heaven . Merit had already been accumulated for man by Christ 's sacrifice , yet was obliged to individually justify that they were fit for heaven : ' Church teaching was clear : the justified went straight to heaven , the unjustified to hell . "" Only through confession could the parishioner be absolved and pay penance in spiritual or material form , the former being through prayer or pilgrimage to shrines and the latter through good works such as charitable donations for the poor . < fnote > Martin D. , in ( , ) , p.24 < /fnote > Scholars disagree over the motives for good works , speculating whether people were hoping to magically force god 's hand or were acting through informed will . The questionable concept of via moderna optimistically stated that humans were capable of securing their own salvation though good works alone . However , as with attendance , a lack of sources makes it is difficult to analyse people 's motivation and assess the popularity of going to confession . Yet , as surmises , ' come they did [ to confession ] , whether out of fear of the exclusion from community and communion or , ultimately , out of fear of the final judgement day ' , implying the affect of religion on people 's minds as their concern for the afterlife intensified during . Penance became an issue of quantity as ' the more penances performed , the more masses celebrated the greater the spiritual benefit . "" Therefore , the affect of religion on people 's lives varied across the social hierarchy , as those higher up could perform greater works of penance . < fnote > Ibid , p.21 < /fnote> Ibid , p.23 < /fnote > During this era the prospect of achieving salvation , or helping the soul of a dead relative through purgatory , became inseparably associated with the purchase of Indulgences . These were letters of pardon dispensed by the , as a remission of penance , intended to reduce time in purgatory . The practice of Indulgences originally worked alongside sacramental penance , yet as time passed the idea surfaced that purchasing Indulgences alone led to salvation without the addition of genuine penitence . This progression of Indulgences into a commercial enterprise , which lined the coffers of the Pope and clergy , nurtured feelings of anticlericalism , especially in where revolutionary protest against was triggered . Feelings of anticlericalism were amplified throughout . The was persistently criticised for its interest in economic and political spheres , for example the vast expanse of - owned land , and had long been associated with the wealth and corruption of a decadent . As a result of the secular and fiscal preoccupations of authorities , they were unable to fully concentrate on their pastoral role . The was particularly suspect in and grew increasingly vulnerable on the eve of the , indicating that the affect of religion on people 's lives , which had once been powerful , was beginning to diminish . In addition to religion , the supernatural also had a long - standing tradition in people 's lives . Astrology , magic , folklore , mysticism and witchcraft flourished in civilisation across early modern . These forms of lay speculation underwrote the clergy 's authority and often bypassed the institution of the completely . It can be inferred that religion was sometimes cast aside in favour of other traditions , and thus its affect was not substantial in the face of other systems of belief . In conclusion , in spite of the aforementioned factors limiting the impact of religion , it undoubtedly had a profound affect on people 's lives in early modern . Whether positive or negative , the influence of religion was inescapable because it permeated every aspect of society , thus having a significant and often consuming affect on people 's lives that can not be underrated .",0 "< abstract> Abstract This paper serves as a project report for an assignment into image compression . The task was to compress - pixel square greyscale images , with lossless techniques or not , into a smaller file . I achieved the aim using a combination of run length encoding , reducing the number of greys in the image , and applying the technique . This report documents this process , and contains the results . < /abstract> Introduction The brief was to take a - pixel square greyscale image , for example . , and compress them as much as possible without loosing too much information about the face . < picture/> Method I will split the method into the different compression techniques . They are applied in the order they are given during compression , and , obviously , in reverse for decompression . < heading > Grey Level Decrease Because I was aiming to write a compression algorithm that would encode and decode pictures of faces , I decided that the background was of little importance relative to the face itself . By experimentation , I found that levels of grey were all that were needed to represent the face in a reasonable amount of quality . The main negative effect of reducing the colour depth is that gradients become stepped . As faces usually do not contain many gradients , the only place this should be noticeable is in the background , which should n't matter so much . Please refer to . for the same image , but represented with greys . < picture/> Run Length EncodingAs you can see , there are very large patches of the same level of grey . In this case , it is very wasteful to represent every pixel with an number ( or for grey levels ) , when we can describe the patches themselves . This idea gives several options , most notably run length and quad tree encoding . The naïve view of quad tree encoding is that the square regions of the same colour get boxed together and labelled as one entity in the tree . In fact , of course , this is not the case . The boundaries of each region are set arbitrarily by cutting the image recursively into quadrants . Therefore , an area of constant colour could be described by many regions , if the cuttings do not happen to fall in the best places , and the solution will not be optimal . . is a small detail of . taken at random from the top right of the left eye . < picture/>This is typical of the face part of the image in greys ( the background is generally more patchy , but more of the images are face than background ) . There are definite regions of constant shade , but none of them particularly large . If you apply quad tree encoding to this , you get the following : < picture/>As the regions of grey are not conveniently placed and sized , and as they are not particularly large , quad tree encoding , as can readily be seen , has little effect . In the example of the region above , there would be leaf nodes to the tree . This means that there will be 8 - bit numbers to be stored , as well as the tokens in the non - leaf nodes . < picture/>Fig . shows the boundaries given by run length encoding . There are regions in this example , and for each of these items need to be stored , the intensity and length of the region . Each of these can be stored in an number ; so values will classify this image . As this example shows , where the regions of colour are reasonably large but not very large , run length encoding is better than quad tree . < heading > Huffman Encoding < /heading>
The histogram of . shows that some levels of grey are dramatically more frequent than others . In fact , the standard deviation of the level frequencies is , in this example , . If the grey levels that make the central peak were all described with short codes , and the other grey levels with longer codes , the result will obviously be more efficient . This fact applies even more to the lengths of the codes . The longest run in this particular image is pixels , but the vast majority , as can be seen by the following histogram , are . Even if there were an encoding method did nothing other than allowing one bit for a run length of , and an code starting with a for everything else , there would still be bits saved . < figure/>To compress the image further , therefore , the technique was employed . The pseudo - code for the implementation of encoding used to encode a string of binary values ( in bit sections ) is as follows : < list > Split the input string into strings of bitFind the frequency of each stringPut a frequency table at the start of the output string . This is made of binary numbers . Initialise a forest of trees . Each of them will have a value between 0 and , and the frequency of that value as a weight . Repeat until there is only one tree : Find the trees with minimum weightsCreate a new tree , and put these trees as its children . Assign a weight to this new parent of the sum of the children 's weights . Reduce the children 's weights to zeroFor every string in the input : Find the node in the tree with the string 's value . Let 's call it . Create a temporary stringIf is the left - hand child of its parent , add a to the temporary stream , otherwise add a 1.Repeat until we are at the root : Reassign CurrentNode to its parentIf the new is the left - hand child of its parent , add a to the temporary stream , otherwise add a the temporary streamAppend the temporary stream to the output stream When it is decoded , the tree is built from the frequency table at the start of the string , using the same method as steps 4 and 5 above . As there is no random element to either process , the tree will always be the same . After the tree is built , the string ( without the frequency table ) can be decoded with : < list > Repeat until the end of the input string has been reached : Create a variable called . Let it point to the root . Repeat until we reach a leaf node : If the next character of the input string is then reassign to its left childIf the next character of the input string is then reassign to its right childAdvance our position in the input string by characterPut the next number on the output stream as the value of the leaf. One idea for encoding was to encode the run lengths and intensities separately , so that each would have its own frequency table . The reasoning for this was that the frequencies would be more accurate if they were separate . After further thought , it can be seen that that idea is wrong . The frequencies of the data are absolute , no matter what they represent . That idea would have just resulted in an extra frequency table . < heading > Results For the results of each technique , I shall test them on a single image . Obviously , exact compression ratios vary image to image , so I shall give a set of compression ratios for different images in the section . For the purposes of examining the techniques individually , it is necessary to give their results individually . This , however , causes a problem as the compression achieved by each of the techniques is dependent on the compression that has already been achieved . I will try to break it down as much as possible , however . < heading > Grey Levels This is the simplest to evaluate . Given a image , there will be pixels . If each of them were assigned a binary number ( ) then this would take bits , or kb . In this application , the reduction of grey levels does not have this effect quite though , as , for the convenience of , they are each encoded in bits . then compensates for this inefficiency by assigning longer codes for the values over , which are never used , and short codes for values . < heading > Run Length When the image has levels of grey , run length encoding "" compresses "" the image up to kb . This is because with so many levels of grey , there are very few runs . When the grey levels have been reduced to , run length encoding ( while still assigning bits to both the intensity and length of each run ) compresses the image down to kb . < heading > Huffman Encoding When the image has levels of grey with no run length encoding , compresses the image down to kb . When the image has levels of grey ( each represented with bits ) , and no run length encoding , compresses the image down to 31.941 kb . < heading > Overall Compression When all techniques are applied together , the image is compressed down to kb . Here is an overall comparison of the techniques : < table/>Actually , you can divide each of those percentages by , as the original image had a red , green and blue stream , each of which stored the intensity of the grey . This brought the original file size up to kb . This means that the final compression ratio of [ Original Image : Compressed Image ] is : . Alternatively , that could be expressed as : . The compression time is . The decompression time is . All the statistics above are based on a single image , however . Here are the compression ratios ( as a percentage of the original kb file ) for the test images : < table/>It is interesting to note that the subjects of tests and were black , so this perhaps indicates that an image of a black person is compressed better using this technique than that of a white person . This is either an indication that there is less variety of tone in a black person 's skin , or that the lighting conditions and camera were such that less detail was picked up . Figs . 9 and 10 ( overleaf ) show an example image before and after compression . < picture/> Comparison With Other Techniques I shall compare my typical compression ratio with those of other techniques . , I will ( quite unfairly ) compare it to lossless techniques . < table/> Future Development Conclusions If were to put an original image next to an image that has been compressed then decompressed under my technique , the only difference that would be noticeable would be the stepped gradient in the background , as opposed to the gradual gradient of the original . As has been discussed before , the background is not of huge concern , so therefore the compressed images are valid . The compression ratio of is very good , and a computing time of and for both compression and decompression is negligible . The compression ratio is respectable , relative to the well - used standard techniques . It is obviously not as good as the standards , but that is far more complex than mine . I have no statistics to this effect , but I would guess my technique to be faster than some of the others that achieve better compression ratios . As : is a good rate of compression without losing psychovisually important information of the face , and as the compression time is very small , I therefore deem the project to be a success .","Publius Vergilius Maro wrote The from at the time that was Emperor , for the purpose of glorifying the state and in particular the Emperor himself . had just recently defeated in at and had promised to restore the republic and the city of to its former glory . The tells the story of the origin of through the deeds of a , , who leaves under divine command to sail to a place called , where he is to establish a city and found a new people . Throughout the is trying to make his readers draw a favourable comparison between and Augustus . Aeneas is constantly described as a hero and displays all the heroic qualities considered to be essential for a Roman citizen in that age . His quest to found takes him through many trials all of which were designed by to emphasise these necessary characteristics . He also shows himself as a good leader and here he reflects many of 's merits . < heading > Aeneas And His Duty The central theme of the is duty . This was a matter of great importance in . It is very Roman that Aeneas sticks to his duty and his divine path throughout the book in spite of all the obstacles in his path . The main diversion is of course his affair with . Aeneas falls in love with her but then is reminded in a dream that he has a duty to fulfil and that he must continue on his journey to . Dido is distraught and reproaches him for leaving her and begs him to stay but he readies his ships and sails away . She then builds a pyre and commits suicide . writes very little on Aeneas 's actual feelings about this event . Aeneas feels sympathy for and for himself a kind of pain mixed with necessity . Love is portrayed as a morally dangerous compulsion which at the time was a reflection of the recent defeat of who put love before the state and forgot his duty . is showing that Aeneas is Roman because he puts his destiny before love and does not turn away from what he has to do . This is made more poignant by the fact that is the founder of , which was the main enemy of for many years . Other diversions come in the form of wanting to stay in lands in which he has become accustomed to and with people he knows . When he stays in with other who escaped from Troy and have already set up their new city he is most reluctant to leave because he thinks there it will be easier for him to settle there than to carry on his so far perilous journey to an unknown land . < heading > Aeneas As A Pious Man In Ancient Roman society piety , or ' pietas ' , was essential for a good citizen . Piety was felt towards the gods and your family . Aeneas displays the utmost piety to the gods all the way through the Aeneid . he leaves Troy carrying his household gods and it becomes his duty to take them safely to . He is guided by messages from the gods and he has to rely on them completely . It was at their bidding that he left Troy even though , in true Roman fashion , he would have preferred to stay and die defending his country , as he tells Dido in Book . Aeneas is ultimately faithful to divine wishes even though he finds it hard to be and would often rather take another path . Another thing that were supposed to show piety and loyalty to was their homeland , or ' patria ' . Aeneas is going to because that is to be his new homeland and once there he has to defend it . Even when he has just arrived he is faced with a war for the land which he knows has been appointed to him and it is his destiny to settle on . He fights , a , who resents foreigners coming into and has particular grievance against Aeneas because he is destined to marry , who Turnus was going to marry . Having won the war Aeneas does agree though to leave the kingship and customs of the king of the , , alone in respect for their gods and culture . Aeneas also shows piety through his dedication to giving his companions proper burial rites . This was very important in the Roman world because it meant that the person 's soul could progress into the underworld . In the book he holds elaborate funeral ceremonies for his father and Pallas , the latter being the more outstanding because actually collects living sacrifice victims from among the prisoners they have taken from the . < heading > Aeneas And Revenge Another quality which was central to the way of life was revenge . Augustus himself cited revenge as the reason for his raising army at the beginning of the triumvirate . He claimed that he had to avenge the death of his father , , by going after and killing him and the other conspirators involved in the murder . The , in particular , claimed that all their wars were carried out for revenge and there were numerous temples to Mars Ultor , or the Avenger , in the City . Aeneas displays this all important quality in . When he arrived in he had sought support from King Evander in Pallantium , and the King had sent his own son , Pallas into the battle for Aeneas . In Book Ten Pallas was cruelly slaughtered by Turnus and it is for this act that seeks revenge . Right at the end of the , sees that Turnus is still wearing the sword belt of Pallas on his shoulder and flies into a rage . So despite the fact that Turnus surrenders and begs Aeneas to spare his life , Aeneas kills him harshly and mercilessly saying : ' Its he , its Pallas who strikes this blow- the victim shedding his murderer 's blood in retribution ! ' ( Virgil , The Aeneid , . XII : l.948 - 9 ) . In spite of this Aeneas principally hates war . This was one of ' main claims during his rule : that he had brought peace to . Aeneas does not want war when he lands in . This is demonstrated in as he is about to kill Lausus and he says to him : ' Why rush upon death like this ? You 're too rash , fighting out of your class ; ' ( Virgil , The Aeneid . . X : l.11 - 12 ) . < heading > Aeneas And His Father The relationship between father and son was of great importance in the Roman world . The head of the family , or the paterfamilias , had a duty to his son but the son also had to be loyal to his father . Aeneas displays both of these duties . As a son he is dedicated to his father Anchaises in carrying him from the ruins of since he was unable to walk himself . While he is alive Aeneas shares the rule of the with his father and is guided by him in all matters . It is Anchaises who urges Aeneas to leave Troy and it is his ghost who chides Aeneas in a dream for staying to long with when his destiny awaits him . When Anchaises dies Aeneas buries his father and builds him a burial mound to commemorate his death . When , after his death , the ships reach the place where Anchaises was buried holds in his father 's honour and performs a sacrifice for Anchaises . In the middle of the book is told he has to go down into the underworld and it is only really his love for his father and his desire to see him again that gives him the courage to make the terrible journey . < heading > Aeneas As A Father Aeneas is frequently referred to as father , or ' pater ' in the , usually in context of the care he takes of his men . He is constantly concerned for their welfare above his own . An example of this is when he confronts Turnus in Book Twelve and demands that they fight each other alone , for the quarrel is between them and should not involve the lives of their men . He is also called father as he is the father of the Roman race . In founding is responsible for his son 's future and all the sons that shall come from him and it is this that drives him once he has seen all the unborn heroes of during his visit to the underworld . Aeneas ' shield bearing the deeds of Augustus at Actium reminds us that this is one of his descendants and that this is what Aeneas is going to to start . We also see this in when recounts to the future of the Roman race and how great they will become through the dynasty of Aeneas . Aeneas has great respect for the bond between father and son and Turnus plays on this when in Book he begs for his life to be spared , not for his own sake , but for the sake of his father Daunus : ' But if the thought of a father 's unhappiness can move you- a father such as you had in Anchaises- I ask you show compassion for aged Daunus , ' ( Virgil , The Aeneid , . XII : l.932 - 4 ) . Aeneas is a father himself as he has a son Ascanius who he loves dearly . An example of this is when in is ship wrecked in and having discovered that his men and his son have also been saved , he sends one of his men down to the shore to fetch Ascanius at once . ' Aeneas whose love for his son would not allow a moment 's delay , now sent running down to the ships , bade him tell Ascanius the news and return with him , ' ( Virgil , The Aeneid , I : l.643 - 5 ) . When Pallas is killed by feels so much distress because he feels that he has let , Pallas ' father , down in not looking after his son as he promised . < heading > Conclusion The Aeneid was written as indirect propaganda for and ' rule . has made Aeneas a typical Roman hero who displays all the qualities that were important at that time , such as piety to the gods , commitment to your family and dedication to your duty . is discretely comparing Aeneas to Augustus as he is seen in the book when Aeneas visits the underworld and sees the future kings and leaders of . He is also heralding the start of ' new regime in , in which he promised to restore the republic and the quality of the state as a whole . Aeneas was seen as the prototype of the ideal Roman as he embodies all the qualities that a citizen should have displayed at the time . The glorifies everything about , his deeds and his rule . But The is not just an exercise in propaganda . It expresses pathos for the human condition and tries to involve ' concern for the welfare of the Roman people . It raises the question of the worth of human struggle through the journey of Aeneas . Aeneas is a new wave of hero and he is everything a Roman ought to be in his heroism and life style .",0 "For political playwrights and theatre groups , Realism 's manifesto proved irreconcilable to their own doctrine . The inadequacies of a realist form stem chiefly from it 's early inception in , where it garnered artistic credibility because of the emergence of strict social and natural ideologies that supported it . The theoretical kudos inferred from the works of , and fostered such momentum for Realism that it became ( and remains ) the dominant mode of artistic presentation in theatre . Yet a theory ( invariably linked with the movement ) that espouses material truth , and the stressed importance of an essentially deterministic natural formation was to be largely rejected by creators of political theatre . It is easy to understand why : the contradictions between the realist and political doctrines are varied and problematic . Creators of political theatre are essentially unable to reconcile a medium that triumphs clinical observation , a rationale and a scientific dogma to one that , in essence , concerns cultural intervention , community action and ideological transference ( outlined in : The Politics of Performance . ) Early examples of realism concern powerless , trapped figures regimented into their suffering by the prescribed determinations of callous natural and social formations . Such characters ( Miss , , ) have little escape , except through withdrawing completely from the natural order by suicide . Yet though the plays this essay will eventually move to discuss ( and Oh ! What a Lovely War ) present the effects of socially fabricated tragedies on the lives of individual people , there is hope in both pieces for future amelioration . To posit an alternative is a chief characteristic of political plays , even those portraying dystopic and nightmarish societies . For political and social structure ( unlike the natural order ) is both mutable and human . And the presentation of such systems must always therefore contain the innate possibility of alternative goodness , however minutely manifest such hopes may be . Contextualising Theatre Workshop 's departure from social - realism reveals a series of events that fatally undermined public belief in the supremacy of science . Artistic faith in science 's ability to act as a beacon of social progress was seriously damaged by the advent and subsequent use of atomic weaponry . Intellectual traitors ( akin to 's ) had placed science firmly in the hands of the state : it seemed no longer a scholarly tool utilised to alleviate social ailments but a potential annihilator of mankind . Significant 's movements such as and the anti - campaign perceived science as the instrument of total human destruction . With science discredited , there was a need for alternative ( and anti - realist ) forms of staging . But Realism , it seems , was such established theatrical dogma that to subvert it 's sacrosanct formal properties was tantamount to a very grave theatrical perversion . The vehement critical and public reaction to seemed to stem not from ' scenes of masturbation , fellatio , frottage , micturition , defecation - ah , those old familiar faeces ! - homosexual rape , eye gouging and cannibalism ' ( Billington , : newspaper , 20/01/95 ) so much as from an utter incomprehension of the play 's non - realistic format : < quote>""the reason that the play falls apart is that there is no sense of external reality- who exactly is meant to be fighting whom out on the streets ? "" ( Billington : 20/01/95) "" ... For utterly disgusted I was by a play which appears to know no bounds of decency yet has no message to convey by way of excuse ... utterly without artistic merit ... "" ( , : newspaper , 19/01/05)""I do think that the seeds of full - scale war can always be found in peace - time civilisation ... the form is a direct parallel to the truth of the war it portrays - a traditional form is suddenly and violently disrupted by the entrance of an unexpected element that drags the characters and the play into a chaotic pit without logical explanation . "" ( , qtd . Saunders : , > The seeming irrationality of violence in is accompanied by no attempt at comprehension : such a dilemma is left to the audience . Yet for and , rejection of the realistic format assumed a different motivation : a struggle to understand and render legible the confusing atrocity of . The public failure to understand why the conflict happened was resolved by 's company , who through the circus medium of the clowns renders the conflict in term of class , economy and the tyranny of the state . Contrastingly , where 's structure degrades to prevent ideological explanation ( instead focusing primarily on the audience as witnesses ) , Oh ! What a lovely war is deliberately anti - realist to clarify the war 's events in terms of an overriding socialist dogma . was operating under the radical precept famously established by : new theatre "" should shoot bullets . "" 's work , in contrast , operates in the cultural context of a post - modern society eschewed from overriding ideologies and the simple problems that accompany such doctrines : < quote>""Her characters make no "" state - of - the - nation "" speeches nor are they visually representative in themselves of any political or social issues ... [ her ] drama is in possession of an overreaching feel in it 's grand attempt to make sense of the world rather than a specific event ... or social agenda . "" ( Saunders : 9,20 ) < /quote > Kane has a preoccupation with the proliferation of violence and the perpetuation of abuse . In the end , though , is a play fundamentally concerned with war and hope , and the form and the characters bear the brunt of war 's consequences . It is in the play 's structure that the bomb resides , and it is here that the effects of the mortar attack are wreaked most savagely . The expensive hotel room in is literally blown apart , and becomes torture chamber , toilet , grave and eventually a metaphorical hell . Accompanying the physical havoc on set is the steady disintegration of form : "" we move from socio - realism to surrealism , to expressionism . "" ( , qtd . Saunders : ) discarded a realistic interpretation of the conflict , modelling her actors on instead of soldiers . By defamiliarising the actor 's costume , substituted the multitudinous anonymity of soldier - khaki with the tragicomic clown persona , whilst still retaining a degree of era authenticity ( "" Pierrots were all the go in . "" ( , preface : ix ) ) Her principle theatrical instruments were the M.C ( and the aura of improvisation he exuded ) and the play 's episodic structure . These combined to create an ensemble carnival atmosphere . As Spinetti , the original M.C , notes , < quote>""Joan wanted me ... to destroy the barrier between them and us . The proscenium arch has often served as a screen behind which the priests perform their mystery and magic . It can be of service if you wish to distance your picture by framing it . In our case , we needed them with us for our lovely war . "" ( Afterward , p.92) The production assumed the form and structure of a Pierrot show : the short , episodic "" acts "" portraying the progressive absurdity of the war "" game "" : < quote>""The War is a pierrot show . It 's the right period , and after all , war is only for clowns . "" ( : 675) Indeed , it is the most slapstick and potentially ridiculous scene at the play 's climax that becomes the most poignant . We know that the conflict reached similar levels of insanity . The mechanised slaughter of trench warfare is superbly represented by the clownish impersonations of sheep by advancing soldiers : < quote > Officer : You do n't think - you obey . If you refuse , you will be shot!French Soldier : Very well . We follow you - like lamb to the slaughter . Officer : Bon . Like lambs to the slaughter ... pour la gloire ! En avant ! Soldier : . Officer : Vive la Republique ! Soldiers : . Officer : En avant ! Soldiers : Baaa - baa . A burst of machine - gun fire . They collapse . ( p.86) The form of Oh ! What a lovely war had to reflect the manner in which the war was carried out , and so it is necessarily farcical , bleakly comical and absurd . Similarly , the dramatic form of owes itself to 's experiences and reactions to the portrayal of violence in former . The atrocities in , along with the response to the catastrophe shown by the media , were to contextualise the play 's violence and inspire the fractured form . The structure of the play alters with the entrance of the Soldier : the narrative dislocates and becomes a series of tableau , disappears , the room explodes . 's response was an immediate intervention that came literally during the conception of the play . Blasted is performing a vital role that the press were unwilling and unable to fulfil , that of Witness . It is a function as journalist neglects . In averting his eyes , inadvertedly becomes a victim and his sight is taken from him . The disintegration of the play 's structure , which allows for a man 's eyes to be sucked out , bitten off and eaten , thus effects the most important discourse between the play and audience . The burden of witnessing passes from ( a responsibility he shirked ) to those watching : as bystanders to the play 's actions they assume moral culpability for their perpetuation . To abnegate moral responsibility is unthinkable , for the consequences of such a course of action are visibly enacted upon . Yet it is because of this that can also be labelled a ' realist ' , though not in the conventional sense . Though she shares none of realism 's formal properties , she does possess a similar desire to hold the mirror up to her audiences . In perceiving 's characters , the public are witnessing fractured elements of themselves . Blasted can not be fully divorced from reality because it relies on the fundamental assumption that an audience will recognise the action on stage as real and desire it changed . is forcing her audience to "" face up to reality "" whilst depicting events through a structure that is bewildering in its lack of meaning . Such presentation serves to quicken the audience 's realisation that the play 's amoral action must be stopped . 's emphasis on an illusory image which the audience must recognise as themselves has led some critics to regard her notions of reality as . For , as with , reality exists as an overriding concept , "" always present but continually mediated through the imaginary and the symbolic . "" Blasted appropriates elements of ideology in it 's presentation of a dystopic image which , whilst deliberately anti - realistic , is still representational of our society . For , like , it is society 's recognition and subsequent identification with an exterior , non - real , image that is crucial : < fnote > URL < /fnote> URL < /fnote>""Lacan says that at some point ... [ a ] baby will see itself in a mirror . It will look at its reflection ... it thinks , that image is "" ME "" . But it 's NOT the child ; it 's only an image ... the integrated whole body the child is seeing and identifying with ... is an external image . "" < /quote> URL < /fnote > This identification with image is most prominent in scene , during the montage of at his most universal and vulnerable . He is reduced to basic and pitiable human functions : a figure alone , defecating , starving , having a nightmare , crying . Communal identification with is enabled through the quick sequence of short tableau : the play 's form allows for the entry of a sustained succession of "" lights up / down "" images . A linear narrative and realist form is not compatible with such theatrical techniques . 's montage scenes acknowledge 's post - modern obsession with the Sign , a phenomenon that began to manifest itself even in : essential for a production of 's Oh ! What a lovely war ! is < large screen ... on which slides of photographs taken during that war were projected to counterpoint the words of the songs . "" ( , preface : x ) < /quote > The images of trench misery undermine the fatuous optimism of the songs . What instead emerges is the gritty tenacity of the common soldier and moments of bleak , yet uplifting , humour : < quote > I do n't want to be a Soldier . I do n't want to be a soldier , I do n't want to go to war , I'd rather stay at home , Around the streets to roam , And live on the earnings of a lady typist . I do n't want a bayonet in my belly , I do n't want my bollocks shot away , I'd rather stay in , In merry , merry , And fornicate my bleeding life away! The unremitting montage of violent acts 's anti - realist format allows reflects the similar "" staging "" of atrocities in . Acts of barbarity and genocide committed by are often executed in a flourish of theatricality , and is responding both to the sustained spectacle of violence in and to the failure of television to capture the horror of such events . 's idea was to bring the televised violence into the brutal and immediate milieu of the theatre , where she presented it in a form that was both frightening and unfamiliar . of the failures of a "" realistic "" interpretation of genocide and torture was that 's audiences were rapidly desensitised to human suffering that they could detach themselves from . The medium of television enabled viewers to literally "" switch off "" the scenes of distant violence reconstituted on their TV screens via media coverage . Blasted abandons realism because a performance that granted it 's audience the privilege of a wall ( in the manner of television ) would alleviate their position of responsibility : as voyeuristic onlookers , rather than inactive bystanders , their moral responsibility is diminished , and to remain inactive becomes acceptable . likewise rejects traditional historical documentation - for to catalogue something is not necessarily to witness it . In this takes the form of 's hackneyed journalistic formula , rendering incomprehensible cruelties into the digestible legibility of a tabloid article . The bewildering structure of the play reflects the source of it 's disintegration ( acts of rape and genocide ) , which are themselves baffling and traumatising . The revisionism of overwrites orthodox modes of historical recording with the non - realistic response of the artist . This is because traumatic and cruel events are beyond our regular powers of cognition and reason ( the empirical observation of murdered Jews can not impart the horror and impact of the ): < quote>""It is in the very nature of trauma to resist being accounted for in a completely coherent or easily comprehensible way . If is disorienting as a spectacle ... it is because atrocities of this sort can not be simply digested . "" ( URL ) < /quote > Oh ! What a lovely war attempts to revive the flagging sense of collective memory that was created through the trauma of . Though meticulously researched from academic and historical sources , even more vital was the input cast and audience provided . Each told individual stories that when collated formed a tapestry of national consciousness : < quote>""first one , then another had some story to tell , a story that had been handed down in the family , part of our national heritage . "" ( , preface : ix.) What Theatre Workshop achieved in Oh ! What a lovely war was nothing short of historical revisionism . It was a reinterpretation that returned the war 's significance to the working - class . Fundamentally the play concerns reclamation ; of giving a voice back to the forgotten soldier classes . confirms in an Afterward that "" was n't just a show . It was a revelation . "" ( Afterward : ) recollects how further material for the show was provided by a communal sharing by the audience of their "" memories and mementoes , even lines of dialogue which sometimes turned up in the show . "" ( Littlewood : ) Both play 's hold a belief that only through artistic representation can the witness / audience be made to fully understand the consequences of a catastrophic event . Yet it is also pertinently clear that < quote>""trauma is not just a crisis in the memory of the traumatised subject , but a crisis in representation and narration . "" ( URL ) < /quote > What develops logically is that traumatic events must be portrayed in a format that reflects their ineffability which is so irreconcilable to a logical world - view . The vast array of violent spectacle in is often stylised aesthetically by production companies . Red material frequently replaces the blood from 's eyes . Like the sub - text of 's dialogue and the seeming incoherency of it 's structure , the play 's poetic violence forces the audience to look beneath the exterior proceedings to address their source . To continue further the "" seed - tree "" allegory formulated by , shows us the seed of violence , and it shows us the tree . After we are left with the responsibility of discovering , and removing , the roots of such violent externalisations in ourselves .","< quote > There are parts of the universe which seem not to serve some purpose . . . So little finished is every part , and so coarse are the strokes with which it is executed. Hume , David ( ) , ed . , : Macmillan , p.77 < /fnote > Philo in Hume 's , is articulating the common objections to the Design argument , known also as . As an a posteriori argument , posits the idea that you can seek knowledge of God through observation of nature and the world . The fact that there is apparent order and purpose in the world suggests the need for a designer , rather than leaving it to chance . The universe is decidedly complex , so the simplest explanation is that there must have been a designer . And that designer is God . 's hymn states , "" Yes , God is good , all nature says . . . "" This echoes the main ideology behind the Design argument . defined the argument by positing his watchmaker theory . < fnote > Gurney , ( ) Hymn Number , Hymns and Psalms , : Methodist Publishing < /fnote> Suppose I found a watch upon the ground . . . We come to inspect the watch , to perceive that its parts are framed and put together for a purpose . . . to produce motion. The main push of 's theory suggests that if we were to stumble upon a complicated mechanism such as a watch , we would propose that there was a creator , for the watch can not create itself or "" just appear . "" argued that even if parts of the watch were lost , or it if it did not work properly , we would still postulate a designer . furthered the argument , suggesting that the fantastic order and beauty in the world points to a designer God . "" Order is a necessary condition of beauty . . . And the world is beautiful rather than ugly . "" < fnote > Davies , ( ) An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion , : , p.96 < /fnote > As already demonstrated , of the common objections to this theory is that the world is not necessarily ordered and beautiful , as , by viewing the world , we can observe chaos and disorder . < quote > Look round this universe . . . You admire this prodigious variety and fecundity . But inspect a little more narrowly these living existences . . . How hostile and destructive to each other! Hume , David ( ) , ed . , : , p.79 < /fnote > Indeed , many aspects of the world produce chaos and suffering , such as earthquakes and hurricanes , suggesting that the worlds ' order is not particularly perfect . But does this disprove God ? took great pains to reassure that disorder does not discredit a designer . "" It is not necessary that a machine be perfect , in order to show with what design it was made . "" < fnote > Rowe , and , , eds ( ) Philosophy of Religion : Selected Readings , : , p. < /fnote > Swinburne reinforced this idea , suggesting that people expect too much from God . He believed that God made a world where humans are free to learn and develop and in turn , choose to do either right or wrong . Pain and suffering is therefore crucial in order for humans to develop . "" Why God should make the universe ugly would be to give creatures the opportunity . . . to make the world beautiful for themselves . "" < fnote > Swinburne , ( ) : , p.146 < /fnote > However , argued that even if God is testing humans , his attributes are compromised . Natural Theology can indeed point to a designer of the universe , but it certainly can not point to a God . God 's common attributes are omnipotence and omni - benevolence , which can not be possible in the face of extreme pain and suffering . < quote > If the maker of the world can do all that he will , he wills misery . . . nature ( can not ) be made to resemble the work of a God both good and omnipotent. Vardy , ( ) The Puzzle of God , : , p.90 < /fnote > In short , if God were all - powerful , he would not be all - good and vice versa . However , one may ask why the designer God needs to be a God ? This argument only stands if aims to prove the existence of a God who embodies these traditional attributes . Hume wonders why the world 's designer needs to be "" God . "" If that is all we can settle for , then why stop there ? Perhaps there was creator . Perhaps a novice God created the world . < quote > If design needs to be explained , then explain it : but only by appealing to a design - producing being . To say that this being is God is to go beyond the evidence presented by design. Davies , ( ) An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion , : , p.98 < /fnote > This remains problematic for the Design argument as it articulates the philosophical leap that is also evident in the Ontological and Cosmological arguments . When trying to explain how the universe began , these arguments always seem to shift towards "" God . "" As if this is n't enough to contend with , this God is usually a God . Considering issues such as pain and suffering , Hume questions what kind of God we are dealing with if we are to accept the Design argument . Has he not done a very good job ? "" Because of this ambiguity in the facts one can not be justified in ascribing to God any infinite attributes of perfection . "" < fnote > Phillips , Zephaniah ( ) Religion Without Explanation , : , p.22 < /fnote > The objections raised by Hume and certainly pose problems for the Design argument to a certain extent , but they do not comment on the arguments ' validation , but rather focus on what kind of God we end up with if we are to accept . The argument is only postulating the existence of God . It is not commenting on the nature of God . Who are we , anyway , to try to understand God 's plan if he does indeed exist ? As God said to Job , "" where were you when I made the universe ? "" Perhaps we as humans will never have the capacity to know or understand God . < fnote > Job : < /fnote > This idea stands as the basis of challenge to the Design argument . He opposed the view that as humans , we can explain God by observing the material world . He maintained that the laws of cause and effect are limited to the physical world , as this is the only way we can think and reason . "" According to Kant , we are unable to experience ' things in themselves . ' "" We have no justification to apply the same rules of cause and effect to the spiritual world . Therefore , it is implausible to move from the physical world to the metaphysical world . "" The attainment of absolute totality is completely impossible on the path of empiricism . "" < fnote > Ibid . , p.97 < /fnote> Kant , Immanuel ( 1781 ) Critique of Pure Reason , ed . , : Everyman , p.426 < /fnote > However , many would argue that rejecting for this reason does not reject the concept of God . 's objection merely states that understanding God through use of the material world is impossible . Adding to the debate is 's theory of natural selection . The concept of evolution suggested a mechanism by which species adapt to their surroundings , allowing them to survive and develop by natural selection . Creatures can be formed from existing ones , without the need for an external designer . "" Those who had supported the Design argument had seen all the intricacies of nature as being the work of God . "" However , with 's theory of natural selection and the survival of the fittest , it was possible to see how evolution can explain the complexities of the universe . < fnote > Vardy , ( ) The Puzzle of God , : , p.91 < /fnote> This might look like design , but it is not ; it is in fact a perfectly natural process which does not require a designer . . .the design argument has been rendered redundant by science. However , 's theory does not take into account certain human attributes , such as altruism and duty . If the survival of the fittest allows to eliminate the weaker species , why do we as humans care for the handicapped or weak in society ? and try to reconcile evolution with by theorising that evolution was "" the mechanism that God uses to bring about his purposes , "" suggesting that evolution was part of God 's design . God , according to Tennant created the world in such a way to allow intelligent life to evolve . < fnote > Vardy , ( ) The Puzzle of God , : , p.92 < /fnote> A teleological interpretation of nature does not require that every detail was purposed or pre - ordained . Processes may produce by - products which were not purposed , but are the necessary outcome of processes by which a purpose is fulfilled. Hick , ( ) , p.122 < /fnote > Swinburne accepts the theory that species reproduce through generations , but he questions the existence of the species . As we know that the world has not been going on forever , something must have initially produced these species . For , evolution points to God . "" It is very probable that they were made by a rational agent - only clearly more powerful and knowledgeable than men . "" < fnote > Swinburne , ( ) : , p.135 < /fnote > In light of the various objections raised against , the theory of a designer God remains ambiguous . Can God 's existence be proved ? Kant demonstrated that it certainly can not by observing the material world . "" No one will be so bold as to profess that he comprehends the relation of the magnitude of the world as he has observed it to omnipotence . "" Perhaps we can not understand God by using the facts of this world . But this does not disprove God . Perhaps the Design argument is "" way there . "" < fnote > Davies , ( 2000 ) Philosophy of Religion : A Guide and Anthology , : , p.273 < /fnote > The problem of evil and ugliness opposes the view that the world is apparently ordered and beautiful . If beauty is considered perfection , then the world , some may say , is opposite to beautiful . Therefore , whoever made the world is decidedly imperfect . And this , says , is not what a believer wants God to be . Despite his criticisms , however , Hume seems to accept the force of Natural Theology . Although he suggests that the argument is too idealistic , he disregards the point . Hume is concerned with God 's character , which does not reject the existence of God , but rather highlights the implications of adopting the argument . It seems that has triumphed . But the argument is flawed . It postulates that there once was a designer , but there is no proof that the designer still exists . The argument makes no assumption about a sustainer . Hume also asks , who designed God ? He believes that the argument is prone to an infinite regress . "" If the material world rests upon a similar ideal world , this ideal world must rest upon another ; and so on , without end . "" < fnote > Ibid . , < /fnote > In an attempt to prove the existence of God , therefore , the Design argument remains inconclusive . It rests on individual judgement . As states , it owes more to its "" persuasive power than to its logic . "" < fnote > Vardy , ( ) The Puzzle of God , : , p.98 < /fnote> Annotated Bibliography Clack , Beverly and , ( ) A Critical Introduction , Cambridge : Polity Press < heading , ( ) , : Blackwell A chapter of pages was dedicated to the Design argument . While I did read through the entire chapter , I did not feel the need to use it for my essay . I found the writing very hard - going and particularly - sided , as it seemed to favour 's arguments . I also felt that the essay digressed from the point . Unlike the other books I used , this book did not outline the main point of the Design argument , but merely discussed the concept of a creator in several religions . There were no quotes from thinkers or philosophers and names that were becoming familiar to me , such as and , did not crop up in this book . Although this was a fairly deep , slightly unique way to engage with the Design argument , I felt I did not gain much from reading it . < heading > Davies , ( ) An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion , : Press Among others , this was the book I found most useful when writing my essay . There are sections dedicated to each argument and objection in regards to the Design argument . Hume 's arguments were clearly laid out , with reference to his work . Objections raised by , were also included , giving a clear and concise understanding of the overall debate concerning the Design argument . I would recommend this book to anyone approaching the Design argument with a blank slate as each section is broken down and explained thoroughly . I found it particularly useful to quote from , as the book has been written quite simplistically , so the quotes were not too long or detailed . Davies , ( 2000 ) Philosophy of Religion : A Guide and Anthology , : , ( ) Hymn Number , Hymns and Psalms , : Methodist Publishing < heading > Hick , ( ) This was a collection of writings and statements by various philosophers and thinkers . The ones particularly useful to my essay were the chapters on and . I was glad I chose this book as and Tennant were not dominant in my essay but I liked to include them as they offered valid points towards the Design argument . I also found that there was not much literature on these philosophers on the reading list so I was glad to have some of their own writing to incorporate into my essay . While the other books offered the views and ideas of and Tennant , they did not offer much of their own writing . This would be good for a student who was looking for a collection of writings by many philosophers all in book . Therefore , this would be a good investment as it will come in handy when writing any essay for Philosophy . Hume , David ( ) , ed . , : , Immanuel ( 1781 ) Critique of Pure Reason , ed . , : Everyman < heading > Phillips , Zephaniah ( ) Religion Without Explanation , : Blackwell This book had a whole chapter dedicated to 's main arguments against the argument , titling it as "" Hume 's Legacy . "" His arguments were broken down into sections . Each section had excerpts from to back up the points in the arguments . I found that the only thing lacking were counter - arguments or objections to Hume 's ideas , although did include other thinkers and philosophers who agreed with Hume . I found this book useful in explaining and breaking down 's main arguments and was particularly good for making the dialogues between , clear . < heading , and , , eds ( ) Philosophy of Religion : Selected Readings , : Jovanovich There were sections in this book dedicated to the writings of both and . Large excerpts were taken from Hume 's and . The section dedicated to 's writing was particularly useful as I did not have any books specifically on 's own writings about the Design argument . It was good to have the watch maker theory in 's own words to include in the essay . I had no need to use the section on Hume as I already had . The sections did not have any further literature , to criticise or explain the writings . This would be useful if one could not find the original works of Paley and Hume . < heading , ( ) : Clarendon Press I managed to use several chapters of this book , among them being the discussions about Teleological Arguments and The Problem of Evil . This book was useful as appeared much in my essay and I wanted to have quotes and writings from his own book , rather than use a critic . His writing was intricate , yet easy to understand and his objections were broken down nicely . I found this book crucial to my essay as I referred to it constantly . Each section had a sub - title , which meant it did n't get too confusing and in depth . This book would be crucial for anyone studying and I would strongly recommend it . < heading > Vardy , ( ) The Puzzle of God , London : Harper Collins I would definitely recommend this book to anyone writing an essay on the Design argument . Each section explained and analysed the various arguments and objections outlined by Hume , Kant , , and Tennant . At the end of each section , offered bullet points to summarise the main points of the section , which proved very useful when I wanted to refresh my memory . The chapter was quite detailed but did n't become confusing . I used this book as my main reference source , quoting some main points that I managed to glean from it . I especially liked this book as it was not biased in any way . I found the author very neutral as he merely outlined the various arguments for and against the Design argument .",0 "< heading > Introduction to the project: Viking - age shipbuilding has always been an important part of cultural heritage . The techniques of this craft as well as its cultural implication has long been known to the people , however only with the discovery of ships , such a thorough analysis became possible . In th century AD the inhabitants of loaded ships with stones and deliberately sunk them in a narrow channel in a place , where the sea bed was naturally raised . These ships then formed a barrier , part of a whole system of barriers protecting the southern part of and the town of . The project is one of the most detailed and planned investigations of ships and shipbuilding techniques in the world . It is also outstanding in terms of its duration , from the early investigations in . up till now , when more works on the publications and further interpretation and exhibition are still being carried out . The are a very marine nation , hence the salvage and conservation of the ships is hugely significant for them , as being a part of their national tradition and cultural heritage . The ships are interesting both because of the unconventional purpose they have been used for in the past and of the innovative techniques that have been used to excavate them . By far the most detailed and recent report from the excavations that has ever been published is the volume written by the site directors , and , The ships I : topography , archaeology , history , conservation and display published in by in in cooperation with of . This is the main work that this evaluation will be based on , although it is important to remember about numerous smaller publications that appeared since . < heading > Strengths: The approaches and methodology: Undoubtedly , a strong point of this project is the approach with which the archaeologists started their works . The investigation has been carefully targeted since its very beginning . , its aim was to document and confirm the date of what has previously been regarded as a 's 's Ship of 14 th - 15 th century forming a barrier defending Roskilde against the . In addition , the newly developing techniques of scuba diving for archaeological excavations could have been applied on this site , since it was under the water surface . There was a need to practice these new techniques and people preferred to practice them on the less significant sites . However , shortly after the first surveys and initial excavations , the site revealed unexpectedly a lot more evidence than it was ever hoped for . Bearing that in mind , the aims of the project altered to the salvation , conservation and exhibition of finds . Undoubtedly an important advantage was the extensive funding received from various organizations interested in promoting the cultural heritage . In , in order to raise the ships safely it was necessary to drain the whole area of the site ( ca . m ) by building a cofferdam . It could not be drained completely straight away , because the timbers needed to remain moist , otherwise they would corrode and become virtually impossible to lift . Additionally , the stones from ships ' cargo had to be prevented from sinking into the soft wood of the construction elements , which would inevitably cause further damage . < heading > Publication: The volume published in is an excellent example of a detailed , in - depth and well structured publication of a project report . and have skilfully gathered the results of of excavation and interpretation and presented it in a form of a modern , well - thought and illustrated publication . The work starts with presenting the environmental context of the find , namely the topography , hydrography and geology of the area , which of so important in underwater archaeology and understanding of the site . Next , they report the excavation process , documentation , analyses , dating , conservation and display methods . This is followed by the description and interpretation of each ship and historical background for the ships and the barrier . The summary is in , and . < heading > Excellent exhibition and research: The finds from the site have been displayed in a purpose - built museum in the port of . Since the excavations , the museum has expanded both in physical and theoretical sense . It includes the exhibition hall itself , but also a boatyard , where many other activities are taking place . A lot of attention has been put into the conservation of the ships . The original planks and other construction elements were exposed as part of a metal skeleton , with those elements incorporated where they would have been originally . This visualization is surely very effective and helpful for visitors without archaeological background to interpret the elements , which otherwise would remain largely inexplicable . The museum became also a centre for maritime studies in and of the most important in . The extensive research conducted by its staff is a base for many other publications and projects . Experimental archaeology is also an important component of this research . Numerous journeys made on replicas of ships and other vessels contribute enormously to our understanding of both the technicalities of early medieval ships as well as the navigation methods . < heading > Historical and social context: The ships have been put into a much wider historical context . The authors did not concentrate only on the techniques of shipbuilding , but also attempted to place their finds in a more social context . Although it might be obvious to do so , shipwrecks have not been extensively used as evidence for social contacts between communities . The aspects of technological advances of a given society and its relation to other groups have often been separate areas of study . In case of project , however , society plays an important role in the interpretation of finds . This is evident , for instance , in the reconstruction of the history of use of the ships , the functions they had and how does that fit into a larger picture of the region . Undoubtedly , the development of processual and post - processual archaeology in and significantly influenced the methods of interpretation of the finds . < heading > Weaknesses: It is comparatively demanding to evaluate the weaknesses of the project , considering its scale and duration . Significant drawback of the project is a limited number of thorough , detailed and summarized publications of the results until recently , when the above mentioned volume was at last finalized . It is possible , that due to the lack of proper technology , mane data could not be analyzed in a sufficient way to present it in such a form . Additionally , it is fair to suspect , that and were largely preoccupied with the conservation and presentation of the finds to the local people , as that was their initial priority . There have been , indeed , many technological developments since the ships have been raised . New techniques of archaeological investigation were invented , such as geophysics or chemical analysis . Most of the data from the ships , however , come from the time of excavations in . Therefore , these new techniques have not been applied to them to the full extent yet . Although new dating methods have been already used and the species of wood analyzed , not much else has been done in terms of other potential source of information , such as the more detailed analysis of organic remains or the chemical analysis of traces of food or plants . Although there have not been many other stray finds discovered with the ships , the ones that have been found have not received enough attention . They have been studied in their own context , but have neither been put into a wider context of the region nor of the relations with other regions . Many inferences could have been made about the social aspect of the finds , had they been analyzed from a slightly more anthropological point of view . < heading > Conclusions: Roskilde project is a unique example of marine archaeology research , both in terms of its significance for people and of the understanding of the development of Viking - age shipping . The wrecks themselves and the barrier as a whole can tell us a lot about the technology and society of contemporary people . The scale of the project , its importance and the amount of funding it received , all contributed to the establishment of such a successful centre for marine archaeology , which is a leading institution in . Also because of the innovative techniques of excavation , the project became known to the wider public already at an early stage , which is evident in the number of people that visited the site when the works were still in progress . people came to Roskilde to marvel the cofferdam that has been erected around the site and the emerging Viking ships , such an important part of their cultural heritage . The project has numerous strong points , bearing in mind its extent , duration and scale it has almost reached perfection . Since the very beginning the methodology applied to the analysis of the site has been innovative and effective . During the phase of excavations in the techniques of scuba diving excavations have been put into practice and during the phase in archaeologists showed even more technological creativeness and advancement by constructing a cofferdam to drain the site . In the course of research in the post - excavation phase , the interpretation of finds has been strongly influenced by the development of processual archaeology , which resulted in adoption of a more contextual approach . This allowed putting the site into the historical and social context of . Ship wrecks can be a useful source of information about the different types of contacts that occurred between societies . This , however , has not been much explored yet , but project is surely a pioneer in this field . The results of the investigation have been very well published in the analyzed volume . The presentation of data is well - thought , clear , organized and clever . The authors began with the environmental background of the site , described the finds , their interpretation and the methods of conservation and dating . The volume is valuable both for professional archaeologists as well as simply people interested in the finds . Furthermore , the results have been excellently displayed in a purpose - built museum building . The wooden elements have not just been put on display as they were found , but there is indication which part of ship they came from . The museum also made a reconstruction of the whole way of living associated with marine activities . Many attractions for kids have been organized , which draws even more attention to this already popular tourist destination in . The drawback of the project is the enormous amount of time it took to produce a decent publication summarizing the obtained data . This , however , could be explained by the continuous technological developments that the museum team encountered in the way , which provided them with more and more new material , unavailable before . Bearing that in mind , the volume already seems slightly outdated , and many other things could have been analyzed , weather physically or chemically . Also the stray finds might have potentially been put into slightly wider context . Therefore , there are still a few points the authors can improve in their next publication , which in progress and will cover the experimental side of the project . Let us hope that the technology will not be too much ahead the authors at the time of this next publication .","Archaeology as a discipline has been evolving extremely rapidly for . Considering its sudden appearance after of only sporadic archaeological interest of the Near Eastern rulers , the development we are witnessing is very amusing and understandable bearing in mind the recent technological progress . Different areas of the subject were developing constantly and the direction of this development depended on the technologies as much as ideologies . The study of countryside developed already in , when the scholars or rather antiquarians such as Dr. working at in , Mr. or Mr. carried their excavations on deserted medieval villages . The development of medieval archaeology was inevitably limited by certain factors . It concentrated mainly on churches , castles or manor houses , so their view of medieval life was biased by towards the higher class of the society . Also the works were often carried out by architects , interested in the structure of a feature at level , instead of digging down to find out more about the chronological sequences ( and ) . In the th centuries many medieval villages became deserted , forming perfect sites for future archaeologists due to the high level of preservation . This is why most of the evidence about the villages from the onwards up till comes from this period of abandonment . The excavations were held at such sites like by . and , by Mrs. and most of all at by Prof. ( and ) . However , in and the interest of the scholars seem to turn more towards the study of the origins of villages and the surounding landscape . Instead of focusing on individual settlements the new approaches emphasize the importance of the attached fields and the buildings within them . This forms a "" block of countryside "" under examination , creating the opportunity to analyze the "" inter - relationship between the human and animal populations , settlements , fields and the environment and how that relationship changes through time "" ( and Grant 1988:36 ) . In other words , we are now interested in answering the question why people chose to live in villages , not why they deserted it . Therefore the next arising question is why did we change our interest ? < heading > Why does the knowledge change ? < /heading > The factors determining this might have been various , including new technologies available that allowed archaeologists to reach lower levels of settlement , thus enabling the study of its earlier periods in more details and with more accuracy . For instance , and mention the limits of phosphate analysis to determine the location of the house , due to "" the constant sweeping of the floor by the housewife "" . Nowadays they would meet some strong protests against such view from feminists or some insulted housewives , but nevertheless the areas with high phosphate content , ( which would mean the presence of animals ) were in fact the spaces between the houses . With present geophysical techniques the chance for obtaining accurate results are much bigger . In addition , the administrative side of archaeology has changed significantly , taking as an example the development of rescue archaeology in and and later the introduction of PPG16 which revolutionized the sources of funding the excavations . Hence a greater amount of evidence became available to analyze as more excavations were held . New ideological approaches such as or post - procesual archaeology undoubtedly influenced the way of thinking of the scholars . The arguments for the change from timber to stone ( which I will analyze in more detail in due course ) clearly bear the traces of traditional and . We also should consider different cultural backgrounds of the researchers and the regional variations and different cultures , not only within but also the whole . claims that there are as many interpretations as there are archaeologists and that archaeology can never be fully objective , so that subjectivity and modern approach can affect the process of interpretation ( ) . In this work I will analyze our changing knowledge about peasant houses from till , focusing mainly on the debates of different archaeologists and historians about the durability change of building materials and plans of buildings . < heading > Voices on the durability of medieval peasant houses : < /heading > Since our idea about the construction of a peasant house has changed considerably . If the data about the construction changed , this undoubtedly led to the reassessment of the opinions about their durability . The study of deserted medieval villages that evolved throughout up till allowed the archaeologists to draw some conclusions about the construction of the houses . This was based on however limited number of excavations and contemporary excavation techniques . The most popular objects of investigation appearing in the publications seemed to be - Saxon sunken - huts like those at or . This was not due to the common interest of contemporary archaeologists in these structures , but to the fact , that sunken - huts can be relatively easy recognized during excavation process thanks to the darker fill of the huts ( and ) . Also , the stone foundations or walls could be easier recorded , because of the lack of sufficient techniques to record the remains of timber . and in their work "" "" provided only very limited amount of information about timber buildings , claiming that the later stone disturbances did not allow them to investigate the timber phase ( and ) . On the other hand , on the basis of the study of turf and cob walls ( not very detailed either ) from probably th till th century excavated at , they made a conclusion , that the buildings that had such walls could not be made to last , maybe up till ( and ) . Therefore , the surviving vernacular buildings , dated not earlier than 16 th century , had to be the results of , which took place at different locations and in different periods of time and was a general replacement of those impermanent structures by permanent houses . However , even those earliest and of poorest construction were evaluated as supreme to those from the excavations , which did not demonstrate any evidence for substantial timbers , able to withstand the weight of a massive roof structure ( ) . After of research the new methods and resources such as written documents provided the archaeologists with evidence for use of cruck , forks or siles , which would be the "" missing "" major timbers supporting the roof . Such evidence include the accounts of the vicar of , who in paid carpenters for placing stones under the crucks to stabilize the building . The use of these elements is also often recorded in schedules of repairs , like the one from or . Furthermore , there is evidence for timber "" tenants ' buildings being moved and re - erected "" . This indicates the houses had to be of good quality , enough to make it worth moving them to another location ( ) . Already and ( and ) noted a series of stake - holes around the buildings , which they thought indicated numerous rebuilding of the houses . They could not , however , date them precisely , so they were not able to set the time interval during which the rebuilding took place . It might well have been , hence being a clear evidence for the more substantial construction of these houses than they originally thought . Continuous works on their houses would be rather problematic for the peasants who occupied them . Therefore , a new approach states , that took place because of the change from low - cost buildings , which required a great amount of maintenance works to high - cost stone ones , that did not need a constant care ( ) . We need to remember , that the medieval peasantry was a hierarchical social group , within which we can distinguish those more and less wealthy . Hence it is possible to incline , that their buildings varied considerably as for their quality , as wrote in from those ' commonly strong and well timbered ' , to those ' slightly set up with a few posts ... in the fenny countries and northern parts ... where for lack of wood they are enforced to continue this ancient manner of building ' ( Morriss ) . So there was already a new manner of building , but because of the lack of resources people were forced to build in ' old way ' , and those who could afford it could buy wood on markets . < heading > Approaches to the change of building materials of medieval peasant houses: The changing evidence and techniques also affected our knowledge about the building materials that were used for peasant houses . The general types of material were agreed already in and that did not change . What did change is the estimation of periods and regions the materials were used . Thus , a fact is that there was a trend to proceed from turf or timber framed buildings to more substantial stone walls . In their work on deserted medieval villages and ( ..... ) describe the turf walls as being dominant in the south - west region of , with not much evidence for their presence in any other part of the country . As an example they put already mentioned , dated for th till th century . Some cob walls were recorded during excavations in , also traces of timber constructions in many parts of the country . Timber was said to be difficult to investigate ' because of disturbances from later stone buildings ' and in most cases there is nothing but ' the odd post - hole or slot been found ' ( b&h ) . In addition , the debate on the use of substantial timbers in the construction has already been mentioned above . The change from timber to stone occurred in late twelfth and all over the country . According to the idea of the early medievalists about early medieval houses , they were not built to last , sometimes less . They also found evidence for frequent rebuilding and although re - erecting new buildings from the same timbers also took place , there had to be undoubtedly enormous amount of wood used to build these houses over . Therefore , the archaeologists came to a conclusion , that due to the development in agriculture and a greater level of land consumption the wood supplies in most parts of the country became over explored . This was the main reason for the emergence of stone buildings . However , nowadays as well as , archaeologists reevaluated this view , suggesting a new solution for this phenomenon . Namely , the new factor causing the occurrence of stone buildings ( or timber buildings on stone foundations ) is said to be the availability of money . As the idea of durability of the houses changed , which I analyzed above , the use of materials had to be also reconsidered . Dyer presents his opinion on high standard of medieval peasant houses , from being constructed by professional carpenters . This brings us to the reflections on the medieval economy in the countryside . As the archaeologists of let me call it the ' old school ' thought , the materials used for building a house were those available in the closest vicinity . Therefore , we see turf buildings in the south - west , cob walls in the east and timber all over the country . However , even in the areas where stone was easily accessible we do not note the occurrence of stone buildings before late 12 th century . This puts that idea of ' regionalism ' into question . In addition , in the th to th centuries , as I mentioned , the change from timber ( or wattle - and - daub method ) to stone took place , and this was in most parts of , regardless of the immediate availability of stone . claims , that this was a proof for the medieval economy relying more on accessibility of market , that the resources themselves . If people could afford hiring a skilled carpenter , this was an indication of their material status , which leads us to the conclusion , that people started to build in stone not because the wood resources were over explored , but because of the economical growth and availability of money ( Dyer in ) . Here we can notice the influence of . While the ' old school ' explanation was simply lack of wood resources , in archaeologists came to a conclusion , that maybe it was something less prosaic than that and found a connection to the contemporary economical and social processes . < heading > The change of plans and typology of medieval peasant houses: In presented his typology of medieval peasant buildings . He included groups , a peasant cot , a long - house and a farm . They were generally associated with the material status of the peasants , placing the cottagers , who had little arable land , if any , on the lower part of social status . They lived in peasant cots , which were small houses with room of around by m or rooms 10 by 4 m ( and ) . The next level was inhabited by the villeins , who lived in long - houses , which by definition is a long building , of a varied size , with living part at end and a byre with for agricultural use , separated from the living part by a cross - passage . It has been found in many parts of , mainly the south , but also and . claims , that long - houses were the development from earlier forms of timber buildings , occurring from ( and ) . As we know , this was the time of change from timber to stone . In addition , the different types of houses are said to be the result of varied prosperity of the farmers , thus we can observe the change from timber to a cot or to a long - house . This was not a chronological development then . The next group consists of farms , in case of which the byre was separated from the living part in order to stress the material status of the people living there , the new - forming group of yeomen . They imitated the manorial houses , forming a courtyard by placing the byre or barn perpendicularly to the house . This type of settlements occurred in and was often simultaneous with long - houses and a change from long - house to a farm was also recorded . In their work , and admit , however , that the evidence they possess , on which they base their observations is very limited due to a small amount of excavations and the existing ones being brief and incomplete ( and ) . Therefore , archaeologists must continuously reevaluate their knowledge according to the new data . Regarding the cots , we now know , that they were rather located on the outskirts of villages or within the village green ( ) . There is relatively more evidence about long - houses . However , the difference between long - house and a farm has been recently put into question . While the known sites have been excavated again , there is apparently no evidence either for presence of absence of the cattle in the ' cattle part ' of the long house , which forms part of its definition . There has been a considerable confusion over the term "" long - house "" , since over archaeologists have been assigning this term to buildings with opposite entrances . It has been thought , that in the late medieval and post - medieval period long - houses were converted into farms . Hurst suggests , that this was a development of a type of dwelling . Due to the above circumstances as well as the fact , that the examples used to prove the transition and as claims in his work , the of them are ' suspect ' ( Gardiner 2000 ) . Furthermore , the occurrence of long - houses has recently been associated with the type and state of local agriculture . Chapelot and ( in ) noted , that this type of houses "" disappeared "" from most parts of the country apart from the and Isles . They explain , that houses in which people live under the same roof with animals represent an undeveloped agricultural system , ' based on grain production and a backward form of stock raising ' . On the other hand , according to the evidence from , claims , that the reorientation of houses in a form of a yard was directly connected to the new , stock - based form of agriculture ( ) . This is clearly a sign of regionalism , neglected earlier by himself and ( and ) . Nowadays we know from the documentary evidence however , that the long houses were much more popular also in the parts of the country that seemed not to have any traces of them ( ) . This can either undermine the whole theory about regionalism , or simply mean that we do not know those other regions well enough yet . < heading > Conclusions: Over archaeology once again proved to be a very dynamic discipline . Our knowledge can change surprisingly quicky due to the changes in technology , new evidence , influence of a certain ideology and approach . Archaeologists , as well as their students and the public should know and accept this fact , remembering at the same time that no solution is the only correct one . Very true are the words of , who argues that ' the size , quality and complexity of the late medieval peasant buildings have frequently been underestimated ' ( Dyer ) . The studies of the deserted medieval villages gave the archaeologists an impression , that the earlier medieval houses were not built to last long , they were mostly made of local , bad quality materials and that at different time and locations there was a rapid change to more permanent dwellings , which they called . This marked also the barrier between medieval and post - medieval farmhouses ( .. ) . These ideas were then undermined by the new approaches , based on more careful excavations and better techniques . Now we think that the durability of the medieval houses depended on the status of the peasant and the accesibility of resources and money . Those more wealthy peasant hired skilled carpenters to build their houses . As well teh seems not to be a rapid change any more , but rather a whole process . The changes in durability as well as materials used occurred in different regions , which is an evidence of trhe process being more varied and complex than it was previously assummed by and . The plans of houses were thought to develop chronologically , form from another , from a peasant cot , through a long - house to a farm . Now it has been proved , that some forms developed independently and did not derive from the ' previous ' one . There are still many unanswered questions or those which apparently have an answer , but it needs further reconsideration . Therefore , we should not accept the knowledge we have as the one providing all the answers .",1 "The idea of distinguishing between a negative and a positive sense of the term ' liberty ' goes back at least to , but was examined and defended in depth by in . showed negative and positive liberty are not merely distinct kinds of liberty ; they can be seen as rival , incompatible interpretations of a single political ideal . However there are criticisms of this theory and in view , there are a great many different possible interpretations of freedom , and it is only 's artificial dichotomy that has led us to think in terms of there being . I will attempt to show why I think that 's definition ; that the basic concept of freedom is subjects being free from certain constraints , or preventing conditions , to do or become what they want , is the most persuasive . Initially though , I will answer the part of the question and try and distinguish some contrasts between the notions of positive and negative liberty . asks different questions in an attempt to show the distinction ; for finding positive liberty he asks what , or who , is the source of control or interference that can determine someone to do , or be , this rather than that ? Where as for negative liberty he asks the question : what is the area within which the subject - a person or group of persons - is or should be left to do or be what he is able to do or be , without interference by other persons ? So , for positive liberty , claims that there needs to be self - mastery and a lack of internal obstacles in order to become free . It is positive liberty that , Hegel , and all talk about when they talk of self - control and realization ; basically our ability to appraise ideas which prompt us to act and decide whether or not to satisfy them . < fnote > Isaiah Berlin ( ) Four Essays on . : , p. - 2 . < /fnote > If you are positively free then you are liberated from temptations you know that you would reject if you were in a calmer , saner or more knowledgable condition . talks about social self - control where you should devise a strategem if you know you can not resist a certain temptation , for example , addicts can seek discipline and social order as a means of liberation . sees positive liberty as "" to be conscious of myself as a thinking , willing , active being , bearing responsibilities for my choices and able to explain them by references to my own ideas and purposes . "" It is this type of liberty which is most heavily criticised and is dismissed by some as being an unnecessary condition to be free . < fnote > Berlin Four Essays on Liberty p. . < /fnote > Negative liberty , on the other hand , encompasses non - interference and a lack of external obstacles , something which strongly professed . There must be an absence of coercion and argues that the "" The wider the area of non - interference the wider my freedom "" . When argued that "" at the very least the liberty of religion , opinion , expression , property , must be guaranteed against arbitrary invasion "" , he was arguing for negative liberty . also claims that your negative liberty is infringed even if the action against you was unintended as it still blocks you from being free to do what you desire . Typical examples of a loss of negative freedom can be found in situations such as when a dictator stops you from public worship , or punishes you for speaking your mind . < fnote > Berlin Four Essays on Liberty p. . < /fnote> Berlin Four Essays on Liberty p. . < /fnote > So for the main difference between the concepts of liberty are that positive liberty focuses on the individual and negative liberty concentrates on interpersonal relationships . He sees liberty in these concepts which he believes are very distinct from each other . His argument is certainly persuasive especially when you consider the long traditions of prominent political philosophers such as , , , and . sees all of these men as being firmly in favour of either positive or negative liberty , and not some mixture of the . He is also very careful to distinguish between negative liberty and conditions which make the exercise of liberty impossible so that he can not be criticised for allowing negative liberty to encompass everything . What does not count as a limitation to liberty is when something is impossible to achieve , for example , a human flying to the moon . This only becomes an infringement of negative liberty if other people are not giving resources to allow someone to fly to the moon in a rocket . Within his analysis of negative liberty he also talks of economic slavery , for example , if a man is too poor to afford something on which there is no legal ban he is as little free to have it as he would be if it were forbidden him by law . He also distinguishes between the actions of other human beings and your own physical capacity so if it is a natural disability or mental problem that is stopping you from doing something or you are being affected by economic slavery then you are being ' derived ' of freedom . < fnote > Berlin Four Essays on Liberty p. . < /fnote > Another of 's arguments is that there is a difference between the concepts because they can often conflict with each other . For example , if a man is walking down the street and there is a big hole in front of him which he has not noticed then positive liberty would allow someone to push them out of the way on the basis that you would want to be pushed out of the way if you were in a more knowledgeable position , i.e. that you knew that the hole was there . However negative liberty would say that no - one should interfere as there is no situation when it is acceptable to physically stop someone doing what they want to do , so in the case of the man , walking down the street . Although this proves that there may well be concepts it raises the question of which liberty is most important and therefore is it even necessary for the least important one to exist ? Perhaps 's biggest critic is who argues that there is a triadic relationship within liberty . He sees all liberty is freedom from some constraint to do or be something and that we might sometimes focus on the constraints because the objectives are obvious , or vice versa , but both are always implicitly at issue . There is a relation between things : an agent , certain preventing conditions , and certain doings or becomings of the agent . Any statement about freedom or unfreedom can be translated into a statement of the above form by specifying what is free or unfree , from what it is free or unfree , and what it is free or unfree to do or become . On 's analysis , then , there is no simple dichotomy between positive and negative liberty ; rather , we should recognize that there is a whole range of possible interpretations or ' conceptions ' of the single concept of liberty . Indeed , as says and as seems implicitly to admit , a number of classic authors can not be placed unequivocally in or the other of the camps . Locke , for example , is normally thought of as one of the fathers or classical liberalism and therefore as a staunch defender of the negative concept of freedom . He indeed states explicitly that ' [ to be at ] liberty is to be free from restraint and violence from others ' . But he also says that liberty is not to be confused with ' license ' , and that "" that ill deserves the name of confinement which hedges us in only from bogs and precipices "" This confusion can be shown more clearly if you look at the problem that if negative liberty is freedom from obstacles than why can it not be that freedom from internal obstacles , positive liberty , is actually negative liberty as well ? < fnote > , ( ) . : , p. , . < /fnote > There has also been some criticism of each concept separately , leading some scholars to choose one and dismiss the other . Negative liberty has been criticised as being inadequate because it is impossible to allow everyone to do exactly as they please as this would lead to complete chaos and there is always going to be a serious lack of resources to achieve this . disagrees with over negative liberty as he sees the solution to not having such liberty with the logic that "" If I find that I am able to do little or nothing of what I wish , I need only contract or extinguish my wishes , and I am made free . "" He then disregards this as being acceptable by saying that "" Ascetic self denial may be a source of integrity or serenity and spiritual strength , but it is difficult to see how it can be called an enlargement of liberty . "" < fnote > Berlin Four Essays on Liberty p. - 40 . < /fnote > is another scholar who has found difficulties with the notion of simply using negative liberty as he claims that "" the scheme has no place for the notion of significance . It will allow only for purely quantitative judgements . "" His point is that it is not the type of liberty which is important but the significance of what is being done to block someone 's liberty . If you did not do this then you could argue that is a freer country than because it has fewer traffic lights which stop you driving down the road as you would wish . He also points out that internal barriers create external ones such as depression ( a mental barrier ) not allowing someone to trek across the ( a physical one ) . < fnote > , ( ) Philosophy and . : . p. . < /fnote > Positive liberty has been criticised as having the ability to lead to the ' Totalitarian Menace ' if it is taken to be what and others believed it to be . It has been suggested that if steps are needed to reach this end ; self - control and realization , paternalism , social self - control and state servitude , positive liberty should be seen as a redundant concept . There is also an argument about whether it is more important that it is the person or the action that is free . So , for example , if a person chooses of his own free will to become a slave then his action is free but he as a human being is no longer free and it is difficult to discern whether he has positive liberty or not . Further , there are problems with distinct notions of liberty when you look at opportunity and exercise concepts of liberty . describes an exercise concept as where "" one is free only to the extent that one has effectively determined oneself and the shape of 's life "" which is compatible with both negative and positive liberty . However opportunity concept is only compatible with positive liberty as it describes being free as being "" a matter of what we can do , of what it is open to us to do , whether or not we do anything to exercise these options . "" way of looking at it is "" if an opportunity concept is not compatible with a positive theory , but whether it or its alternative can suit a negative theory , then way of ruling out positive theories in principle is by espousing an opportunity concept . "" So in effect it is not necessary to have positive liberty if you are looking at liberty in terms of just opportunity concept . < fnote > Taylor , Philosophy . p. . < /fnote> Taylor , Philosophy . p. . < /fnote > In conclusion I think that although makes an important distinction between different ways of looking at liberty , positive and negative liberty are not distinct enough to be thought of as different concepts . They also have trouble standing firmly as independent ideas as there has been heavy criticism of both . 's analysis seems to me to cover the essence of what liberty and freedom are and when there is a conflict between the different ways of looking at liberty ( something which I think rarely occurs ) then it is just a matter of deciding which one is more important at the time .","< quote > ' Indeed , it quickly becomes evident that beyond the level of a few clichés , there is no such thing as a standard theory of comedy in this period . Nor will we find a set of discrete competing theories , or a clear - cut transition from a satire oriented formula to a subsequent ' sentimental one' . ' Hume , R , D , The Development Of English Drama In , P 33 . < /fnote > It is not an easy task to define the writing of following the Restoration of Charles the . The period reflects the perception of the world in vastly contrasting ways by the and cultures . The use of theatrical techniques by the differing cultures to illustrate social and political values renders the plays of this period to have built into their fabric , an overriding reflection of social consciousness and political ideas . This reflection appears to be the very essence of . The difficulty lies in identifying the genre of the plays - more particularly , . It has been rightly noted that several sorts of comedy co - existed during the period . They can be - rather clumsily - categorized as , Intrigue , Dryden , Manners , Farce and Sentiment . This presents a problem when we come to apply them to the plays however ; for when reading , one gets a sense that it consists of many of the categories combined together . Moreover , the plays are categorized according only to opinion - ' , for example , ' ... is a comedy of manners according to most critics , a satire or a wit comedy according to others . Such a system of categorization obscures as much as it clarifies the playwright 's aims and methods ' . < fnote > Hume , R , D , The Development Of English Drama In , P 36 . < /fnote > Although the shift from wit or manners comedy , using a satirical approach - to the rise of the sentimental approach is quite clear , discussing these different approaches to playwriting remains problematic . ' ... Exemplary theory appears even at the outset of the period ( note that Mrs. is busy rejecting it in ) , while satiric theory is never obliterated . ' < fnote > Hume , R , D , The Development Of English Drama In , P 38 . < /fnote > For this essay I have chosen plays , each using a different approach . The satiric in ' and the shift toward the sentimental in 's Last Shift ' . however , I am going to discuss each of the styles and establish the clear difference between them before exploring how each approach affects the components of the different plays . The approaches give an additional purpose than simply entertaining the audience . The satirical held up human vices and follies to ridicule or scorn . A use of biting wit , irony or sarcasm intended to expose the harsh realities of society . The sentimental approach - more aptly termed as an exemplary form of comedy , hoped to fulfil a contrasting role to the satirical approach I think . I will now highlight the main differences to be discussed . of the differences in the approach to playwriting is the effect the social background had on the satirical and the sentimental style . Another difference lies in characterisation . appears to have relied upon particular components to make it successful . The is its mission to recommend virtue and discountenance vice , be it by illustrating honestly a society filled with creatures of appetite , exemplified in ' , or , in the case of ' 's Last Shift ' , presenting us with such character converted to love with unlikely suddenness . The play 's success as either a corrective or an exemplary comedy is drawn from the wittily dealt with moral issues within the plot and the responses of the characters towards them . This component gives its didactic quality . Its effectiveness depends on the play 's success in reflecting the characters and manners of the period - approached differently in satiric and sentimental writing . This is the component . ' ... There is a distinction between comedy regarded as the vehicle of corrective satire and comedy conceived as an almost exemplary display of social grace and witty refinement . ' < fnote > Hume , R , D , The Development Of English Drama In , P 37 . < /fnote > Stemming from the differences in character between the approaches a contrast in the humour of the plays . A satirical play depends a great deal on wit and sarcasm in order to expose human vice . Although exemplary or sentimental comedy makes use of satirical wit in a similar way , ( particularly in the acts of ' 's Last Shift ' ) , "" Acts for you coarse were design'd , ' it is identified through the use of a more genteel and pleasant humour . < fnote > Womersley , D , Ed , Restoration Drama An Anthology , ' 's Last Shift ' , P . < /fnote > It was the use of satire however , which made 's ' so successful . Although the main intention of the plot is borrowed from 's ' , 's approach depicts a savage society illustrating exactly the way he viewed the world and human nature . This contrasts highly to the refined society presented by the play . wrote of the play , "" The author of ' The Plain Dealer' ... has obliged all honest and virtuous men by of the most bold , most general , and most useful satires , which has ever been presented on the theatre . "" < fnote > URL Search ' , Introduction . < /fnote > Written before a sentimental approach to playwriting became popular , social consciousness is clearly apparent in the satiric style . wanted theatre to create images which asked questions of a moral and social type . It became a place where people were encouraged to ask questions . Underpinning the philosophy of the period was , whose theories are built into the fabric of the Restoration Comedies . The theories of Hobbes make clear he was suspicious of mans ' virtue . He observed that the inclination of all men was to gain power and dominate . "" I put for a general inclination of all mankind , a perpetual and restless desire of Power after Power , that ceaseth only in . "" < fnote > From Hobbes 's "" "" ( ) . Class handout . < /fnote > Evident in ' , is 's theory that , ' Every man is enemy to every man ' , particularly through the characters of , ( in theory the hero of the play ) , and , in a world in which he believes only a few good men exist , the people he trusts and is deceived by , and . In Act One , it is Manly who holds up human vice to scorn in a series of brutally honest speeches : < quote > "" ... Know that spreading well of all mankind , is the worst kind of Detraction ; for it takes away few good men in the world , by making all alike . "" Womersley , D , Ed , Restoration Drama An Anthology , ' , P . < /fnote > He suggests ironically , that because he is ' an unmannerly sea fellow ' he resists from spreading rumours and backstabbing people ' politely ' behind their backs as Lord Plausible does . In his choice to ' weigh the man , not his title ' , Manly does indeed suggest some degree of moral credibility , however short lived it is . The respites in his speeches of disdain for mankind come when he talks of : < quote > "" But in having that , I have a thousand ... I have trusted him with my mistress ... and the trust of beauty , is sure the greatest we can show . "" And of Olivia : < quote > "" She is not , I tell you like other women , but can keep her promise ... "" The prologue states that ' ... the coarse coming scenes To follow life , and only means ; Displays you as you are ... ' At the beginning and throughout Act Two , Olivia and her female companions reveal their true characters . Lettice complains that the world is censorious , malicious false and perfidious and promptly agrees that it is a very impertinent world . She then confidently admits that women are "" like the rest of the cheats in the world ' . After being praised by , she proceeds to tell him calmly that she has married , in his absence , a "" Man of so much and Experience in the world "" . She truly lacks humanity . Although the play is based loosely on ' , the style , affected by a vastly contrasting social consciousness to the , is comparable to the ' in a similar way to the sentimental approach . Both the style and the sentimental follow a more genteel route . Although the same inhumane nature is explored in 's character , Molière at least offers a different persona in the steady and easy - going friend , . 's satirical approach makes no such allowance . 's closest parallel is , who makes quite clear his pursuit of Widow 's money . Using an unusual technique , has taken different pieces of material from everywhere and shaped them into ' . Through this method , the play encourages people to question that which the Epilogue anticipates : < quote > ' Of all Loves begs you then to , find fault ; For plays , like women , by the world are thought ( when you speak well of them ) , very naught'. This suggests that wanted people to see the play and see themselves in order to find fault with their society . The play is so true to life and honest that by disliking it they would dislike who they had become . When lifting from ' and placing her amongst creatures of appetite in this play , knew exactly what he was doing . She serves only the purpose of highlighting the characters ' vices , ridiculing them further . She sees through 's character : < quote > "" Most ungrateful woman that ever lived ... that could desert you so soon , use you so basely and so lately too"". After trying in vain to notify Manly of his complete lack of morality : < quote > "" But did you not say , Sir , your honour was dearer to you than your life ? And would you have me contribute to the loss of that ... ?"" She only succeeds in contributing to the uneasy equilibrium reached at the play 's end . When she is revealed , still fails to realise the horror of his actions : < quote > "" The sense of my rough , hard and ill usage of you , ( tho ' chiefly your own fault ) gives me more pain now ' tis over , than you had , when you suffer'd it . "" The persistence of her devotion to seems to reward him for his actions . In a world which appears to have no values , only makes this clearer . ' is a prime example of what the satirical approach to playwriting set out to achieve . 's play was written for an audience perfectly primed to be pleased and instructed by theatre which held a glass to a society in need of satiric correction . It is confusing to establish if there is a clear shift in the dominant concept of humour , or rather - when satirical humour ended and sentimental began . Many followers of claim that to suggest there was a definite point when ridicule was abolished by an exemplary and sympathetic approach is purely erroneous . Others disagree , ' The chaotic indirection of the comic types after the collapse of the sex boom ( c. ) gives way to an almost schematically neat division between the ' new ' humane comedy and the ' old ' hard comedy ... "" Although the old comedy was enjoying its great period at the time when a sentimental approach became popular , 's Last Shift ' , is considered to be the of the sentimental or exemplary comedies . Again , this point is argued by those who think that , ' To include in the exemplary school would be preposterous . ' 's Last Shift ' capitalises on bathos , but it does not give us models for imitation in the manner of ' . ' < fnote > Hume , R , D , The Development Of English Drama In , P . < /fnote> Hume , R , D , The Development Of English Drama In , P . < /fnote > It is true that for , the approaches competed and it is apparent in most of the plays that both of them have been used . argues in his Apology ( ) that his play , ' The Funeral Makers ' , ' Virtue and Vice appear just as they ought to do ' . In his preface to ' , , he sets out the argument for serious comedy : < quote > "" The greatest effect of a play in reading is to excite the reader to go see it ; and when he does so , it is then a play has the effect of example and precept . ' Kenny , S , S , , , R , , P 5 . < /fnote > This effect and the creation of moral characters may be more clearly apparent in ' in which avoided a laughter based on ridiculing the foolish , preferring ' to address himself to the goodness of the heart ' , than in ' 's Last Shift ' . But considering 's play was written before 's , it clearly shows the transition from a satiric to the exemplary approach to character that came to typify sentimental playwriting . Again social consciousness is apparent in the shift toward the exemplary approach . The play was well tailored to its time . had detected a new spirit emerging in the theatre and women were spearheading the change . had become straighter laced and the sentimental approach was introduced to keep the ladies amongst the audience happy . tried to include something for everyone , balancing moments of the sexually titillating with the virtuous . The play 's epilogue reflects 's aim , reminding the ladies that ' There 's not one made ' , while begging the rakes to excuse the conclusion since , ' He 's Acts Gentlemen ! ' The central character plot begins with a moral problem in the vein of the old comedic style . returns to having previously left his wife , , after of marriage . on he is in debt , while she , having remained virtuous , has inherited money . For the majority of the play , is a typical Restoration rake . Similar to 's character he is untroubled by any reminder of conscience from his servant , ; < quote > "" Your poor Wife at Home broke her heart for the loss of you ... "" < /quote > Loveless carelessly responds : < quote > "" I thought might now be a place of uninterrupted pleasure ; for I hear my Wife is dead : and to tell you the Truth , ' twas the staleness of her , was the main Cause of my going over . "" Untrustworthy as he is , I find him less of a villain than Manly , for his character is really one of a grown up boy who runs away from responsibility and likes variety : < quote > "" The Joys of Love are only great when they are new ; and to make 'em lasting , we must often change"". Now in debt he has scuttled back home in need of help . appealed to an audience which was becoming tired of wit and cynicism . Completely different to the creatures of appetite monopolising the satiric approach , she is the epitome of virtue , ' Her conversation is sober , edifying and dull , never for a moment deviating into wit ... She is , in short , the typical pathetic heroine of sentimental fiction . ' < fnote > Barker , R , H , Mr Cibber Of Drury Lane P 23 . < /fnote > She reassures herself : < quote > "" All the comfort of my life , is that I can tell my conscience I have been true to virtue . "" Slightly different to then ! All except one of the remaining characters belong to the comedy of manners . is sentimental , a sober gentleman in love with , troubled by her apparent lack of constancy : < quote > Y. WORTHY : "" Have her Actions spoke the contrary ? Come you know she loves you . "" EL . WORTHY : "" Indeed she gave a great proof on't here in the park , by fasting on a Fool , and caressing him before my Face , when she might have so easily avoided him . "" Hillaria and Narcissa are typical coquettes . They are easier to believe in as women than the straight - laced , tight - lipped : < quote > HIL : "" Well , dear , thou art the most constant wife I ever heard of , not to shake off the memory of an ill , after absence ... Young widows used to have warmer wishes . But methinks the death of a Rich old uncle should be a cordial to your sorrows . "" AM : "" That adds to 'em ; for he was the only I had left , and was as tender to me as the nearest!"" Young Worthy is the familiar fortune seeker and although however loose of temper , he is not so bad as in ' . He congratulates himself on settling into matrimony but has ensured there is plenty of money thrown into the bargain for him . Not to be forgotten is his plan to aid in winning back ' affection : < quote > "" Leave the Management of all to me ; I have a shall draw him to your Bed ... "" It is difficult to judge the character of Sir remembering that he is the character wrote for himself . Although his foppery lends to much of the humour in the play , his false impression of modesty soon reveals a rude , conscienceless and brutal character untypical of a humane and exemplary comedy . < quote > ' It is apparent that was interested less in creating a consistent coxcomb than in displaying himself as an actor in a variety of moods ... he can not resist the rough and tumble of farce . ' Barker , R , H , Mr Cibber Of Drury Lane , P 25 . < /fnote > Sir is certainly more farcical than the unthreatening , foolish creatures , and Major . However much of the play is written in the vein of the satiric approach , it is the ending of ' 's Last Shift ' , more sentimental than anything which had gone before it , which is totally compliant with the exemplary approach . It is the entirely unconvincing final scenes which made the play so successful . ' previous character and the unlikelihood he would ever be converted to love only make the conclusion more sentimentally effective : < quote > LOV : "" Oh ! hast roused me from my deep lethargy of vice ; for hithero my soul has been enslaved to loose desires , to vain deluding follies and shadows of substantial bliss ... "" It was the probably the response of the audience which inspired 's comments on serious comedy , if accounts claiming that "" Honest tears were shed "" for are true . argued that , "" Tears which were shed ... flowed from reason and good sense and that men ought not to be laughed at for weeping till we are come to a clear notion of what is to be imputed to the hardness of the head and the softness of the heart ... "" < fnote > Kenny , S , S , , , R , , P 5 . < /fnote > The perfectly resolved conclusion was so unconvincing that it prompted to write the more cynical sequel , ' The Relapse ' . However , it is the honest reality of the play written for a society in need of correction and the ' highly seasoned theatrical dish compounded of naughtiness and sentimentality ' written for audiences of changed taste , which is I feel , the primary difference between a satiric and a sentimental approach to playwriting . < fnote > Barker , R , H , Mr Cibber Of Drury Lane , . < /fnote>--------------------------------",0 "The legal positivist tradition can be traced back to the work of , who in turn drew upon the writings of and . It traditionally opposes the theory set out by natural lawyers , who hold that law and morality are inseparable . Positivism can be characterized by major tenets ; firstly that law and morality are distinct entities , and that the validity of any legal system is ultimately determined by reference to certain social facts . This essay will focus on the positivist approach as developed by using his ' Command Theory ' of law , and the weaknesses associated with this theory . I will go on to consider 's reaction to , and the way in which remedies the positivist approach in order to account for the problems he believed were inherent with his predecessors theories . developed his command theory of law off the back of his contemporary . Where had merely outlined the theory , approached the subject in a much more analytical manner , aiming to capture the essential nature of the law as a science and thereby eliminating all the common uses of the word ' law ' which are not relevant to jurisprudence . 's starting point in determining the exact province of jurisprudence was to exclude all the meanings of law which were not translatable into a command . For , a command can be broken into components ; < quote > "" [ a command is ] 1 . A wish or desire conceived by a rational being , that another rational being shall do or forbear . . An evil to proceed from the former , and to be incurred by the latter , in case the latter comply not with the wish . . An expression or intimation of the wish by words or other signs . "" 's classification of a command helps to illustrate the exact nature of the type of law he is seeking to define . In ' The Province of Jurisprudence Determined ' , uses his conception of a command in order to distinguish between different kinds of law . His step is to differentiate between what he calls ' laws properly so called ' and ' laws not properly so called ' . Laws not properly so called are those which are often referred to as laws but are , in terms of legal science , inappropriate . Examples of these laws are what terms ' Laws by analogy ' , which include things like the rules of etiquette and international law , and ' Laws by metaphor ' , which covers things like the laws of nature . Although both of these ' laws ' can be construed as commands , they lack a variety of qualities necessary in order to fall into the category of proper law ; < quote > "" Widely accepted rules that are only vaguely or by analogy regarded as laws ... are laws , not as matter of hard fact , but by virtue of mere opinion . Those which are laws only metaphorically speaking ... are eliminated on the grounds that there is an absence of will to be incited or controlled . "" These laws ' not properly so called ' do not lie within the province of legal science . Having drawn this distinction , goes on to break down his classification of laws ' properly so called ' . Within this category places sub - groups ; laws set by humans and those set by God . Although the laws set by God are properly speaking laws , they do not , according to , fit into the province of jurisprudence . Laws set by humans are of types ; laws ' strictly so called ' and laws ' not strictly so called ' . Laws ' strictly so called ' "" consists of ( a ) laws set by men as political superiors to political inferiors ; and ( b ) laws set by men as private individuals in pursuance of legal rights "" . Laws ' not strictly so called ' are those which do not derive their authority from politically superior individuals . It is the former that believes to be the proper domain of jurisprudence . Having identified the variety of commands that fall under the category of laws ' strictly so called ' , proceeds to elaborate further the exact nature of these laws ; < quote > "" in effect defines ' a law ' as ' a general command of a sovereign addressed to his subjects'"" As we saw earlier , identifies a command as consisting of elements ; a wish , an expression of that wish , and a sanction if the wish is not complied with . In order for a command to count as a law strictly so called , introduces the further notions of sovereignty and generality ; the law must of emanated from a sovereign individual or body , and it should not be applied to particular cases , but rather be general in its applicability . 's use of the term ' sovereign ' can be distinguished from the way it is used within legal rules ; < quote > "" [ For ] , the sovereign is a pre - legal political fact , in terms of which law and all legal concepts are definable . "" "" If a determinate human superior , not in a habit of obedience to a like superior , receive habitual obedience from the bulk of a given society , that determinate superior is sovereign in that society ... "" So a law , as sees it , is a general command which originates from the sovereign of a given society . 's conception of law has been highly criticised . The most notable collection of these criticisms comes from . In ' The Concept Of Law ' presents 's command theory of law in what he believes is its strongest possible form , then systematically picks it apart . Hart 's approach to this destruction of the command theory takes the law as it exists in 's society and compares it with 's conception . Hart sees the command theory as implying that laws are just orders from a sovereign backed by threats . He feels that this is a insufficient account of the way in which laws really work . , although there are many laws which do resemble this model , for instance a law which prohibits theft , there are many laws which are not like this . Laws which oversee the successful implementation and operation of contracts do not appear to impose sanctions if the way in which contracts should ( according to law ) be administered is not adhered to . The only result from an incorrectly administered contract is the contracts nullification . It may be the case that can defend himself from this criticism by arguing that this nullification is itself a sanction , but given that a sanction according to consists in ' an evil ' , it seems a bit of an implausible response . Even if it is the case that this response will suffice , 's command theory fails to account for laws which govern the administration of other laws . Where has gone wrong , believes , is his failure to recognise that some laws "" provide individuals with facilities for realizing their wishes , by conferring legal powers upon them to create ... structures of rights and duties within the coercive framework of the law . "" 's next criticism of focuses on the origins of laws . Under 's definition laws are orders which are backed by the threat of a sanction if the order is not complied with . If this is true , then any law should be traceable to a particular act performed at a particular time . However , recognises that many laws have their origin in custom , which often have no traceable date of conception and thus can not be attributed to the command of a sovereign ; < quote > "" some rules of law originate in custom and do not owe their legal status to any ... conscious law - creating act"" "" the idea of habitual obedience fails ... to account for the continuity to be observed in every normal legal system , when legislator succeeds another . "" When one sovereign is succeeded by another , the new sovereign can not be said to receive habitual obedience . Since habitual obedience is of the marks of a law maker , then it follows that the new sovereign can not make laws . However I feel that this criticism is somewhat lacking . held that in order to be sovereign , you must be habitually obeyed . But it could also be the case that a society will habitually obey the sovereign . So in succeeding one sovereign , the new one will , out of habit , be obeyed . As for the problem concerning the origin of all the laws in that society , we can claim that on his succession , the new sovereign commands all the previous laws be obeyed . The last problem to be considered comes from 's notion of sovereignty . For the sovereign of any state has illimitable powers and does not obey any other legislature . However , it is quite apparent that in many modern states , where laws are obviously in existence , it is not the case that the sovereign has unchecked power ; < quote > "" ... the conception of the legally unlimited sovereign misrepresents the character of law in many modern states where no one would question that there is law . "" In the passing of a law , most countries have a system of checks and balances that ensure that the law is legitimate . For instance , in , a written constitution ensures that the legislature only passes laws which are within its competence to pass . If these restraints are not adhered to the law will not be considered legitimate and thus not be considered law . This shows that 's belief that all laws stem from a sovereign law maker is fundamentally wrong . We may try to appeal to the idea that it is still the sovereign who creates these checks and balances , but this would still imply that the sovereign is in the habit of obedience to itself , and would thus fall short of 's conception of a sovereign law maker . 's heavy attack on certainly seems to of left command theory redundant . 's belief that a law is the general command of a sovereign seems to fall short when considering the way in which many modern systems of government are set up . The fact that legislatures consist of a vast body of individuals means that it is a lot harder to identify what would consider to make up the sovereign . The way in which governments distribute power means that any legislation a sovereign may try to introduce will be subject to a variety of conflicting interests within that sovereign which limit its ability to do so . This essentially makes the concept of sovereignty redundant . So where succeeded in bringing legal positivism to the forefront of debate within jurisprudence , he failed to give a satisfactory account of that positivism .","In his ' Contemporary Metaphysics ' , identifies properties in the sense as "" entities that exist apart from and independently of the things that have them""[1 ] 's belief that properties are universal stems from a long line of enquiry into the nature of justice , and his perception of the ideal state . Through question and answer sessions with the people he surrounds himself with , he slowly unravels his ' Although has never explicitly stated this theory , many contemporary commentators recognise it as an intrinsic part of 's philosophies . Throughout his many texts are references to ' things - in - themselves ' , or ' ideas ' , which are used frequently to portray his beliefs about justice and other abstract entities . But because of the nature in which reveals his Forms , commentators have failed to agree on his argument for their existence , some maintaining that he gives none at all . If this is right , then what reason do we have to adopt 's theory ? In order to understand 's reasons for his theory of forms , we must understand a little about the nature of properties as universals . Most Platonists believe their to be an innumerable amount of properties . Such properties can range from the colour of a particular object to the location it has at a particular time . For instance , a pen might hold the property of having been used at a certain time on a certain date , by a certain person . It can also hold the property of redness . When we say that these properties are universal , the claim we are making is that the pen does not cause or explain these properties , but instead they exist independently of the pen , and the pen ' instantiates ' them . Therefore to claim that different items share the same property , is to claim that they both instantiate the same property . The redness which they instantiate , is one and the same . The main body of 's ' Republic ' is concerned with finding the nature of justice , but in order to do so , digressions are made to illustrate his arguments . In book V we see Socrates ( the mouth piece of ) questioned about the practicality of his ideal state . This is where the ' Theory of Forms ' appears . In order to demonstrate the possibility of his ideal state , appeals to the idea of ' the philosopher ruler ' . The most important aspect of which , is his ability to grasp ' Knowledge ' . distinguishes between knowledge , opinion and ignorance , each corresponding to different levels of ' being ' . Knowledge corresponds to ' what is ' , ignorance to ' what is not ' and opinion lies between the . He uses a useful illustration in order to express this view clearly . He depicts a cave in which prisoners are tied down and forced to look at a screen which is showing shadows of puppets . The prisoners , having no reason to think otherwise , believe that these shadows are how the world actually is . But when a prisoner is released , he encounters a further world in which truth lies . Having grown able to accustom himself with the light of the real world , the prisoner is eventually able to look directly at the sunlight , which frequently uses as analogous to the highest form of them all ; the form of the good . It is the aim of the philosopher ruler to follow in the route of the prisoner by escaping the trappings of the sensible world and striving to achieve knowledge in its true sense , that is , knowledge of the intelligible realm . This realm consists of timeless and unchanging properties of objects and entities which represent things in the material world in their purest form , an action that is considered just , partakes in the pure form of justice . These are universal properties . claims that the majority of people can only hold opinions , which are changing beliefs that hold no intrinsic value , and are only approximations to the world as it is . This is the world of the senses , the material world . He illustrates his point by distinguishing between the lover of knowledge and the lover of spectacles . The lover of knowledge is someone who , rather that appreciating , for example , a particular beautiful object , instead aims to understand beauty - in - itself ; the form of beauty . Rather than arguing for the existence of forms , focuses his attention on arguing against the possibility of knowledge of particulars . He claims that knowledge is only possible of things that remain unchanged , and given that particulars are in a constant state of flux , it can not be possible to have knowledge of them . Any particular can instantiate a property at any time ; A car can instantiate the property of speed , a sculpture can instantiate the property of beauty , apples instantiate the property of double apple . But none of these particulars instantiate these properties necessarily ; the car can be crushed , the sculpture may appear to one as beautiful but ugly to another , and the property of double depends on what we are relating the apples to . We can not claim to ' know ' that the car is fast , or the sculpture is beautiful , or that apples are always double , because in the sensible world , this is liable to change . argues that the Forms are these properties in themselves , as they exist independently of the objects which instantiate them . The philosopher ruler will have knowledge of these universal properties , and be able to apply this knowledge appropriately to the governance of the ideal state . Although claims that we need universal properties in order to attain knowledge , within the ' Republic ' the Forms are very much taken for granted . He provides analogies expanding on and illustrating the idea , but at no point does he provide a proof of their existence or a single reason for why they should exist . This can be obviously seen in writings ; < quote > "" he nowhere in the dialogues has an extended discussion of Forms in which he pulls together the different lines of thought about them and tries to assess the needs they meet and whether they succeed in meeting them""[2] In order to successfully assess the reasons we have for accepting properties as universals we need to look at modern views , in particular realism . Metaphysical Realists have built on the foundations that laid in order to generate further understanding of subject - predicate relationships . The idea of properties as universals helps us to understand what it is to say that separate things can be qualitatively similar or identical . If we make a claim about a car being red , and then later express a separate claim about a house being red , by accepting properties as universal , we can admit that these separate particulars have something in common , namely ; the instantiation of the property of redness . If we deny properties as universal , then it seems we must also deny that the house and the car can share the same property . Nominalists argue contrary to realists in claiming that there are in fact no such entities as properties in the place . They start by asserting that the role of properties as universals in terms is to act as an intermediary between the world as we see it and the ' world - in - itself ' . But go on to claim that we do not need an intermediary , and are in fact connected to the real world directly . If we say that a house is red , it is the utterance of this sentence , and no abstract entity , that bears truth . By saying a house is red , we are announcing that the subject ' house ' satisfies the predicate red . However , this theory has been criticised on its failure to account for how a sentence in one language can mean the same in another language . In answer to the original question , it seems that we have plenty of reason to agree with the doctrine of properties as universals . By denying its plausibility we are also rejecting a coherent theory of basic communication . Everyday use of language commits us to properties and propositions . Although has never explicitly stated these reasons for believing in universals , he has definitely done the groundwork for later philosophers to build on . Realism has shown us that , when discussing separate entities with the same properties , we can clearly understand the relation that these separate entities can hold to each other . Thus providing us with a good reason to ascribe to 's theory . As explains ; < quote > "" The fundamental metaphysical reason for believing in the existence of properties is that they provide [ an ] account of similarity and difference""[3] This account of similarity and difference is clearly attributable to and the that followed .",1 "< heading > Comments: This article describes a living radical polymerisation using nitroxide mediated radical polymerisation ( NMRP ) and atom transfer radical polymerisation ( ) initiators simultaneously . From database searches in Web of Science and there are no previous papers published with any form of combination of and and therefore it can be considered original research . Living radical polymerisation is a popular topic in macromolecular chemistry , as well as chemistry in general due to its applications in the materials industry . The combination of and could lead to new and specific polymers with great industrial potential , meaning this research is of great importance to the general community as well as the chemistry one . The article is well presented and follows the journal guidelines , with suitable citations . All scientific knowledge and reasoning is well written and flows logically , making it easy to follow even for those with limited knowledge in the field . Figures are used well , supplementing the information written in the article . The experiments undertaken for this journal are of a suitable number and investigate all possibilities of mechanism described by the article . The data from these experiments and the control experiments are presented in a clear table , with suitable footnotes to give the full experimental detail , as well as a chromatogram . The chromatogram only displays the data from experiment ; however this experiment determines the likely mechanism of the polymerisation and therefore is the most relevant in terms of importance to the paper . There is no experimental section to this paper ; however , the experimental conditions are detailed in the main body of the article , negating the need for this section . All the characterisation details of the polymers synthesised for this article are given in previously mentioned table , also negating the need to present them elsewhere . However , there are a couple of errors in the paper that need to be highlighted . The initialisation ( Gel Permeation Chromatography ) is used without the full name being given . This would not be a problem in a specific polymer journal , as it is a common technique , but for general chemistry the initialisation should be expanded . Also the journal reference given for citation ( Benoit , , , and , . Chem . Soc . , , , ) is not the best reference that could have been used . The paper cited does have a very comprehensive introduction into both NMRP and , but the main body of the paper is dedicated to developing a new initiator . A general review would have been a better choice here . To summarise this article is well written and meets all the criteria for and so should be published , provided the few errors are resolved . < heading > Summary of Article: This paper reports the research undertaken in the simultaneous use of and ARTP initiators in the formation of polystyrene . Although and initiators are mostly used separately , this research investigated whether the use of both types of initiator in a reaction would result with both being used as the end groups of a single polymer chain . This relied on whether the and end groups show crossover reactivity . If not then the initiators would initiate independently and grow polymer chains of different lengths , depending on the rate of propagation for each initiator . However , if crossover reactivity does occur then the polymers produced will depend on the rates of exchange as well as propagation . initiators of each type were used in the paper to polymerise styrene ( Figure ) . The polymerisation conditions satisfied both and functionality . < fnote > The experiments were carried out at ° C under nitrogen over , with equimolar quantities of initiator , copper(I ) chloride , ( N 4 ) and acetic anhydride . < /fnote>
Control experiments and combination experiments were carried out ( Table 1 ) . < table/>Experiment PS-4 produced a monomodal polymer by gel permeation chromatography ( ) , which presented mechanisms for the propagation ; either or initiates and propagates , or both initiate but propagate independently , or end group crossover occurs rapidly relative to propagation . To determine if the mechanistic scenario occurred and if the initiator forms polymer initiator in PS-5 was UV - tagged , for nm . Again the experiment led to a unimodal polymer by , with the traces at nm being superimposable . This showed that the polymer produced contained initiator . To determine if the initiator also formed polymer eq . of difunctional initiator was used with eq . of UV - tagged ( 350 nm ) in PS-6 . This experiment had potential outcomes . If of the initiators initiated and propagated , the polymer would be unimodal , but would only have a trace at nm for initiator . If both initiated , the polymer would be bimodal at nm , but unimodal at nm . However , if both initiated and the end groups exchanged more rapidly than propagation the polymer would have a similar trace to the previous scenario , except hydrolysis of the polymer would produce a unimodal polymer at nm that is super - imposable with the trace at nm . The polymer produced fulfilled the last scenario , producing a polymer which was bimodal at nm , with peaks at ~30,000 g mol -1 and ~15,000 g mol -1 , with the lower also absorbing at nm . On hydrolysis the polymer became unimodal at nm at ~15,000 g mol -1 , which overlapped the nm trace . From the results of the experiments it is clear that either both types of initiator initiate and propagate independently , but with a similar rate of propagation , or the end groups of exchange rapidly relative to propagation causing a singular rate for propagation . However , the control experiments show that the reaction conditions affect the and processes . Therefore , it can be concluded that both types of initiator work through a common propagation mechanism . For this to occur the end groups must be exchanging at a faster rate than propagation . Therefore , the final conclusion of the paper was that the and mechanisms do not operate independently due to end group crossover , which leads to polymers that grow at a common rate and have a low polydispersity index . However , these experiments were unable to determine whether , , or both mechanisms caused chain growth .","Humanities known art tradition appeared during period . The vast majority of art appears in cave systems throughout the world , especially in areas like and . Prehistoric are comes in main forms parietal and mobiliary art . Parietal art covers paintings and engravings on stationary surfaces , such as cave walls or on large blocks of stone . A famous and well known example of parietal art are the spectacular cave paintings discovered in at Lascaux near Montignac in the Dordogne region of ( Lecture , th ) . There are many images of animals including Reindeer and ( animals commonly found throughout in that period ) which date back . The reason these paintings have survived the test of time concerns the environment for artefact preservation . The paintings and related artefacts are protected from the elements in a cool , dry environment , ideal for preservation ( Aiello : ) . Mobiliary art covers art that is portable in nature , in other words engravings or sculpture on stone , clay , bone or even antler that can be carried easily by an individual . This can include personal decoration and items such as beautifully carved spear throwers , which while practical , are also decorative . common piece of mobiliary art are small stylised figures of human females called figurines , these are regularly found on Palaeolithic sites throughout and . The figurines are considered by many archaeologists to be fertility symbols and may have some religious significance ( Aiello : ) The most important and hotly debated question surrounding the enigma of Palaeolithic art is quite simply ; why ? What does it represent and what is it for ? Art is a landmark in the human journey and understanding it is essential in understanding our heritage . Paintings , engravings and sculptures that are unquestionably art suggest that the artists were people who were to all intensive purpose like us , they thought and felt in the same way we do . An animal would not be able to define a painting as anything other than an incomprehensible mess of random colours and shapes , art and the appreciation of art is unique to man . Understanding the reasons behind its creation is a quest that many archaeologists have taken up over , and many theories have been proposed ( Lecture , th ) . The and possibly most obvious theory is ' art for arts sake ' , which means that Palaeolithic art is nothing more than ' primitive mans ' attempts at being creative ( Lecture , th ) . Some archaeologists believed that the paintings were nothing more than decoration , making their immediate environment more appealing . This theory was generally abandoned quite quickly as new theories were introduced ( Leakey and Lewin : ) In recent times however , the theory has been revived by an anthropologist from . He suggests that the images are the product of a ' primal mind ' and that the art is the ' human consciousness in the process of growth ' . He states that the reasons the images are relatively simple , depict no complicated scenes and are naturalistic in appearance are the result of a mind in the ' early stages of mental development ' , in other words , the paintings were experiments in imagination or creativity ( Leakey and : ) . Another theory became popular when researchers realised that there was a definite link between more recent art and Palaeolithic art . Anthropologists realised that the paintings were part of ritual hunting magic . They argued that both societies were hunter - gatherers and that there were many similarities in the number and composition of species in the paintings . It is therefore reasonable to suppose that both societies produced rock paintings for the same reasons . That painting images of certain ' prey ' species was either some kind of offering to gods unknown or they could have believed that the paintings gave the hunter some power over the animal 's depicted . It could also have been a way of symbolically increasing the numbers of certain animals to ensure that a hunt would be successful or there is a more simple explanation , it was a record of kills from a particular hunt ( Leakey and : ) . When considering this theory it must be taken into account the species that appear most often in rock art , their numbers and even the style in which they were painted . of rock art is dominated by main species , Horse , bison , oxen ( all commonly found in the Palaeolithic landscape ) . Animals such as , reindeer , ibex , boars and goats make some appearances but only occasionally . Images depicting plants , carnivores , fish , birds and people are rare , and some only appear on or sites . The animals that do appear are ' prey ' animals that would have been very common and part of life for the Palaeolithic hunter . If taken as whole the images do not represent how the animals appeared in nature , the scope is just not broad enough there appears to be bias towards certain species ( Leakey and : ) There is major problem with the hunting / sympathetic magic theory ; the fossil record does not in a number of cases support it . example is ; they were an extremely important part of Palaeolithic life , not just for food but for their antlers and hides as well and are not very commonly depicted in artwork . There are a few other species where this discrepancy shows up and casts doubt on the whole theory ( Leakey and : - 20 ) The next major theory is based on work published and researched by and and is called Information theory . The basis of this theory suggests that the rock paintings were in fact recording devices for passing on environmental and resource information to other hunter - gatherer groups . These measures were required in order adapt to the extreme ice age environments that they lived in . The paintings would have provided hunters with information about which particular animal species were edible and in abundance as well as their locality ( Lecture , th ) . This could explain the absence of certain species of rock art ; they just were n't immediately available at that time in that area . The paintings could also have served a function in regards to this theory ; the marking of territory . For example if a nomadic group enters a cave system they have n't previously encountered and it contains the art from a rival group they are made aware of the occupational history of that cave . Another theory has in gained popularity , ritual magic and shamanism . Amongst modern hunter - gatherer groups like the San or Bushmen of Southern Africa ( , , and ) shamanism and rock art are closely intertwined . Again , both the San and artists are hunter - gatherers so it could be argued as with the hunting magic theories that they would follow the same patterns and possibly ritual practices as well . ( Clottes 2000 , URL ) very important factor that must be taken into consideration when looking at religious practices and mythology is that they would have been completely different to our own . We just would not recognise certain things as being significant as we have no firm point of reference from which to study religions of such great antiquity ( Leakey and : ) . The central point of almost all shamanistic religions is the spirit world , shamans try to enter and connect with this world by entering a trance like state . There are various methods for doing this the most common being the ingestion of naturally occurring hallucinogenic drugs . The art could in fact be the neuropsychological outpourings of a shaman practicing religious rites . A shaman would have fulfilled a key role in society ; they would have been a mediator communing with the spirit world . They would have portrayed could have been spirit guides or as previously mentioned been connected with hunting magic . Some paintings exhibit geometric patterns and shapes which are present during the initial stages of a trance . Palaeolithic shamans would have been Homo sapiens just like us and therefore had an identical nervous system , this is a great help as the effects of certain rituals can be compared with modern groups . The caves themselves would have been places of deep cultural and religious significance , places of mystery and fear . Many societies believe that the supernatural would lays beneath our feet , a realm of spirits and the dead . When entering a deep cave system Palaeolithic people would have been aware that they were entering a world of spirits . Some paintings have found in deep inaccessible passages in difficult to reach places , in small tight passageways , high up on ceilings ; some archaeologists have noted that these locations are perfectly positioned for sound resonance . The cave environment was without a doubt a central point for our ancestors . In the Tuc d'Audoubert cave system in clay sculptures of were found in the centre of a circular cave room far from the entrance . Near the a circle of small human footprints were , could these prints be from children being led to an initiation ceremony ? These questions are still left unanswered and will continue to tantalise archaeologists for to come . ( Aiello : ) The question "" what was Palaeolithic rock art for ? "" is perhaps not as important as what it represents as a whole . The theories that have been presented in this essay all make valid points and have a ring of truth . Very few have any solid evidence to back them up ; comparing ancient rock art to the work of modern tribes is very helpful in establishing theories but ultimately is not concrete . Viewing rock art through western eyes inevitably can lead to bias , the mind of ' primitive man ' is extremely elusive and whereas we are anatomically identical their mindset and belief system must have been incomprehensible . Interpreting rock art is difficult , for example ; some animals appear pregnant , is this an attempt to symbolically increase their fertility ? This is not a question easily answered . Of all the proposed theories the shamanistic approach seems most likely , and the evidence seems to support it . Rock art does represent important thing ; imagination . The artwork shows that humanity had begun to develop their mental faculties and lay the foundation of the complex society that we live in . Humanity had begun to look at the surrounding world in a new and exciting manner using their imaginations to create objects of beauty and plan ahead . The are could represent the human need to leave a mark after death , something that well be left behind to reach out to future generations . What ever the reason the very fact it exists is of enormous importance that someone painted a picture that only existed in their minds eye is proof that we are different from every other creature that has ever existed . An imagined world of their own creation .",0 "< heading > Introduction Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus , also known as Diabetes Mellitus ( ) or Diabetes Mellitus , is an autoimmune disease , distinct from Type 2 and gestational forms of diabetes . For , a girl living and coping with this chronic disease , its physiological symptoms may be mild or negligible , its major impact on her life being the daily blood glucose tests , dietary restrictions and insulin injections which can appear to be inconvenient , burdensome , even debilitating tasks to some young sufferers . As this essay will endeavour to show however , the hyperglycaemia which might seem unimportant to now will almost certainly be affecting her future health by greatly increasing her ( and her unborn foetus ' ) susceptibility to a number of devastating complications . < heading > Possible genetic and environmental causes of Type 1 Diabetes NIDDM currently affects of children in the , and is on the increase ( Devendra et al , ) . Various environmental theories have been ventured for its proliferation . The ' hygiene ' hypothesis groups Type 1 Diabetes together with asthma and eczema and suggests that an increasingly sterile environment , where children 's immune systems remain underdeveloped through a lack of exposure to a range of bacteria , is to blame . Other theories attempt to show correlation with diet , or certain viruses , although these have yet to be supported by convincing evidence . Whatever environmental reasons may be contributing to the increase of Type 1 Diabetes , it is generally acknowledged to be a combination of external factors such as these and genetic predisposition that gives rise to the disease in a particular individual ( Devendra et al , 2005 ) . It is worth noting that , whether for environmental , dietary , or genetic reasons , the prevalence of Type 1 Diabetes varies significantly between ethnic groups . < heading > Physiological effects of Type 1 Diabetes In order to describe the physiological effects of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus it is necessary to explain briefly the endocrinal methods of glucose transport , usage and control in a healthy , non - diabetic person . In the of , located in the pancreas , humans have types of cells that are instrumental in the delivery of the energy needed to the body 's cells in the form of glucose : alpha and beta cells . Alpha cells secrete glucagons to stimulate the breakdown of glycogen and the manufacture of glucose . Beta cells produce insulin , the hormone that causes glucose to be absorbed into the cells to be received and converted to energy by the mitochondria - it is the vehicle , or medium , for this process . In this way Alpha and Beta cells work together to control levels of glucose in the blood - glucagons from the alpha cells pumping glucose into the blood when it is needed , and insulin from the Beta cells activating transport proteins to carry it out of the blood and across cell membranes into the cells where it is used as fuel ( Kapit and , ) . This whole process is regulated by a feedback system : glucose in the blood stimulates the production of insulin , lack of glucose inhibits its production , and somatotatin , a hormone produced by the delta cells in the pancreas , helps to further normalize levels of both insulin and glucagons . Type 1 Diabetes has a sudden onset , but is caused by the gradual depletion over a period of time of the Beta cells in the pancreas ( Burden , ; and , ) . This is the result of an inappropriate immune reaction ; for some reason the immune system of a type diabetic person such as has systematically attacked and destroyed the Beta cells . Without the Beta cells insulin is no longer produced , and glucose can not enter the cells . So , it remains in the blood , while the cells literally starve for want of it . The body 's response is to produce more and the useless glucose simply builds up in the blood ( hyperglycaemia ) . < heading > Signs and symptoms of hyperglycaemia The signs and symptoms of Type 1 Diabetes can be explained by this hyperglycaemia and its physiological repercussions . The massive amount of glucose accumulating in blood has nowhere to go and so the body must eventually excrete it , which it does with difficulty , pumping it through the kidneys to the renal system where there is too much of it to be absorbed . The surplus glucose has the osmotic effect of drawing in water , and with it essential salts and minerals , before eventually leaving the body with the urine ( , ; Burden ) . Thus , of the primary signs of the disease are displayed : muscle cramps caused by mineral loss , glucose in the urine ( glycosuria ) , the passing of urine in the middle of the night ( nocturia ) , and the passing of excessive amounts of urine ( polyuria ) . This , latter symptom naturally causes dehydration and thirst in the patient , further warning signs that might alert a physician to the onset of diabetes ( , ) . Meanwhile , the body is wasting away without the energy it needs - its cells literally beginning to shut down and die . Stimulated by the need for fuel the patient 's appetite may be increased ( polyphagia ) , and yet without the energy getting to the cells where it is required they lose weight and feel tired . The body is unable to store glucose and so turns to its emergency resources - fat and protein are broken down , a process resulting in ketones in the urine ( ketonuria ) and eventually acid in the blood ( acidosis ) . If it remains untreated , hyperglycaemia is self - perpetuating - the body will continue to produce more glucose , energy reserves will be exhausted , the chemical balance of the blood will be disrupted , the patient will become comatose , and the disease will finally prove fatal ( , ) . < heading > Alice 's unstable blood glucose and these symptoms arising from it are something will have experienced at the onset of her diabetes aged . With her glucose now under poor control however she will still be experiencing periods of hyperglycaemia , and possibly swings down to hypoglycaemia , on a fairly regular basis . These variations in blood sugar levels could be attributable to a number of factors in . Patients require particularly regular checks and close monitoring of their glucose levels throughout childhood and adolescence , with treatment being adjusted to meet the demands of increased height and weight and changes in lifestyle and habits - all pronounced and unavoidable features of "" growing up "" . Puberty and adolescence can be particularly difficult times , with certain of the hormones being released by the body inhibiting insulin in its efficacy , and also of course resulting in difficult physical , social and emotional changes that have a tendency to produce tumultuous and rebellious feelings in any normal teenager . In the diabetic adolescent these are often , and understandably , characterised by a rebellion against the restrictive lifestyle regimes that close management of Type 1 Diabetes can entail . ( ) collates studies that would appear to show that girls of 's age with IDDM are vulnerable to a number of psychosocial factors that might prevent them from managing their glucose levels to the best of their ability . With the increased social need for acceptance by their peers and independence from their authority figures that adolescents experience , diabetes can be seen as a burden and something that sets the affected teenager apart . Experimenting with alcohol and/or recreational drugs , a growing up phase experienced by many adolescents , will complicate the matter of maintaining a tight control over blood sugar . As we have seen , maintaining a hyperglycaemic state also leads to weight loss ; the patient can eat without the nutrients being properly absorbed by the body . Body image is a delicate issue for the portrayal of celebrity role models in the media encourages girls to aspire to ever more waif - like figures . It has been suggested that a shocking in diabetic adolescent girls also suffers with an eating disorder of some kind ( , ) , and so it is possible that might be using hyperglycaemia as a means to control her weight . 's pregnancy is of course a further complicating factor , adding a host of extra hormones into the mix such as prolactin , growth hormone , cortisol and progesterone . These are secreted by the placenta during pregnancy and may also cause increased resistance to insulin and so possible hyperglycaemia ( and White , ) . < heading > Potential long - term implications for Alice: The long - term repercussions of oscillating blood sugars or sustained hyperglycaemia are very serious . A number of recent studies have demonstrated a clear link between the many complications of Diabetes Mellitus and a history of poorly controlled blood glucose ( , ; and , ) . Life for a girl however is very immediate , and it can be difficult to make a teenager understand the impact her disease might have for in the future when the illness of her initial diabetes onset has subsided and her current symptoms are within tolerable limits . < heading > Neuropathy Worryingly , already shows signs of nerve damage ( neuropathy ) in her lower limbs in the form of an infected foot blister which she had failed to notice , a long - term complication which is generally not expected until much later in life for diabetes sufferers . This complication is linked to vascular damage ( see below ) , resulting as it does from impaired circulatory supply to the nerves ( Hill , ) . Feet are particularly vulnerable in diabetic patients , and the most common location for sensory neuropathy , demonstrated by in her lack of pain or discomfort that would normally have alerted her to the presence of a blister on her foot . As well as masking tissue damage , sensory neuropathy can also be causative of foot ulceration , increasing the likelihood of trauma to the foot from pressure or heat ( Springett , 2000 ; , ) . Autonomic neuropathy may also occur , affecting the patient 's motor function ( ) . The development of a foot ulcer ( or blister ) in a diabetic patient is described by ( 2001:48 ) as "" ... a pivotal event in the development of severe complications . "" What probably seems to to be a mild inconvenience is the beginning of serious problems for her ; her foot symptoms already rank at a stage 4 in Foster and Edmonds ' - stage classification system , in which stage is an "" unsalvageable foot ( amputation is inevitable ) "" ( Foster and Edmonds 2000 , cited in 2001:48 ) . Even if her infected blister is successfully treated her neuropathy can not be reversed and she can expect to encounter similar ( and escalating ) problems with her feet in the future . < heading > Infection Infection is also a much greater likelihood for diabetic patients , so it is unsurprising that 's blister has acquired this further complication . High levels of glucose in the blood can cause bacterial infection , and impairment to the normal wound - healing processes of leucocyte infiltration , chemotaxis and phagocytosis can cause debris to be left in the wound site which will further increase the risk ( King ) . < heading > Cardiovascular problems Retinopathy As well as the temporary blurred vision that often accompanies hyperglycaemia , and an increased susceptibility to cataracts , diabetes carries a high risk of serious permanent damage to 's eyesight in the form of retinopathy . This too is a vascular complication of sorts - affecting the tiny blood vessels at the back of the eye . Poor diabetic circulation causes these vessels to become blocked . In the early stages this can cause tiny aneurysms and haemorrhaging , and longer term the formation of new , compensatory blood vessels that can grow into the vitreous gel and cause further problems . Sight loss caused by diabetes can be gradual and progressive or sudden and complete . In both cases it is irreversible ( and , ) . < heading > Nephropathy Yet another major system of 's sustaining damage from her poor glycaemic control is her renal system and kidneys ( ) . These are under the constant strain of hyperglycaemic polyuria and the absorption excess glucose . failure is incredibly debilitating , the only treatments being transplant or dialysis treatment , without which the patient will die . < heading > Effects on 's developing embryo and foetus during the trimester Having briefly outlined the some of the many implications , both short and long term , that diabetes has had and will have on 's health , it is important to consider the other life that has entered the picture and will be directly affected by the functioning of 's physiological systems : her unborn baby . Complications , foetal abnormalities and spontaneous abortions are all greatly increased risks where diabetes is present , particularly when blood glucose is erratic at conception and during early development ( and , ; et ) . The effect of hyperglycaemia on the foetus is non - specific ; most of the foetus ' systems are vulnerable to malformation , particularly up to week 7 of the pregnancy ( et al , ) . During this time the foetal organs are still being formed - it is the most vulnerable time for complications in any pregnancy . In a diabetic pregnancy it leaves the foetus ill equipped to deal with excess glucose levels which will cross the placenta . The foetus ' glucose levels will correspond to those of its mother ( ) , and so hyperglycaemia will give rise to certain analogous symptoms in the foetus , such as polyuria . This in turn can cause an excess of amniotic fluid surrounding the baby , and so contribute to formative defects . < heading > Conclusion It is clear that the effects of poor insulin control for are severe and far - reaching . Even at such a young age she is beginning to show signs of nerve damage , and this is probably an indicator of damage already sustained to many of the body 's systems . Her foetus is vulnerable to more immediate risks , and this should be a further incentive to tighten glycaemic control . The development of Type 1 Diabetes has been described by . as "" ... a life sentence to a difficult therapeutic regimen that is only partially effective in preventing acute and chronic complications "" ( ) . Recent evidence offers a more hopeful picture for diabetes sufferers however by demonstrating that maintaining blood glucose levels within a tighter range - more similar to that of a non - diabetic person - from as early in life as possible , can prevent or arrest the progression of hyperglycaemic damage . This essay has hopefully demonstrated that this glycaemic control must therefore be a priority for Alice - damage already done to her nerves , blood vessels , eyes and kidneys can not be reversed , and so must be arrested in order to minimise further problems . The alternative is a dramatic impairment to her quality , and quantity , of life .","< heading > Introduction The importance of nutrition for overall health is well known by both professionals and patients , and yet statistics and ward experiences demonstrate that nutrition is a component of patient care that is all too often overlooked , or at best dealt with when problems arise rather than managed preventatively by staff . This essay will endeavour to posit reasons for this , and to discuss in greater detail the nutritional needs of the hospital inpatient and the negative affects of malnutrition . The skills , knowledge , attitudes , strategies and assessment tools the professional practitioner might employ to ensure that the patient 's nutritional needs are identified and catered for will then be considered . < heading > Prevalence and affects of malnutrition in hospitalised patients There are varying statistics for the prevalence of malnutrition amongst hospital inpatients , although the numbers are uniformly high : ( Holmes 2003 , and Heitkemper 1999 ) , with malnutrition being defined as "" any condition in which deficiency , excess or imbalance of energy , protein or other nutrients adversely affects body function and/or clinical outcome "" ( RCP , cited in ) . The affects of nutrition on rates of healing and length of hospital stay are well documented . Evidence shows that wound healing is accelerated by nutritional repletion and delayed by malnutrition , even where we are unsure of the physiological reasons why in the case of certain nutrient substrates ( Whitney and , ) . The body 's response to physiological trauma is a complex one , but even at a basic level it is obvious that the healing process makes additional energy demands which will need to be nutritionally met in order for the body 's systems to respond and function at the optimum level . Further evidence for the influence of nutrition on patient recovery can be seen in a recent study conducted by et al ( 2004 ) monitoring a total of hospital patients from admission to discharge . The study 's findings demonstrate a clear correlation between poor nutritional status ( as measured via the depletion of lean or fat - free body mass on admission ) and increased length of hospital stay . < heading > Possible reasons for poor nutrition in hospitals The reasons for the prevalence of malnutrition amongst inpatients are manifold but often surprisingly basic . Despite numerous initiatives to improve hospital catering in terms of both food and service ( DH 2005 ) , hospital food continues to be a common cause for patient complaints , whether it be taste , temperature , menu choices , timing , availability or portion sizes that are objected to . Experience in a ward setting has highlighted staff frustration and patient dissatisfaction at ' hot ' meals being served lukewarm or cold , patients ' menu selections not being met , ice cream delivered melted and jellies not set , inappropriate portion sizes , and meals being whisked away again untouched before a member of nursing staff has been able to attend to assist the patient in eating them . In addition to these , further simple factors impede patient nutrition for which nursing staff themselves may be deemed more culpable . Food is frequently left out of reach , patients who are unable to feed themselves unaided are not given assistance , and other nursing tasks interrupt or delay mealtimes . An overall lack of time and resources , along with conflicting demands , combine to make patient mealtimes stressful periods of for both patients and staff . It is little wonder that these collective factors can quell the appetite of a patient whose desire to eat is already impaired by the physiological and psychological effects of illness , trauma and medication , not to mention the radical change to personal routine that any period of hospital stay engenders . < heading > How the professional practitioner might improve patient nutrition in hospitals: Knowledge In order to begin to improve the situation it is vital that the professional practitioner have knowledge of why nutrition is important , and what constitutes a balanced and nutritious diet . It may also be necessary for the practitioner to be aware of nutritional needs particular to certain patient groups and clinical specialities in order to be able to inform patient choices and provide nutritional repletion where it may be beneficial ( such as in wound healing as discussed above ) . Further to this the practitioner must be quick to recognise malnutrition and its stages , and understand its far - reaching implications for the patient . < heading and attitudes Many skills come into play in the promotion of good nutrition , but communication is probably the most important . Many barriers to adequate nutrition can be overcome merely by listening to patients and finding out why they are not eating enough or the right things . The practitioner needs to become a resourceful and subtle negotiator when it comes to encouraging patients to eat , treating each patient as an individual and adopting different strategies to suit their needs . Communication also plays a major function in involving family members and other staff in the promotion of good nutrition . The provision of food and of nutritional education incorporates a large variety of staff members , from catering managers , serving staff and housekeepers to dieticians and specialist nurses ( and , ) . Good interdisciplinary teamwork is therefore crucial if lasting improvements are to be made . Other skills also have a bearing on nutrition , notably in the use of certain clinical tools to assess and document a patient 's nutritional status and food intake . Risk assessment charts are particularly crucial in pre - empting malnutrition , and these can be carried out using tried and tested frameworks such as the MUST ( Malnutririon Universal Screening Tool ) assessment ( Godfrey , ) , and ( Body Mass Index ) scoring . These in turn can prompt the monitoring of intake where required using food record charts ( , ) . As with many other core nursing skills , benchmarking is also a positive step towards best practice ( Ellis , and , ) . The patient themselves should be involved in the planning and documentation process at every stage where possible ( Freeman ) . < heading > Conclusion < /heading > To summarize the above , malnutrition is a widespread problem in hospitals , with a significant effect on healing and recovery rates and length of hospital stay . In order to improve nutrition in hospitals the professional practitioner must have knowledge of the importance and composition of a nutritious diet , adopt an attitude of accountability and cooperation , and have skills in communication and the use of pre - established screening tools . Nutrition should be prioritised in accordance with its importance for the overall health and wellbeing of the patient , and not superseded by less fundamental tasks or delegated to untrained staff who might lack the skills , knowledge and attitude to achieve the best results .",1 "< abstract> ABSTRACT Before , it was widely believed that market integration was likely between the countries equally developed and that a gap in economic development would be an obstacle to successful integration . However , , as a example of a developed economy and a developing one harmonizing in market integration , clearly shows the driving forces that have made progress in the negotiation . This article breaks down the key issues regarding 's accession to the in into categories , of which the will be particularly emphasized . Most notably , the hegemonic role of will be tackled in order to deal with the initial incentive of the negotiations . The main feature of hegemony in this period will be described as rapidly declining rather than ascending after the collapse of the system . That is , the retreat of from the multilateral trade order caused by the domestic economic distress is addressed as a principal driving force toward market integration with the major developing partner . The large discrepancy in economic development can also be pointed out as an important factor to be examined . The developing countries ' efforts for regional grouping can be understood , to some extent , as collective attempts to maintain political influence without erosion from strong powers . Also economic asymmetry between and offered a building block , rather than obstacle , toward market integration . Given the relatively high membership cost that had to bear , however , the total benefit derived from needs to be reconsidered . < list> Key words : , hegemonic leadership , gap in economic development , < /heading> Introduction ( ) originated from between and ( ) signed in . The aim of the market integration of was at last accomplished by 's incorporation into the - trading bloc in ; as a result , combined GDP of and a population of ( as of ) into a single trade bloc ( . , ) . had already pursued various forms of political and economic cooperation with thanks to their geographical proximity and economic interdependence . A - Canada auto pact was already signed in to promote the car industry in both countries . The was the outcome of bilateral negotiation grounded in such past economic cooperation . On the other hand , economic ties between and had only been reinforced , at the earliest , since . Several key agreements for the understanding of facilitation of trade and investment were signed by the countries ( , ) . Such imbalance of individual bilateral relationships within the trilateral trade agreement shows the gap of economic development respective members have achieved . 's accession to , in particular , offers a significant implication analyzing the similar cases of economic integration between developed economies and a developing one , which were followed by regionalization based on the interface in the contemporary era . This article intensively addresses the implications and lessons of 's accession to . In order to do this , the framework of analysis to view 's joining the is categorized by different elements . As mentioned above , the principal characteristic of the is defined as an economic coalition between developed countries and a developing one . The major determinants such as domestic preference for trade liberalization and the existence of hegemonic leadership within the region should also be stressed . Lastly , it is worth noting that can be divided into a - stage process of economic integration . The step was the establishment of a preferential Free Trade Agreement ( ) between and , and the next one was 's accession . In the light of this sequencing process , examination is needed to identify the main factors affecting the expansion of the existing preferential trade treaty . This article begins with the overall review of the preceding theoretical framework which tackled economic integration , ranging from functionalism to political realism . The section examines the factors which promote a developing country 's participation in an economic cooperative body led by developed countries . Another important factor , that is , domestic reasons for making state actors prefer economic integration , will be addressed in the next section . Subsequently , the role of a regional hegemonic leader will be explored . Given that most current regional blocs have been or are being led by hegemonic leadership ( Gilpin , ) , the role of a hegemonic power which crucially affects the formation of a regional bloc should not be ignored . Finally , the establishment of gives rise to a need to identify the ways in which existing members of trade bloc combine with a latecomer . This issue will be dealt with in the section before the conclusion . < heading > Politics and/or Economics of regional integration < /heading > Generally speaking , it is difficult to define clearly why states pursue economic integration when such an integrative process may imply the relative erosion of the rights of self - determination in the economic , probably even political , policy - making at a domestic level . Various elements have been suggested regarding increasing regional trade agreements ( RTAs ) ranging from freer access to the partner 's market by the elimination of trade barriers to the possession of political levers in a power balance . Traditional functionalists claimed that the international arrangement in functional and technical areas such as health , postal services and communications made political integration possible and secured a peaceful international system ( Mitrany ) . Being inspired by , neo - functionalists more strongly emphasized the role of a domestic interest group - notably from the business sector - in achieving regional integration ( Haas ) . anticipated these interest groups would exert pressure on their home governments to create regional institutions securing more cross - border business opportunities . Since defined the customs union ( ) as a ' political ' institution in order to entrench against lesser states ( Viner , ) , realists have paid attention to the ' political ' factors such as the role of the regional hegemon and the individual nations ' political interests . They stressed either the importance of relative gains as a key factor to influence the advance and pace of integrative behavior ( , - 178 ) or that of ' political ' determination leading - not following - the creation of a trading or monetary union ( 2001,357 ) . Unlike the constant wrangling among political scientists , macroeconomic analyses of the effect of economic integration by separate self - contained economic areas demonstrated relatively clear conclusions in common . That is , it was widely accepted that the economic integration led to the benefits of specialization , greater effectiveness resulting from enhanced market competition , technological diffusion and the reduction of uncertainty and so on ( Balassa 1961 ) . However , it seems necessary to note that the most states that participated in the RTAs had or more motives for doing so . Their determination can not be explained by a single reason . For example , appeared to envisage ( ) in as achieving easier access to the wider market in , and and so on . However , if we examine the background to 's decision making , its strategic goal of appeasing the countries must be taken into account . At that time , aimed to consolidate the relationship with countries through the pledge of ' collective measures ' by countries including itself ( , ) . < fnote > For example , Fishlow and Haggard ( ) suggest the distinction into policy - driven integration and market - driven integration . < /fnote > Likewise , even if the explanatory utility of the nonrealistic analysis which stressed the intention of to spur the stalled negotiation through the is acknowledged , it is also true that the government 's conscious effort for unilateral trade liberalization laid the cornerstone toward the complete market integration of . Historical trajectories show a diversity of reasons , which can not be easily generalized , for pursuing integration . Nevertheless , the driving force for integration in industrial countries and developing countries shows a sharp difference between them . Simply speaking , market integration among industrial countries aims at improving the economic welfare of participating countries . On the other hand , the attempts at regional integration among developing countries , which began to burgeon in , were perceived as conscious efforts to achieve political stability as well as economic development ( and , ) . Neorealists perspective also interprets the regionalist activity among developing nations as the natural response of weak states trapped in the world of the stronger powers ( , ) . Yet , a very limited number of scholars have paid attention to integrative efforts between a developed country and a developing one . , in a way , is a very uncommon case which clearly shows a striking asymmetry of negotiating partners ' economic power and bargaining strength . < fnote > See , for example , and Hout ( eds . ) ( ) . < /fnote> Integration between a developed and developing economy NAFTA is the major free trade agreement between a developing economy and a developed one ( , ) . Statistics show the serious asymmetry in major macroeconomic indicators between and . The domestic product ( GDP ) of in , when President initially proposed the idea , was , the times of that of ( ) . Although the striking difference in population decreased the gap in per - capita GDP between the , simply speaking , the average income of the citizen ( ) was nearly times that of people ( , ) . Further , of 's exports go to , whereas at most of exports from go to ( Lustig , ) . It is widely accepted that the large discrepancy in per - capita income and level of economic development between negotiating partners gives rise to the issue of adjustment costs , which means the political and socioeconomic expenditure invested to make or amend their standard of transaction to be consistent with the trading partner . Moreover , the asymmetry of bargaining structure between and is likely to generate unequal costs distribution . In other words , larger economic gains by weaker partners might be offset or reduced by higher adjustment costs ( and Ros 1994 , - 28 ) . In the bigger countries , although relatively lower costs are imposed on them , RTAs are not necessarily welcomed by domestic actors either . Industries negatively affected by the market integration are highly likely to require as much compensations as possible ( and Ros , ) . However , unlike ( EEC ) , which tackled this issue through the establishment of adjustment funds , has no redistribution mechanism to cope with the adjustment costs of developing partners ( , ) . This means 's adjustment costs might be much higher than that of countries later accessed to the - e.g. , , and etc . - , which had to accept the strict criteria imposed by existing members of . Such high adjustment costs may bring about developing countries ' reluctance to pursue deeper integration with developed countries . As stated above , considering the political and economic motives of cooperative behavior between state actors , several questions arise from the intention of and regarding the participation in the negotiation for . Why did accept 's proposal without hesitation even though it already had overwhelming political and technological superiority over ? Why did propose the market integration initiative with despite a considerably high membership fee - adjustment costs - knowing well it could not overcome its relative backwardness to ? The realist answers to such questions begin with the following perception . 's ' binding thesis ' offers one of the relevant answers , explaining that weaker partners will pursue trade agreements to secure ' voice opportunities ' to themselves ( , ) . According to his hypothesis , the collaborative arrangements that developed and developing nations jointly participate in , despite the gap between their bargaining powers , will be assumed to contribute to restraining the unilateral use of power by stronger partners . Similarly , economic disparities among state actors are also regarded as a catalyst rather than an impeder in promoting economic integration ( Mattli , ) . In particular , a higher level of economic development and a larger membership of existing trade agreements tends to stimulate more active behavior in participating in the regional group . The weaker outsiders , in this process , have an incentive to pay a high membership cost , such as radical structural adjustment at a domestic industrial level ( Mattli , ) . Although was affected by the strand of new institutional economics whereas manifested his political neorealist orientation , their common formulation on bilateral arrangements between weaker and stronger countries explains convincingly the 's accession to the . In that sense , they seem to refute the underlying assumption of traditional mercantilism that economic asymmetry between actors impeded their collaboration . < fnote > Mattli defines economic integration as ' the internalization of externality ' . Such formulation shows the influence of the new institutional economics . < /fnote > In the light of their hypotheses , 's adjustment costs caused by unilateral trade liberalization in , as pointed out , can be interpreted the membership fee for becoming a member of a trade bloc led by developed countries . It is worthwhile to note that the , even though 's constant liberalization was implemented in , forced it again to accept measures for wider and deeper financial market opening . Moreover , given that the crisis in was indirectly influenced by the excessive dependence on foreign portfolio investment in the local stock market , 's membership fee for participation in should not be underestimated . Despite their seminal theorizing , however , relatively little account of 's domestic environment formed by political actors from both the legislature and the executives has been offered so far . What and mainly explored was not the domestic variables of state actors but the inter - relationship between them . Thus , the following questions remain to be answered about the negotiators ' choice at that time . Why did select a radical market - opening policy despite the political risk which might be raised from the domestic constituency ? What made embark on the negotiation with its developing partner , aside from and as strategic security allies ? These questions will be addressed in the following section . < heading in and the United States The objective of domestic policy reform has been regarded as of the important reasons why countries seek to join RTAs , along with traditional explanations such as trade gains and the acquisition of bargaining power ( , ) . Furthermore , states have pushed forward liberal economic reforms characterized by the market openness and the elimination of trade barriers by locking themselves in the external mechanism such as ( RTAs ) ( Mansfield and Milner 1999 , - 6 ) . In this sense , RTAs were a useful means to appease domestic resistance from interest groups which might lose their profit in the future . Nevertheless , as we are unable to assume that all the outsiders can be allowed to be a full member of existing trade agreements whenever they want , other factors forming individual preferences for regional integration should be simultaneously considered . A series of unsuccessful attempts which sought to economic integration , ' a patchwork quilt of trade agreements'(Whalley , ) , were made in in . Various initiatives for economic integration which have emerged since then in this region still remained as abortive proposals without any meaningful progress for the achievement of the unified economic bloc . Unlike other frustrated initiatives in this region , was successfully launched because it was motivated by a strong unilateral reform for liberalization undertaken by in . Subsequently , the actual negotiation was initiated by the official proposal of , President , in . Despite the fact that all members - , , - had internal divisions between the executive and the legislature over trade policy , the official negotiations successfully began thanks to approval for ' fast - track ' ( Milner 1997 , ) . However , we should go back to in order to broadly understand 's preparation for the by choosing a radical trade liberalization policy . launched comprehensive economic reform program in just after the occurrence of the debt crisis . Most striking measures taken for trade liberalization was the replacement of import licenses by tariffs and the promotion of exports through new fiscal incentives , which means the overall re - examination of import substitution industrialization ( ) policy that has characterized postwar development strategy . As a result , the portion of import license coverage plummeted from in to in and average tariff decreased from ( ) to ( ) ( Pastor and Wise , - 61 ) . During this period , was suffering from serious economic recession caused by massive debts and exacerbating terms of trade . Nevertheless , President ( ) persistently pushed forward economic reforms for trade liberalization along with entry to the in . Considering the economic turmoil was facing , from the perspective of external observers , the pace of liberalization for the domestic reforms seemed to be unduly fast ( , ) . This seemingly paradoxical response by the government can be ascribed notably to a widespread presence of enhanced volume of intra - industry with , which resulted in the formation of a strong supporters group for trade liberalization in ( Pastor and Wide , ) . Furthermore , President ( ) strove to adopt such radical policy packages accelerating trade and investment liberalization that a constituency was naturally fostered in ( , ) . This facilitated the exchange of mutually guaranteed access to the partner 's market and 's admission of 's economic ideology ( , ) . Despite 's unilateral market - opening policy , by , for , still remained as an unimportant partner on its candidates list for bilateral FTAs . analysts primarily worried about the large disparity in economic development between the countries , which might affect the timing and pace of the implementation of trade concessions mutually agreed ( Schott , ) . Although has manifested strong and consistent support for multilateralism in international trade regime since the onset of the system , it was gradually getting into trouble due to the expanding regionalism at a global level . This dilemma of surfaced in self - contradictory suggestions , some ideologists simultaneously argued for ' non - discriminatory ' treatment for trade partners alongside the exceptional application of a Most Favored Nation ( MFN ) clause to a ' good neighbor ' ( Schott , ) . The deepening of the trade imbalance and the erosion of its dominant economic position after the collapse of the system signified the crisis of hegemony . Eventually , in , hegemonic leadership was damaged by its pursuit of short - term economic gains and resentment was provoked from its economic partners and even from its traditional allies ( , ) . The so - called ' multi - track ' approach in trade policy emerged in such a climate , coupling bilateral and unilateral along with traditional multilateral negotiation for trade liberalization ( , ) . 's idea for the with was also proposed under such circumstances , and was accepted by the administration and that of its successor , President , without long contemplation . In particular , from the perspective , several benefits which could not be achieved from the existing attempts of multilateral trade liberalization could be expected from the - Mexico FTA . According to the realist approach , it was perceived that this creation of a ' preferential ' trade area by regional grouping might exert additional pressure upon the intransigence of and in the ongoing of multilateral trade negotiations ( , , , ) . As political realists regard the 's strong support for the establishment of an ( ) forum in as an implicit display of its willingness that it might give up the ongoing multilateral option and encourage institutionalization at a regional level , was perceived as of the potential alternatives resulting from the faltered round ( , ) . In sum , 's joining the can be interpreted as the outcome of individual efforts to eliminate particular domestic obstacles which and were confronting respectively . At the same time , this conclusion enhances the explanatory power of realists assuming that state actors tend to pursue regional integration as a means of diminishing the discrepancy among them . < heading > Hegemonic Leadership in < /heading > Needless to say , in the negotiating process of from , played a pivotal role . In other words , according to the logic and terms of hegemonic stability theory , in the negotiation can be described as a ' dominant beneficiary ' from economic integration which holds overwhelming ' economic supremacy ' ; thus , it offers ' free trade ' to the international trade regime as ' public goods ' ( Olson , Kindleberger ) . Public goods , in this context , are characterized by ' non - excludability of benefits ' and ' non - rivalry of consumption ' . However , in terms of ' public goods ' approach in analyzing the expansion of free trade regime , some critiques have been suggested surrounding the fundamental question like ' is free trade really public goods ? ' ( Conybeare , Snidal ) . As we can see from the fact that the current system does not offer benefits such as the provision of market access rights and the dispute settlement mechanism for non - members , the notion of public goods is already challenged . Rather , 's argument coupling neorealism with ' hegemonic stability theory ' , which previously theorized , seems to be more persuasive than the ' public goods ' theory . He formulated that the hegemonic distribution of potential economic power brought about an open trading structure at a global level preventing states from being tempted by regionalism ( , ) . According to his analysis , the preference for openness in international trade is most likely to occur during periods when a hegemonic state is ascending in its economic power . On the other hand , an international trade regime which is comprised of unequally developed large states tends to prefer a closed structure ( , - 23 ) . However , a more interesting and significant question in terms of 's hypothesis , which mainly dealt with the case of nineteenth and , would be the availability of such a formula in analyzing the complex dynamics of new regionalism in . The trade policy of since , as stated above , overtly reflects a declining leadership role in the wake of exacerbating trade deficits . The hegemony , dubbed as ' predatory ' by ( ) , that has constantly ascended since the onset of the postwar period , was seriously damaged at this time . This means , inevitably , the lack of capability to induce other protectionist countries to participate in the open trade regime . It was obvious that the declining hegemonic leader could not use its economic resources to create an open structure . In addition , the large domestic market could no longer be offered to underdeveloped countries which needed a greater market ( , ) . However , 's argument has several weaknesses in explaining the hegemonic role to achieve regional institutionalization . His analysis was solely focused on the global openness such as an offer of the domestic market by a state relatively advanced in its size and technology . Such openness , however , does not necessarily negate the newly emerged regionalism . It is the case that declining hegemony accelerated the resurrection of regionalism in the but it does not necessarily undermine the global openness . For example , liberalists viewed the newly burgeoned regional arrangements in as a facilitator to push multilateral trade liberalization ( Bergsten and Noland , Lawrence ) . This shows the compatibility of global openness and RTAs . The concept of ' open regionalism ' or ' soft regionalism ' reflects such compatibility . In addition , it is still in question whether a declining hegemonic state immediately changes its orientation in trade policy toward protectionism . As acknowledged himself , in and in respectively experienced the decay of hegemony but largely maintained a liberal - or market opening - policy despite their weakening economic power . Another explanation was offered by . According to ' state - centric realism ' as he earlier labeled it , or more core political entities should play a decisive role in pursuing political integration ( Gilpin , ) . He argued that the unwillingness of to continue its hegemonic leadership provoked regional grouping among other countries across the world , which aimed to sort out their own problems without hegemony ( Gilpin , - 60 ) . Given that his argument mainly focused on the role of , the establishment of also can be interpreted as the outcome of a changed attitude of from multilateralism to regionalism . This indicates that the retreat of from the multilateral free trade regime , created by itself , laid the cornerstone of . In sum , the establishment of can be understood as the phenomenon of regionalization of hegemonic power . That is , hegemony made narrow the scope in which its power is wielded in the wake of its declining influence at a global level . At the same time , , frustrated by the snail - paced progress of , was likely to show its bargaining strength toward the rest of the world . In this sense , it would be broadly agreed that , cutting across the theoretical debate between liberalist and realists , as portrayed , became 's refuge from an increasingly hostile world ( , ) . < fnote > The ' regionalization ' is defined as an economic phenomenon showing the intensive concentration of trade and investment different from ' regionalism ' as a form of a political organization in a given region ( ) . < /fnote> The Enlargement of the Existing Trade Union The last question this article is going to tackle is to do with the outward expansion of existing RTAs . However , to date , very few scholars have paid attention to theorizing the sequencing process of regional grouping . To begin with , , who was interested in the political economy of the formation of the , conceptualized ' hub - and - spoke ' bilateralism , which refers to the by bilateral negotiation between only one member of the existing union and a new country from outside . That is , if chose the simple and quicker bilateral agreement with after the preceding - Canada FTA , can be described as a ' spoke ' and can be expressed as a ' hub ' which has separate partners as a individual spoke . Actually , relatively small economies which has a vulnerability in bargaining power tends to prefer this kind of ' hub - and - spoke ' bilateralism on the grounds that bilateral agreement can be more easily achieved than a multilateral trade bloc which needs all members ' consent ( Lipsey 1990 , Wonnacott ) . Likewise , superior negotiators also tend to prefer bilateral agreements because they can exercise more dominant influence to build up the pace and condition of the trade liberalization . , for example , failed to become a new member of , even though any other qualified countries were able to access to since it manifested an open door policy to outsiders who had a willingness and eligibility to join . amply met the qualification the existing provision required , but pressure from the labor and environment groups prevented it from joining ( Wonnacott , ) . As a result of the reluctance of the government , eventually became a ' spoke ' through bilateral with in . Although hub - and - spoke bilateralism is being rapidly expanded , however , the ' less ' economic gains from an ' imperfect ' type of trade liberalization were indicated as a stumbling block . The main reason was that the spoke country must compete with its neighbors to occupy the limited market of the hub country . In this sense , asserted that hub - and - spoke bilateralism is risky and thus undesirable from both the view of wealthy ' hub ' and relatively less - advanced ' spokes ' in the light of the unnecessary adjustment costs it inevitably provokes ( Wonnacott , - 46 , ) . The ' effect ' designed by encapsulates the process of expansion of an existing economic integrative body . was mainly interested in the factors that trigger the membership request from non - members based on domestic exporters ' needs calling for greater market . 's hypothesis is grounded in the expectation that a chain reaction will occur if once the existing bloc begin to enlarge ( , - 36 ) . It is generally accepted that increasing number of members and enhanced volume of trade in an existing bloc lead to a bigger loss of opportunity cost for the outsiders who failed to join . In this sense , once one of the outsiders has joined the existing union , further liberalization is likely to occur due to the remainder 's fear of relative losses ( Baldwin , ) . Unlike in countries , however , a domino phenomenon has not occurred in . Just after became a new member of the , adjacent countries such as , , , and knocked at the door of market following their neighbor , but failed to be allowed to join the existing union . Instead , they were recommended to create their own regional group before applying for with . This shows the irrelevance of 's domino reaction hypothesis . The political realists who have stressed the influence of global power politics over the wave of regionalism , rather than liberal economists , are likely to answer the question about the re - orientation of the trade policy from multilateralism to bilateralism . By , was deeply concerned that the increasingly reinforced of cooperation would develop into a ' Fortress Europe ' , and spurred the creation of its own regional bloc . However , the final conclusion of inter - agency review by the government was that the real likelihood is extremely low ( , - 271 ) . Such situation made to voluntarily deter the continuous expansion of regional grouping . For , bilateral FTAs are a more accessible way to resolve an enormous trade deficit without the occurrence of mercantilist competition with and . < heading > Conclusion < /heading > In this article , the key issues which affected the 's accession to were examined under a categorization into factors . The domestic preference for market integration and the existence of hegemonic leadership contributed to initiate the negotiation and to lead the subsequent procedure . What is seemingly obstructive to progress in negotiation , the discrepancy in economic power between parties and the opportunity cost issue that stimulated the non - member 's willingness to join the existing union , also offered a building block toward the successful conclusion of - negotiation . The traditional interpretation of the arrangement of the in was mainly focused on the separate points . Domestic factors emphasizing the electoral calculations of political leaders or the ratification procedure of the member country legislature ( Milner , ) shaped of important trends . The other primarily emphasized the economic benefit the market integration between the countries in geographical proximity can bring about . However , these separate theoretical explanations are still insufficient to show the complex nature of the establishment and must be supplemented by an alternative approaches . In this sense , the economic integration model between a less - advanced and a more - advanced country reveals a difference between and any other RTAs , which has so far been neglected . For instance , even if this is not the place to scrutinize the issue , there is a need to fully calculate the benefits could gain despite the relatively high cost of adjustments for which it should pay . The unequal game model which was shown from the - negotiation case will suggest a useful policy implication to the increasingly popular pattern of bilateral trade negotiation after . The hegemonic leadership approach which consolidated the realist explanation on regional economic integration also supplements the explanatory weakness that was shown in preceding studies . For example , in the RTAs between a high - tariff and a low - tariff country such as , the losses derived from preferential tariffs tend to be more remarkable than those between advanced and opened economies ( Panagariya 1999 , ) . However , it seems plausible to assume that the political incentive to to display its intention to the world subsumed the potential economic losses such as trade diversion effect that preferential trade agreement might cause . Nevertheless , if one must choose a single pivotal determinant which can decide the destiny of negotiation for RTAs , it would probably be agreed that the power of - including both executive branches and interest groups - is a primary factor . This is the reason why attention to the role of should still be drawn in analyzing increasing FTAs - worldwide as well as on the continent - in a way that cuts across the different theoretical perspectives divided into liberalism and realism .","< heading > The multiplicity levels and sectors of local governance Government and politics operate at a number of levels : making it far from self - contained . ' The new world of local governance is more complex than the old system of local government . The old unequal - way relationship between central and local government has now been replaced by a more complex multi - layered system of governance . ' . Governance is generally taken to comprehend institutions of government : it is essentially about the process rather than institutional structures : < fnote > Local Governance in , and ( ) < /fnote>'Governance is the process by which we collectively solve our problems and meet out society 's needs . Government is the instrument we use . It reflects the growing complexity and fragmentation of government , which appears increasingly multi - layered ' . < /quote> Local Governance in , and ( ) < /fnote > Local governance increasingly involves multi - agency 's working together in partnerships and policy networks , which cut across organisational boundaries . In local governance , elected local authorities are still the most important public bodies and they have the potential to play the leading role . Governance , , does n't just include those , who as ministers , civil servants or elected councillors are part of government , it also involves a wide range of organisations , including former state institutions and activities , which have been privatised , central and local government departments but also quasi - autonomous non - governmental organisations ( quangos ) , which are independent as they are n't part of government departments , nor directly accountable to ministers : finally , not forgetting the voluntary sector . From this , one can see that governance is both multi - agency and multi - level . Multi - agency networks operate at and between various levels of government . < quote > Local governance clearly fits into the framework of multi - level governance . local institutions have been subject to almost continuous change over , as their structure , functions , finance and internal workings have been radically and sometimes repeatedly reformed . ( Coxall , and ) < /quote> Contemporary Politics , Coxall , and ( ) < /fnote > Local governance is part of a much wider process , which involves a growing interdependence between levels : multi - level governance . Public services have to work with well - networked community groups , often to find they are replaced by them . An example of the different agencies that are involved in a public service could be the provision of local health services / care , which is now the main responsibility of hospital trusts and primary care trusts . Other examples could include local transport and the police service . Even where elected local authorities retain statutory responsibility for a service it may actually be provided by another organisation , such as a voluntary body largely funded by the council , by a private company under contract or by another public agency . Refuse collection , cleaning , ground maintenance , laundry services now provided by private firms under contract although the services are still publicly funded and regulated . In the there is a unitary rather than a federal state . Supreme power is not divided : it is concentrated in the hands of the central government , which causes problems as there is no longer direct contact between and this is responsible for local decline of power . The role of local government is strictly subordinate and its relationship with central government is very unequal . The state has been eroded by ( ) as it has been continuously increasing , its influence over policy . This process began in when joined the and as a result of this , decisions taken in Westminster and Whitehall are now controlled and revised by powers located in , and . Other super - national bodies have an influence also , as well as by the power of global capitalism and devolution , decentralisation and fragmentation , which adds to the levels in governance . < list> Levels of governance Institutions Recent changes in internal management'There is no one process of management change as individual organisations and service sectors respond differently to system - wide triggers for change . ' Management change is a non - linear process , involving continuities between old and new approaches , movements forwards and backwards along with change at different levels . Management change has political significance , impacting upon relationships between government and citizens at the local level . Leach and believe ' there is need for both horizontal integration of a wider range of local agencies and interests , and a vertical integration of different levels of government . ' < fnote > Local Governance in , and ( ) < /fnote > The English Local Government Act 2000 changed the formal management of local democracy in , the most radical change being directly - elected mayors ( or the mayor and cabinet option ) , which was adopted in only a small number of towns and cities . The mayor and the operation of , which operates more at the level of regional rather than local government and has a range of strategic rather than delivery powers councils out of have adopted the ' mayor and cabinet ' option . Under 's mayor and cabinet system alongside , the directly elected mayor a wider group of councillors is also elected to the council . The mayor , in the , does not have direct sway over the administration of the council , which remains independently headed by a non - political official , usually called the chief executive , appointed by the whole of the council . The introduction of a directly - elected mayor is a significant constitutional change as the Government believe all local people should be able to have their say before a council adopts a constitution involving a directly elected mayor . The new way management is also significant : it involves networks and partnership rather than the traditional public administration associated with hierarchy , bureaucracy , command and compliance on the one hand or the new right solution of competition , consumer choice and markets on the other . Recent reforms of structure , along with changes in operational responsibilities have increased public confusion over responsibility for local services and decisions . Continuing reforms of the local government committee system have led to some significant upheavals in the town halls . Over there has been the introduction of directly elected mayors , is a good example of this . ' If elected mayors are able to provide effective leadership , using their status and legitimacy to bring together interests and agencies into effective coalitions , city governance could be transformed . ' A lot of the modernising agenda seems to involve centralising power in ' the hands of the few ' within local communities , a mayor or local executive . < fnote > Local Governance in , and ( ) < /fnote > With reference to , it 's who are responsible for improving local services in the city . ' This partnership tackles strategic issues across the . An example of what it does is outlined in the agreement between the , public service organisations , voluntary sector , community groups and local residents . The agreement consists of priorities that need to be delivered to the communities . These are : Children and Young People , Economy and Enterprise , , and and Stronger Communities . ' ( URL ) < heading > The planning policy sector and local governance Planning is unique in the way it operates at all levels government : , national , regional , county , district and neighbourhood levels . Planning stretches across a range of governmental levels but also non - governmental organisations , as part of governance . The planning system is intended to provide guidance , control and incentive in the use and development of land . The current form of national advice for planning , in , is contained within a series of national planning policy guidance notes ( PPGs ) . The planning process is managed and implemented by national and local tiers of government and is hierarchical in policy framework . Central government 's policy requirement is very clear : local planning authorities must follow the statements within PPGs with reference to carrying out their planning duties . The planning polity now comprises different systems within the different countries of the . still possesses a government and policies are formulated within the government on certain topics for application across the whole of and . When it comes to planning decisions they are delegated to planning officers then ( LAC ) before being passed onto the strategic development and finally the Local Plan is referred to . If looks at the recent planning and development that has occurred in , it can be seen that one of their planning aims to regenerate and redevelop the inner city . The is a prime example of this . The building is that of an old sorting office with of the cities canals running alongside , which was bought by the local government for redevelopment . The new mixed - use building opened just prior to Christmas 2000 and consists of designer shops , restaurants and café bars along with new hotels and luxury apartments . The upper levels also provide office and residential accommodation . This process of redevelopment involved , the local government , , private investors , such as residential and retail owners and developers . The actual transformation by the business involved many businesses , reflecting local governance . In formulates recommended goals , plans , policies and ordinances that provide orderly growth and development for the city . This department assists the public with matters regarding rezoning , annexation , subdivision of property , and historic preservation . is an example of redevelopment where had taken place , which has involved many actors within local governance and beyond . It is national catering and brewery companies that have been the major actors in this development but also local government as they were owners of some of the land . It is private companies that have been responsible for some of the construction , public sectors have also been involved .",0 "< abstract> Summary Part A - Material selection for fresh - water heat exchanger tubes Within the heat exchanger fluid is pumped through a series of tubes which are immersed in a chamber that has another fluid flowing through it , during which heat passes from fluid to the other . Certain material properties , for example , Maximum service temperature and Thermal conductivity will need to be considered in order to select suitable candidate materials for the heat exchanger tubes to be manufactured from . The selector ( CES ) provides a short - list of suitable materials that meet the specification and in this instance materials are selected . These can be further reduced by the addition of further selection criteria such as price and recycle fraction . After all the parameters are set , it is found that high conductivity copper provides the most appropriate solution to the problem . High conductivity copper has a high thermal conductivity , high recycle fraction and is also the cheapest material on the short - list . Part and processing for a computer case A computer manufacturing firm requires a new portable computer based on a notebook size so that it has an footprint . The design specification for the product is given and a suitable material and process of manufacture are required to be selected . The material must have appropriate properties such that it is able to be used for a computer case , it must be durable i.e. have high fracture toughness and high hardness and be light i.e. have low density . It is found that polymers provide the most appropriate choice of material and this is demonstrated by the fact that all of the materials selected are polymer composites . Processes of manufacture are also required to be selected and a short - list of these is generated . BMC moulding is found to be ideal as it is a composite forming technique so is suitable to be used with composite polymers , which are the most appropriate material group for this application . < /abstract> Part A - Material selection for fresh - water heat exchanger tubes Introduction The Cambridge Engineering Selector ( CES ) is a windows based computer program that is used to evaluate information for engineering applications . The program in this instance can be used to select a suitable material for the tubes within a heat exchanger to be manufactured from . Within the heat exchanger fluid is pumped through a series of tubes which are immersed in a chamber that has another fluid flowing through it , during which heat passes from fluid to the other . The following material properties will need to be considered in order to select candidate materials for the heat exchanger tubes to be manufactured from . < heading > Material Properties of Candidate Materials Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity ( k ) is measure of the rate at which heat is transferred through a material and is related by equation . EQUATION 1 1 Where FORMULA is the heat flux per unit time per unit area , and FORMULA is the temperature gradient through the material . There are mechanisms that thermal energy is transported within solid materials ; it is transferred either via free electrons or by lattice vibrations ( phonons ) . In a heat exchanger it is ideal to manufacture the pipes out of a material that has a high thermal conductivity . This will ensure that the maximum thermal energy is transferred between the fluids therefore the efficiency of the heat exchanger will be high . < heading > Ductility Ductility is a measure of the amount of plastic deformation that occurs before a material fractures . The percentage elongation ( Equation 2 ) is an expression of the ductility where lf is the distance between gauges marks when a tensile stress - strain test has been carried out on a material , and l0 is the original gauge length . EQUATION 2 2 Ductility is an important property of the tubes for the heat exchanger . The material will need to be bent during the manufacturing process and for this reason the material that they are to be made from will need to be ductile enough to deform before it fractures when a stress is applied during manufacture . < heading > Maximum service temperature The heat exchanger will operate at a certain temperature ; the material of the tubes will have to be able to withstand at least this temperature . The material will have to be able to operate at temperatures above the operating temperature of the heat exchange , if the material is unable to operate at these temperatures , then it is unsuitable for this application . < heading > Corrosion resistance Corrosion is the destruction and unintentional attack on a material . Corrosion causes a weakening in the structure of a material and can eventually lead to the failure of the component . As the heat exchanger tube will be submersed in fresh water , the material that it is manufactured from can not corrode in fresh water , for this reason the material will have to have a very good corrosion resistance . From the required properties of the material for the heat exchanger the following specification of the material is generated : < heading > Specification of material: Maximum service temperature ° > 20%Corrosion resistance to water very goodThermal Conductivity as large as possible Selection of Candidate Materials Using the CES selector for materials selection , the filters set as shown below : < list > Primary selection table : filter : filter : < All Records > Shape filter : Shape class Firstly the limit states of the materials are set as shown in ) . The required elongation of the material is that it should be . FORMULA Therefore the ductility can be calculated , and the material for the tubes should have a ductility of greater than 0.2 . To identify a shortlist of candidate materials diagrams are created . ductility is plotted against Maximum service temperature and a selection box is used to limit the suitable materials . thermal conductivity is plotted against resistance to fresh water corrosion . Appendix 1 ( Stage 2 and 3 ) shows the charts that were generated . The results that were generated with the highest thermal conductivity that met the other selection criteria are : < list > Commercial PurityHigh Conductivity Copper Silver Magnesium AlloySilver Nickel AlloySilver Commercial Purity All of the materials above meet the original specification for the material that the tubes will be manufactured from . There are though further material characteristics that can be taken into consideration to ensure that the most suitable material is chosen ; < heading > Price The price of the material is an important factor to consider . If the material is too expensive for the particular application then it will be an unsuitable choice , the price ( ) should be as low as possible . The manufacturer will need to be able to sell the heat - exchanger at a competitive price and still make a profit . < heading > Recycle Fraction A high recycle fraction ( a value as close to one as possible ) means that most of the material can be recycled . < heading > Fracture Toughness For safety reasons it would be beneficial for the tubes to have a high fracture toughness to ensure that the do not fracture while being used in the heat exchanger . Comparing the original materials that were selected it is apparent that any gold or silver based materials will be far too expensive for this application ( Appendix 1 ( Stage 5 ) ) . This leaves the copper based materials to be considered . The material properties of these High Conductivity Copper and Composite are shown in . An diagram with Fracture toughness against recycle fraction is constructed to see which of the materials is most appropriate ( Appendix 1 ( Stage 4 ) ) . The high conductivity copper has higher recycle fraction and fracture toughness than Composite . < heading > Recommendation From the materials that meet all the primary specifications the high conductivity copper would be the most recommended as it has other beneficial properties including high recycle fraction and fracture stiffness and is also the cheapest of the materials that were selected . < heading > Part B - Material Selection and processing for a computer case Introduction < /heading > A computer manufacturing firm requires a new portable computer based on a notebook size so that it has an footprint . The design specification for computer case is shown below : < list > A piece construction(base and lid , both about the same size)Outer dimensions x x 20 mmWall thickness not exceeding 2 mmTolerance on larger dimensions ± 0.5 mmRMS roughness not to exceed The computer case will need to be manufactured from a material for which the following properties are the most important : < heading > Resistivity This is a measure of the electrical conductivity of the material . For the purpose of the computer case it is beneficial to have as high as possible Resistivity . This means that if a malfunction occurs within the computers ' electrical components , the user of the laptop is unlikely to suffer from an electric shock ; so for safety reasons Resistivity should be high . < heading > Price As with the manufacture of any product the cost should be kept to a minimum to optimise profits , the price per kilogram for the material should therefore be kept low . < heading > Fracture Toughness Laptops are inevitably going to suffer from being dropped so the material needs to have a high fracture toughness to ensure that the product does not fracture under small forces . < heading > Thermal Conductivity The internal components of the computer will get hot during use , it is therefore necessary to ensure that this heat is not transferred to the surface of the laptop i.e. the keyboard through the case material . If excessive heat is transferred through the material it could cause injury to the user . The thermal conductivity of the material needs to be minimal for safety reasons . < heading > Hardness The material that the case is manufactured from will need to be hard , so that damage is not inflicted on the internal components and to the aesthetic appearance of the computer . < heading > Density < /heading > Within the growing market of laptop sales , weight is an important sales feature . The material will therefore need to have a low density so that a light - weight portable computer can be designed . Appendix 3 shows the diagrams that were created to select a suitable material for the computer case . The following shortlist of materials was generated : < list ( ABS)- Medium impactPolypropylenePolypropylene ( PP ) - CaCO3Polypropylene ( PP ) - TalcPolystyreneStructural ( ( SAN)Styrene Acrylonitrile ( SAN ) - High impact ( a)Styrene Acrylonitrile ( SAN ) - High impact ( b) Using the CES selector it shows that plastic materials are a common choice for the base and lid to be manufactured from . The shortlist of materials generated comprises of all polymer composites . < heading > Selection of Suitable Method of Manufacture A suitable method of manufacture of the computer case is identified by setting the process selection within the program to the following parameters : < list > Primary selection table : ProcessMaterials filter : Material filter : filter : Shape Class The limit states ( Appendix 4 ) were set to the specification and the following processes were selected : < list > BMC Moulding Cold Press MouldingPultrusionRTMSMC Moulding Additional Selection Factors Price As with the manufacture of any product the cost is also a factor that has to be considered . The capital and running costs are important as if a process is too expensive then the product will not be economically viable for manufacture . < heading > Energy Content The energy content is the amount of energy that is used in the production of the component . This value should be minimised as fuel costs are expensive and will reduce the amount of profit associated with the finished product . For environmental reasons the energy content should also be low , smaller energy content means that less pollution is created in the generation of the energy so less damage is created to the environment . < heading diameter The computer case is required to have holes in it for example for headphones / microphones to be attached . A limit stage can be added to take this into account , for example the minimum hole diameter can be set to . This then produces possible manufacturing process which is moulding . moulding is one of the most economical processes for producing high volume , small to medium sized components . ( Appendix 5 highlights the beneficial properties of the process ) . BMC moulding meets all the process specification and as it is a composite forming technique it is suitable to be used with composite polymers , which are the most appropriate material group for this application . All of the processes are composite forming so it is possible to cross - reference with the materials to find which material is suitable to be used to manufacture the computer case . Only ( PP ) calcium carbonate and ( PP ) Talc are able to be formed using a composite forming method , so the computer case has to be made from of these materials . < heading > Recommendation From the options selected through the CES Iit is suggested that the computer case be made from ( PP ) calcium carbonate manufactured by moulding .","Relationships between unemployment and wages have long been argued about . The shirking model is an example of efficiency wage theory , where the employer pays above the market clearing rate . It is based on many assumptions about the labour market and I will be examining each assumption and each variable , particularly unemployment levels which affect the wage rate offered in this model . I will show how the model establishes an equilibrium and also at what empirical evidence there is to support to support it . The Early Classical economists believed that in market equilibrium , unemployment did not exist and that the markets cleared . If unemployment did exist , it was purely voluntary and caused by wage rigidities . Another theory of unemployment suggested is one of efficiency wages which offers an explanation of involuntary unemployment , even at equilibrium . The shirking model is such a example . In essence , it suggests that workers dislike their work and would , if they could , not do their work . The model then establishes why firms choose to pay above the market clearing equilibrium . The shirking model is founded upon many assumptions , of which the one is that workers dislike their work and if the firm was completely unable to monitor their work , they would choose not to do it . The assumption is that workers either shirk , or they work at effort level e ( ie it is a discrete variable ) ; there is only one level of effort and this can not be higher or lower . If they do shirk , the model assumes that they are dismissed . The other main assumptions are that all workers and firms are identical ; the probability of being dismissed due to reasons other than disciplinary ones , b , is in the long term ; and the level of unemployment benefits given out , w , is treated as an exogenous variable It has always been difficult to observe each individuals ' effort to ensure that they do not shirk , but in more recent times it has proved increasingly so . Teamwork , use of initiative and flexibility have become more important skills in the workplace , but the quantity of effort put into these is very difficult to measure in comparison to , for example , the speed of a production line . To be able to perfectly monitor each individuals effort in the workplace is a very rare thing . Supposing that perfect monitoring did exist , it would not , in itself , prevent shirking . The cost of being caught shirking has to be associated with dismissal as alternatives to this such as cutting their wage , will , as I will show later , encourage further shirking.1 Workers choose not to shirk if and only if the value of working is greater than the value of shirking . If is equal to the lifetime utility of working and putting in effort , and is equal to the lifetime utility of working but shirking , then : FORMULA - This is the basic ( ) . Employers will choose to pay at the level where = , known as the critical wage , and not any higher as workers could not "" shirk less "" but if they paid at a lower rate where < VS then workers would choose to shirk . The equations for and can be calculated rVS is given by FORMULA is given by FORMULA where < list > w = wage rateb = probability of leaving job due to reasons other than shirking - job break - upq = probability of being caught shirkingVU = value of being unemployedr = interest ratee = effort exerted The No Shirking Condition can be rearranged to give FORMULA is the asset equation for being unemployed . Its equation can be given as FORMULA which can be put into the equation to give FORMULA < list> where w = unemployment benefits a = job acquisition rate , exhibits a poisson distribution The relationship can be illustrated as below The non - shirking wage level is therefore dependent upon many factors and I will now examine the theory behind each one . Intuitively , the lower the probability that workers ' are caught shirking , b , the more likely it is that they will take the risk and a higher critical wage is required to ensure that the worker does not do so . If the worker did shirk , then with the higher wage , they work would stand to lose something if they were caught shirking . If the effort level required to do the work is higher , an increase in e , then the critical wage is higher . This is logical as the worker would be even more inclined to shirk if possible as the work is more challenging to do . To persuade them not to , a higher wage is required . If , the utility of being unemployed is higher , then the critical wage needs to be higher . VU is positively dependent upon the unemployment benefits , w , and the probability of gaining another job , a , the job acquisition rate . The smaller the difference between w and w , then the smaller the difference between and is ( assuming that w has a higher initial value ) and the smaller the loss of workers utility is of being dismissed . Therefore they have less to lose if they are caught shirking and are more likely to do so which requires a rise in wages to prevent it . Indeed if w = w then , according to this model , workers would shirk as their utility would be lower if they worked and would therefore rather be unemployed . However , I believe this is one of the limitations of the model . Studies conducted by and other economists have found that unemployment is a source of great unhappiness 4 and this model does not account for any psychological effects of unemployment on individuals . In view of this , without detailed research , it is not possible to say whether workers ' would truly rather be unemployed or employed at w = w. The element affecting is the job acquisition rate . This is calculated by the number of people entering unemployment , divided by the number of people leaving unemployment . FORMULA where N = number of firms , L = the number of workers per firm , is the number of workers currently unemployed . of the key assumptions made by this model and which is relevant to this factor is that all workers are identical . Thus , if a worker is dismissed for shirking , a firm is unable to distinguish that worker from an honest worker and has the same probability of being reemployed as an honest worker does . If the job acquisition rate is , this means that every unemployed person can find another job immediately . This also means that the cost to the worker of being dismissed is and hence , workers will shirk . In my opinion , I think that the assumption of identical workers is less valid in than it was in when and proposed this model . I think this is due to better information networks which means that almost without exception , a reference from a previous employer is required to get a new job and this casts doubt on the possibility that perennial shirkers are treated in the same way as honest workers . In this model though , the higher the value of a , the higher the wage rate will be.6 Finally , the higher the rate of interest , the higher the critical wage becomes . This is because the gains made in the short run from shirking will accrue interest and will have greater weight than the losses which eventually happen due to shirking when the person is caught . I have analysed what factors affect the critical wage , but I have n't established an equilibrium wage level . I start from the basis that all firms are paying the same wage and there is unemployment and wages equal unemployment benefits . Shirking is commonplace as there is nothing to be gained from working ( except possible psychological benefits mentioned earlier but I shall choose to ignore these now ) . Thus , firm raises its wages to act as a worker - discipline device ; the worker stands to lose out if they shirk as they would not be able to earn a similar income if dismissed . This starts a wage - price spiral and eventually , all firms raise their wages to the same level as the firms are treated as identical . This in turn decreases aggregate demand for labour which has a negative relationship with wages . Hence , this causes unemployment . When all wages are equal , it may still be beneficial to shirk even though wages are now greater than benefits and there is unemployment . It is dependent upon the other factors such as the job acquisition rate and the probability of being caught . This may result in a further shift in wages up until the point where workers will no longer shirk . This will in turn lead to shifts in the labour demand curve as well and an equilibrium level of unemployment will exist . This unemployment is involuntary but exists as those unemployed can not credibly commit not to shirk at a lower wage rate . If unemployment equals ( so that b=0 and a=0 ) then , the no shirking wage would be FORMULA If employment grew , then the worker would have more incentive to shirk as the expected loss in utility of being dismissed would be smaller ( due to the greater probability of being reemployed ) . Therefore , to prevent shirking , the critical wage will be higher . The whole relationship is illustrated below . Equilibrium is shown at the point of intersection between labour demand and the no shirking condition line . An increase in the unemployment rate , holding everything else constant , would lead to a reduction in the efficiency wage . However , if you wished to change a variable other than the wage rate in the No Shirking condition equation of w w + e + e(a + b + r ) / q , then you could allow q to change , the probability of being caught . The change in q would have to be the same amount as the change in in percentage terms . If decreased ( representing an increase in unemployment ) , then ceteris paribus , q would have to decrease to maintain that wage . The probability of being caught shirking is directly related to the level of monitoring there is in the firm . If the probability of being caught falls , then this would be associated with a fall in expenditure on monitoring . After analysing in some detail the theory behind the shirking model , we can briefly compare it with the empirical evidence . In a article by and they suggested that firms did not always dismiss workers which were caught shirking and this undermines a fundamental assumption of the model . But since the theory was proposed , many economists have attempted to try and establish an empirical link . A study that I found particularly interesting was the conducted by in titled "" , agency , and wages : An examination of franchising in the fast food industry . "" The conclusions that he came to were that in individual outlets that were franchised , full time employees were paid between 1 and less compared to those who worked in a company - owned outlet . At managerial level this gap increased to . The reasons which put forward for these pay gaps was that monitoring workers ' effort in a company owned outlet is much harder . In a franchised outlet , the managers are able to monitor their workers ' effort more easily . But in his book suggests that the cost of shirking to the company by a full time employee is comparatively small as there is little opportunity for him / her to significantly damage the company . Hence , this is cited as a reason for the small pay gap between full - time employees . However , the reason for the large pay gap amongst managers is that in these relatively skilled jobs there is the opportunity to significantly damage the company and that the shirking is a lot harder to detect so due to the , an increase in wages is required . Generally , most studies have found evidence to support the shirking model but it is still not possible to say what the magnitude of the effect is . In conclusion this model attempts to define accurately the situations where workers will choose to shirk and has provoked a lot of thought . It shows that the firm must pay a higher wage to prevent shirking and concludes by saying that an equilibrium may exist with wages higher than the natural market clearing rate and at this equilibrium , involuntary unemployment does exist . But this model is founded upon many assumptions about firms and workers and these do not always hold in real - life markets . Many extensions have been made to the model such as one by and Summers ( ) which considered the possibilities of perfect monitoring but overall the model has certainly added a new perspective to the workings of the labour market .",0 "The definition of what a "" socialist "" state or empire must contain in order to be defined as such is by no means straightforward . The existence of many different forms of movement and ideology , all claiming to be socialist in nature , has created debate over the features of socialism . Some claim that a socialist state is driven by its economic system , and others by its ideological base . In addition our knowledge of the exact workings of an economy and society so ancient as the is perhaps lacking in some of the information one might prefer to have in order to make this judgement as to its socialist nature . However one may uncover whether society shared any of the features we have now come to see as characteristic of most socialist states . To be socialist is often to be linked to the idea of banning private ownership and putting the means of production into the hands of either collective or cooperative ownership . It would appear that in the pre - Incaic era there was indeed no form of privatised land ownership , which we would recognise as such , within civilisation . Instead , communities built around kinship ties ( named ayllu ) collectively owned land and the responsibility for its upkeep . It is the manner in which this system altered under the that creates uncertainty as to the socialist nature of the empire . Land in any territory became split up into factions : assigned to the ( that is , to religion ) , another to , and a part to the commoners . It is not clear how equal in size these parts were , although most historians suggest that commoners were always given enough land that their ayllus were sustainable at a decent level . < fnote > Means , , Ancient Civilizations of the ( ; : Sons , ) , p.288 < /fnote> D'Altroy , , The ( : , ) , p.263 < /fnote > The theory behind such a system encouraged deference to the supreme Inca in repayment for his acute generosity . As Means suggests , the built the idea that ' all land in the country belonged by right ... to the who graciously distributed the usufruct of parts of it to the and to the ayllus . "" This quotation is revealing of the essence of the land ownership system : although ayllus were still assigned a proportion of the empire 's land to work and live from , they no longer owned this land in name . In addition commoners were expected to cultivate the non - communal land belonging to the and the , in exchange for the promise of security that being part of the empire brought . In theory everybody in the empire , including the supreme Inca , played a role in working these lands , but in practice work carried out by such elites soon tailed off . In short , land had become state property under the although it continued to be worked in the same community - sufficient manner as in pre - Incaic days . In sense then under the land ownership became more socialist in nature , as many view state ownership of apparatus as a defining feature . However if this was a socialistic empire , it was not the democratic form of socialism that is aspired to by . The ordinary man had no say in the running of the economy , rule was despotic and it was consistently reinforced that it was the and not the nation as a whole who owned land by right . < fnote > Means , Ancient Civilizations of the , p.289 < /fnote > In addition , evidence has surfaced that there was actually some degree of private property ownership in civilisation . As well as the himself , local lords ( usually former nation leaders before takeover ) and the elites ( kin of the emperor ) were assigned lands again worked on their behalf by ayllu populations . D'Altroy points out , for example , that the most famous of archaeological sites including , were actually estates owned by elites . suggests that even within the ayllu communities some private ownership existed in the form of small domestic animals , weaponry and household utensils . Many might view such instances as negating the basic principle of socialism being shared property , and thus the idea that this was a socialistic state . < fnote > D'Altroy , The , p. < /fnote> Baudin cited in , Ancient Civilizations of the , p.302 < /fnote > Linked to the idea of communal ownership under the is the notion of economic cooperation as opposed to competition , another feature encouraging the socialistic definition of the state . Reciprocity in the form of mutual obligations was a key feature in society , both among those of the same kinship networks and between those of massively different statuses . In the ayllu setting , economic cooperation focused upon a communal spirit of mutual aid . If a member was called away to carry out work on behalf of the government , his share of land was cultivated by others in his absence . Such work under the system of mutual obligation was rewarded with a debt that meant the same duty would be carried out in return at any given time . Thus , in theory at least , no person or family sharing the same status had an advantage over another , although those who claim that a large family was an innate advantage in terms of time taken to carry out work dispute this notion . Such cooperation between producers suggests that the was indeed a socialistic empire , as it is the competition between workers in the market system that most socialists deplore in other social and economic forms . < fnote > Mason , , ( : Penguin Books Ltd , ) , p.182 < /fnote > Mutual obligation extended outside the ayllu to incorporate the work carried out by commoners on land designated to the and the Inca . It would appear that such work was carried out equally on the basis of reciprocity . The theory it seems was that by cultivating state and religious lands , the common peasant insured not only the stability of their empire through feeding its elite , but also of their own community through the giving of tribute . For example , the ayllu carried out work on land belonging to the in exchange for the giving of the right to use their own communal land unhindered . Such a system certainly appears to carry socialist features in terms of its suggestion that all members of the empire were important to its maintenance . < fnote > Wachtel , Nathan , The Vision of the Vanquished : The Conquest of through Indian Eyes ( Hassocks : , ) , < /fnote > This links into the idea of both the economy and society being run ' for the common good ' , that is , the benefit of the majority . It is with this aspect that many historians have taken up issue in relation to the idea of the state being a socialist one . A key feature of the economy is important here , that of redistribution . Crops cultivated on these portions of the land were sent to storehouses from which they fed the state and religious elites . However , part of the mutual obligation in repayment for the work done on state and religious land was , it has been suggested , that ayllus had access to these stores at times of want . As suggests , "" The granaries represented , in a socialistic state , the capital which individuals build up by their thrift "" . and have both contributed to the impression that the main use of state stores was to alleviate hunger during periods of frost or famine . This has produced in historical study the notion that the economy operated as something of a socialistic welfare state , ensuring that nobody went hungry by redistributing the food grown on behalf of the Inca to those who had produced it . < fnote > Means , Ancient Civilizations of the , p.301 < /fnote> Baudin , in : Under the Last Incas ( : and Unwin Ltd , ) , p.108 < /fnote> Murra , , ( , : , ) , p.130 < /fnote > It is this redistribution idea that some historians have disputed on levels : , whether in reality storehouses were used for welfare purposes , and the degree to which such a system was of a centralised , state - controlled nature . For the system to be considered socialist , many would argue , it must contain both of these elements of being run for the good of all , in a manner undertaking economic planning of a centralised nature . has been the key voice in disputing the welfare purpose of Inca storehouses claiming that historians would have been unable to speak of the "" socialist empire "" without the creation of this idea . Instead he suggests that the of references to the use of stores for primarily military and governmental purposes , to feed and clothe warriors and those running the state ( with religious stores being used for ceremonial purposes ) negate the few , late ones that exist putting forward the welfare idea . < fnote > Ib i d. , p.130 < /fnote> Ib i d. , p.128 < /fnote > To move onto the part of the redistribution debate , were storehouses part of a system of centralised economic planning ? Most recent historians seem to suggest they were not , for example suggests that the notion of state - controlled welfare ' dislocates welfare provision from its real role in local communities . "" He argues that most redistribution was carried out at a level well below that of the state , the most important being locally between different ecozones . This is because , referring back to , state stores were generally used for other purposes . The apparent lack of a centralised economic plan for the use of storehouses as welfare might then render the idea of a socialist empire inaccurate , but it does make sense in the context of traditional ayllu self - sufficiency . The area where one might perhaps argue centralised planning did exist was in the programme of mass movement of communities around the empire , known as mitimaes . This was undertaken for various reasons including the spread of Inca culture to a wide degree and the prevention of insurrection . Such a programme does carry with it a suggestion of social engineering at a state level and thus perhaps provides some weight for the idea of the "" socialist "" empire . < fnote > Morris , , ' Storage , supply , and redistribution in the economy of the state ' in , , and ( eds . ) Anthropological History of Andean Politics ( Cambridge : , ) , p.61 < /fnote > Organised labour has featured in many other states that historians have defined as socialist in nature and here the empire again shares some characteristics . On top of the work carried out on land owned by the and the , ayllu members also contributed to public work through the membership of mit'a . This was a rotational system that called upon men to provide for the empire 's needs by supplying the army , messengers and labourers for roads and bridges , to name a few examples . The obligation to enter mit'a when required was another part of the tribute paid in reciprocating the giving of land for communal use , a sort of labour tax in other words . Unlike with the storehouse system , the mit'a were , it appears , a successful form of state organised labour and thus in this feature at least the empire has a socialistic characteristic . < fnote > Mason , The Ancient Civilizations of Peru , pp.183 - 4 < /fnote> Rostworowski de Diez Canseco , Maria , History of ( : , ) , p.183 < /fnote > Lastly one must consider the idea of classlessness , something many would deem the most essential characteristic of a socialist state . This it is certain did not exist . Although obligations were mutual and links between ' classes ' strong , stratification was clearly visible and it is unclear whether there was much opportunity for social mobility . As indicates , with Inca dominion came the imposition of their many noble statuses and ethnic rankings . Inca elites were divided between traditional royal descendent kin and those who had risen in status due to performance in war , for example . Although in theory all ayllu members were of same economic status with their communal ownership of land , there still existed layers of ranking , for example those with large families held a high social status . With such a clear system of uneven stratification I would argue that we can never really see the empire as a socialist one because the ' obligation ' of the commoner would always outweigh in actual hard labour that given by the elite . < fnote > D'Altroy , The , p.177 < /fnote> Mason , The Ancient Civilizations of Peru , p.193 < /fnote > In drawing this debate to a close then I would argue that there are indeed certain features of the economy and social organisation that reflect socialistic ideas , for example the principle of mutual obligation and thus the lack of competition , the organisation of the labour force and the great social engineering projects undertaken . The notion of economic cooperation through the feature of reciprocity within the ayllu in particular seems to have been successful in avoiding the creation of the market system of competition that socialists so despise . However there are other , arguably more important features of a socialist state in which the empire was distinctly lacking . The existence of such visible status stratification seems to me to negate the idea : communal ownership should , in the socialistic sense , result in equality of status between all but here it does not . The overall Inca ownership of lands means that real communal ownership could not be achievable . Equally it seems relatively clear that systems of welfare support did not exist on the whole at a state level . Instead continued ayllu self - sufficiency , in the manner accustomed in civilisation , appears to have been the norm in supporting those in need . Lastly it does not seem that obligations at the state level were truly mutual . While the common man cultivated land of the 's behalf , it was the community and not the state that guaranteed their survival . I would argue then that the description of the state as a "" socialistic empire "" is only accurate in part . The empire seems to have contained some of the features but not the over - arching ideology that would be required in order for it to have been a socialist one .","Weber tends to reject the type of over - arching theory of historical development that others , like , favour , and thus it follows that he also rejects the idea that class relationships can have ultimate , universal supremacy . This led to the development of an approach that views social stratification as made up of conceptually distinct elements : ' class ' , ' status ' and ' power ' ( or ' party ' , as the term used in 's work ) . Weber viewed all dimensions as ' phenomena of the distribution of power in a community ' , thus emphasising that power is not only struggled for on economic grounds but can also be valued "" for its own sake "" ( , p.21 ) . He makes clear that while social honour and ' prestige ' is often tied in with the struggle for power , it is not a necessary feature when that power is economic or political . Thus it is essential that these dimensions of power , in the economic order ( ' class ' ) , in terms of honour ( status ) , and over man ( party ) , remain distinct . 's definition of ' class ' incorporates all of those who share the same ' class situation ' , this being the level of opportunity a person has to purchase particular goods and to achieve certain living conditions and life experiences ( , , p.128 ) . In short this means those who share the same potential to dispose of their income in exchange for the receipt of goods , or the same ' market situation ' . 's definition is an objective one , whereby class is dependent upon ' market situation ' and thus works outside of appraisal of self or others ( , p.166 ) . This means that the members of a ' class ' are not necessarily conscious of their membership , in terms of awareness of shared economic interests , in contrast to what believed . The distinction of ' class ' from status developed out of 's rejection of 's economic determinism , in that if the economy does not determine human ideals , then they must be established independently of class interests ( , , p.166 ) . Thus from here ' status situation ' emerges , incorporating the evaluations made by others and the attribution of a particular level of ' prestige ' or ' esteem ' . As points out , ' the distribution of symbolic rewards of social honour did not always correspond to the distribution of material reward ' ( , , p.96 ) and thus ' status ' is not simply a complication of ' class ' . Status , above all , concerns the expectation of a particular group of a specific lifestyle ( together with restrictions upon social contact outside of that circle ) . Thus in simplistic terms , the difference between ' class ' and ' status ' groups is between production and consumption : where ' classes ' are stratified according to their acquisition of goods , ' status groups ' are stratified by their use of particular goods in accordance with a lifestyle . Whilst Weber acknowledges that membership of a high ' class ' or ' status ' group might provide social power , the formation of political parties is seen as another , further element in the distribution of power in society that is usually unrelated . Parties are the stratified groups that develop within the realm of power over man , as opposed to the economic system or the ranking of social ' prestige ' , and hence the term ' power ' is often used in place of ' party ' today . is keen to point out the confusion of this terminology . He suggests that it is crucial we do not see power ultimately as an additional part in this system because like ' status groups ' and ' classes ' , parties represent another ' focus of social organisation ' relevant to its overall distribution ( , , p.43 ) . Although Weber appears to give less attention to this element , he does make clear that it is distinct from the other in the sense that drawing recruitment from common ' status ' or ' class ' is rare . The modern state is crucial in the development of political power as a dimension of stratification , in that before the time when politicians were professional ( paid ) they could be drawn only from the moneyed classes , and thus probably did not represent an additional group in the same sense that they do . Having outlined the conceptual distinctions that Weber made between each dimension in his tripartite system of stratification , I am now in a position to assess whether they are in fact useful in practice . An important factor here is the wide use of 's system of stratification , or its use as a basis to be built upon , in the work of many modern sociologists . As points out , the ' influence of and upon stratification theory is , if anything , more pronounced than at any other stage of the subject 's development ' ( , , p.561 ) . The use of an approach based upon 's work , for example , has been important in the discussion of whether the can be viewed as a ' classless society ' . In terms of economic rewards , society appears to follow an unbroken continuum . However , by incorporating into the research 's categories of ' status ' and ' power ' , along with other criteria of rank , it became clear that inequality is still in existence , just in terms other than those defined by , , pp.562 - 3 ) . Similarly , puts forward the idea that 's definition of a ' class ' as not necessarily being conscious of its shared interests means that we can not claim to have a classless society simply because people are no longer strictly aware of inequalities ( , , p.143 ) . Thus it appears it appears that 's work is of use not only as a basis from which to develop adapted models of stratification , but also still useful in making observations within contemporary debate . The idea of 's relevance to contemporary issues brings me onto considering the debate over whether the use of occupation as an indicator of stratification is all that is needed in developed society , thus deeming 's multi - dimensional approach of little use . The notion has been put forward that occupations are generally the sole means through which such features as "" natural endowment , upbringing and education "" become translated into ' class ' , ' status ' and ' power ' benefits ( in Archer and Giner , , p.2 ) . However , many problems have been uncovered concerning the validity of using such a narrow approach . It does not , for example , take account of cultural variation and the effect this might have on the evaluation of prestige in occupations . Equally there appear to be too many instances where ' class ' and ' status ' do not ' match up ' for us to abandon 's approach . In illustration , and stressed that many working - class families have the earning capacity to participate in a lifestyle equal to or surpassing that of the middle - classes ( Archer and Giner , , p.13 ) . The choice to spend money elsewhere means that despite the equality of wealth they remain distinct in ' status ' . It has been suggested that the idea that the dimensions of 's approach can be unified has probably developed due to the vagueness that comes coupled with stratification terminology ( , , p.31 ) . Blame , in this respect , lays at the feet of words such as ' rank ' which , in terms of the military for example , carry with them the implication that ' power ' and ' prestige ' are inherently linked . One must remember that such instances of overlapping terminology do not render the approach of no use , because it only becomes invalid when any statement dimension entails a statement about another . As discussion of occupation as an indicator shows , it seems that not all symbols of stratification can be found coupled together under a single heading . Therefore 's multi - dimensional approach comes back into favour as a more useful method by which to understand stratification . raises the issue of why , if it is valid to isolate the dimensions of ' class ' , ' status ' and ' power ' , this technique has failed to establish itself as an orthodoxy ( , , p.25 ) . In order to answer this question , needs to consider whether there are other dimensions in which society can be stratified that this approach fails to note , thus rendering its pure form of limited use in practice . Several authors have made clear that they feel that 's approach is not multi - dimensional enough to be of use , particularly in 's diverse society . Parkin , in illustration , comments that ' One of the most noteworthy things about this ... classification is what it leaves out ' ( , , p.90 ) , believing , like ( , p.132 ) that Weber should have included the state and bureaucracy in his classification . More recently the idea has been put forward that it is now not enough to see factors like religion and ethnicity as contributing factors to ' status ' and ' power ' , but that they ought to be seen as separate dimensions in their own right ( and , , p.9 ) . In situations where these factors are major causes of tension for example , it is easy to see how a person 's ethnicity and religion might contradict their place upon a single hierarchy of ' status ' . Perhaps then the usefulness of 's distinctions depends upon the willingness of the researcher to build upon his approach , adding elements that make it more appropriate to a diverse global community . However the notion that all aspects of life can not be somehow attributed to of 's dimensions is still contested by some : ' there does not seem to be any aspect of citizenship which constitutes an equality or inequality in some dimension of stratification ' ( , , ) . Having established the possibility of occasions where a single indicator of stratification is enough , and where 's approach has its limitations , there appears to be other issue under which the use of the - dimensional system might be questioned . This entails the ability to make comparisons across different societies when using this system . This problem emerges from the difficulty of assigning a very specific position to an individual in the overall stratification . While it is of relative ease to rank ' class ' upon a scale based upon wealth , it is much harder to place ' status ' , a dimension based on subjective opinion . No ' common yardstick ' exists upon which to compare ' status ' , and even the ' type ' of status being accorded may differ as a result of culture and tradition . As a result , how can we compare ' status ' in modern to , say , a tribal society where the best hunter is awarded most prestige ? It seems that to compare stratification across communities we would somehow need to decide upon how to weight each dimension relative to one another , as well as measuring the distance between each strata within the dimensions ( , , p.43 ) . This would entail the specific positioning that has proven to be unviable in relation to ' status ' . A lack of methodology thus appears to be this approach 's downfall . Perhaps then one must conclude that while 's conceptual distinctions are certainly valid and still highly applicable , in practice it is not always easy or sometimes necessary to follow such an approach . If desires to carry out comparative work then difficulties in the empirical definition of each dimension means that a scale of stratification is impossible to produce . Equally in modern industrial society it is often seen that the use of the category ' socio - economic status ' is of more use than separating out ' status ' and ' class ' . Many see occupation and all it entails as an adequate enough system of stratification . However I do not believe we can be this rapid in assigning no place for 's distinctions in terms of useful sociology . I believe that there are still occasions where a person 's place on the differing hierarchies is of considerable variation . One might claim such situations are becoming more frequent with the recent rise in income of traditionally ' low status ' occupations such as plumbing and construction . Equally Weber 's work can serve as a springboard for new , even wider systems of stratification and is also crucial as an alternative to the economic determinism of the approach . In conclusion then I would argue that it is useful in practice to make a distinction between ' class ' , ' status ' and ' power ' as separate elements of stratification . There are too many instances where the use of a single indicator would create confusion or a false image of society for us to abandon 's approach at present . While it may present difficulties in the analysis of distinct forms of unequal relationships , in a more general sense the - dimensional approach is crucial , as can be seen from the discussion over whether we have now entered a ' classless ' society . I would have to agree with who closes his work on this issue with the statement : ' the researcher who ignores the distinction between the separate dimensions of stratification must show good reason for doing so ' ( , , p.61 ) .",1 "< heading > Introduction May is and has a moderate learning disability which means she may have difficulties such as understanding , learning and remembering new things , and in generalising any learning to new situations . She may have difficulties with a number of social tasks , for example communication , self - care and awareness of health and safety . ( Northfield , ) A moderate learning disability is identified in early childhood and people with a moderate learning disability have an IQ range of . Cognitive , psychological , social and self management performance components can be affected . A learning disability is a lifelong condition and is non - progressive . The emphasis of intervention is therefore on managing the medical aspects of the condition and helping individuals achieve their highest potential . ( and , ) May attends a social services , but she would like to cut down she goes from to 1 because she gets tired . She would like to find some other activities to do which are not too tiring , and which are sociable . < heading > Gather and Analyse Information Observations of and interview with client : < /heading > Spend half a day with in . Observe her general character and behaviour and what she does at the centre . Talk to her about what she likes and dislikes doing and what activities she is referring to when she says that there are a lot of things she does at the centre , but could do at home . Ask her about getting tired - does she get tired after a mornings activity ? Maybe it would be better if she did things in the morning and had the afternoons free , rather than being out for a whole day and getting too tired . Does she health problems ? < heading > Interview with 's husband: What does he do in the day time ? Are there some activities or outings he and could do together sometimes , so they are not cooped up in the house , but participate in a positive activity they can share the experience of . < heading > Information needed from other disciplines: Day centre staff : What kind of activities does enjoy doing at the centre ? What are her strengths and attributes ? Do they have any ideas for activities / outings for ? Why does she tire easily ? < heading > Assessments: Assess client perspective using COPM ( Occupational Performance Measure ) to find out 's performance , problems and goals . ( Standardised assessment ) . Carry out an interest checklist with to determine activities she enjoys , which she could do in her own time or do more of . < heading > Define the Problem Problem and nature of problem: Going to the Day Centre 3 days a week - this is too tiring for and she feels she could do some of the activities she does there , at home . Being at home with her husband too much - they do not get on very well being cooped up together , so need to do other things and go out . < heading > The areas of need for the client: To find outings and activities which are not too tiring , and are sociable and enjoyable . < heading > Strengths that can be built on: May 's desire and enthusiasm to want to go out , see people , enjoy herself and be useful Her sociable , chatty nature Supportive husband Plan and Prepare Intervention Long Term Aim: Volunteer in a local charity shop . < heading > Short Term Goals ( Progressive): Visit local charity shops with the OT and talk about what it would be like to volunteer in one . Chose preferred charity shop and ask to volunteer . In . Help in the charity shop for a week ( ) for , sorting clothes and donations , helping other staff at the till and talking to customers . With no problems . Help in the charity shop for ( each ) , for , sorting clothes and donations , helping other staff at the till and talking to customers . With no problems . < heading > Notes on choice of goals: The activities did at the centre , but said she could do at home are knitting , watching television and listening to the radio . She can do these in her time at home and has no problems with these activities . ( Her knitting can also have a purpose other than being a leisure activity , and she can knit small items to sell in the charity shop . ) The long term goal is therefore focused on an activity May can do away from the house . Her strengths and attributes mentioned by the staff and observed and assessed by the are her social and chatty nature and her enthusiasm to go out and do new things and feel helpful . Working in a charity shop will enable her to see many different people , it should not be too tiring , and it is flexible . It will give her a new occupational role and help her gain new skills , such as learning about money , and developing her people skills with the public . < heading > Implement Intervention This intervention plan is based on the occupational behaviour frame of reference which focuses on the importance of occupation and having a balanced variety of occupational roles . The focus of attention is on the way the client spends their time during . ( , ) . The long term aim can be discussed with the staff to see if they are happy with the chosen activity , and therefore for to cut down she goes from the centre from to . Short term goal number ) enables the OT to explain to what will be involved in volunteering in a charity shop and May can then chose the charity shop she most prefers and ask to volunteer there . If they do not need a volunteer , the goal will have to be adapted and she will have to ask in another charity shop . Short term goals ) and ) can be adapted by reducing May volunteers if it proves too tiring . Or they can be graded , and she could start by working for a morning , and then increase it to . < heading 's long term goal been reached and her wishes met ? Interview May , her husband and the staff to see how they feel about 's new routine , if there are any problems and if she is enjoying volunteering in the charity shop . Grade or adapt goals as necessary . Repeat COPM to assess and compare 's perspective of her performance , problems and goals prior to and after intervention .","< heading > Introduction Michelle James has had difficulties with food and eating since she was . She is now and has been referred to . is being used to work with , as it is highly client - centred ( , ) . ( COPM ) has been carried out with , as well as a risk assessment and . I will now address the following questions : < heading > Presenter B : Questions to address: What needs and strengths does have ? What interventions are appropriate to meet her needs ? Which frames of reference and approaches will you be using ? What clinical reasoning is underpinning your decisions ? < heading > Needs and Michelle 's needs : To engage in meaningful occupation to take her mind off her problems and work on her skills . To have a long term goal to aim for , e.g. going to university , to feel she has something to look forward to and not feel like she ' does n't know where she is going in life ' . To continue social interaction with people of her own age in order to keep and build on her social and communication skills and build confidence and self esteem . To maintain an appropriate body weight to improve her physical and mental health . To improve her relationship with her mother . The occupational therapist ( OT ) will involve 's mother in her treatment and discuss things with her ( after getting 's consent to do so ) . 's strengths : ... Did well with her GCSEs . Has friends who she sees regularly . Enjoys helping her father with his paperwork as it ' takes her mind of things ' . Wants to ' get over the anorexia and just be normal ' - positive attitude to getting well . Enjoys reading and would have studied at A - level . Is a tidy person , cleans her own room and does her own washing and ironing . Is a good cook and often cooks for family . Is eating more now and slowly gaining weight ( but could easily relapse according to the mental health nurse ) Is doing more now and her confidence has improved since she has been doing work for her father and seeing her friends . Engaging in meaningful occupation and social interaction has had a positive effect on 's confidence and motivation . Interventions with should therefore focus on finding more meaningful occupations for her to achieve a more balanced lifestyle , and take into account her sociable nature . < heading > Interventions appropriate to meet 's needs: The main treatment for anorexia nervosa is psychological , including cognitive behavioural therapy , family therapy and counselling . These interventions will usually be carried out by a psychologist ( , ; Gilbert , ) . As 's care co - ordinator , the will ensure she is referred to the psychologist in , to cover this aspect of her care . The complicated nature of the illness requires a sound , multidisciplinary approach , the role of the playing a vital part ( ) . Eating disordered patients are often dysfunctional not only in their attitudes and habits related to eating and weight control , but also in their occupational engagement ( , ; , ) . Michelle spends much time at home reading or watching television and has expressed how she feels she ' has n't done anything for . The role of the OT in multidisciplinary care for eating disordered patients is focusing on dysfunction in occupational behaviour and working with the person to engage in meaningful activity that will help to bring about change in the individual ( , ) . There is a great importance for the OT to develop a good rapport and build a solid therapeutic relationship with if her treatment is to be productive . It is common for conflicts to arise due to the differing viewpoints of client and therapist and this may inhibit her continuing engagement in treatment and the process of change ( Orchard , ) . The OT must be empathetic towards her problems and try to understand her feelings , emotions and behaviour ( , ) . The focus on OT intervention is on enabling to feel in control of , and satisfied with her participation in meaningful occupations ( , ) , and the choice of using ( COPM ) has started this client - centred approach to intervention . It would be unethical and ineffective for the therapist to decide which interventions would be best for , as she would lack motivation and would lose trust in the therapist ( Shelley , ) . Specific interventions have been established following COPM and being carried out . has identified that she would like to continue her education with a long term goal of going to university , so the will eventually help to look into doing a course of her interest at the local college . has also identified interest in starting a yoga class and doing more cooking , which she says she finds makes her less depressed and anxious , which is a common , but somewhat bizarre declaration of anorectics ( , ; Shelley , ) . < heading > Cooking < /heading > It is essential that meal planning and cooking are incorporated into 's treatment plan , due to her illness being centred around food and eating ( , ; , ) , and as enjoys this activity already , and has expressed an interest in developing her skills , it may be a good starting point for intervention . to treatment sessions will be carried out , involving choosing and purchasing food and cooking meals at home , with emphasis on the acceptance of cooking , and more importantly eating , healthy , balanced and well proportioned meals , with varying nutritional and caloric content . Practicing cooking and eating in this way can also reduce the chance of relapse ( , ) . The will work with to cook meals she is familiar with , and build up to more complex meals , and talk with her about any difficulties in doing this ( , ) . She could also build up to cooking a meal for friends . The will also encourage to ' eat - out ' with friends or family in cafés or restaurants , or go for a snack in a coffee shop , to develop a spontaneous and relaxed eating pattern and get used to eating in different environments ( , ) . < heading > Yoga Michelle has expressed an interest in starting a yoga class , which the agrees is a suitible activity for her to try . The OT realises that is it common for anorectics to exercise compulsively as another way of losing weight ( National centre for eating disorders , ; , ) , but following assessment , does not feel that this is something has done in the past , or will start to , so yoga as a form of exercise will not be inappropriate . ( ) says that several authors have recommended movement groups such as yoga to help patients become happier with their bodies . According to ( ) , ' Yoga is an appropriate activity ( for stress management in anorectics ) ( ... ) it can be used as a method to reduce tension without requiring much energy ' ( p.335 ) . A yoga class would involve gentle stretching exercises as well as meditations for relaxation . Joining a local yoga class could benefit in many ways including : To develop positive body image ( relaxation and physical activity increase body awareness ) ( , ; , ) For stress management and relaxation For gentle physical exercise To meet new , like - minded people ( as a step to going to college and meeting new people ) To develop social and assertiveness skills ( through starting something new and developing more extensive peer networks ) ( , ) A recent article in and describes how ' includes a vast array of meditation techniques ( ... ) including a technique useful for treating depression , focusing the mind and eliminating self destructive behaviour ' ( , p.96 ) . Yoga practice and meditation could therefore potentially improve 's depression . could attend or yoga classes with the encouragement of the OT , to see if she enjoys it . The activities she engages in must be of her choice and benefit . If yoga is not for her , the OT can explore other choices related to 's interests and the local amenities . The therapist should provide as many realistic opportunities as possible ( , ) , and not cease to find something appropriate if the option fails . < heading > Frames of reference and approaches appropriate to 's intervention Various theoretical approaches can be integrated into the treatment of patients with anorexia nervosa , due to the complexity of this client group ( ) . Specific frames of reference and treatment approaches have not been clearly established or validated , but there appears to be an emphasis on the psychoanalytical and cognitive behavioural frames of reference when working with eating - disordered patients ( , ; , ; , ) . The cognitive behavioural frame of reference emphasises the link between faulty ways of thinking and feeling , with various mental disorders . A primary assumption is that if negative thoughts can be challenged and replaced by positive ones , the individual can regain a sense of control , solve problems and start to feel good ( , ) . In , cognition is identified as a performance component which contributes to a person 's ability to function competently and to their own satisfaction in a given occupational area ( ) . Therefore , if can change her thinking patterns from not being able to think clearly , to being able to understand her negative thoughts and alter her behaviour , the belief is she will be able to function better and feel better about herself and her situation ( , ; , ) . The therapeutic method for this approach will be one to discussion and use of cognitive behavioural therapy techniques ( , ) , and the use of activity to explore cognitions , for example , during cooking sessions . The style of relationship used between client and therapist in cognitive behavioural intervention strategies is the therapeutic alliance approach . This is related to the client centred frame of reference ( , ) . In this approach the client is seen to be the expert of their own situation and the therapist is a resource who can contribute by means of ' special knowledge , skills , and access to information or resources ' ( , p103 ) . This links with using ( COPM ) , which is designed to be used in client centred OT practice and focuses on occupational performance . The therapist can use this assessment tool and work with to identify and explore problems , negotiate goals and decide on an action plan . Changes are measured in a client 's perception of their occupational performance over the course of OT intervention ( Law et al . , ) . Outcome measures for the therapeutic alliance approach are evaluated by both partners using a pre - arranged format appropriate to the situation , in 's case , COPM ( Hagedorn , ) . < heading > Clinical reasoning and conclusion Clinical reasoning is present throughout the OT process , the has been constantly observing and her situation , making judgements about her performance and factors that positively and negatively affect it , and choosing and modifying goals and strategies according to 's response ( , ) . The has used her training , experience , values , theoretical foundations and subsequent clinical reasoning , to gather information and make appropriate decisions with regard to finding suitable interventions and activities for . The has worked with her to establish and meet goals , keeping the intervention client - centred throughout . 's goals will be graded and adapted accordingly and the intervention evaluated once complete .",1 "< heading > Introduction : the Origin The Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management ( ) is a company limited by Guarantee : No . 9067 . The institute is a membership based organisaiton comprised of over 2300 professionals working in various sectors in ecology and environmental management . It was established in as a result of the deliberation of a working group formed by , , and ( BES&IEEM , ) . The principle aims of the Institute are ' to raise the profile of the professions , to establish and improve the professional standards , and to promote an ethic of environmental care within the possession ( a , 2006 , Intute : Science , Engineering and Technology , ) ' . This report will firstly outline the following topics ; structure , membership , policy objectives , function of the , demonstrate the recent achievement of its work with an example of the production of guideline for Ecological Impact Assessment , and discuss the role of in the Institute . < heading > Structure The Council serves as the decision making body and activities of the is coordinated by committees and geographical sections ( a , ) . < heading > Committees Finance and ( F&GP ): deals with the administration of the , e.g. budget planning , preparation of reports and meetings , property maintenance . Training , and ( TECDC ): organises training opportunities in order to help raise the academic qualification of those who wish to apply for a membership in as well as of the existing members . ( PAC ): reviews the Code of Professional Conduct , issues guidelines on professional practice , and disseminate the information of new development in the practice of the related scientific area among members . ( ): works on application for membership and renewal , on preparation of . ( EAC ): responds to statutory and policy consultation of the government and industry through cooperation with other organisations such as ) , ( ) , and ( ) . The committee also coordinate members ' views in response to consultation on ecological and environmental and sustainable development issues. Geographical Sections There are sections : The Scottish Section , , The shadow section , , and , working at regional level . organise local and national conferences , and events . Most of the regional sections have been launched recently , it is expected that there would be an expansion of regional activities in the future . The institute itself is a member of ) , ( ) , and ( ) ( a , ) . < heading > Funding In terms of the funding , due to the restriction on the provision of information available to the public by the , there was no evidence of funding sources supporting the operation of the . Since the is a company which needs to gain earning from its services , it is estimated that the is likely to obtain income from the sales of publication and consultation fees as well as membership fees . < heading > Membership There are over 2300 members drawn from individuals engaged in a broad spectrum of work in ecology and environmental management in the public , voluntary and industrial sectors ( Fig 1 ) . Depending on the level of qualified profession , memberships are categorised into classes : Full , Associate , , , and . Full memberships cost £ ( £ outside the ) and applicants must fulfill the criteria which are based on the combination of the level of academic qualification and engaged in relevant post qualification professional experiences within for full memberships or for associates . For example , holders need to have of practical experiences , honours degree holders in a relevant subject are required to have a minimum of experiences as an ecologist or an environmental manager in order to obtain eligibility to apply for full memberships ( a , ) . < figure/> Policy objectives The following policy objectives are stated by ): < list > To advance the science and practice of ecology and environmental management for the public benefit in , To further the conservation and enhancement of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological processes and life support systems essential to a fully functional biosphere , To further environmentally sustainable management and development , To promote and encourage education , training , study and research in the science and practice of ecology , environmental management and sustainable development , To establish , uphold and advance the standards of education , qualification , competence and conduct of those who practise ecology and environmental management as a profession and for the benefit of the public. Functions The services provided by the are divided into areas : Training workshops , , Provision of opinion for ecology ad environmental management through consultation ( a , ) . Training workshops : Workshops are not intended to provide training courses but to serve as informal opportunities for people to exchange experiences on works in ecology and environmental management . The programmes are taught by a member of , as often as twice a week in different locations within the , usually run for with to participants and places are open to non - members as well . Conferences : The Institute organises conferences on particular issue such as climate change , Ecological Impact Assessment , or on regional issues . Conferences are open to members and non - members . The presentations are uploaded on the Institute 's website and the proceedings are published to disseminate information on the outcomes . Publication : Publication is one of the main services offered by the . ' In ' is a journal produced by the , and provides information on meetings , events , technical papers and public news . Although the contribution on any aspect of relating issues are accepted , the aim of the journal is not to publish scientific papers on research but only to ensure that members are well informed of up - to - date news . Some publication is only available to members such as ( ) which is a collection of guidance documents on practical works relating to the professions . In addition to the production of guidelines or conference proceedings to support and enhance professional standards , the institute promotes to increase the students ' interest on ecology and environmental management . The recent outcome of such objective is the career guidance to students at school or university ' Rooting for a in ? ' published in collaboration with ( BES&IEEM , ) . < heading > Achievement : ' Ecological Impact Assessment Guidelines for . < /heading > The Institute plays an important role in the provision of guidelines which provide practical advice for professional in order to conduct assessments or survey in relation to ecology and environmental management . ' Ecological Impact Assessment Guidelines for ( Fig 2 ) ' is a recommended procedure for the ecological component of which has been made available for free of charge as a downloadable in the website in ( b , ) . The Guidelines have been formulated by some members of the and leading EIA professionals in the The significance of this piece of work is that there has been a very broad scale consultation with various organisations in the development of the Guidelines , including , country conservation and environment agencies , and and in , and many non - Government Organisations ( CIB , ) . Hence , the Guidelines are being promoted as ' best practice ' in the UK Government 's ( CIB , , b , ) . It is expected that the Guidelines will provide practical methodology and procedures for practitioners to carry out the evaluation of ecological features not only as a component of an assessment prior to development but also as an evidence to support appraisals on environmental issues ( b , ) . The provision of the standard protocols will improve the quality of data collected in ecological analysis by different examiners which will be used for comparison and incorporation of information over wider scale , contributing to the advances in the practical use of ecological assessment in real world situation . Therefore , it is expected that the would take a lead for such an improvement in the quality of assessments in relevant subject areas . < list > Scoping define the scope of an via consultation with interested groups , authorities ( in practice scoping is iterative throughout the process ) Identification of zones of influence identify all likely influences arisen from the whole lifespan of the project Evaluation of ecological resources and features identify and evaluate ecological features with potential to be affected by the project Identitification of biological and physicalchanges which are likely to affect valued ecological resources and features Assessment of significant impacts identify whether and which of the biophysical changes are likely cause a significant ecological impact , which is defined as an impact on the integrity of a defined site or ecosystem and/or the conservation status of habitats or species within a given geographical area , including cumulative impacts Impact mitigation refine the project to incorporate . ecological enhancement measures , . mitigation measures , . compensation measures Assessment of the ecological impacts of the refined project Provision of advice on the consequences for decision making of the significant ecological impacts , based on the value of the affected resource or feature Following monitoring includes the implementation of mitigation measures and provide feedback on ecological outcomes . . : Brief summary on the procedure of EcIA ) ( b , 2006) Role of Rural Environmental Scientists Due to the nature of a company , it seems that there are limited opportunities for in involving the works of the Institute without applying for a membership in the instance . Most of conferences and workshops are open to the public , so active participation in those opportunities either as a member or even as a non - member would be an important approach to be engaged in or to improve the works of the Institute . Information offered by the Institute seemed to assign the restriction over the use of some of its resources such as details of the insights of publications and outcomes from its services in particular , which should be provided open to people in order to further the public understanding on relevant areas in ecology and environmental management . Although the primary target of the is professionals , it would be expected that the expansion of its scope of activity down to the public as well as professionals would lead to the enhancement of the contribution of the Institute to the society in the future . < heading > Conclusion Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management is relatively newly established company comprised of professionals in the relevant area in ecology and environmental management . The institute is very active in promoting the personal development of professionalism which will lead to the advance of understanding and to the enhancement of debate over matters on ecology and environmental management . Publication and coordination of events such as workshops and conferences are its key services . Furthermore , as achieved in the provision of student career advisory book and as an open access information , it is anticipated that the expansion of work by the will contribute to improve the quality of activities carried out by practitioners in ecology and environmental management and the attitude towards such matters by the general public .","< abstract> Abstract Rice is staple food in , a tropical island country in . production is the most important agriculture and economic sector in the country . is produced in the majority of the geographical areas in this country owing to high rainfall throughout and constant high temperature . Although the government policy framework , for instance , major irrigation projects , have been successful in increasing the rice productivity since its independence in , productivity has reached the peak in and has been stagnated to date . Major constrains are excess and misuse of agrochemicals have been the primary problem not only for weed and pest control but also for environmental pollution and health hazards over , decline in soil fertility and negative or net benefit to farmers due to the consequences of economic liberalisation which allowed private sectors to control marketing . This report will suggest some important focuses for future development . In relation to the improvement in farming practices of individual farmers and government support , focuses should be ; use of appropriate cultivars and timely cultivation , soil fertility improvement by addition of manure or rice straws and minimum use of fertilisers , , and , post harvest management by construction of on - farm storage facility , and setting up of extension services . < /abstract> Introduction
The Democratic Socialist Republic of is a island country south to with population of in ( Fig 1 ) . It is a developing country classified as ' most seriously affected by the international economic crises ' by ( Amarasinghe and Liyanage , , IRRI , ) . production is the most important agriculture sector in with an annual production of tones ( the domestic requirement ) . is staple food providing the dietary values of of total calorie and of protein for . Consumption of rice is per capita in and this figure is estimated to be stable to date . In terms of production sector , of the total labour force is directly or indirectly engaged Fig 1 . Map of ( CAOD , ) in rice production and marketing , there are rice - producing farmers of which belongs to small folder with hectare of agriculture land . hectare ; of the total cultivated land is under rice cultivation ( and Premalal , , IRRI , ) Although life expectancy , health standards and education levels are high compared to other and countries the majority of rural subsistent farmers are poor due to stagnation in the rice yield and reduced profitability in ( Jones , ) . Population growth is low but the base population is high in and there is a need to increase productivity and improve production efficiency in order to meet the increase in food demand ( , , , , Jones , ) . This report will illustrate a case study of rice production system in , evaluate constraints on the current productivity and appraise some suggestions for development . < heading > Factors which determine the agriculture system and productivity Climate , soil and the environment Rice production is practiced in types ; main irrigation with over ha of tank and anicut systems , minor irrigation with smaller than ha of tank , and rainfed systems . There are distinct growing seasons , ( wet ) season and ( dry ) . Meha is from to during which inter - monsoon rains are distributed over the majority of island . is from when rain is mostly fed to region ( , . 3,4 ) ( IRRI , , and Premalal , ) . Based on the rainfall , climatic zones are categorised ; , Intermediate , and Dry zones . Temperature is constant throughout in a given elevation with average temperature of ° C at ( MSL ) down to ° C at the highest altitude . By the combination of these factors , agro - ecological zones are classified which are further divided into regions which take accounts for the distribution of rainfall , soil type , and landform . is cultivated in of those regions . In terms of geographical areas , of rice land is located within inland valley systems and in coastal flood plains ( IRRI , ) . < figure/>
Soil types are diverse in . The major physical properties of soils are , , Red and , . Leaching of soil due to intensive rainfall is severe in , hence soil fertility is low in this zone . The base saturation of the dry zone soils remains at a higher range . solonetz , Bog and soils are the major groups of problem soils found in . As a whole , most soil types are generally suitable for various agricultural practices although fertiliser application is required on these poor soils ( and Premalal , ) . < heading > Socio - economic factors The government has put an emphasis on an increase in rice production for its policy framework with the target to achieve self - efficiency since the independence of the country in . There have been many large - scale irrigation projects , land development and settlement schemes implemented mainly from . Farmers have been supported by free irrigation water , fertilizer subsidies and guaranteed price for rice . Such nation wide implement in irrigation system and expansion of rice cultivation in have contributed to the increase in productivity from / ha in to / ha in , but productivity has been stagnated since the peak in ( Weerahewa , , , et al , , ) . There are some socio - economic drawbacks adversely affecting productivity . The significant economic change was induced from with economic liberalisation for domestic rice which allowed private sectors to enter the rice market . While the government share on rice market was decreased to in , successful private sectors have expanded . , a group of oligopolistic buyers has control over paddy procurement , milling and distribution leading tot the exploitation of farmers benefit . In addition , increase in labour cost , costs of agrochemicals reduced the profit from rice , resulting in the negative or almost no net benefit to farmers . Those socio - economic factors in conjunction with diversity of environmental factors have contributed to the relatively low yield of per hectare ; of the genetic potential of the rice cultivars ( Jones , , , ) < heading > Major constraints to biological . Weeds , pests and diseases a ) Weeds There are many weed species emerge in rice fields . In , grass species , over sedge species , and over broadleaf species have been recorded as weeds . Dominant species vary according to locality factors , such as soil type , hydrology , and irrigation pattern , to species are considered as economically important in rice field , particularly , Echinochola crusgalli , rugosum and leptochloa chinensis . In terms of regional trend , is severely affected by weed infestation due to the limited amount of available water during the critical period . Weed control is carried out by sustaining standing water in rice field which suppress the germination of weeds in early stage of the season , however , such practice is often not possible in dry zone . Therefore , there is substantial yield loss by weeds in the area ( IRRI , ) . < heading > b ) Pests Excess and inappropriate use of insecticide has disrupted natural pest control mechanism which is achieved through the interaction of predators , pests and parasitoids to sustain the balance of each population . Therefore , pest problem has become an important issue in rice fields . Major inset pests in are ; biformis ( ) , lugens ( Stal),Yellow incertulas , medinalis ; Marasmia spp , Orselia oryzae , and bug oratorius ( IRRI , ) . < heading > c ) Rice Diseases Numerous rice diseases exist in fields , but outbreak varies depending on the condition of the land , management , and climate , damages may be local or widespread . Economically important rice diseases identified in are follows ; < table/>2 . Water management Both excess and deficit in water are one of the major constraints on rice production in . Problem by excess water occurs in as salinity where surface drainage is significantly reduced its function by continuous water logging . Seepage and runoff of water is accumulated in depression in inland scape , as water evaporates , dissolved salts remain on soil surface , resulting in development of salinity . Accumulation of Iron to toxic level is often accompanied with such circumstances . This problem has become severe by inappropriate land management in by blocking of drainage ways or by neglect of management by farmers ( , , IRRI , ) . < heading>3 . Soil fertility and nutrient Studies which examine the response of rice yield to availability showed that the grain yield had declined over time without additional inputs to the soil ( Amarasinghe and Liyanage , , , ) . This outcome was observed not only in the experiment by also at national level . This study indicates that the inherent soil nutrient supply is only sufficient for grain yield of per hectare at least in the experimental fields . In addition to the low content , other studies on soil in revealed that micronutrient level is at critical threshold . Zn , are the most important micronutrient deficient in , while exception is Fe toxicity frequently reported in which is associated with excess water . Evidence from studies supported that those chemicals have significant effects on preventing rice plants from taking the necessary amount of nutrients during the important growth stage . Deficit in soil nutrients have therefore , contributed to the stagnation of the yield in . In relation to the expansion and intensification of rice cultivation , increased cropping intensity meant that nutrient uptake by rice plants in a season has increased , resulting in the rapid decline of soil organic matter in rice field in the short term . Together with the climatic constraint that temperature in tropical is sustained high throughout which accelerates decomposition of organic matter , organic matter content in the soil of is often poor , in Dry or Intermediate Zones ( Amarasinghe and Liyanage , , , ) . < heading>4 . Inferior management practices Several problems in relation to inferior farming practices are identified as major constrains to decrease the productivity . Misuse of fertiliser and pesticide , often of excessive use , in the long term has caused environmental pollution downstream and contamination in water , and risk to human health . Seed quality is often poor , contaminated with weed seeds , hence magnifies weed problem ( , ) . Non - seasonal cultivation with short duration rice cultivars ( ) has reduced productivity , as it neglects the optimum use of climatic parameters such as temperature and rainfall . In non - seasonal cultivation , the growth stages of rice plants between fields differ depending on the timing of cultivation . This practice encourage pest and disease outbreak due to overlapping of crop cycle within a small scale of area . Inappropriate or inferior implement for ploughing used by local farmers further reduces the yield . Plough layer is shallow which inhibits the growth of roots , hence , the insufficient nutrient uptake result in the low yield ( Ahikarinayake , 2005 , and Liyanage , ) . < heading>5 . Institutional constrains Lack of storage facility in local villages in the close proximity to individual farmers is a very important constraint on productivity . Lack of money to invest on constructing storage facility for rice is a common problem in . Post - harvest loss is very high ; there is loss of the grain yield by improper harvest time , incorrect processing and storage . Fact that a few oligopolistic groups has control over milling , processing , or marketing of rice further inhibit the farmers ability and incentive to improve or establish facility for processing and storage ( Ahikarinayake , , , et al , ) . < heading>6 . Farmers ' labour efficiency and knowledge Poor health and poverty suppress the labour efficiency . The rural poor accounts for the majority of people under poverty in , inherent poverty in those areas induce low labour inputs in farming . Illness or sickness is not only caused by poverty but also by health problems associated with exposure to toxic chemicals due to inappropriate use of agrochemicals and storage . This is often primarily due to the lack of knowledge among local farmers on how often or when to apply the required amount of agrochemicals and how to store them under safe condition ( , , Jones , ) . < heading>7 . Socio - economic constrains Increase in intensive use of insecticide and often its misuse have resulted in the health hazard . Sickness or deaths due to the toxic effects of agrochemicals to humans and poor sanitation status have been widespread . Health hazard by misuse of agrochemicals further reduce the farmers ' labour input Inferior quality inputs and lack of extension service to provide information on technologies for improvement and on proper crop management have led to the inefficiency in production by individual farmers . Low social status of farmers in the open market discourages young generation to engage in rice farming ( IRRI , , , ) . < heading > Suggestion for development : improvement in biological productivity and profit In relation to the improvement in farming practices of individual farmers and government support , several focus points are identified from the revealed major constrains ; cultivars and timely cultivation , soil fertility improvement , weed , pests and disease management , post harvest management , and extension services . Extension of agricultural land was recognised as impractical since the majority of productive land has already been converted to agriculture purposes . However , cropping intensity can be increased from of the current figure to which enables to increase the total cultivated land area to ( hectare in ) . Prioritisation should be given to Low Country Wet Zone and the areas with minor irrigation systems in the Dry or Intermediate Zones where there has been an increase in neglect of rainfed rice cultivation . < heading>1 . Cultivar and collective , timely cultivation Location specific rice cultivars should be recommended which would be successful in maximising the resource uptake in individual areas . Medium duration cultivars ( ) should be selectively grown where water is not a limiting factor throughout the growing season . Medium duration cultivars are superior in terms of higher grain yield potential than short duration cultivars since the long growing duration enables plants to utilise the available energy for a longer period . Although use of medium duration cultivars was common in the past , it has declined to at present . Main potential reasons for this change are the increase in labour cost so that farmers tend to choose cultivars with shorter cultivation period , and establishment of irrigation systems which enabled to increase the efficiency and the extent of control on water use . Where rainfall is adequately supplied , longer cultivation is possible in since the temperature , being constant , is not the limiting factor for agricultural practice in this country . Therefore , medium duration cultivars should be reevaluated its significance to be promoted again ( Amarasinghe and Liyanage , , IRRI , ) . Traditional rice cultivation period was scheduled based on the change in , with the onset of monsoon to region ; however , such timely cultivation has been gradually ignored with the use of short duration cultivars . It is estimated that of the rice fields under irrigation do not necessarily receive the sufficient water supply ; hence rice plants are likely to be subjected to water stress due to occasional drought during its growth . in crop establishment using short duration cultivars increases this risk and shortens crop growing period in good condition . In addition , collective cultivation of rice with the same growth stage between rice fields has declined but is very important to reduce the pest and disease occurrence . Overlapping of different growth stages of rice plants in a given area provides the ideal condition to complete life cycles of disease pathogens and pests within the area , hence stimulates transmission of diseases and pests . Timely cultivation which matches with the increase in rainfall by monsoon , early crop establishment with medium duration cultivars , and collective cultivation with uniform farming schedule are crucial to increase the yield and reduce the risks ( Amarasinghe and Liyanage , , , , IRRI , ) . < heading>2 . Soil fertility improvement Degradation of soil fertility by continuous cropping and runoff by intensive rain are common problems in . For regeneration of fertility , addition with fertiliser may be recommended with caution to avoid excess use . Crop diversification is another method which has been promoted , for instances , cultivation of chili , onion , green gram , cowpea , soy beans , ground nuts , and other vegetables in rice fields . Legume crops are particularly advantageous that those plants help regenerate soil fertility . Reduction of weeds and pests and diversification of risk for household are also important aspects . Nevertheless , production has not been increased since the peak in due to the fluctuation in yields by changes in climate , market demands and low prices and the increase in imports . Lack of government support is a major concern to promote crop diversification in the future . Addition of rice straws , animal wastes to build up organic matter would be practical at farmers level . Occasional ploughing to the depth of to also helps nutrient accumulation and soil conservation . Furthermore , provision of appropriate implement for ploughing at affordable price with the support of government is an important consideration ( and Liyanage , , IRRI , , , ) . < heading>3 . Weed , pest and disease management Integrated Pest or developed and implemented in would be the most recommended strategy . This practice puts an emphasis on the proper land preparation for prevention , minimum use of agrochemicals , utilisation of natural mechanisms . Land preparation includes ploughing , peddling , and leveling to reduce the germination of weeds , and management of off - field landscape such as bunds between fields which provide refuges for important natural enemies of insect pests during non - cropping seasons . Use of clean seeds without weeds contamination and appropriate water management are vital consideration for prevention . diseases would also be suppressed by such land management to control humidity , temperature , and weeds establishment which are favoured by disease pathogens and fungi ( Jones , , , , IRRI , ) . < heading>4 . Post harvest management In order to minimise post harvest loss , on - farm storage facilities should be constructed and managed properly . recent attempt which would be practical is an airtight constructed in ferrocement technology . The experiment by Adhikarinayake ( 2005 ) proposed the consists of reversed stacked cones resting on vertical pillars with a storage capacity of of paddy . The constructed bins effectively insulated air to control temperature inside the storage and the insect damage was neglectable of to loss . The significance of this proposed storage system was that it can be constructed by farmers , hence improve their control over when to sell rice , extended storage period enables farmers to obtain higher benefits by selling rice in ( Ahikarinayake , 2005 ) . In addition , proper harvesting time and processing are also important to improve productivity , education to farmers is the key strategy in this aspect . Innovation on post harvest management which is easily practiced by local farmers is highly recommended and the government should take a lead to promote improvement . < heading>5 . Extension services There is a real need to set up the extension services to ensure the information dissemination to individual farmers and to monitor the market trend on rice and major problems faced by farmers . In addition to the provision of on - farm storage facility , milling and processing facilities should be made available at wider scale not only to a group of olipolistic business sector in order to increase the benefit to farmers , hence to raise the social status of farmers which would encourage young generation to participate in rice production . Education on recommended farming practice should be carried out with the support of government and by extension service workers at local level in order to disseminate information throughout the country ( Amarasinghe and Liyanage , , , , Jones , , , ) . < heading > Conclusion In order to increase productivity of rice , there is a need to change farming practices and land management at individual farmers ' level . Pest , weed and disease management should adopt or /and Weed Management which have been successful in . Timely cultivation with appropriate cultivars which matches with locality factors is also important . Post harvest management , particularly construction of on - farm storage facility would benefit farmers not only by improving the storage quality but also by enabling sales of rice with higher price in . The government role is education of farmers and setting extension services to support farming activities . Therefore , it is suggested that those recommendations should be implemented by the government in conjunction with robust support from socio - aspects in order to raise the social status of farmers , hence to encourage young generation to be engaged in rice production . Integration of those various approaches is essential to increase biological production and farmers ' profit from rice production .",1 "< heading > I ) Introduction The aim of this essay is to present a bottom - up analysis of a sample of a natural conversation between speakers based on the principles and techniques of ) approach . The participants , mail and female scholars , who work at the same university , are discussing about the educational system in a relaxed , friendly but serious tone . The main focus of the analysis will be drawn on the transcribed part , although a number of explicit references will be made for the rest part of the discussion , when necessary . < heading > II ) Literature Review To begin with , CA approach originated from a wider intellectual group of sociologists , known as ethnomethodologists . According to ( 1985:21 ) the school of ethnomethodology is oriented towards an analysis of the order of a particular setting focusing on people 's actions rather than trying to impose a theoretical framework in which data will fit . CA approach expands this argument and applies it to everyday natural conversation . As holds ( ) "" In Conversational analysis , the emphasis is not upon building structural models but on the close observation of the behaviour of participants in talk and on patterns which recur over a wide range of natural data . "" As a result , the key concern of CA is to unveil and describe recurring strategies that people employ in order to interact successfully with one another . The goal is to explain the notions of underlying structure of interpretation and production of conversation by searching for patterns and forms of organisation . Consequently , it is clear , as maintains ( ) that CA is a data based form of discourse analysis . The nature of data is critical since CA approaches the analysis of interaction without a range of pre - selected ideas and issues of organisation . On the contrary , CA allows the data to reveal these underlying patterns of social interaction . More specifically , and al ( ) , cited in and ( 1997:25 ) , argue that CA tries to account for the fact that only one person speaks at a time and that speakers take turns while conversing . According to CA , the point at which speakership can switch is called Transition Relevance Place ( TRP ) and is marked by a number of grammatical , semantic and prosodic features . For instance , when a speaker lowers the pitch of his voice , then the other speakers may perceive it as a potential point and a chance to grab the floor of speakership . At the same time , according to ( 2001:91 ) not all speakers are potential candidates of taking the next turn . There is some kind of hierarchy of who is going to speak which may depend on the current speaker who has the power to select the next one , by means of gazing or through nomination . Nevertheless , there are cases when the next speaker my self - select and times when none of the participants will be eager to take the floor . As a result , there is a limited toleration of simultaneous speech or silence and when it occurs , speakers regard it as a problem that has to be fixed . Last but not least , a basic concept that could be drawn from this analysis is the concept of local management . As holds ( ) the fact that the system of conversation is locally managed means that each utterance is shaped and constrained in the context of what comes before and after it . The course of action of a conversation is neither determined a priori nor can it be predicted in advance but it is constantly negotiated . < heading > III ) Justification for Following CA Approach < /heading > Despite the fact that it is impossible to find a perfect theory without shortcomings and ambiguities , the brief literature background description should be justification for the choice of CA for the analysis of the dialogue mentioned above . Apart from CA , the other major system of analysis that was developed was ( DA ) and it was introduced by the school . DA 's key concept is the Initiation , Response , Feedback structure ( ) . This framework was firstly developed to describe the classroom interaction of a teaching situation . Practitioners of DA extended later this structure to the description of natural everyday conversation . As a result , they tried to regularise natural interaction by imposing this rigid framework . However , this is too simplistic for the dynamic flow of conversation . In addition , when the conversation is informal and involves speakers the interaction becomes even more complex to describe . As supports ( ) "" Conversation is not a structural product in the same way that a sentence is - it is rather the outcome of the interaction of or more independent , goal - directed individuals , with often divergent interests . "" CA provides a better insight to the analysis of casual talk . The prevalent concept that conversation is locally managed as well as the fact that its structure can not be predetermined reflect the real nature of everyday interaction . < heading > IV ) Setting the Context of the Conversation This conversation is a natural interaction between adult speakers , male and female , all native speakers of the language and highly educated . Moreover , they are colleagues who belong to the academic staff of the same university and probably have known one another for . The conversation is held in a relaxed but serious tone due to the significance of the topic which is the current condition of the educational system . As the conversation unfolds , there are many references to historical events , for example , the Education Act , as well as instances of personal narrations , for example , 's narration of her daughter 's education . What 's more , there is a certain amount of shared knowledge and use of relevant terminology concerning the different kinds of schools , that for a foreigner coming from a different educational setting , would be difficult to comprehend . Furthermore , in the course of the conversation there a number of topic shifts resulting in a series of subtopics . But all these subtopics , for example , the issue of private schools and dyslexic kids , are part of the general theme of education . According to ( ) , cited in ( 1977:77 ) "" ... a conversation which is progressing from topic to another , and ... the relative frequence of marked topic introduction is some measure of the quality of the conversation . "" Generally speaking , we could say that there are pivotal points of topic shift in the course of the interaction . In the beginning , the content of the talk is the comparison between grammar and comprehensive schools which shifts to the comparison between private and state schools and then moves to the final point which is the difference in the timetables between and continental schools . In addition , of the main features of turn - taking in the interaction is the fact that speakers compete most of the time for floor ownership . In some points speakers are fighting to grab the floor and develop their contribution to the development of the topic . This constant negotiation of floor ownership is a feature that emphasizes the notion of local management that CA supports . As and argue ( : ) "" ... turn allocation can not be agreed in advance at the beginning of the conversation , but must be continually renegotiated at each boundary . "" < heading > V ) Analysis of the Part The transcribed part of the conversation provides an excellent illustration of the range of different strategies that people employ in order to interact effectively , according to CA approach . In the conversation , there are many instances of topic shift , smooth and unsmooth turn taking , hesitation phenomena , backchanneling behaviour , supportive overlap and agreement among participants . < heading > A ) Topic Shift < /heading > The transcribed part begins with elaborating on her argument that schools tend to provide fewer extra - curricular activities . follows supportively and contributes to the construction of the message . In line takes the floor and drifts the topic to a previous subtopic that was analysed before , that middle class parents spend a lot of money to provide their children with extra classes , signalled by the topic boundary marker "" so , again ... "" . Then , the male speaker explains his argument that schools should have so as to engage the attention of the children ( l.23 ) . He makes use of explicit references , for example the Maiden Erlegh school ( l 25 ) . Lastly , in line grabs the floor to provide a piece of information that finishes at . Thus we have a quite smooth shift of relevant subtopics as well as collaborative construction of the message . < heading > B ) Turn - taking In the conversation , there are variations in the way in which the floor of speakership moves from one speaker to the other . In the beginning , there is a high degree of uncertainty about floor ownership but this is characteristic of spontaneous conversation . unfolds her argument in a slow pace and is repeatedly interrupted by in a supportive way . Moreover , in lines there is mutual agreement between the speakers with competition about floor ownership . Line is a potential turn - taking point for the male speaker to grab the floor since both female speakers lower the pitch of their voice which signals that they have nothing more to say and they are passing the floor to someone else . In contrast to this example , line is not a potential place for transition to occur because the male speaker is elaborating on his argument . However , 's interruption is supportive and contributes to the construction of the message . < heading > C ) Hesitation Phenomena Since everyday conversation is spontaneous and not pre - determined , speaker turns consist of a range of hesitation phenomena from silent and filled pauses to verbal fillers such as "" you know , I mean "" . As argues ( ) such items "" have a positive impact on the smooth flow of conversation . They help the speaker to take , keep and yield the turn and to appeal for feedback . "" For example , there are many silent pauses and expressions as "" you know "" in 's speech ( l 1 ) which indicates that she is appealing for understanding and approval . In addition , 's speech ( l 23 - 24 ) contains many filled pauses which signify that he is making his mind about what he has to say as he moves on . < heading > D ) Backchanneling In lines 12 - 13 , , we can clearly see that while the participant is talking the other do no remain completely silent . According to Stenstrom ( ) "" What distinguishes backchannels from turns is that they do not involve a speaker shift . On the contrary , they acknowledge what the current speaker says and generally encourage him / her to go on . "" Realisations of backchanneling are usually sounds like "" yeah "" and "" "" which are linguistically vacant but give speakers the right for a long turn and indicate that the listener is involved and interested in what the speaker is saying . < heading > E ) Supportive Overlap According to CA approach , the turn allocation mechanism ensures that only one person speaks at a time . But there are instances in spontaneous speech where people take turns before the previous speaker has finished his utterance . This is either because the listener misunderstood that the speaker was finishing his speech or because he / she is eager to grab the floor and interrupt the person who is talking . However , as maintains ( 2001:92 ) "" ... the idea that simultaneous speech is either overlap ( an honest mistake ) or interruption ( a hostile violation ) is oversimplified ... "" The overlapping in lines constitutes such an instance . While tries to find the right word intervenes and completes 's utterance . The same thing applies to line . In these cases the listener is not intending to grab the floor and appear rude . On the contrary , the aim is to provide support and contribute to the construction of the message . As argues , cited in and ( ) it is proved that "" ... women performed more of the conversational support work required to sustain conversational interaction with their partners . "" This belief applies perfectly well in this conversation with female speakers performing most of the supportive work as well as most of the backchanneling behaviour . < heading > F ) Adjacency Pairs- Preferred Sequences A key concept in CA and a another proof of local management organisation is that of the adjacency pairs . According to and Sacks(1974 ) cited in and ( 1997:27 ) adjacency pairs were identified as having characteristics : a part and a part which were adjacent and produced by different speakers . For instance in line appendix makes a question whether she is right that continental schools have a longer day than schools . This question constrains the other speakers to come up with the piece of information requested . However , there are cases where the part of the adjacency pair provides the listener with an alternative response . For example , invitations may be accepted or rejected . As holds ( 2001:97 ) , CA practitioners developed a preference system in order to account for these alternative parts . The preferred response is the acceptance , for example , and the dispreferred the rejection which is delivered with a certain degree of hesitation and elaboration in order to minimise the negative effect . However , as argues ( ) preference organisation is not limited to the level of adjacency pairs . He states ( 1983:337 ) that "" ... there are , for a start , kinds of turns paired less tightly than adjacency pairs , where a part does not seem to require but rather make apt some response or - action - chains in 's ( ) terminology . "" He explains that after an assessment another assessment is likely to follow for the other speaker . For instance , makes a judgement with which agrees ( l ) . Thus , according to , this is a kind of assessment followed by another assessment which expresses agreement . Consequently , because there is a clear preference for agreement there is neither delay or pause nor any kind of mitigation in the delivery of the part . < heading > VI ) Conclusion Because of the fact that the turn - taking mechanism operates differently in every language , there are many teaching implications of CA , which due to the limited extent of this essay will not be analysed here . In conclusion , it is general belief that CA approach emphasized and illustrated more effectively the interactive dimension of natural conversation than any other approach . Nevertheless , as and maintain ( ) "" While CA recognised the adjacency pair ( a - turn structure ) plus a different , more extended sequences , it did not propose a general theory of discourse structure of natural conversation . "" One could argue that the major advantage of this approach , the analysis of casual talk without the imposition of any theoretical framework became its major inadequacy . Furthermore , the major analytic category that CA proposed was the adjacency pair with a number of subcategories . However , as argues ( ) "" ... a large proportion of utterances are not pairs and the intending analyst does not know how to handle them . "" Similarly , a quiet limited number of adjacency pairs were found in this conversation . Last but not least , CA developed a limited amount of techniques regarding the concept of topic organisation and topic shift . According to ( 1985:29 ) there is no adequate theory from CA to describe how people shift from topic to another . To sum up , despite the shortcomings and the inadequate theoretical framework CA provided the most useful tools for the analysis of the structure of everyday conversation .","< heading > I ) Introduction The syllable is the minimum possible unit of speech . As holds ( 1989:153 ) "" It is the unit in terms of which phonological systems are organised . "" Consequently , the vowels and consonants that our speech is composed of can be regarded only as aspects of syllables . Speakers , based on their intuition , have no difficulty in deciding on the number of syllables a given word of their mother tongue contains . Phonologists , however , have faced great trouble in providing a single definition of what a syllable is that would stand for most of the languages of the world . Moreover , there is a great degree of disagreement upon how the internal structure of a syllable is perceived . The aim of this essay is to argue in favour of the onset - rhyme model of syllable structure given in 's book ( ) and to compare it with the flat structure model . Furthermore , suggestions will be given on aspects that could have included into his description of the onset - rhyme model . The part of the essay will be focused on the teaching implications of the syllable in a language learning situation , explaining why it is crucial for a teacher to bear a good understanding of the syllable structure when teaching the pronunciation . < heading > II ) Onset - rhyme The syllable is a unit which can be analysed in both phonetic and phonological terms . According to ( ) in phonetic analysis syllables consist of a centre "" which has little or no obstruction to airflow "" and of a periphery where "" there will be greater obstruction to airflow "" . For instance , in the monosyllable word "" park "" /pa : k/ the vowel /a:/ is the centre which does not prevent the passage of the air while for the surrounding plosives /p/ and /k/ we have complete obstruction . According to the onset - rhyme theory , the vocalic part at the centre of the syllable is called the "" nucleus "" or "" peak "" while the consonants that precede it are called the "" onset "" and those that follow the "" coda "" . From a phonological perspective , ( 2000:71 ) maintains that this involves examining the possible combinations of phonemes according to which words begin and end . This study is called "" phonotactics "" and the constraints of the possible combinations are language specific . For example , in no word begins with consonants . In addition , in monosyllable words can begin and end with a vowel as in "" it "" /It/ and "" cry "" /kraI/. This means that the coda and onset are optional elements of the syllable whereas the peak is obligatory . The element which is of paramount importance in the system that describes is the fact that the peak and coda are grouped together to form the "" rhyme "" . As Giegerich ( ) holds "" The reason for its name is obvious : it is precisely this part of the syllable that plays an important role in the rhyming conventions of poetry - for example in lie - die , man - ran , milk - silk etc . "" As a result , the syllable has constituents the onset and the rhyme which consists of the peak and whatever follows it ( Appendix 1 ) . The majority of the work done by phonologists on the syllable structure favours the onset - rhyme theory against alternative methods of analysis , for instance the flat structure theory . This version of syllable structure , proposed by and ( ) , assumes that the syllable is a flat constituent without any internal structure ( Appendix 2 ) . and ( ) based on the assumption that "" cooccurence restrictions holding between the nucleus and preceding elements of the syllable appear to be just as common as cooccurence restrictions holding between the nucleus and following elements "" rejected the recognition that the relationship between the vowel and the following consonant is closer than between the vowel and the onset . In fact , there is a number of certain restrictions in the combination of onsets and rhymes . Nevertheless , as ( ) argues restrictions between the peak and coda are more frequent and stricter than those holding between the onset and peak in most languages of the world . For instance , of the most significant constraints which occur between the peak and the coda , according to ( : ) is the fact that "" Word - final syllables must be closed if they contain a short vowel . "" This means that in cases where there is no coda the stressed - final vowel must be a long one or a diphthong . For instance /fI/ * and /dU/ * are incorrect forms in whereas /fi:/ and /du:/ are considered acceptable . Consequently , short vowels can occur only in positions before a consonant . It is clear from this example that the form of the nucleus depends on the coda while the onset remains unrelated to the rest of a syllable . As Giegerich ( ) argues "" Expressed in terms of syllable structure , the generalisation would be that a syllable has minimally X - positions in the rhyme . "" Thus , a stressed syllable would be illustrated like this according to the onset - rhyme theory ( Appendix 3 ) . Although and 's model has the advantage of being simpler than the complex onset - rhyme theory , a hierarchical rather than a linear order of structure is more widely accepted . < heading > III ) Suggestions for Roach 's Description One suggestion is that could have elaborated on how long vowels and diphthongs are illustrated in terms of the onset - rhyme theory . As we supported earlier , this is perhaps the soundest argument to support that the syllable should be seen as a sequence of an onset and a rhyme . ( ) does not mention anything about what happens in cases where we have a long vowel and how this is depicted in the onset - rhyme structure . A suggestion that could be made is concerned with the sonority theory . Although ( ) defines the syllable as a part , the centre of which does not prevent the passage of the air and sounds louder than the rest , he does not mention anything about the sonority theory . The sonority theory holds , as Giegerich explains ( ) , that "" The pulses of the air stream correspond to peaks in sonority . "" and "" The sonority of a sound is its relative loudness compared to other sounds . "" Consequently , the distribution of segments in a syllable is not random but follows the pattern of the sonority hierarchy with the centre of the syllable being more sonorous , that is more audible than the surrounding parts ( Appendix 4 ) . As ( 1994:56 ) argues "" Viewed from left to right , segment - sequences within an onset thus have an upward sonority slope , while those in rhymes have a downward slope . "" For instance , in the word train /treIn/ the /t/ is less sonorous than the /r/ which is less sonorous than the /eI/ which is more sonorous than the /n/. Thus , the syllable begins and ends with the less sonorous segment . As maintains ( ) possible interpretation of the theory of syllable is that peaks of syllabicity correspond to peaks of sonority which accounts for the fact that native speakers can very easily predict the correct number of syllables in a word . However , there are cases where consonant clusters , that is patterns of or more consonants together , violate the sonority scale . For example , in the monosyllable word sting /stIŋ/ instead of we find sonority peaks , the /s/ and /I/ , which contradict the principle of the sonority theory by allowing peaks to make a single syllable instead of . This exception is mainly found in s - initial and final clusters . As Giegerich ( ) argues the /s/ "" ... has a special status : it can occupy an otherwise consonant inadmissible position in the onset and it violates the generalisation that onset sequences increase in sonority . "" ( ) does not elaborate on the fact that the initial /s/ contradicts the sonority scale . Instead , he considers the /s/ part of the onset and names it pre - initial . Thus , the onset can contain expositions with the one of these the /s/ violating the sonority principle ( Appendix 5 ) . On the contrary , Giegerich ( ) and ( ) in their analysis propose a different interpretation . They conclude that the initial consonant /s/ which violates the sonority sequence is neither part of the onset nor does it belong to the syllable but to a higher node in the phonological structure . As a result , /s/ forms a prependix which is a constituent of the word and not of the syllable ( Appendix 6 ) . Perhaps , a better proposal to would be to conclude that when an onset contains X - positions the one will not conform to the sonority theory and will form part of the word and not of the syllable . < heading > IV ) Syllable Teaching Implications In a foreign language learning situation , students are overwhelmed with a huge amount of information that they have to process about the new language . Because the load of the new vocabulary and grammar is too heavy , teachers usually do not teach the pronunciation of the target language explicitly . Instead , through plenty of language exposure and experience they help learners deal with this difficult situation . Nevertheless , as and ( ) hold "" ... one may claim it is necessary requirement , that teachers of a language should know about the language they are teaching . "" As a result , a good understanding of the syllable and syllable structure is crucial from the part of the teacher . Only then , will teachers be able to make learners aware of the various problems that they will encounter and help them build the right expectations . More specifically , a good comprehension of the basic syllable structure helps the teacher predict and deal with difficulties in the pronunciation of certain consonant clusters , in the process of connected speech and in assigning stress to words . According to ( ) "" Constraints on syllable structure serve as a filter allowing only certain sound sequences to occur . These constraints are specific to a particular language . "" Consequently , every language permits different kinds of combinations of consonant clusters . language has a more complex clustering pattern than other languages allowing or more consonants to occur in a sequence . The teacher should be able to predict which types of consonant clusters will present problems and make learners notice them . As Celce - Murcia et al ( 1996:82 ) hold "" These sequences of consonants can present a challenge for speakers of languages that have a strict pattern , with no clustering . "" When learners ' native language sound system is radically different from the syllable structure rules of the target language , then learners employ a number of strategies in their effort to pronounce them . The most frequent one as et al argue ( ) is the tendency of learners to insert extra vowels in order to make clusters easier to pronounce . For instance , they tend to pronounce train /treIn/ as /təreIn/. Furthermore , according to and ( ) another common mistake which in fact applies to my short experience as an language teacher is that Greek learners are likely to omit the final nasal consonant in words like "" send "" pronouncing it as /sed/. But elaborating on consonant clusters is not only significant for improving learners ' pronunciation but also for making them competent enough to understand every day native connected speech . It is a common belief among foreign language learners that it is difficult to understand where syllables begin and end in words in everyday casual speech . As and ( 1994:37 ) maintain "" The difficulty of the non - native listener is due to the fact that the conditions under which rapid speech is produced affect the syllable structure of the utterance . "" Thus , the boundary between words in rapid talk is obscured due to the fact that syllables are pronounced differently when found in isolation . For instance , speakers tend to restructure syllables by making final clusters sound as initial . According to and ( ) "" ... watch out CVC+VC becomes wa+chout CV+CVC . "" As a result , in genuine speech words are linked contrary to non - native speakers ' expectations of waiting to hear a pause after each word . It is very crucial for the teacher to be aware of such linking phenomena and arouse certain expectations from the part of the learners . Lastly , of the most important features of the pronunciation is that some syllables are strong , that is stressed while others are weak , that is unstressed . When we say that a syllable is stressed it means that speakers put a greater amount of emphasis in this syllable . Explicit attention of attributing stress is quite important in the language classroom for "" is seen as a by - product of the alternations of weak and strong syllables , rather than something which exists independently and in its own right . "" as and maintain ( ) . Drawing learners ' attention to this alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables will enhance not only their listening ability but also their intelligibility to others . Only then , will learners be able to approach the rhythm of speech and intonation . < heading > V ) Conclusion In this essay we analysed the onset - rhyme model and the flat theory of syllable structure and we argued in favour of the former . The nucleus together with the coda seems more to behave as single unit called the rhyme which is independent of the onset . Then we suggested that ( ) could have illustrated how long vowels stand in the onset - rhyme model and could have elaborated on the fact that the /s/ initial in a consonant cluster violates the sonority theory that defines what a syllable is . Lastly , the significance of a deep understanding of the syllable and syllable structure from the part of the teacher was highlighted .",1 "< heading > Introduction The concept of burden - sharing in the context of forced migration raises a host of questions that ultimately spring from the question of what to do and how to deal with ' strangers ' in our midst . In forced migration these ' strangers ' arrive seeking safe haven , and particularly in cases of sudden mass influxes , place burdens and strains on the receiving host state . The Preamble of the to the Status of Refugees ( hereafter the ' 1951 Convention ' ) acknowledges that "" the grant of asylum may place unduly heavy burdens on certain countries , "" and hence "" a satisfactory solution of a problem of which has recognized the international scope and nature can not therefore achieved without international co - operation . "" This short statement raises a myriad number of questions such as what does it mean to have an ' unduly heavy burden ' ? What is the threshold of such a burden ? What kind of ' solution ' is envisaged and does it entail monetary compensation , or other forms of compensation ? Is international co - operation a binding legal obligation , or simply an ethical one ? < fnote > This question was raised during of the Approaches to module . < /fnote> The controversy regarding the use of the term ' burden ' to describe refugees has been raised by various authors such as ( 2003 ) , ( : ) , and therefore will not be discussed here . Noll points out that burdens can "" mutate into resources "" and therefore "" the language of burden - sharing tends to amplify the short - term bias "" ( : ) . < /fnote > This paper focuses in the part of this essay on the status of claims about justice that were voiced during the drafting of the Convention in the discussion of the notion of ' unduly heavy burden . ' In the part of this essay I analyze recent literature on burden - sharing examine the boat crisis as a case study where a large of refugees brought to the forefront questions relating to burden - sharing . Finally , I comment on ' proposition of a transnational conception of burden - sharing , and whether such a proposition is likely to succeed in light of growing restrictions on state borders . < fnote > Santos ( ) , . < /fnote> The Drafting of the Convention : origins of burden - sharing The term ' burden - sharing ' was not used in the , or in the drafting process . Instead , the notion of ' unduly heavy burden ' was inserted in the Preamble by the delegation with the desire to express "" the great human importance of the refugee problem , "" the need to tackle the refugee problem "" in a generous spirit "" , and to emphasize that the problem "" could only be solved on the basis of justice , and not on purely legal considerations . "" Here the delegation is appealing to justice as part of the resolution to solving the problem and not just legal considerations . The question that emerges is why are solely legal considerations insufficient to solve the problem ? Could a purely legal resolution to the problem possibly result in an unjust situation ? Does justice here refer to justice on behalf of the plight of refugees , or justice on behalf of host countries taking in refugees ? How may an ethical policy , if ethics should enter into the framework at all , be constructed in terms of refugee law ? < fnote > Weir ( ) ( emphasis added ) . < /fnote > The issue of justice with regards to the refugee situation is interesting for a number of reasons , of them being the fact that one must think of justice not as a bounded concept within a particular community or nation , but of justice on a global or international scale simply because refugee flows inevitably traverse territorial boundaries , particularly in the case of massive displacement where refugees often spill across the borders of several countries . Refugee movements are by their very nature forced rather than voluntary , and failure to allow exit or entry may result in severe human rights violations . remark that "" humanity 's claims are international "" and that "" neither nationality nor state boundaries , as such , have moral standing with respect to questions of justice "" is particularly salient here because refugees by their very nature contest territorial boundaries , and this comes up directly against the states ' jealously guarded sovereignty . She adds that of the main challenges facing contemporary cosmopolitanism is the tension between global justice and "" territorially based forms of democratic government "" and that unless the latter is restrained in certain instances , such as closed border exclusion , people will be left vulnerable to human rights violations . < fnote > refugees in , , , and are but example in , and others can be found across all continents . The resettling of refugees from to , the , and spreads them out even further from the regional base . < /fnote> Satz ( ) , . < /fnote> Ibid , . < /fnote > However , as points out , "" migration control is traditionally regarded as ... the personal sovereignty of a state "" and it is "" doubtful whether international law obliges states to share the burdens of reception . "" While massive displacements of people should invite us to think about our responsibilities towards them , what exactly our obligations are is not clear . As will be shown below , recognition of responsibility was not matched by an explicit commitment detailing what actions needed to be taken to uphold this responsibility . < fnote > Noll ( ) , . < /fnote> The debate surrounding ' unduly heavy burdens' As noted above , the delegation inserted the paragraph making reference to unduly heavy burdens and was persistent in its effort to retain the paragraph and its reference to burdens . The strong concern taken by the for this issue is explained when they point out that they have already given asylum to refugees during and therefore they were "" obliged to look to the future "" since "" there was no guarantee that would not once more be faced with problems of the same magnitude . "" Clearly , was trying to assess the risk posed by refugees and to counter any possible future risk . By assuming the responsibility of taking a large number of refugees , they were naturally concerned that they may be placed in a similar position in the future and sought to "" forestall such a danger . "" < fnote > Some delegations such as the wanted the suggestion removed , arguing that while cooperation was needed to alleviate the burdens on certain countries , the text was not appropriate in what was to be a binding resolution , Weir ( ) , . < /fnote> It is particularly interesting to note the reference made to refugees fleeing civil war by a nation . ( , - 259 ) explains how a ' myth of difference ' has been formulated to distinguish between refugees from and refugees from immediate post - war period . The latter supposedly conformed to the individualist criteria of the Convention while the former largely do not , justifying non - entrée regimes . < /fnote> Weir , . < /fnote> Ibid . < /fnote > On further probing by the representative on the legal drafting of the paragraph , the replied that "" the reference in the paragraph of the Preamble to the undue burden placed on certain countries was merely a statement of fact , and was in no way designed to create a legal obligation . "" However the debate regarding the reference to the distribution of refugees around the world continued to raise a certain degree apprehension among various delegations . The delegation declared that the government would not be in a position to fulfill this by accepting refugees from other countries although it had done so in the past ; the delegate pointed out that the draft did not contain an article concerning the distribution of refugees whereas this paragraph of the Preamble "" amounted to an acceptance of a decision on high policy "" ; and the delegate concurred with the . < fnote > Ibid , . < /fnote> Ibid , . < /fnote> Ibid , . < /fnote> Ibid . < /fnote > Following this exchange , the delegation noted that it sensed among some delegations an uneasiness at even the "" suggestion of involvement "" and once again reminded others of the "" undue burden "" taken by adding that "" all countries which ran the same risks should be conscious of the need for including such a safety clause in the Convention . "" As the debate ensued , the delegation persisted further on the matter of dealing with a large influx of refugees particularly with reference to continental countries . The argument made was that continental countries had no choice when faced with a large number at their borders to grant the right of asylum , or even refugee status . As a result , applying provisions of the regarding rights to housing and to work would become nearly impossible without international collaboration . The delegation proceeded to support the views of the adding that they "" had always felt that the refugee problem was an international , and not a national responsibility . "" < fnote > Ibid , . < /fnote> Ibid , . < /fnote> Ibid , . < /fnote > The above debate clearly indicates that , as politicians and state representatives , the purpose was not to engage in the suffering of refugees but to formulate the policy that would be the most palatable . The delegation may have sought to define the refugee problem in a manner "" equitable both to the refugees themselves and to the countries which grant them hospitality , "" but the hesitation held by states on the burden - sharing paragraph illustrates the boundaries of such hospitality . Indeed , there was no discussion on how to specifically alleviate an unduly heavy burden , except for the reference to international collaboration , which was not expanded on further . During the early stages of drafting , an additional statement was included in the paragraph that explained how cooperation was needed "" to help to distribute refugees throughout the world , "" however , this was dropped in later stages . In addition , a number of conceptual problems were not addressed such as how to quantify burdens and their cost , and more importantly , what are the precise responsibilities that burden - sharing entails . < fnote > Weir , ( ) . < /fnote> Weir , . < /fnote> Costs can be of a direct nature , such as those related to refugee status determination , subsistence , housing , schooling and health , while indirect costs such as social integration are more difficult to quantify . See Thieleman ( ) , . < /fnote > There are no specific legal obligations to either regulate asylum or admit refugees under . Indeed the main principle agreed upon by states is that of non - refoulement ; states can not send refugees back to a country where they fear persecution , but it does not create specific legal obligations to allow entry into one 's territory . States are still given precedence to decide who can enter , and boundaries are as strong as ever , particularly in . ' < heading > Burden - sharing : theory and concepts The commentary on the travaux preparatoires claims that the principle of burden - sharing proclaimed in the "" has acquired enormous importance in dealing with refugee problems "" and that the debate illustrates that international cooperation was intended both in the field of protection and also assistance . Indeed , much recent literature has been devoted to the concept of burden - sharing both on the international and regional level , the latter focusing on policies enacted within , and this section will briefly outline some of the ideas presented and their critiques . < fnote > Weir ( ) , . < /fnote > On the international level , the writings of in particular stimulated heated debate . and Neve propose allocating the physical and financial burdens of protecting refugees through ' sub - global associations ' of states composed of inner and outer core groups in a kind of insurance scheme . core states are those specifically , and outer core states are generally not immediately affected by refugee flows and so contribution will largely take the form of fiscal support and the provision of permanent resettlement for a small number of cases who can not return home . Refugees will reside largely in their region of origin with respect of their fundamental human rights , and the goal is eventual repatriation once conditions are safe . puts forward a similar scheme of allocating protection and financial burdens through the creation of a market in refugee quotas by a group of states , with each assigned a protection quota . States could then trade their quotas by paying other participating states to fulfill their obligations . < fnote > Hathaway and Neve ( ) . < /fnote> Schuck ( ) . < /fnote> Hathaway and Neve ( ) . < /fnote> Schuck ( ) . < /fnote > On the regional level on has developed analytical frameworks based on risk distribution and public goods theory respectively . Noll approaches the problem by analyzing risk distribution along a game - theoretical approach , focusing initially on host states that are negotiating the sharing of burden , and then expanding to involve other actors , highlighting how risks are shifted among players in "" criss - crossing alliances . "" Noll argues that states adopt main strategies to externalize costs and risks : shifting costs onto other states through a burden - sharing scheme that presumes agreement on cooperation based on expectation of reciprocity ; pushing refugees to other countries , for example , through safe - country agreements ; preventing migration altogether ; and significantly reducing asylum seeker 's rights on one 's territory . < fnote > Noll ( 2003 ) . See also ( ) and Thieleman ( 2003b ) . < /fnote> Noll ( 2003 ) , . Actors other than host states include sub - state entities such as federal states ( in the case ) , municipalities , political parties , the media , asylum seekers , people smugglers ( ; ) . < /fnote> Ibid , . < /fnote > One of the main criticisms leveled against on the practicality of their schemes is that the transfer payments from are unlikely to materialize once refugees are contained in the . On an ethical level , their proposals have also been criticized for the commodification of refugees , particularly by using the analogy of an insurance scheme thus associated refugee flows "" with other forms of insurable risk , such as natural disaster . "" Smith has also argued that out - sourcing obligations to other states would have the added effect of "" muffling ... these voices that educate us to the persecution in their homelands . "" The criticisms raise some consensus over the moral and ethical issues of such burden - sharing proposals , pointing out how they fail to recognize the humanitarian element that underpins , or at least should underpin , the provision of asylum . < fnote > Anker et ( ) , 301 . < /fnote> Anker et ( ) , . See also ( ) , . < /fnote> Smith ( 2004 ) , . < /fnote> Burden - sharing ( in)Action : the boat crisis < fnote > This section will look at the immediate response to the crisis and not its aftermath which is beyond the scope of this essay . The boat crisis is just one of several high - profile boat crises involving refugees and others include the boat people and the Indo - China exodus of and and the Haiti. The boat crisis is a cogent example of an utter failure to shoulder the responsibility of providing asylum and access to one 's territory , thereby inducing great suffering . In , mostly asylum seekers were stranded on the freighter for after being rescued from a sinking boat ; although the was headed for 's , it was informed by authorities that it would not be allowed to dock there and instructed to disembark in instead . There were reports of illness among refugees , and conditions on the ship were cramped as it was only designed to hold crew . Despite coming under great criticism by the Secretary - General and the High Commissioner for Human Rights , the Prime Minister declared that , "" ... it is the right thing to do ... and it was in 's national interest . "" In the end , an agreement was reached for asylum - seekers to have their claims assessed in , and the rest in . < fnote>""Australia defiant in refugee standoff "" , , URL < /fnote> , as qtd in "" defiant in refugee standoff . "" There were of course political considerations to his decision . An election was looming , and the public was largely supportive of the tough stance taken against the , particularly coming so soon after . < /fnote>""Breakthrough over refugees "" Sat 1 , URL < /fnote > What went wrong with burden - sharing in the case ? Was there a case to be made for 's "" national interest "" to trump humanitarian concerns ? Or did the government fail to even extend the right to hospitality as outlined by 's jus cosmopolticum ? It appears that the government preferred to pursue the strategy of pushing refugees onto others as outlined by . The government signed with and in and respectively to host more asylum seekers intercepted by . points out that the unequal relationship between and these islands which depend a great deal on financial assistance , played an important part in accepting the role of offshore processing centres for asylum seekers and that both countries were in a weak bargaining position when they accepted 's terms . The result was the shifting rather than sharing of burdens in a unilateral and unfair manner onto vulnerable neighbours by the government , which exploited "" its asymmetric power relationship ... to achieve an outcome that was more in its own interests than theirs . "" < fnote > Taylor ( ) , . < /fnote> Ibid , . < /fnote> Ibid , . < /fnote> Transnational Conception of Burden - Sharing Tampa is just of many cases where states have failed to honour the spirit of and failed to take justice and not simply legal considerations into account when formulating decisions . points out that because there was "" no clear legal obligation "" on states to take the responsibility for these rescuees at sea , "" took advantage of this lack of clarity "" by insisting that responsibility for them lay elsewhere . Without an outright legal obligation to provide asylum it appears almost inevitable , particularly in 's political climate , that states will be concerned with limiting the number of people entering their borders than with the dictates of humanity . < fnote > Australia insisted it was either 's ( 's flag state ) , or 's ( allegedly the nearest feasible port of disembarkation ) decision to make , ( ) , . < /fnote > In light of the inequity of the current international system that has placed enormous burdens on already vulnerable countries , asks whether burden - sharing should "" be conceived on a global scale ? And will this be possible in an interstate system based on state self - centredness ? "" He suggests that "" a new and more solidary transnational conception of burden sharing "" ought to be implemented , arguing that in the future , environmental catastrophes will be a major cause of displacement , thus exposing "" the dark side of capitalist world development and global lifestyles , "" and making environmental refugees the ideal candidates for this new transnational conception of burden - sharing . The obstacles faced in actually implementing such an idea is recognized by who points out that they are unlikely to fall within the competence of High Commissioner for Refugees . In addition , has noted that most actors prefer regional burden - sharing to a global one because "" risks in a regional scheme are a priori more circumscribed than those in a global one , which increases predictability and facilitates consensus among would - be participants . "" < fnote > Santos , . < /fnote> Ibid . < /fnote> Ibid . They are also unlikely to fall within the Convention definition of a refugee . < /fnote> Noll ( ) , . < /fnote > However , regional schemes also fail to acknowledge that "" many of the conflicts leading to mass refugee flows in can themselves be traced either to the legacy of imperialist politics or to its pursuit in the contemporary era , "" and hence the large number of states in hosting refugees would benefit from a global rather than regional burden - sharing scheme . When taking this externalist view of the reasons for displacement , refugees become more than just "" necessitous strangers , "" and it becomes clear that justice obligations are owed to them . Such a discussion is not entirely different from those raised about global justice and poverty or global justice and the sweatshop industry . The important point , as Pogge points out , is not just an exposition of the goals and values of global justice but the "" question of obligation "" and responsibilities owed in the global context where harms are caused by a variety of agents . The debate concerning obligation and responsibilities was absent from the travaux preparatoires of the Convention as shown above , and in the case , the government neither any obligations nor responsibilities to the stranded asylum seekers . < fnote > Chimni ( , - 361 ) gives the example of the refugee outflow following the genocide which was portrayed as solely the result of ethnic conflict rather than looking at the disintegration of the economic environment there following the collapse of the international coffee market and the macro - economic reforms imposed by international financial institutions that exacerbated ethnic tensions . < /fnote> Walzer , as qtd . in ( ) , . < /fnote> Pogge ( ) . < /fnote> Young ( 2004 ) . < /fnote> Pogge ( ) , . < /fnote> Conclusion Suhrke has stated that , "" in refugee matters , the logic of burden - sharing starts from the premise that helping refugees is a jointly held moral duty and obligation under international law . "" However , the practical realities of burden - sharing have shown that most states , particularly those of the , would prefer to shift their obligations and responsibilities onto others whenever possible rather than recognize the words of who said that , < fnote > Suhrke ( ) , . < /fnote> The burden of providing for refugees is a burden on the entire human community of which each nation has to take its reasonable share . The principle of non - refoulement is part of a sacred trust , but the principle does not stand alone ; it is , indeed , closely connected with the principle of burden sharing between nations. Grahl - Madsen , as qtd in ( ) , . < /fnote >","< heading > Introduction The efficacy of human rights law as a tool for women 's empowerment has been vigorously debated over . This article explores this debate focusing on the practice of female genital mutilation ( FGM ) . The extensive literature that has been devoted to this practice and grown throughout and the wide - ranging impact that this practice has on wide range of planes from the legal , to the political and the cultural , makes it an ideal case study for an examination of both the advantages and drawbacks of using international human rights law in the struggle for women 's human rights . The cultural and religious significance of , its strong links to sexual and reproductive health and rights , and the critiques raised by postcolonial feminists in particular on the dangers of gender essentialism and exclusive focus on violence against women has made FGM a contentious and vigorously debated topic . In the part of this article , I briefly examine how the practice of gained prominence in the international women 's human rights movement . I summarize some of the contentious issues that has raised , particularly the criticism that the campaign essentializes both gender and culture . In the part of the article , I discuss the role of treaty bodies and their articulation of as a human right violation through concluding observations on state reports , and explore whether such exchanges between state officials and committee members provide meaningful dialogue that has an impact on the ground . Finally , I argue that a current gap in the literature on , particularly that written from the international human rights law perspective , is a failure to take sufficient account of the wider social constraints that restrict women 's ability to enjoy their rights pronounced under human rights instruments . < heading > FGM 's Rise to Prominence : Violence against Women When at the Human Rights Conference in , the slogan ' women 's rights are human rights ' became a reality , gender - based violence as a major human rights issue also took off and was the culmination of of activism and lobbying . Another watershed was the ) in , and the in which brought to the forefront issues regarding women 's reproductive health and choices . It is particularly important to examine the struggle against within the context of gender - based violence and women 's sexual and reproductive health campaigns , which these conferences brought to the forefront . Although activists and women 's rights advocates had written about the practice much earlier , it was only in that a concerted , vigorous and international campaign against truly gained momentum capturing the attention of human rights activists and academics , bodies and the media . < fnote > Parisi ( ) , . < /fnote> Hellum and ( ) , . < /fnote> See , among others , ( ) . < /fnote > ) defines FGM as comprising "" all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs whether for cultural , religious or other non - therapeutic reasons . "" According to the , has both immediate and long - term health consequences in addition to physical , psychosexual and psychological effects . For this reason , FGM fits well into both the gender - based violence and sexual and reproductive rights and health ; not only is it physically injurious and hence a violent act against women but it has the potential to affect women 's sexual and reproductive lives and choices . < fnote>""What is ? "" < URL > < /fnote> Ibid . < /fnote> FGM and the Culture Debate Questions such as does FGM constitute torture , can and should a cultural and religious practice be vehemently condemned as a human rights violation , is the focus on FGM a Western fetish and what measures , if any , can be taken to deconstruct a deeply embedded practice are just a few examples of the contentious issues raised in the struggle against FGM . At the heart of the debate is the construction of cultural and traditional practices and its impact on women . The Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women ( ) makes clear that culture , tradition and religion can not be used as an excuse to deprive women of their rights , the implication being that it is largely these elements that keep women in subordinate positions . Merry examines the use of ' culture ' and ' tradition ' within the discourse of human rights arguing that feminist and human rights scholars and activists "" identify culture and tradition as the source of the problem . "" describes FGM ( or female genital cutting as she names it ) as "" the poster child for this understanding of culture "" where culture plays a harmful and oppressive role through its subordination of women , and further elaborates how FGM "" became the prototype of a practice justified by custom and culture and redefined as an act of violence . "" < fnote > See ( ) , and ( ) , - 121 . < /fnote> Art . , . < /fnote> Merry ( ) , . < /fnote> Ibid . < /fnote> Ibid , - 28 . < /fnote > Postcolonial feminism adds an additional dimension to the controversy surrounding FGM by raising questions about the process of legalization of human rights , the assumptions made about gender and culture and the tendency to universalize women 's experiences and universalize solutions . FGM is particularly sensitive to this kind of critique and activists have noted the tendency to sensationalize and oversimplify FGM in Western circles . has stated how is portrayed "" as irrefutable evidence of the barbarism and vulgarity of underdeveloped countries "" , and has similarly noted how activists like her are "" constantly trying to make others understand that women who circumcise their daughters are not barbarians or vampires ( ) . Moreover , argues that has been uprooted from its context with the effect of reducing women 's struggle to effectively issue . < fnote > Kapur ( ) , . < /fnote> Toubia , as qtd in Abusharaf ( ) , . < /fnote> Mugo ( ) , . < /fnote > The debate about 's harmfulness is further complicated when reading narratives from women who support the practice . Obiora points out that FGM can be considered a "" form of self - assertion , or even the ultimate expression of their personhood . "" Some women also argue that by decreasing a women 's sexual needs she will actually become more powerful and less at the mercy of her husband . Others prefer the appearance of circumcised genitals and claim that they still experience sexual pleasure and orgasm . These narratives are often very hard for feminists to swallow . Indeed , researchers on the project admitted the presence of an "" avoidable tension "" when doing research on the cross - cultural meanings of reproductive rights asking themselves , "" what if women 's voices tell us things we would rather not hear , or simply can not hear - because they express values and priorities that are different from those we espouse ? has also argued that "" the feminist literature on the [ practice ] provides ample evidence that many exercise effective agency "" and "" autonomy is to be found among accommodaters as well as resisters . Invariably however when such voices do emerge , it is often argued that patriarchal assumptions underlie such acceptance and that the ' choice ' women exercise in performing FGM "" is not truly meaningful , but ... shaped by a male dominated culture . "" < fnote > Obiora ( ) , . < /fnote> Seif El Dawla ( ) , and Abusharaf ( 2001 ) , . < /fnote> Abusharaf ( 2001 ) , - 123 ; . < /fnote> Petchesky ( ) , . < /fnote> Meyers , as qtd in Abusharaf ( ) , . < /fnote> Trueblood ( ) , . See also Tahzib - Lie ( 2000 ) who points out that this ' informed choice ' endangers not only the participant 's health but others too and hence constitutes a public health threat that should be curtailed by the state , - 977 . < /fnote > The above debates are unlikely to subside but will continue to provoke discussion among human rights scholars and activists . What is significant for this essay is to contemplate how these debates feed into the discussions that take place in bodies when states present their reports and experts question state representatives , provide feedback and comment , and ask for further elaboration . How much leniency , if any , do they give for arguments of ' culture ' ? < heading > UN Treaty Bodies and FGM There are several conventions applicable to FGM , but one of the greatest challenges in using international law is the lack of enforceability of human rights instruments is the weak enforcement mechanisms . There are few mechanisms that ' force ' states to comply with their responsibilities , and it is largely tools such as international pressure and ' naming and shaming ' that prompt states into action . State reporting mechanisms are one of the means used to monitor state compliance with treaty obligations , which also allows experts sitting on the various treaty body committees to engage in a dialogue with states to determine what progress has or has not been made , what measures have been taken to implement the treaties , and what obstacles exist and their possible remedies , in addition to the adoption of concluding observations and comments on state reports . This section will look at lists of issues , replies to issues and concluding observations of ) , ) , ) , and ( ) regarding FGM in countries , and an analysis and critique of these observations . < fnote > Although only the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women specifically identifies FGM as physical , sexual and psychological violence ( Art . ) , other relevant conventions include , the Convention against Torture . < /fnote> See Wood ( 2001 ) and ( ) . < /fnote> The CESCR : and Sudan Egypt , and Senegal were asked by the in , and respectively to respond to a list of issues in their state reports that included questions on . was requested to provide information on the effectiveness of measures taken to eradicate FGM in , and responded with the following : < fnote > E / C.12 / Q / EGY/1 . ( List of Issues : ) . < /fnote> E / C.12 / Q / Sud/1 . ( List of Issues : ) . < /fnote> E / C.12 / Q / Sen/1 . ( List of Issues : ) . < /fnote> E / C.12 / Q / EGY/1 . ( List of Issues : ) , paragraph . < /fnote> ... female education has directly helped to eliminate [ FGM ] in urban areas and among educated women . This custom is now practised , to a decreasing extent , in remote rural areas. E / C.12 / Q / EGY/1 . ( Reply to List of Issues : 28/03/2000 ) , paragraph . < /fnote > The reply also noted that the government promotes educational efforts and disseminates health information through the media and with the help of religious ministers to highlight the dangers of excision , and stated that "" prescribes penalties for anyone who performs such operations . "" However it also added that since it is prohibited in health centres and hospitals , unqualified persons continue to secretly perform it . < fnote > Ibid . < /fnote > Sudan was requested to provide statistics disaggregated by age group , geographic location and socio - economic standards on reports that urban educated families are abandoning . The government did not provide a detailed response to the requested information , and instead stated that had considerably dropped in a number of towns , villages and rural areas and that statistic will be provided as soon they are available . The reply also explained how the government was pursuing education and awareness - raising to highlight the harms of FGM and help eradicate it through lectures , midwife and nurse training and through women 's unions . < fnote > E / C.12 / Q / Sud/1 . ( List of Issues : ) , paragraph . < /fnote> E / C.12 / Q / Sud/1 . ( Reply to List of Issues : ) , paragraph . < /fnote > In both cases , the is concerned with the success of various measures but the responses highlight the difficult in providing immediate and quantifiable ' results ' . 's reply is rather debatable because it is difficult , if not impossible , to make a statement claiming FGM 's eradication ( even in urban areas ) , for the main reason that FGM is an irreversible process , and to claim that it has been eradicated requires waiting until the next generation to see if girls who are circumcised now end up circumcising their own daughters . 's response is slightly more restrained as the reply indicates that such detailed statistics ( which would require quite intensive research ) are unavailable at present . < heading > UN Treaty Bodies and Concluding Observations An examination of concluding observations regarding FGM by the , , , and of states yields responses that repeated frequently and can be categorized into the following groups : Statements of concern regarding FGM that outline how it is a harmful and discriminatory traditional practice , that it constitutes cruel , inhuman and degrading treatment , and has physical , psychological and social impact on women 's health . < fnote > See , , , A/53/38 / Rev.1 part I ( ) , paragraph . < /fnote> See Lesotho , , vol . I ( ) , paragraph . < /fnote> See Guinea , CESCR , E/1997/22 ( ) , paragraph . < /fnote > Calls to conduct studies on the practice and plans to eradicate it . < fnote > See , , , vol . I ( ) paragraph . < /fnote > Calls to take steps to eradicate the practice through education and sensitization programmes , and the adoption of legislation prohibiting FGM . < fnote > See , , , ( ) , paragraph . < /fnote> See , Democratic Republic of the , , A/55/38 part I ( ) , paragraph . < /fnote > Positive praise regarding the adoption of laws against or awareness campaigns . < fnote > See Togo , , A/58/40 vol . I ( ) , paragraph 78(5 ) . < /fnote > Statements of concern that despite the existence of legislation banning , its practice is still widespread and therefore requires more effective implementation of education campaigns . < fnote > See , , , ) , paragraphs and . < /fnote > It is clear that legislation and education / awareness campaigns are the main prongs that committees advocate in eradicating FGM , and indeed , the former can not work on its own . The main criticism however is that recommendations tend to stop at legislation and education . There are occasionally more detailed suggestions on means to eradicate the practice such as enlisting the support of religious and community leaders , or using the support of civil society and NGOs and securing alternate sources of income for those who perform FGM for a living . However , the wider context of women 's lives , which does influence their attitudes towards a practice such as is left unexamined and untouched . As can be seen in the list of issues given by the CESCR to and , states are asked to explain what measures have been taken , and an evaluation of the success or failure of such measures , but they are not asked about broader health policies or the right of access to a minimum level of health care . This isolates FGM "" from the gamut of auxiliary conditions that anchor and motivate it "" and implies a top - down approach that is unlikely to succeed . < fnote > See , , , ( ) , paragraph . < /fnote> Kenya , , part I ( ) , paragraph . < /fnote> Obiora ( ) , . < /fnote> Gaps in the FGM Debate The above debates illustrate the immense difficulties in bringing about change in people 's actions and behaviours through human rights instruments and bodies . Following on from the critique that the wider context of women 's lives is almost absent from debates by treaty bodies is the notion that the choices women make in their lives are often being ' traded ' in for others . This means that while women seize upon one right , they are often compelled to give up something for that right in a trade - off . et al explore the strategic accommodations made by women in their reproductive lives and illustrate how these trade - offs are made ; resorting to the traditional practice of baladi dokhla ( breaking the hymen ) on the wedding night is painful and embarrassing but on the other hand it helps ensure greater freedom of mobility and the ability to go out and work because it ' proves ' a woman 's chastity . < fnote > Seif El Dawlaal . ( ) , . < /fnote > The different voices that et al heard from women during their research with regard to decisions made about reproduction and their bodies made it difficult to pin down prototypical example of strategic accommodation , and instead they used categories to reflect the comments that women expressed ; the is ' it is just the nature of things ' ; the is ' painful , but necessary ' ; the is ' resistance and resistance in disguise ' ; and the is ' no is no ! ' The advantages of using these strategic postures as an analytical tool is that rather than presenting a static picture of unchanging gender relations and hierarchies , it highlights how relations and hierarchies change , and how constraints both emerge and dissolve rather than remaining constant . This is particularly important when looking at FGM that "" has a social function that many young girls and women find compelling - beyond choice . "" < fnote > Ibid , . < /fnote > This provides a much more nuanced , complex and complete picture of the decisions women make when performing such practices as . treaty bodies consistently note their concern about traditional harmful practices and the need to combat them through education , however , women are not necessarily ignorant of the harm but < quote> ... often choose to go along with traditional expectations they dislike , even ones that blatantly violate their own sense of bodily integrity or wellbeing , in order to gain other advantages under existing domestic and community power relations in which their manoeuvrability is constrained . < /quote> Petchesky ( ) , . < /fnote > Legislation , education , the support of civil society , and religious and community leaders are important ' multidisciplinary ' strategies , but at the same time they are not always in harmony which has led women for example , "" to negotiate the conflicting pressures of religious authorities , medical authorities , class divisions , and above all traditional gender norms when it comes to FGM . "" Ultimately women continuously adopt strategies that sometimes accommodate and at other times resist . At the international level , such nuanced categories and concepts are often simplified , and with limited time and resources it is debatable whether they can delve into the complex underlying reasons that perpetuate ' harmful traditional practices ' against women . < fnote > Seif El Dawla et al ( ) , . See Seif El Dawla ( , - 133 ) for a comprehensive discussion of the complex politics surrounding the banning of FGM in . < /fnote> Merry ( ) , . < /fnote> Conclusion International human rights law is of several tools that should be used to combat the practice of . The challenged faced is "" not only one of opposing harmful practices or mobilizing around rights but of publicly deconstructing the ideological and social system ... that makes those practices acceptable and sometimes even desired . "" Ultimately the task of public deconstruction will not take place at international conferences or in forums but at the grassroots level . argues persuasively that , "" unless international human rights have sufficient legitimacy within particular cultures and traditions , their implementation will be thwarted . "" Not only is legitimacy of human rights law needed , but also a recognition that this law 's efficacy is contingent on adopting a broader socioeconomic scheme . < fnote > Ibid , . < /fnote> An'Naim ( ) , - 173 . < /fnote >",1 "< heading > Introduction: The teaching of reading involve main routes , the lexical route and the sub - lexical route . The lexical route involves a teaching of words as a whole . Goodman ( : ) who supported the whole - word theory of reading suggested that ' an efficient reader uses only enough information from the published text to be effective ' . This has been disputed by many who place more emphasis on the ' graphophonic system ' ( Gough and Wren , 1999:67 ) and the individual role of letters and words rather than whole texts . Adams ( 1990:105 ) suggests ' the single immutable fact about skilful reading is that it involves relatively complete processing of the individual letters in print ' . This theory places more emphasis on the sub - lexical route whereby decoding via grapheme - phoneme correspondence is vital . 's ( ) most significant claim was that reading was a ' guessing game ' . His theory suggested that skilled readers use context to anticipate the words in a text therefore do not need to decode every word . Contrary to this theory is the more recent idea that a skilled reader is someone who can decode automatically without being conscious of it ( Field : ) . This theory also suggests that ' less skilled readers rely heavily on context ' ( Perfetti 1999:43 ) as a substitute for poor decoding skills . It has been claimed that reading involves a dual - route , combining both the lexical and sub - lexical routes . This essay will seek to identify to what extent readers rely on decoding and to challenge the misconceptions of the role of context . These misconceptions include the varied uses of context amongst skilled and less skilled readers , eye movements in reading and the demands on working memory . < heading > Varied uses of context in the skilled / less skilled reader < /heading > The extent to which a reader relies on context depends heavily on the readers level of skill . Recent research has discovered that ' context aids poor readers more than good ' ( Nicholson:1991 cited in : ) and that it is used by less skilled readers as a support for weak decoding skills . Perfetti suggests that ' less skilled readers are slower in identifying words , because they lack basic word identification skill ; thus they are able to benefit from the additional boost of context ' ( ) . This emphasises the importance of decoding . In the case of an unskilled reader external sources can be used to help give clues to work out what a word is likely to mean . Once readers have mastered the skill of decoding context can be used in order to interpret the meaning of the text . Perfetti suggests that ' the hallmark of skilled reading is fast context - free word identification combined with a rich context - dependent text understanding ' ( ) . ( ) suggests that to a skilled reader context can be used to ' enrich understanding ' ( cited in Field ) . and ( ) expand on this by suggesting that ' skilled readers adjust their reading goals , makes inferences , use the context , and monitor their comprehension during reading ' ( cited in ) . Context is a necessary component of understanding but unlike suggested it is not an effective substitute for decoding skills . < heading > Eye movements Goodman 's ( ) theory that reading is a ' guessing game ' suggests that readers do not need to decode every word as they can use context to anticipate them . This implies that readers can skip over words . Research on eye - movements in reading , however , suggest that this is not the case . In order for the eyes to gain information they must be at rest , fixated on a specific region of the text . When the eyes move in rapid saccades there is no information gained . Perfetti suggested that the ' idea that skilled reading involves a strategy of sparse sampling words coupled with a heavy use of context ' ( 1999:44 ) can not be supported . and Pollatsek ( ) demonstrated the limits of peripheral vision in actual reading . They suggested that the eyes can only make out - 6 spaces to the right of the eye 's fixation . This suggests that readers can only make out one word and possibly the couple of letters of the following word . The idea that context can be used to guess words is therefore unfounded . Perfetti concluded that ' readers must read lots of words in order to read effectively ' ( 1999:45 ) . However it is important to note that the readers technique can be affected by the purpose of reading . Reading for gist , for example , can involve fewer eye fixations than reading to answer questions ( Just and Carpenter , ) . suggest that ' skilled readers are therefore people who can get information that they want from a text efficiently ' ( ) . It has also been found that there are shorter fixation times for predictable words , ( Ehrlich and , ( ) however unlike suggested ' this context effect does not extend to skipping words ' ( Perfetti 1999:45 ) . Despite being predictable , words still have to be read . < heading > Regression As it has been discovered fixations are necessary in order for information to be gained from a word . Interestingly both skilled and less skilled readers appear to make the same number of fixations , however , as notes ' what marks out less skilled reading is a much higher level of regression ' ( ) . Regression is not only used more by less skilled readers but it is also used for a different purpose . Field suggests that regression in skilled reading is often associated with building higher - level meaning , regression in unskilled reading however ' usually serves to check that words have been correctly decoded ' . ( ) . This again supports the idea that decoding is paramount in the process of reading . < heading > Demands on : < /heading > Goodman 's ( ) key argument was that readers use context to predict the words they are reading . There are main problems with 's argument . is the idea that very few words are predictable . and ( ) suggested that predictability must be near before context can assist a word 's recognition , however very few content words reach this level . A study by Gough and Wren ( ) suggested that of function words and of content words could be correctly anticipated . This is a very low figure and the authors concluded that ' it would be a waste of the reader 's time to try and predict them ; he or she is better off simply recognising them ' ( : ) . goes on to suggest that certain words may not necessarily be predictable but more familiar ' some words are recognised more easily than others ' ( ) . The problem with 's argument is that using context makes more demands on the reader . Context use is ' more under the conscious control of the reader ... because of this , they make considerable demands upon ( Field , ) . ( ) suggests that the capacity of is known to be strictly limited . Because of this 's theory does not hold much strength as it has been found that skilled readers make less use of context . Decoding is highly automatic in a skilled reader ' this means that they make few demands upon , leaving capacity for higher level processes such as building overall meaning ' ( Field , ) . This suggests that the aim of a skilled reader is automatic decoding . 's ( ) ' efficiency theory ' suggests that ' with less skilled readers the decoding process is more controlled ( i.e. conscious ) , the burden upon Working memory is greater leaving fewer resources for meaning building ' . ( cited in , ) . He goes on to suggest that the slow decoding in unskilled readers results in smaller amounts of information being supplied to Working memory . ' This leads to a focus upon local rather than global meaning relations ' ( cited in . This supports the idea that context is used in less skilled readers to support them when their decoding is weak . proposed that ' word recognition by skilled readers dealing with common words that are clearly written is so fast and automatic that contextual priming is unnecessary ' ( Ellis , ) . This supports the idea that in skilled readers the ultimate aim is quick and efficient decoding . This can been seen through tests ( Appendix 2 ) . The test , the stroop test , challenges the reader to overpower the automatic decoding they have been trained to do as a skilled reader . When asked to name the word ( not the colour ) the reader will often struggle . This is the same with the test whereby upon closer inspection the shapes of the letters are similar . The ' H ' resembles an ' A ' but reader can still recognise the intended phrase . This shows how reading processes have become automatised . Such automatic processes make few demands on working memory . < heading > Miscue analysis: Gough and Wren ( ) disputed the findings of ( ) in their own miscue analysis task when they found very few miscues in their own results . They suggested that ' the fact seems to be that skilled readers , reading a text like those they usually read , do so very accurately ' ( 1999:63 ) . By conducting a miscue analysis on students I attempted to see if my findings supported the theory of . All students were considered to be ' skilled ' readers as they had no learning problems . They were all competent readers and had to regularly read university level texts as part of their degree courses . None of the students were familiar with the linguistic / scientific text I asked them to read . All appeared to have difficulty with the words ' sulci ' and ' gyri ' , technical terminology for parts of the brain . All pronounced the words differently and paused before them . The fact that the students pronounced them differently suggested that they were using analogy to read the words . For example : FORMULA Apart from these words there were very few errors . The students made a total of false starts and occasionally paused before unfamiliar words . The most interesting errors came when the reader misread an unfamiliar word , replacing it with a familiar word . For example : ' automatically ' for ' anatomically ' Or made consistent errors , for example ' cerebal ' or ' cerebrial ' for ' cerebral ' These errors seemed to me to occur because of the less frequent letter combination of ' ral ' compared to ' al ' or ' ial ' . This supported the idea that automatic decoding can become so strong it can be difficult to overrule . Few of the words in the texts could have been predicted using the context despite the readers level of skill . The findings of this small test showed that the readers used analogies in order to read unfamiliar words . Goodman ( ) also supported his ' guessing game ' argument with a test by . His subjects read a text containing errors ( see Appendix 3 ) . Despite being told that there were errors in the text very few were able to relay all the errors . suggested that since the readers did not report the errors , those errors did not affect their reading or understanding of the text . Gough and however dispute this suggesting that ' while they are still able to see past ( or through ) these errors and arrive at a correct interpretation of the story these errors do make meaning construction more difficult ' ( 1999:68 ) . They came to this conclusion by looking at reading - time data , sentences containing errors were read slower . This again helps to suggest that decoding is an important part of reading , more so than context . < heading > Conclusion Context is clearly important in gaining an overall understanding of a text but it has been suggested that 's account of reading ' more accurately characterises beginning readers than skilled readers ' . ( 1988:33 ) . It is important to note that ' the use of context decreases as reading skill increases ' ( , ) . Crucially the way context is used also varies depending on the readers skill . Oakhill and suggest that ' context is more important for ambiguous words ' , for example , ' bug ' could refer to an insect or a spy / surveillance ( 1988:13 ) . The role of decoding therefore seems to be more important in current reading theory . decoding means that readers can identify words with little effort and fewer demands on the working memory . When this skill is mastered context can be used to enhance understanding , suggests ' the hallmark of skilled reading is fast context - free word identification combined with a rich context - dependent text understanding ' ( 1999:46 ) . It can therefore be concluded that decoding is an essential part of reading and that context has roles , depending on the skill of the reader .","For life is suffering and strife , each man against all others , a survival of the fittest , a existence where "" The right of nature ... is the liberty each man hath to use his own power ... for the preservation of his own nature , "" The natural state of man is egoism , we seek our own advantages , and we might imagine men as beetles clambering over each other to get at a food source . This is the picture paints for us , and although we may not realise it , we all lie and deceive and use whatever means possible in order to get step ahead of our comrades , as in the man who does a good deed only to receive future homage , or the man who lends money only to secure a future alliance . , however , noticed that there was one ' feeling ' or ' motivation ' quite unlike all other , and he also noticed that it had been largely ignored or dismissed by other philosophers . This motive was compassion , for a feeling very real and mysterious , since it makes us want to strive for the good and well - being of another as we normally would do for ourselves , appearing to quite contradict the natural state of man ; "" it is the great mystery of ethics . "" Is compassion therefore unnatural , and whence forth does it stem ? < fnote > , , , < /fnote > All other motives of action , that is , egoistic ones , are governed by the Will . The Will for is not an individual will , it is not simply doing ' what one wills ' . The Will is unified and collective , the blind and goalless force behind all of mankinds striving . The grand force of nature and of life , a force that we might liken to our own ideas of evolution or ' mother nature ' . There is no need to question why the Will exists or for what reason it harrows and beleaguers us into action , for this is beyond our realm of knowledge , indeed it has no reason . All that we can examine are its expressions and effects , and that includes our motives of action . If a motive of action is a mere expression of the Will , it is not genuinely moral , since the Will cares not for morality . was in a sense a precursor to , anticipating his more scientific theories of evolution and survival instincts . Schopenhauers ' Will provides a unique ' stop gap ' between a religious explanation of the world ( where a deity is the reason and motivation behind all of life ) and a scientific explanation ( where biology and physics give rise to a theory of evolution ) . Indeed his theory is pure metaphysics and will always stand out as something that can not be reduced either to science or religion . That said , his theories provide a great compliment to science . Where tells us what , has already told us why , and this is no better portrayed than in his theory of love : We are attracted to strong , healthy individuals , we fall in love , and then we reproduce , hopefully producing strong and healthy children ; this is natural selection . But why the ' love ' bit ? tells us that we are of such a sentient nature that we realise how abhorred and disgusting the act of reproduction is , and how much suffering life itself causes that if we were of a sane mind no - one would reproduce and the entire species would fail . Therefore the Will provides us with a mechanism that equates love with pleasure and something to be desired . In essence the Will tricks us into thinking that what we most desire in the world is to fall in love and reproduce . Of course when we are married with screaming infants to deal with we realise that we were mistaken . It is generally believed that as humans we lack instinct and possess free will , but we are in fact very instinctual in matters such as this . I explain this section of Schopenhauers thought to the reader here to clarify what we might expect from the great pessimistic philosopher in accounting for compassion , since I feel that what we might expect is very different from his actual account . In the case of love , the individual is acting for the benefit of the species where he really believes he is acting for himself ( he is pursuing his own pleasure and his own goals ) . The Will has substituted the actual goal for a belief in another . We might view compassion as a motive of action in the same way . The individual needs to strive for his own well - being , since he knows best how to satisfy his desires and fulfill his needs . But a certain degree of looking out for each other might benefit the species as a whole , and it is more than likely that the will would inspire us to do so from time to time . If the whole of humanity were to injure each other and never care for each other , this would be a great detriment to the future of the species . There are cases where we act for the good of another but know deep down that it is benefitting to ourself as in the examples in the introduction , but what could inspire us to help someone poor and dying , who could not possibly repay our actions , or to act heroically to the extent of putting our own life in danger ? The word that uses to discuss compassion is the Mitleid , meaning precisely ' to suffer with ' , so essentially we are talking exclusively of suffering . We all suppose that compassion is an act of altruism ; the unselfish concern for the welfare of others , but I wish to propose that we are , in fact , secretly and perhaps unknowingly seeking our own ends . To see another person suffering causes us to suffer , and we act to alleviate their suffering and by doing so alleviate our own . But why should anothers plight cause us to suffer in the place ? Because the Will dictates it , and why should the Will dictate it ? Because it is tricking us into preserving the species . Compassion seems to be demonstrated at its most instinctual and innate in the case of mother and child , and this is because this is the most integral case of what we generally perceive as altruism . The mother must have a motive for dedicating all of her efforts to the helpless infant without expecting a return on her efforts . But it makes no sense that a man should act for an end that does not benefit him in some way ; such an action would be lacking a motive , would be random . This is where we might suggest that the will provides us with a reason to act , compassion for another causes us to suffer . This account , I believe , fits in perfectly with Schopenhauers account of the Will . Some account of this sort we might expect and perhaps grudgingly accept from someone for whom the will accounts for everything . But we actually find that Schopenhauers views on compassion are of the most contrary and optimistic kind . For him compassion is real and true for the most enlightened souls . On contains Schopenhauers most illusive exposition of compassion . He explains that we can not examine the motives of actions in terms of empirical evidence because we can only observe the action , not the motive behind it ; "" there is always left the possibility that an egoistic motive had influenced the doer of a just or good action . "" ( BM.16 ) . However most of us are convinced that "" a man often acts justly , simply and solely that no wrong or injustice may be done to another . "" ( BM.16 ) . The people who act in this way are , according to ' people of true integrity ' . Compassion is therefore a truly altruistic act , and if it were n't then what we call morality would be a futile science without any object , like astrology . Self - interested actions destroy all moral worth of an action because it is an act of survival only , but compassion is excluded from self - interested motives ; "" The absence of all egoistic motivation is , therefore , the criterion of an action of moral worth . "" ( BM.16 ) . All of our motivations are caused by our ' weal and woe ' , but compassion causes us to focus solely on the weal and woe of another . How does it cause us to do this ? "" If my action is to be done simply and solely for the sake of another ; then his weal and woe must be directly my motive . "" ( BM.16 ) ; in other words the other person becomes the object of my will ; "" I suffer directly with him . "" ( BM.16 ) . I do not mistake his suffering for my own , I feel his suffering in me . I have suggested that an evolutional account involving the Will could explain that although a mans compassion is real , it is not really altruism , since acting other than for yourself is no motive to act at all ; we are always acting self - interestedly , but not alway egoistically . But our predictions for a theory of compassion were very wrong , and here lives up to his name as a mystic and appeals to thought . Morality can only be examined metaphysically , and compassion is a boundary mark that only metaphysics can overstep . The compassionate person has true metaphysical insight because they can identify with someone elses suffering as if it were their own . They are thus looking beyond the individual to the complete unification . They recognise not only their own individual suffering , but the suffering of mankind , indeed of all life , and they realise that everything expresses the will to life , which "" extends our interest to all that lives , "" ( WWR.66 ) . This new insight into the world shows us that all is one ; we have pierced the veil of and seen beyond the world of representation where individuation acts as a partition . He hails his own ' supreme principle ' of ethics ; "" Injure no - one ; on the contrary , help everyone as much a you can "" ( BM.16.fn20 ) and sees compassion as the highest cardinal virtue , and a virtue of action at that . This is certainly quite a powerful insight and one that influenced many aspects of his thought . One can not help but wonder , however , whether this was just an aspect of his fancy . < fnote > Like 's veil of perception , it is that which separates the noumenal world from the phenomenal world , derived from philosophy . < /fnote > There are several reasons why Schopenahauers compassion seems at best a slight inconsistency in his theory : ( ) Compassion is not and can not be a product of reason , it is a non - cognitive feeling . It is an intuition that we can not express rationally ; "" It is a direct and intuitive knowledge that can not be reasoned away or arrived at by reasoning , "" ( WWR.66 ) . Unlike , thinks you can not derive morality from a theory of abstract reasoning , and compassion is not merely a feeling but a human essence ; a superhuman quality . But the will itself instills in us our intuitions and so would surely be the producer of feelings of compassion . At the same time compassion conflicts with the wills interests of self - preservation . seems to be suggesting something he can not be ; that the will has provided us with a way of overriding it . ( 2 ) Virtue can not be taught , people can only gain knowledge from compassion , but our characters are unalterable . However much we praise compassion , an individual either is or is not compassionate . If it were actually an expression of Will , however , everyone would have the capacity for compassion . Indeed we might say that we observe women to be more compassionate than men . Women are by nature the nurturing sex and so it would be reasonable for them to be more instinctively compassionate . I feel would have difficulty admitting here that it is because women are more knowing and enlightened . ( ) Compassion is sometimes felt , but is not always a motive of action . We might feel sympathy for or pity the beggar on the streets , the plight of the blue cross on an advert might cause us to express an ' awww ' , but we do not act . recognises the difference between feeling and acting by illustrating that the just person feels compassion , and the noble person acts on it . Why should it serve as a motive for some and not others ? It would seem undeniable that there is a special quality to compassion . Whether or not it is governed by the will , or allows us to see beyond the Will , it is the only action in which the agent truly identifies with the subject and believes himself to be acting altruistically . If we are to define a genuine moral motive of action as that which is not egoistic , then I agree with that compassion is eligible . For , however , altruism is real , although I believe it would be more compatible with his theory of the will to hold that the Will is the force behind this apparent altruism , since an action of absolutely no benefit to oneself ( either direct or indirect , conscious or unconscious ) seems absurd or at least ambitious . Whatever the answer , compassion breaks away from egoism and is therefore worthy of the title of a ' genuine moral motive of action ' , just as those who are in love are really and truly in love , whatever the cause of this may be . Compassion is surely the point of unusual optimism for , a twist we never expected . It is truly an enlightening theory from which the great pessimist gives us the greatest surprise .",0 "< heading > Cover Letter for Angel of the Night Jane Murray Hodder Headline Euston Road NW1 3BH 28 th : I enclose a sample chapter of my book . My book is aimed mainly at women aged 20 and above . Detective is recovering from a recent divorce and decides to throw himself into his work . The latest case is of a famous actor who has been brutally murdered in his home . Following a suspicious suspect to , a beautiful and defiant , searches for answers . In this racy thriller , struggles with his growing infatuation with and with his fervent battle for the truth . I can see my book fitting into your imprints , among authors such as and , as my book combines racy crime writing with an element of romance . My work also has the potential to become a serial with my main character Detective . I currently study at university and have had the opportunity to enter into various writing competitions and I have submitted several articles to a local school magazine in . I look forward to hearing from you in the near future . Yours sincerely < heading > Draft Synopsis A famous film star is brutally murdered in his home . has had a long successful acting career and is constantly in the media , being portrayed as being sleazy and womanizing , despite being married . Detective is on the case , still reeling from a recent divorce . Determined and fierce , puts all his energy into the case . He is convinced that the prime suspect is , a woman seen many times in the company of and is rumoured to have been one of his mistresses . But is quickly ticked off the list of suspects , when her alibi proves convincing to the police . 's wife , is being held as the prime suspect and is let off . She travels to as part of a business trip with her brother who is slightly younger than her . follows her there , convinced that there is more to than she 's letting on . He still believes she played a major role in the murder of . appears to be head - strong , defiant and aloof . In , questions repeatedly , and finds that she does n't give any clear answers , and her story constantly changes . He delves into her private life and her history , trying to prove that she had a connection with the murder . He witnesses 's strange relationship with her brother . They have been very close since they were young , when had to look after her brother while their mother worked . They had no father . witnesses 's protectiveness of and so finds it strange when he secretly finds them in heated arguments that he can not understand . On occasion in , feels the tension between and . She tells him it was just an argument about work , but suspects that there 's something going on . then leaves to go back to for , leaving and on their own . Belmayne finds himself slowly drawn to , battling with his conscious about wanting to find the criminal and wanting to fall for her . Meanwhile , 's wife is convincing the police that had something to do with the murder . Scheming and conniving , Clare tells them about 's affair with and how got angry when told her that he would n't leave his wife for her . Clare tells the police that threatened him and Clare and that 's how found out about the affair . News of this reaches and he begins to fiercely interrogate again . meets with a mystery lover in , talking of 's murder and the effect on the media . Meanwhile , travels back to to question . He instantly recognizes 's guile and questions her for hours . When he leaves , he is convinced that he knows who the murderer was . leaves Barbados and arrives back in . After another heated debate with , she is visited by who is acting angry and aggressive . He unravels the case in front of her . He admits to delving into her history and reveals that was and 's real father , which explains 's connection with him . He admits that he knows about 's affair with and the conspiracy to murder her husband , which did himself . He explains why kept altering her stories to confuse the police and protect her brother . kills himself , leaving Clare facing imprisonment . Distraught and helpless , leaves and stays in a country home in . follows her there where they begin to recover from the shock and trauma together . words < heading > > I looked down at his body and felt the bile creeping up my throat . I could smell fresh blood . My body began to convulse . I forced myself to wipe the gun down and frantically stuff it into the back pocket of my jeans . I knew exactly where to put it . I crept closer to the bed and peered over him . A mixture of elation and anguish overwhelmed me . His blood was now soaking into the cream sheets and dripping on to the floor . I stepped back as a small splash of blood almost caught my shoe . I screwed my eyes shut tightly and sent a small prayer up to God . "" Forgive me , "" I whispered . The glossy photograph showed the famous actor spread - eagled on his large poster bed . His face had been gruesomely twisted into the satin sheets which were soaked in blood . There were bullet wounds . in his chest and in his stomach . Detective sighed and looked to the tabloid newspaper spread on his desk . The same looked back at him from a photograph . He was good looking , despite his . He was smiling , his dark eyes shining like wet slate . He was sitting in a swanky restaurant , dressed immaculately in a black pin striped suit . The woman he was with was younger and strikingly beautiful . She was looking into his face , her features twisted in what looked like anger or frustration . Belmayne looked over his desk at the interrogation room where the same woman was being questioned . She still had that aloof , defiant look in her eyes . She caught him looking and held her stare until looked away uncomfortably . He read the article in the tabloid which referred to the woman as 's mistress . It was possible . She was young and beautiful and had been spotted several times with him . She was certainly not the of 's mistresses . He took a sip of his steaming coffee , clutching the cup in his hands and staring at the photograph of a different woman on his desk . She was smiling warmly , her chocolate brown eyes soft and slightly squinted in that way he loved . Her hand was in the middle of flicking strands of hair away from her face . shut his eyes . How had it gone wrong ? A flurry of activity in the interrogation room caught his eye and he stood up , placing his cup of coffee back onto his desk . Chief Inspector walked out of the room and over to . "" She 's clean , "" he said . "" Was spending with a friend . . We 've spoken to her . "" "" She was top of the list , "" protested . "" Her alibi is water tight . "" replied . "" On to the wife . "" watched him walk away and felt eyes boring into the back of his head . He turned swiftly and caught the woman 's eye . She was still sitting in the interrogation room . And she was staring right at him . He did n't waver this time . He stared straight back at her . Her eyes seemed to flicker and then she looked away . He smiled to himself . He definitely noticed fear in her eyes . climbed the stairs of her flat at a time . She clutched the plane tickets tightly to her chest , banishing the memory of that morning from her mind . She fished in her bag for her mobile phone and dialled 's number . It went to answer phone . Swearing under her breath , she turned the key in the lock and slammed the door behind her . She gasped when she noticed her house - sitter sitting with a man in the living room . The same man that was at the police station that morning . stood up unsteadily . "" Sorry Miss . . . the man . . .he with the police . . . "" she stuttered in her accent . The man stood up and pulled his ID from his blazer pocket . "" , "" he offered firmly . nodded at to leave the room . She set her bag down on the floor beside the couches and placed the flight tickets on a nearby table . She remained standing , her hands on her hips . noticed that she looked flushed . Like she had been running . "" What can I do for you detective ? "" she asked , impatiently . "" I just have some questions for you . "" He replied . Her eyes flashed . "" I 've already been questioned . And I was let off . "" "" It wo n't take long Miss . If you could just sit down . "" said . "" I really do n't have the time detective , "" she replied resolutely . "" I have to start packing . "" She walked over to the kitchen , leading off from the living room . Belmayne followed her . The kitchen was bright , the walls adorned with 's prints of coffee shops and café 's . "" I do n't think you can leave the country . "" said , picking up the plane tickets that she had placed on the coffee table . "" Why not ? "" she called from the kitchen . "" I was n't told that I could n't and besides . . . "" she walked out holding a glass of water . "" . . .I have to go . For work . "" looked at her . Her eyes were the colour of whiskey . "" And what is it that you do ? "" he asked , looking down at the tickets , heading for . "" I have my own marketing company . We market hotels in the . "" "" Sounds glamorous . "" "" You 'd think . "" She replied , taking another long swig of water . She raised her eyebrows at him questioningly . She cocked her head slightly , studying the man before her . He was tall , lean , good looking in a clean - cut , boyish sort of way . But his jaw was set , his eyes probing and sharp . And she noticed lines on his forehead . Lines that seemed to have been there a while . "" How did you know ? "" asked , still holding the tickets . sighed loudly and placed the glass of water down on the coffee table , leaving a ring of water on the mahogany wood . "" I 've already answered all of these questions , "" she replied shortly . "" And I 've already said , I do n't have time to answer any more . I 'm leaving for morning with my brother . "" "" Your brother ? "" "" Yes . He works with me . "" nodded and handed her the tickets . "" Sorry for taking up your time Miss . "" He said , making his way towards the door . She nodded stiffly . He turned round before leaving . "" What part of are you going to , Miss ? "" he asked . She frowned . He noticed her lips quiver slightly . "" Christchurch . Why ? "" He smiled . "" Just wondering . "" pushed his gear into reverse . His mind was reeling . She had been shifty . Her eyes were untrusting . There was definitely more to . He made a mental note to look up her brother and cursed when he realised that he had n't asked for his name . As he eased the black from his parking space , his mobile phone began to vibrate in the pocket of his blazer . "" Yes ? "" he answered impatiently . "" , what are you doing ? "" barked into the phone . "" I was questioning . "" He replied . He heard sigh softly . "" What for ? Look , we 're onto , so just forget about and - "" "" , I think this woman is hiding something ! "" protested . "" Forget it Adam , she had an alibi . She did n't kill . "" "" But she might know something . "" breathed heavily into the phone . "" Adam , "" he said , exasperated , "" Just get down here . "" < heading > Synopsis A famous film star is brutally murdered in his home . has had a long successful acting career and is constantly in the media , being portrayed as being sleazy and womanizing , despite being married . Detective is on the case , still reeling from a recent divorce . Determined and fierce , puts all his energy into the case . He is convinced that the prime suspect is , a woman seen many times in the company of and is rumoured to have been one of his mistresses . But is quickly ticked off the list of suspects , when her alibi proves convincing to the police . She was with a friend the night of 's murder 's wife , is being held as the prime suspect and is let off . She travels to as part of a business trip with her brother who is slightly younger than her . She has her own marketing company for hotels in the . follows her there , convinced that there is more to than she 's letting on . He still believes she played a major role in the murder of . appears to be head - strong , defiant and aloof . In , questions repeatedly , and finds that she does n't give any clear answers , and her story constantly changes . He delves into her private life and her history , trying to prove that she had a connection with the murder . He witnesses 's strange relationship with her brother . They have been very close since they were young , when had to look after her brother while their mother worked . They had no father . witnesses 's protectiveness of and so finds it strange when he secretly finds them in heated arguments that he can not understand . On occasion in , feels the tension between and . She tells him it was just an argument about work , but suspects that there 's something going on . then leaves to go back to for , leaving and on their own . Belmayne finds himself slowly drawn to , battling with his conscious about wanting to find the criminal and wanting to fall for her . Meanwhile , 's wife is convincing the police that had something to do with the murder . Scheming and conniving , Clare tells them about 's affair with and how got angry when told her that he would n't leave his wife for her . Clare tells the police that threatened him and Clare and that 's how found out about the affair . News of this reaches and he begins to fiercely interrogate again . meets with a mystery lover in , talking of 's murder and the effect on the media . Meanwhile , travels back to to question . He instantly recognizes 's guile and questions her for hours . When he leaves , he is convinced that he knows who the murderer was . leaves Barbados and arrives back in . After another heated debate with , she is visited by who is acting angry and aggressive . He unravels the case in front of her . He admits to delving into her history and reveals that was and 's real father , which explains 's connection with him . He admits that he knows about 's affair with and the conspiracy to murder her husband , which did himself . He explains why kept altering her stories to confuse the police and protect her brother . kills himself , leaving Clare facing imprisonment . Distraught and helpless , leaves and stays in a country home in . follows her there where they begin to recover from the shock and trauma together . < heading > I looked down at his body and felt the bile creeping up my throat . I could smell fresh blood . My body began to convulse . I forced myself to wipe the gun down and frantically stuff it into the back pocket of my jeans . I knew exactly where to put it . I crept closer to the bed and peered over him . A mixture of elation and anguish overwhelmed me . His blood was now soaking into the cream sheets and dripping on to the floor . I stepped back as a small splash of blood almost caught my shoe . I screwed my eyes shut tightly and sent a small prayer up to God . "" Forgive me , "" I whispered . The glossy photograph showed the famous actor spread - eagled on his large poster bed . His face had been gruesomely twisted into the satin sheets which were soaked in blood . There were bullet wounds . in his chest and in his stomach . Detective sighed and looked to the tabloid newspaper spread on his desk . The same looked back at him from a photograph . He was good looking , despite his . He was smiling , his dark eyes shining like wet slate . He was sitting in a swanky restaurant , dressed immaculately in a black pin striped suit . The woman he was with was younger and strikingly beautiful . She was looking into his face , her features twisted in what looked like anger or frustration . Belmayne looked over his desk at the interrogation room where the same woman was being questioned . She still had that aloof , defiant look in her eyes . She caught him looking and held her stare until looked away uncomfortably . He read the article in the tabloid which referred to the woman as 's mistress . It was possible . She was young and beautiful and had been spotted several times with him . She was certainly not the of 's mistresses . He took a sip of his steaming coffee , clutching the cup in his hands and staring at the photograph of a different woman on his desk . She was smiling warmly , her chocolate brown eyes soft and slightly squinted in that way he loved . Her hand was in the middle of flicking strands of hair away from her face . shut his eyes . How had it gone wrong ? A flurry of activity in the interrogation room caught his eye and he stood up , placing his cup of coffee back onto his desk . Chief Inspector walked out of the room and over to . "" She 's clean , "" he said . "" Was spending with a friend . . We 've spoken to her . "" "" She was top of the list , "" protested . "" Her alibi is water tight . "" replied . "" On to the wife . "" watched him walk away and felt eyes boring into the back of his head . He turned swiftly and caught the woman 's eye . She was still sitting in the interrogation room . And she was staring right at him . He did n't waver this time . He stared straight back at her . Her eyes seemed to flicker and then she looked away . He smiled to himself . He definitely noticed fear in her eyes . climbed the stairs of her flat at a time . She clutched the plane tickets tightly to her chest , banishing the memory of that morning from her mind . She fished in her bag for her mobile phone and dialled 's number . It went to answer phone . Swearing under her breath , she turned the key in the lock and slammed the door behind her . She gasped when she noticed her house - sitter sitting with a man in the living room . The same man that was at the police station that morning . stood up unsteadily . "" Sorry Miss . . . the man . . .he with the police . . . "" she stuttered in her accent . The man stood up and pulled his ID from his blazer pocket . "" , "" he offered firmly . nodded at to leave the room . She set her bag down on the floor beside the couches and placed the flight tickets on a nearby table . She remained standing , her hands on her hips . noticed that she looked flushed . Like she had been running . "" What can I do for you detective ? "" she asked , impatiently . "" I just have some questions for you . "" He replied . Her eyes flashed . "" I 've already been questioned . And I was let off . "" "" It wo n't take long Miss . If you could just sit down . "" said . "" I really do n't have the time detective , "" she replied resolutely . "" I have to start packing . "" She walked over to the kitchen , leading off from the living room . Belmayne followed her . The kitchen was bright , the walls adorned with 's prints of coffee shops and café 's . "" I do n't think you can leave the country . "" said , picking up the plane tickets that she had placed on the coffee table . "" Why not ? "" she called from the kitchen . "" I was n't told that I could n't and besides . . . "" she walked out holding a glass of water . "" . . .I have to go . For work . "" looked at her . Her eyes were the colour of whiskey . "" And what is it that you do ? "" he asked , looking down at the tickets , heading for . "" I have my own marketing company . We market hotels in the . "" "" Sounds glamorous . "" "" You 'd think . "" She replied , taking another long swig of water . She raised her eyebrows at him questioningly . She cocked her head slightly , studying the man before her . He was tall , lean , good looking in a clean - cut , boyish sort of way . But his jaw was set , his eyes probing and sharp . And she noticed lines on his forehead . Lines that seemed to have been there a while . "" How did you know ? "" asked , still holding the tickets . sighed loudly and placed the glass of water down on the coffee table , leaving a ring of water on the mahogany wood . "" I 've already answered all of these questions , "" she replied shortly . "" And I 've already said , I do n't have time to answer any more . I 'm leaving for morning with my brother . "" "" Your brother ? "" "" Yes . He works with me . "" nodded and handed her the tickets . "" Sorry for taking up your time Miss . "" He said , making his way towards the door . She nodded stiffly . He turned round before leaving . "" What part of are you going to , Miss ? "" he asked . She frowned . He noticed her lips quiver slightly . "" Christchurch . Why ? "" He smiled . "" Just wondering . "" pushed his gear into reverse . His mind was reeling . She had been shifty . Her eyes were untrusting . There was definitely more to . He made a mental note to look up her brother and cursed when he realised that he had n't asked for his name . As he eased the black from his parking space , his mobile phone began to vibrate in the pocket of his blazer . "" Yes ? "" he answered impatiently . "" , what are you doing ? "" barked into the phone . "" I was questioning . "" He replied . He heard sigh softly . "" What for ? Look , we 're onto , so just forget about and - "" "" , I think this woman is hiding something ! "" protested . "" Forget it Adam , she had an alibi . She did n't kill . "" "" But she might know something . "" breathed heavily into the phone . "" Adam , "" he said , exasperated , "" Just get down here . ""","Many may ask , what does language have to do with philosophy ? There are , however , many philosophical questions concerning language . What exactly do words mean ? How is language related to the world ? Many philosophers have attempted to answer these questions by positing theories about meaning and language . I will attempt to explore these theories and will conclude if any of them hold water . There are several uses of ' meaning . ' There is meaning as intention , e.g. , ' I did n't mean to hurt you , ' meaning as importance , e.g. , ' You mean a lot to me . ' There is also a difference between linguistic meaning and speaker meaning . Linguistic meaning is what the language means itself . For example , the sentence ' Il pleut , ' means ' it is raining . ' Speaker meaning is what the speaker intends to mean . So if says , ' Il pleut , ' he means ' it is raining . ' Frege was particularly interested in the theory of mediated reference . The reference in a sentence is the thing or person and the sense is the meaning or what the object is presented as . < quote > . . .the meaning of an expression is completely determined by the meaning of the parts , plus the way those parts are ordered. Frege says that sometimes , the nominata or reference of an expression may be the same , but the sense may be different . ' The nominata of "" star "" and "" star "" are the same but not their senses . "" Proper names , such as ' , ' have a reference but no sense . < fnote > Gottlog , F ( ) On Sense and Nominatum . In ( ed ) , ( ) , edition , , : p.200 < /fnote > A.J.Ayer , a logical positivist , believed that metaphysical or religious statements were nonsense . He believed in using reason and scientific explanations . Logical tautologies and observations from experience was paramount in understanding language and the world . The principle of verificationism is founded on the belief that a sentence has meaning if it can be verified . < quote > The principle of verification is supposed to furnish a criterion by which it can be determined whether or not a sentence is literally meaningful . . .a sentence has literal meaning if and only if the proposition it expresses is either analytic or empirically verifiable. A logical tautology is something that is true by definition or analytic . For example , the sentence ' all brothers are male , ' is meaningful as it is analytically verifiable . Ayer differentiates between a strong and weak understanding of ' verifiable . ' < quote > . . .a proposition is said to be verifiable in the strong sense of the term , if its truth could be conclusively established in experience . . .it is verifiable in the weak sense , if it is possible for experience to render it probable . . .. < /quote> Ibid . , p.9 < /fnote > The strong sense , therefore , is verificationism which is dependent on observation and experience , while the weak is through probable hypotheses . There are however , flaws in the principle of verificationism . If we take the proposition , ' there is black crow , ' we would verify this proposition by finding a black crow . If , however , we have the proposition , ' all crows are black , ' we would have to observe all crows and this would be impossible to verify . This would appeal to weak verificationism as it would be highly probable . But it would be a problem for strong verificationists . The principle of verificationism itself can not be verified . Also , we can not verify something unless we know what it means . With some propositions that can not be verified , they can often be falsified . is best associated with the principle of falsifiability . For a proposition to be false , it must , through observation show that it is false . Therefore , the claim ' all crows are black ' can be falsified by finding a white crow . Popper stated that theories which were not falsifiable were simply unscientific . For example , ideology and psychoanalytic theories were not necessarily meaningless , just unscientific . The same problem appears , however , where some claims can be falsified , such as ' all crows are black ' but others , such as ' not all crows are black , ' can not be falsified , but can be verified . < fnote > Popper , K ( 1934)2002 ) . : Routledge p. < /fnote > H.P.Grice distinguished between types of meaning . Natural meaning is meaning as indication , such as ' the bad weather means we shall have to stay inside . ' stated that ' x meant that p and x means that p entail p. "" That is to say that you can not say ' the bad weather means we shall have to stay inside but we sha n't . ' < fnote > Grice , H.P ( ) Meaning . In ( ed ) . ( ) , edition , essay . : < /fnote > Non - natural meaning is meaning that is normally derived from language and with non - natural claims , he states that ' x means that p and x meant that p do not entail p. "" This is to say that if we take one of 's claims , ' those rings on the bell of the bus means that the bus is full , ' we can actually go on to say that ' the conductor actually made a mistake - the bus is not full . "" In short , you can argue with non - natural claims . uses the abbreviation meansNN when speaking about non - natural meaning . < fnote > Ibid . ,p.92 < /fnote> Ibid . , p.94 < /fnote > Grice is predominantly concerned with non - natural meaning and he believed that the meaning of an utterance is in the mind of the speaker and is dependent on the speaker 's intention . < quote > A must intend to induce by x a belief in an audience , and he must also intend his utterance to be recognized as so intended. Therefore , intention is what distinguishes a meaningful act from a meaningless one . If an act produces a meaning , it must have an intention or a reason . Unintentional acts are meaningless . However , there are some uncertainties with 's theory . < quote > I might leave B 's handkerchief near the scene of a murder in order to induce the detective to believe that B was the murderer ; but we should not want to say that my leaving it there meantNN anything or that I had meantNN by leaving it that B was the murderer. Ibid . , p.94 < /fnote > This , therefore raises a problem . may want to induce a belief without wanting anyone to know that they are trying to induce a belief . ' This is n't a case of communication , it 's a case of manipulation . "" Grice tackles this problem by stating that : < fnote , R.J ( ) Philosophical Perspectives on Language . Canada : p.108 < /fnote> For x to have meantNN anything . . . the utterer must have intended an "" audience "" to recognize the intention behind the utterance. , H.P ( ) Meaning . In ( ed ) ( ) , edition , essay . : p.94 < /fnote > Grice goes on to distinguish between different types of non - natural meaning . Speaker meaning is what an individual means on a specific occasion . For example , ' when says "" Il pleut "" he means "" it is raining . "" ' Expression meaning is an utterance which is timeless in that linguistic community . For example , ' the sentence "" Il pleut "" means "" it is raining . "" ' believed that speaker meaning is more fundamental than that of expression meaning . Expression meaning is normally derived from speaker meaning . Speaker meaning , therefore can help us understand expression meaning . < quote > A meantNN by x that so - and - so ( on a particular occasion ) . . .this might reasonably be expected to help us with . . . x meansNN ( timeless ) something Ibid . , < /fnote > There are several objections to 's theory of meaning . Grice bases his theory on the hope that everyone will have complicated intentions : < quote > Even young children , the severely retarded and so on - who , I take it , mean things by the words they utter - are supposedly intending to induce complex beliefs , by getting their audience to recognize their intentions to induce beliefs . . . < /quote> Some people are not always conscious of their intentions . Is putting too big a strain on intentions ? also disregards the fact that many people , particularly academics and scientists , coin words everyday . Therefore , we can to some extent use words to mean anything we want . In the example of Through , the idea of language and utterances being under our own control is conveyed . In the book , Humpty uses words in any way he wishes . < quote > ' When I use a word , ' Humpty Dumpty said , ' it means just what I chose it to mean . . . , L ( ) Through the Looking Glass . Retrieved on from the World Wide Web : URL < /fnote > The idea behind Humpty 's thesis is that we can all control how we utter words or phrases ; we can do what we want with language . However , surely this will create problems when trying to communicate in language . < quote > ' Oh ! ' said . She was much too puzzled to make any other remark. Ibid < /fnote > This shows that Humpty can not be understood and communication is practically impossible . Therefore , he can not ignore expression meaning . The stance that takes is that all meaning is psychological and it lies in the mind . However , surely there can be other sources of meaning . Linguistic externalism considers the concept of meaning outside of the mind . argued against linguistic internalism and claimed that what our words refer to does not depend on our psychological state . < quote > Meaning . . .is not a function of the psychological state of the speaker. Putnam , H ( 1973 ) Meaning and Reference . In ( ed ) ( ) , edition , . : p.288 < /fnote > Putnam looks at the extension and intension of a word or utterance . Extension is the thing that a word actually refers to . For instance , the extension of water is the liquid . The intension is almost like a list of characteristics . For example , water is something that can freeze , it can fall from the sky etc < quote > What the intension does is to specify how the extension depends on the possible world . It thus represents what we are interested in . . . < /quote> Putnam , H ( ) . : < /fnote > Some words have an intension but no extension . For example the ' Tooth Fairy . ' To know what this means is to know its intension . We may try to describe what its extension might be . For instance , it may have long blonde hair , she might fly etc . Therefore , extension is a type of descriptivism . Putnam tackles the question , ' are meanings in the head ? ' with his Twin Earth Thought experiment . He imagines that there is a planet called , which is identical to earth , However , the chemical structure of water on is more complex . Rather than H2O , it is . < quote > XYZ is indistinguishable from water at normal temperatures and pressures . . .if a space ship from ever visits , then the supposition at will be that ' water ' has the same meaning on and . This supposition will be corrected when it is discovered that ' water ' on is . . . Putnam , H ( 1973 ) Meaning and Reference . In ( ed ) ( ) , edition , . : p.289 < /fnote > What Putnam is trying to portray is that a word can be used differently on each planet , even though the mental state and intentions of the inhabitants of each planet are the same . Therefore , there is more to meaning than intention and mental states . < quote > One might concede that the reference of a person 's term is n't fixed by his individual mental state , but insist that the total mental state of all the members of the language community fixes the reference of the term. Putnam , H ( ) . : p.24 < /fnote > What the Twin Earth theory is supposed to show , is that our intentional states are dependent on the environment in a more fundamental way . objected to theory . argues that many chemicals such as chlorine have kinds of isotopes , but when we refer to chlorine , we are not just referring to kind . Why ca n't the same be done for water ? Perhaps , then , does not see water as a natural kind term . < quote > The obvious lesson is that the idea of a natural kind term , as used by essentialists like , is not very well defined. Indexical terms are known to fix references and treats natural kind terms , such as water as indexical terms . It is , therefore , a ' rigid designator . "" Crane finds this problematic : < fnote > Ibid . , p.13 < /fnote> Putnam concludes that ' water ' works something like ' I ' in picking out different substances in relevantly different contexts . However , even if we accept that is not water , this claim is incorrect . . . if ' water ' is a rigid designator then ' water ' as used on is a mere homonym of ' water ' as used on . . .indexicals have a constant meaning . . .so if water is genuinely indexical then water must have a constant meaning . . .this is inconsistent with the Twin Earth argument. Ibid . , pp . - 14 < /fnote > Crane concludes that can not show us much about intentional states . All accounts of meaning have their strengths and weaknesses . 's concept of meaning and intention is plausible if one wants to disregard the importance of non - cognitive factors . The same problem arises with 's theory of linguistic externalism . In my opinion , I find the theory of verificationism to be the most plausible . The concept of using empiricism and logic dates all the way back to Hume , who also believed in analytic and verifiable observations . Although may object to verificationism with the argument that only some claims can be verified while others can only be falsified ( ' there are no white crows ' ) , the objection will only work if we take a strong reading of verification . We can not disregard weak verificationism . Although some may argue that the theory only refers to descriptive language or material things , logical positivists such as address meaning in a restricted sense . < quote > I propose to say that a statement is directly verifiable if it is either itself an observation - statement . . . < /quote> Ayer . A.J ( ) Language , Truth and Logic , edition : p.13 < /fnote > The same objections are also made about the theory of falsifiability . However , it will never discount words or utterances as meaningless , but rather simply unscientific . This is a much more flexible account of meaning .",1 "< abstract> Abstract Mitochondrial myopathies in particular those that are situated in the cytochrome b of the bc1 complex , exacerbate free - radical damage by enhancing superoxide production . Superoxide damage to DNA and protein is a major contributing factor in many diseases of old age . Thus an understanding of the structure and mechanism of the complex is central to our understanding of the aging process . The mechanism of the Q - cycle will be discussed , then that of the structure of the mammalian cytochrome bc1 complex . Finally the evidence for the movement and function of the iron sulphur protein will be discussed with reference to the Q - cycle < /abstract> Introduction Cytochrome bc1 is the of the proton pumps located in the respiratory chain . Located in the inner mitochondria , the complex catalyses electron transfer from ubiquinol to cytochrome c by a proton motive Q - cycle mechanism , in which electron transfer is linked to proton translocation across the inner mitochondrial membrane.1 Thus the complex contributes to the generation of the electrochemical proton gradient that subsequently drives synthesis as well as ion and metabolite transport.2 Mitochondrial myopathies especially those that are situated in the cytochrome b of the bc1 complex , exacerbate free - radical damage by enhancing superoxide production at the Qo site.3 The production of the ubisemiquinone anion is an unavoidable intermediate of the Q - cycle . Molecular oxygen has access to the ubisemiquinone anion located at the Qo site ; there is a finite chance that it may donate its electron to O 2 rather than bL therefore forming a superoxide anion . These superoxides are capable of causing oxidative damage to the surrounding DNA and protein this is a major contributing factor in many diseases of old age . Thus an understanding of the mechanism of the bc1 complex is central to our understanding of the aging process.3,4 < heading > The Q - cycle Mechanism Ubiquinone is a quinine derivative with a long isoprenoid tail , the number of isoprenoid units depends on the species e.g. mammals contain isoprene units . Quinones can exist in oxidation states ( Figure ) ; electron transfer reactions are coupled to proton binding and release a feature key to cytochrome bc1.5 ( Q ) and ubiquinol ( QH ) exist in the inner mitochondrial membrane in large molar excess over that of other components of the respiratory chain.4 < picture/>The mode of function of cytochrome bc1 is best described by considering consecutive single turnovers of the enzyme.2 In the turnover a molecule of ubiquinol from this bulk pool is oxidised at the Q o site near the P - side of the inner mitochondrial membrane in a concerted reaction . electron is conveyed to the iron - sulphur cluster yielding a ubisemiquinone anion , which reduces the cytochrome The iron - sulphur cluster oscillates to within electron transfer distance of cytochrome c therefore facilitating the transfer of an electron form iron sulphur cluster to c 1 haem which is then transferred to cytochrome c.1 The reduced cytochrome c molecule is now free to diffuse away from the enzyme . The electron is transferred from the ubisemiquinone anion to cytochrome and then to bH and finally to a bound ubiquinone bound at the Q i site reducing it to a ubisemiquinone anion . As ubiquinol is at the Q o site is oxidised to ubiquinone protons are released to the cytoplasmic side ; the ubiquinone in the Q o site then diffuses back into the ubiquinone / ubiquinol pool ( Figure : In the turnover a molecule of ubiquinol binds to the Qo site and the Qo site reactions are repeated.2 The ubiquinol is oxidised , of the electrons is conveyed through the iron sulphur cluster to cytochrome c1 which reduces a molecule of cytochrome c. As before a ubisemiquinone anion is formed in at the Qo site . further protons are deposited on the cytoplasmic side through the oxidation of ubiquinol . The electron is transferred from the ubisemiquinone anion to cytochrome and then to bH and finally to the bound ubisemiquinone anion at the Q i site . Upon the addition of this electron , the ubisemiquinone anion takes up protons from the matrix to form ubiquinol . The removal of these protons from the matrix contributes to the formation of the proton gradient ( Figure < picture/>After complete turnovers of cytochrome bc1 , molecules of QH have been oxidised at the Qo site to form molecules of Q and molecule of Q is reduced to QH . molecules of cytochrome c are reduced , protons are released in the cytoplasmic side and protons are removed form the mitochondrial matrix.5 ( Equation : ) FORMULA Equation:1 5 < heading > Evidence for a Bifurcated Mechanism of QH2 Oxidation Initial evidence of a bifurcated mechanism of ubiquinol oxidation lies in the observation that oxidation of cytochrome c and cytochrome c1 led to the reduction of haem and haem bH. This observation of an oxidant - induced reduction of haem b is illogical when considered in a linear mechanism not that of a bifurcated The bifurcated mechanism of ubiquinol oxidation was experimentally illustrated by examining the pre - steady state reduction of the cytochromes when the iron sulphur protein was removed from the cytochrome bc1 complex . Removal of the iron - sulphur protein from the bc1 complex blocked the reduction of cytochrome c1 but not the reduction of cytochrome b. However the addition of antimycin an inhibitor that binds to the Q i site blocks the reduction of both cytochromes b and c1 . Thus the iron sulphur protein is required for c1 reduction through the normal mechanism . The b - cytochromes can be reduced by an iron sulphur protein independent pathway which is a reversal of the normal mechanism through the site which is inhibited by antimycin.6,7 Additional evidence for the Q - cycle was obtained using specific inhibitors for either the Q o or the Q i site.7 < heading > Structure of Cytochrome bc1 complex The cytochrome bc1 complex is a homodimeric , multisubunit membrane complex comprising of protein subunits of which contain redox active prosthetic groups.2 The complex of the monomers has a two fold axis of symmetry that runs vertically between the monomers.8 The overall shape of the bc1 complex dimer from a bovine mitochondrial described below is similar to that of a chicken complex ( Figure : ) . The dimmer extends from the membrane 75Å into the matrix space and into the intermembrane region on either side of a transmembrane region 42Å thick thus giving a total length of perpendicular to the membrane.9 < picture/>The subunits which form the catalytic core of the enzyme are as follows : subunit which contains a [ 2Fe2S ] cluster non - covalently liganded to the protein through cysteines and histidines ; cytochrome b which contains haem groups held together through non - covalent interactions between bis histidine residues ; cytochrome c1 which contains a haem c group in contrast to cytochrome b they are covalently attached to the protein by thiol ether linkages to cysteines . The cytochrome bc1 complex contains active sites , for ubiquinol oxidation ( Q o ) and the one for ubiquinone reduction ( Q i).2,5,6 < picture/>The topographical arrangement of the electron transfer protein subunits in the cytochrome bc1 complex are as follows . Cytochrome b is a transmembrane protein with transmembrane helices , with the haem located near the P surface of the membrane and the haem bH located towards the side of the membrane . The redox potential of the haem bH is approximately 60 - 120mV more positive than that of haem , this difference facilitates electron transfer from to the haem bH even though there is an opposing membrane potential.6,7 c1 and the protein are located on the P side of the complex where both are anchored to the core of the complex by single transmembrane helices ; their catalytic domains are located in the intermembrane space(Figure : Structural analysis of the bc1 - inhibitor complexes reveals separate inhibitor binding pockets , located at opposite sides of the membrane for Qo and Q i site inhibitors.9 The Qo site is located on the P - side of the inner mitochondrial membrane while Q i site is located on that of the N - side of the outer mitochondrial membrane ; both sites are located at the border of the hydrophobic core of the complex ( Figure : 4).1 < heading > Superoxide production at the Qo site Molecular oxygen has access to the Q o site and so there is a finite chance that the ubisemiquinone intermediate will donate its electrons to oxygen rather than forming a superoxide . The superoxide is capable of causing oxidative damage to the mitochondrion and the cell . The oxidation of the ubisemiquinone intermediate at the Qo site is dependent on the passage of an electron across the membrane via the b cytochromes . At high ΔΨ this translocation is retarded therefore increasing the occupancy of the Q o site by the ubisemiquinone anion and enhancing the chance of superoxide production.4 < heading > Cytochrome bc1 complex functions as a dimer From structural analysis of bc1 complexes it not only shows dimeric association but also suggest that the dimmer is in fact functional . The evidence for this hypothesis lays within its structure , in particular structural features . the distance between the haems in the symmetrically related monomers is equal to that of that of the distance between and bH monomers suggesting that electron transfer between the haems of the dimmer is energetically feasible . the globular domain of the protein of monomer interacts with the Qo site and the cytochrome c1 in the other.1,9 the dimeric cytochrome bc1 complex forms symmetrically related cavities in the membrane spanning region . Each monomer contains both Q i and Q o sites however they are unable to interact , however each cavity between the monomers connects Q o site of monomer to the Q i site of the other . This would allow the reduced ubiquinone at Q i site of monomer to be oxidised at the Q o site of the other monomer without having to leave the bc1 complex and without having to equilibrate with the quinone pool . Thus these internal transfers would increase the efficiency of the complex since it would reduce the entries and exits of ubiquinone and ubiquinol from and to the bulk pool . This is consistent with the fact that mole of ubiquinone per mole of c1 is sufficient for maximal activity of electron transfer in an isolated complex.4,9 < heading>[2Fe2S ] domain movement in cytochrome bc1 From X - ray crystallographic studies of cytochrome bc1 it was discovered that the iron sulphur protein occurs in several different conformations depending on the crystal form and the presence of Qo site inhibitors . In native bovine crystals only a small intensity anomalous signal for 2Fe-2S was found to haem indicating that the majority of the iron sulphur protein was to conformationally mobile to be observed in X - ray studies of cytochrome bc1 in the presence of the inhibitor stigmatellin , which is thought to bind to the cluster and mimic a reaction intermediate subunit is in a fixed conformation proximal to the haem ( called the b state ) . In the presence of inhibitors such as myxothiazol or methoxy - acrylates which are thought to displace Q or QH 2 at the Q o site without directly interacting with the cluster . subunit is released from this fixed In the absence of any inhibitors the Fe - S subunit can be found in a conformation with 2Fe-2S close the cytochrome c1 , called the c1 state ( Figure A novel shuttle mechanism for the iron sulphur protein has been proposed . It is based on these structural studies and the evidence from the Q - cycle and that of the structure of the bc1 complex before the movement of the iron sulphur protein was detected . The details of this evidence which pointed towards the movement of the iron sulphur protein is described below . < picture/>The Q - cycle described previously , explains how the electron from the QH oxidation flows to the iron - sulphur cluster but fails to suggest why the electron fails to follow the same route . The electron takes the less thermodynamically favourable route [ redox midpoint potential E m ( , bH ) < < E m ( , c1 ) ] . The path of this electron through the cytochrome bH and its translocation across the membrane is critical for the formation of a ΔΨ across it.2 The distance between and bH is that of 21Å and between and cluster , given that ubiquinol is bound between and cluster then the observed fast electron transport rates can be accounted for . However the distance and cluster is 31Å which is too great to account for the large electron transfer rate between the redox centres.9 < heading > Mobility of the Catalytic Rieske domain through a hinge region < /heading > Comparison of various crystallographic data indicates that movement of the cluster domain indicates the presence of a flexible ' hinge ' region that connects the fixed membrane anchor to that of the cluster domain.10 Applying mutations to this hinge region in microbial species such as R.capsulatus the effects on enzyme function have been investigated ( ) . Shortening the hinge region has little effect , however increased flexibility and length is deleterious . Proline substitutions decreased its flexibility , cysteine residues formed disulphide bonds both of which greatly reduced the activity of the complex . Thus one can conclude that an optimum in hinge length and flexibility is critical for an efficient and functionally bc1 complex.2 < table/>If the Q i site is blocked , electrons in the low potential chain are unable to flow back to the high potential chain suggesting that the motion of subunit is not that of free diffusion but rather a controlled process.2 From crystallographic inhibitor studies with and it has been suggested that there are transient binding quinone binding sites at the Qo site . reduces the mobility of and binds to a site close to at a sight designated P1 , while the inhibitor MOAS increases the mobility of and binds to a site close to bL haem designated P2.9 The conformational changes in the Qo site are thought to be conveyed to the by the loop , evidence for this lies in X - ray crystallographic studies of famoxadone . The loop is thought to convey these conformational changes to the crater and neck contact domain therefore resulting in the capture or release of the ISP.7 < heading > Function and Movement of the Iron Sulphur protein < /heading > Ubiquinol enters the Qo site and binds to the P1 site , the is in the b state conformation . The oxidised state of the cluster of the protein is close to the surface of the protein and is held in position by electrostatic interactions with amino acid residues close to the Qo site . Ubiquinol becomes oxidised and proton is released followed by the transfer of electron to the . Upon accepting this electron the cluster becomes reduced therefore the strength of these stabilising interactions reduces . The protein dissociates and rotates through so that the same conserved docking surface of the protein that interacted with the cytochrome b now interacts with cytochrome c1 ( b).8 After the proton is released the ubisemiquinone radical relocates and occupies P2 site , this is also thought to enhance the dissociation of the . The dissociation of the prevents the electron from being conveyed to the , since the distance ( ~16.4Å ) between the Qo site and the is too great for electron transfer.8 Thus the electron is transferred to the and then to the bH haem possibly causing a conformational change in cytochrome b , which results in the release of the reduced to a position closer to cytochrome c1 where it can transfer its electron . X - ray crystallographic studies have shown positions rather than just . transfer to the haem of cytochrome c1 occurs , the cluster becomes reduced and so does its affinity towards cytochrome c1 , thus the protein dissociates and moves back towards the Qo site ( figure 6).4,9 < picture/> Reaction between cytochrome bc1 and cytochrome c Cytochrome c is a small water soluble haem protein that transfers electrons from the bc1 complex to cytochrome c oxidase by a diffusional shuttle mechanism . The electron transfer between that of reduced bc1 complex and cytochrome c is that of a reactant complex in which cytochrome c12 + transfers an electron to cytochrome c3 + resulting in the release of the product : cytochrome c2 + which is free to diffuse to cytochrome c oxidase.7 < heading > The Importance of the Fe - S subunit movement The movement of subunit is critical for the electron bifurcation of the Q o site , since it ensures that the electron from QH oxidation does not follow the thermodynamically favourable path i.e. to bL rather than the iron sulphur protein.2 The speed of domain motion appears to occur between functional limits to ensure productive electron bifurcation at the Qo site ( Figure : ) . Through kinetics studies the movement of domain is not the rate limiting step for the cytochrome bc1 complex but is required for catalytic activity . Slowing the movement of domain to just less than the normal rate of Qo site catalysis k cat , compromises the enzymes turnover and the rate of physiological growth.10 Excessively rapid movement of subunit has been calculated to result in the short circuiting of the low potential electron transfer chain and thus the decrease in the energetic efficiency of the complex ( Figure).2,10 movement also permits the large electron transfer rates observed between and which would not be facilitated by a soluble electron carrier such as cytochrome c.2 < picture/> Concluding Remarks The Cytochrome bc1 complex transfers electrons from ubiquinol to cytochrome c and links electron transfer to the translocation of protons across the membrane via a mechanism called the Q - cycle . From X - ray crystallographic studies of cytochrome bc1 it has been proposed that the iron sulphur protein undergoes a large conformational change , which facilitates the rapid transfer of electrons from ubiquinol bound at the Q o site to cytochrome c. A link between the conformational changes at the ubiquinol binding site and that of the movement of the iron sulphur protein has been discovered , and this is thought to be involved in the bifurcated oxidation of ubiquinol . The structure of the complex has provided great insight into its mechanistic features such as the bifurcated oxidation of ubiquinol . A greater understanding of the structure of the bc1 complex is enabling the mechanisms of the Q - cycle and the prevention of superoxide production at the Qo site to be understood in greater detail .","In negotiating the post - war political landscape of , the western powers revealed an ambiguous attitude . Although historians still disagree on whether diplomatic misunderstandings between the allies of the east and west eventually caused the emergence of a cold war , or whether a gradual loss of influence in countries was the reason for its outbreak , the - hearted commitment to their self - proclaimed defense of liberal democratic principles such as democracy and regional stability prompted disillusioned contemporaries to see the allied settlement of as again one of unprincipled compromise and appeasement . As former Prime Minister in exile wrote : ' we were sacrificed by our allies , and . < fnote > , in the Twentieth Century - And After ( / , ) , p. . < /fnote> Stanisław Mikołajczyk , . Patterns of Soviet Agression ( , ) , p. viii . < /fnote > Nonetheless , had full intentions to prevent the re - emergence of any great power on the continent . The reasons for the western allies ' failure to prevent the communisation of must be sought in the complex and antagonistic diplomatic relations between the camps of the grand alliance . Whereas the mistrusted intentions , believed until the end in the possibility of a peaceful settlement with regard to claims to "" national security "" in . By pursuing this policy , downplayed the ideological difficulties underlying the matter . Optimistically , he believed in the compatibility of free and democratic elections in neighbouring states , and the natural emergence of ' governments which would maintain friendly relations with . The incompatibility of these principles caused the to deal with the ideological justification of a possible settlement in somewhat abstract terms , believing a favourable outcome would eventually justify such agreements as made with the . 's underestimation of expansionism ultimately rendered an agreement on made at the conference ' so elastic that the can stretch it all the way from to without technically breaking it ' . < fnote > John Lewis Gaddis , We Know Now . ( , ) , p. . < /fnote> Ibid , p. . < /fnote> , The Origins of ( / , ) , p. . < /fnote> Caroline , 's . strategies in , to ( , ) , pp . . < /fnote> Walter Lafeber , , , and , ( , ) , p. . < /fnote > Britain , too , found itself in a difficult moral position between its mid - war pledges to the government that ' "" His Majesty 's Government do not recognize any territorial changes which have been effected in since "" ' , and the maintenance of allied unity , which eventually involved some concessions to as to territorial and political claims in . The 's insistence on territorial expansion in , , northern and , besides the incorporation of eastern up to the line were thereafter verified at in and at in . Most likely , 's infamous percentages deal with in only reaffirmed 's conviction that he was allowed a free hand in territories based merely on unprincipled Realpolitik . However , opposition to these concessions grew . , who had all along protested ' that we were only asking for a return to the prewar status quo ' resigned , while in Senator , in , ' looked at through the lens of and did not like what he saw ' . Thus , and the western powers gradually maneuvered into a bipolar power structure . < fnote > Mikołajczyk , The Rape of , p. - 7 . < /fnote> Lewis Gaddis , We Know Now , p. . < /fnote> Mikołajczyk , The Rape of , p. . < /fnote> McCauley , The Origins of , p. . < /fnote > Despite the apparently systematic usurpation of power in countries by , it must be borne in mind that hardly foresaw the full course of events . Often , he acted upon situations as he was confronted with them . It has , therefore , been argued that ' Stalinisation was a process , not a plan ' . Intrinsically mistrustful , concealed much of his intentions , convincing the for a long time that subscribed to a free , unified . The disparities between open and concealed policy at times took immense and grotesque proportions . Hence , when the , in , unveiled a mass grave of officers at , murdered upon 's orders , he denied all allegation and seized the opportunity to break diplomatic relations with the government - in - exile upon inquiries from President . Moreover , the - sponsored provisional government in was ordered to break its links with the loyalist underground ( AK ) . < fnote , , p. . < /fnote> Lafeber , , , and , p. . < /fnote> and , in ( , ) , p. . < /fnote > Acting from a conviction that any liberated territory immediately became of concern solely for the liberating nation , eventually resorted to unilateral action to reinforce its sphere of influence . However , ' [ t]he brutality and cynicism with which [ ] handled these matters did more than anything to exhaust the goodwill the war effort had accumulated in the West ' . The replacement of the government in by the - supported , communist government , but more strongly , ongoing practices to consolidate power in in appeared ' to and deliberately to violate the agreement ' . Cynicism about the possibility of a settlement with eventually caused the alliance to break before the end the war . < fnote > Lewis Gaddis , We Know Now , p. . < /fnote> McCauley , The Origins of , p. . < /fnote> Lewis Gaddis , We Know Now , p. . < /fnote> McCauley , The Origins of , p. . < /fnote > 's interpretation of ' governmental authorities broadly representative of all democratic elements ' was , from the western viewpoint , indeed a curious one . Toward the end of the war , , defying the "" London "" , backed the establishment of a new interim government , while , started to build for ' a security apparatus which was already showing disturbing signs of independence from the government and which was , in fact , effectively controlled by the ' advisers ' within it ' . < fnote > Kennedy - Pipe , 's , p. . < /fnote> Polansky and , p. . < /fnote> Ibid , p. . < /fnote > In , however , the claims to governmental supremacy went by no means uncontested . The loyalist was still 's largest organised resistance movement , and , uncertain about the committee 's loyalty , made a separate agreement with another communist faction based in , , which he , according to , ' had organised earlier as an instrument of his plans for postwar ' . , the balance of power shifted further in favour of , by the failing uprising , which meant ' the end of the independent left - wing alternative to the ' . < fnote > Mikołajczyk , The Rape of , p. . < /fnote> Anita J. Prazmowska , ' of and the Left , , in and ( eds . ) , and in , ( / , ) , p. . < /fnote > With the crushing of ' the leadership of the historic political forces and their military infrastructure ' in , communisation now became only a matter of time . In signed a treaty of friendship with ; in a delegation of prominent politicians , among whom the government delegate of the government in exile , and the commander of ( ) were trapped in a meeting and deported to to face accusations of conspiring against . < fnote , , p. . < /fnote> McCauley , The Origins of , p. . < /fnote> These developments were signs of the establishment of a interim government existing solely by the grace of . At this time , however , was still by no means a neatly communised , country , nor was it accepted to be so by the western powers . The post - war political programmes of the committee and still revealed rather divergent political agendas . Moreover , despite a domination of committee ministers in the cabinet , the communists still saw a necessity of including oppositionists in the government . The return to of in had halted , at least for the time being , an effective total usurpation of the body politic by communists . Even by , 's was , with its members , 's largest political party . < fnote > Polansky and , p. . < /fnote> Up to this point , we have primarily looked at the situation in , which , for many western politicians , had become ' the test case of intentions ' . Nevertheless , the communisation of other countries happened quite differently , depending on the internal political situation as well as the national state of affairs in the international context at the close of the war . A basis for further negotiation was laid in with 's percentages deal with , in which , among other things , the balance of influence in was to be divided on a basis . However , too much has been made of these negotiations . As has been pointed out , in discussions following up on these divisions , and foreign ministers and Molotov were unable to reach an eventual agreement which satisfied both demands . As mentioned before , saw communisation much as a process of opportunities , and in , the influence of was ' paramount from the outset ' . Paradoxically , however , it was 's caution to avoid alarming the western powers that saw the construction of a compromise government , although on favourable terms for the communists . In , an acting regency was agreed , consisting of ' members , , , and one [ who ] , though non - communists , were all nominees of ' . even managed to convince to add support to 's provisional government , despite its earlier overt hostilities to ' the imperialists ' back in . The support helped the communists to strengthen their power base at the expense of the exile government . With the help of , they ' dispersed , disarmed , or forced the exodus of 's forces from ' , thus gaining access to actual power in the body politic . Moreover , ' the communists , though they might share government [ in a coalition ] , would not share power ' . Although it was now ' but a short step to the formalisation of the communist takeover ' , this meant by no means that this happened firmly under 's direction . had retreated from territory , and , though deferential to , ' had formed views of his own and had no hesitation in expressing them , even when they contradicted those of himself ' . < fnote > Lafeber , , , and , p. . < /fnote> Stephen Clissold ( ed . ) , and . A documentary survey ( , , Toronto,1975 ) , p. . < /fnote> Clissold ( ed . ) , and , p. . < /fnote> Clissold ( ed . ) , and , p. . < /fnote> Ivan Avakumovic , History of . Volume ( Aberdeen , ) , p. . < /fnote> Clissold ( ed . ) , and , p. . < /fnote> Ibid . , p. . < /fnote> Clissold ( ed . ) , and , p. . < /fnote > The postwar dealings with were quite different . Although it has been argued that ' as well as and miscalculated when they assumed that there could be friendly states along an expanded periphery ' , leader in exile certainly tried , and temporarily managed , to come to some agreement with . He ' spoke openly of a "" solution "" that would exchange internal autonomy for control over foreign and military policy ' . was not unjustified in his calculations of the postwar situation in the area . Although had repeatedly argued for a speeded advance eastwards beyond the western zone of occupation to liberate and prevent from falling within the sphere of influence , general declined , arguing that he ' refused to risk casualties for ' purely political reasons '' . Directly upon the liberation of in , interests were secured . The communists within the country were thereafter ' in a strong position for a seizure of power ' , but told their leader to ' "" work with , reach an agreement with him , accept him as president . "" ' . Fearing that an immediate communist takeover would only work counterproductively by concentrating anti - communist factions around the democratic person of , they decided to negotiate the terms of a new government on a broader base until the right time would appear to assume power . , from his side , hoped that the inclusion of communist factions in the cabinet would result in a strengthened democratic system , ' with the blessing of . < fnote > Lewis Gaddis , We Know Now , p. . < /fnote> Ibid . , p. . < /fnote> Ibid . , p. . < /fnote> , . , ) , p. . < /fnote> Korbel , , p. . < /fnote > This policy turned out to be only one of buying time . Despite the relative moderateness and tolerance of 's communists , continued to press for further advances to communisation . Due to an initial underestimation of interests in by the , the military means of interference were lost when the communists eventually seized power in without any direct justification . < fnote , , p. . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . - 9 . < /fnote > The various examples of reveal a diverse range of political situations in the period running up to . In the case , 's hopes for a post - war accommodation with the government were abandoned already in , while in the case , ' immense popularity prevented the from bluntly by - passing its exiled government . The situation was yet different , with a political climate in which the communist party directly and almost naturally dominated the new government . Nonetheless , 's power of government was not immediately and unconditionally recognised by , which is telling of 's opportunism in his efforts to shape into a system in which communisation dominated . < fnote > Polansky and , p. . < /fnote> Meanwhile , goodwill for intentions in the west gradually deteriorated until the alliance eventually collapsed . A turning point in diplomacy directed toward the west can be noted around and , while an increasing number of liberals were becoming disenchanted with and its attitude . After an initial willingness to cooperate , a number of unbridgeable disagreements increasingly turned - Western relations into an ideological conflict , epitomised by words to Molotov in their meeting , ' Carry out your agreements and you wo n't get talked to like that ' . < fnote > Kennedy - Pipe , 's , p. . < /fnote> Lafeber , , , and , p. . < /fnote> McCauley , The Origins of , p. . < /fnote > May 1945 saw the beginnings of a realisation that unilateral activities in had to be confronted . However , whilst had already been active with his communisation plans as territories were being liberated , the administration still resisted the harsher line held by the around . The communisation of happened step by step ; yet most countries , in , faced a deteriorating , yet not hopeless democratic climate , with strong oppositions counterweighing against communist aspirations . The late recognition and reluctance to take responsibility of the may thus have been the deciding factor in the eventual communisation of the countries in . < fnote > Kennedy - Pipe , 's , p. . < /fnote >",0 "Both of my informants have similar backgrounds , they are middle class , young and white ( please see Appendix 1 for information on informants ) . Informant one is a psychology student and so I think she is already aware of the concept of gender and the fact that it is a socially constructed idea . Informant was less aware of what the term gender meant , but he did say that when he was younger his dad used to push him into gender - specific activities such as sport . A common theme in their answers is that they both have a sociobiologist view of gender . who coined the term ' sociobiology ' ( now sometimes referred to as ' evolutionary psychology ' ) ( , , p.31 ) is where males and females use their traits prescribed to them by society , ( aggression and a caring nature respectively ) , to survive . Informant spoke of this when she said that women use their sexuality to get ahead , "" I 've done it "" she said and "" would be very surprised if a woman has n't "" . She does n't just mean in competition for jobs and such , but it can be in a bar where she might flirt to get a drink . She also notes the external pressures on gender order saying that girls ' play up ' their role , i.e. needing protection around members of the opposite sex . Informant believes that men do it too . He believes that because he is captain of the cricket club that he can use his status to make others conform to his commands as an authoritative male . They further backed up a sociobiologist approach when asked about what gender they would choose if they could at birth . Surprisingly , informant one said she would want to be a man . When prompted why she said , "" I want a willy ! "" but more seriously she replied it was because men have an easier life than females and have more choices and have less expectations of themselves and from others . I believe her thoughts can be attributed to the patriarchal dividend ( , , p.142 ) which gives advantage to men in the unequal gender order which is still present in our society . Informant said he would choose to be a male stating "" Women are never satisfied "" . He thinks he has the ability to fit in with different people at different times . Here hegemonic masculinity is shown . Informant changes to fit in with his surroundings thus giving him the best position in all situations . He tells me that he plays up his ' gender role ' as a male when he is at his student house of boys , referring to himself as "" one of the lads "" . It is interesting that he plays up his gender competence in front of other males . This might be because he wants to show he is a ' real man ' and not sensitive as this is what our culture praises ; in a sense it is a gendered performance . Informant one said that she was always aware of her gender identity , for example , when travelling she was very safety conscious and believes this is a "" weakness of being a woman "" . Later , she said that she would prefer it if her husband earned more than her as it is her wish to be a stay - at - home mother , caring for her children . Therefore , both have demonstrated an unaware conforming to character dichotomies such as being tough - minded in the case of informant and nurturing in the case of informant one . ( , , p.40 ) Both have prescribed to gender ' appropriate ' behaviour and qualities ( , week 2 , lecture notes ) . However much I probed my informants for ' juicy ' information I found that it was really hard for them to say anything shocking or what I did n't already think I knew about them . I believe this is because of . is where , ' individual behaviours may be altered because they know they are being studied ' ( , ) i.e. they gave appropriate answers because they were aware that I was studying gender . This was shown when informant contradicted himself . I asked him about salaries and how women 's average income , world - wide can be of men 's ( , , p.2 ) . He said that both women and men should be paid equally if they did equal jobs . He also said it would not worry him if his partner earned more than him but later said that he would want to be the main breadwinner of the household even if in the same position as a partner . In conclusion , both of my informants stressed throughout their interviews that men and women have different strengths and weaknesses so it is hard for either to judge the other . I believe they have post - structuralist views regarding the importance of culture being integral to meaning in 's western countries . Word count : words .","Victorian notions of women 's madness were largely influenced by ; paramount during in defining gender roles , responsibilities and acceptable behaviour . This primarily concerned the middle classes , establishing ideals of womanhood and femininity that were arguably damaging both to those directly targeted as well as other groups within Victorian society striving to emulate the middle class depiction of morality , sobriety and modesty . At the same time , the notion of madness as a disease was becoming increasingly apparent within Victorian society , further highlighting gender and class divisions through varying perceptions of madness and its origins . Whilst there were significant implications in terms of gender , this essay will mainly deal with the effects of social class on women 's experience of madness in . , it is important to understand that madness , in all its various forms , was seen as a female illness . Femininity became inextricably linked with hysteria , along with neurasthenia and anorexia nervosa . The main reasoning for this is to be found in the prevailing misogynistic understanding of female sexuality in . Women were viewed as emotionally unstable as a result of the functions of their reproductive organs , the precise workings of which received limited medical investigation . The popular theory put forward by physicians claimed that madness was caused by ' the action of the reproductive organs on an unstable nervous system',1 showing how women were seen as intrinsically weak and therefore having a predisposition to insanity simply through being female . This was a reductionist view of madness , using biology to ascertain causes of the illness rather than analysing social and cultural factors relevant to the women affected . In this view , female biological functions were seen as the cause of madness , namely the onset of menstruation , pregnancy , childbirth and the menopause . From this it can be seen how madness was viewed in a feminine context , confining women to the subject of psychoanalysis throughout . The primary origins of women 's madness were considered a result of their diseased sex organs , insatiable sexual desire , sedentary lifestyles and inferior minds.2 However , this could only be applied to the middle classes , confined to the domestic sphere and not engaging in paid employment . For middle class women , the omnipresent Victorian Domestic Ideology carried much weight with regard to their lifestyles and expected behaviour . Its restrictive nature left middle class women little freedom to choose their path in life or have any influence over their own decisions . Instead , they were expected to conform to social ideals of womanhood , in which they should be obedient , meek and , ultimately , subordinate to the male figures in their lives . This patriarchal system , both in the small scale of family life and the large scale of society as a whole , meant that women constantly had to conform to men 's definitions and expectations , in which ' their [ women 's ] sanity was often judged according to their compliance with middle - class standards of fashion'.3 In this way , masculinity was the accepted norm and femininity was a deviation from this . Thus , while masculinity was synonymous with sanity and emotional health , femininity was synonymous with insanity and corrupt mentality . Being the moral guardians of the domestic sphere , this proved a problem as it threatened the morality of the home and future generations , thus male figures of authority were forced to control female madness to safeguard the population . Ironically , it was not the female of the population that was protected and helped , instead they were further oppressed . Particularly frustrating for middle class women , puberty was a time when they were presented with the clear distinction between themselves and their brothers . Women came to see that their confinement to the home was the accepted woman 's role , depriving them of intellectual and cultural stimulation and highlighting how ' puberty ... gives to woman the conviction of her This may explain to some extent why puberty was seen as such a volatile period for women , many of whom would have resented the expectation that they would adopt the feminine ideal as their own . With limited outlets for creativity and economic independence , marriage was the only viable option for the majority of middle class women . However , far from being a safe and protected haven it was observed that it was chiefly ' those women who are married , not in paid employment , with children living at home , who are most at risk of being positioned as mad'.5 This serves to highlight the restriction of domesticity , channelling women 's energy into servitude of the family whilst not recognising her intellectual and creative potential . This feeling of helplessness and isolation would have caused considerable distress to middle class women who aspired to achieve more , particularly those wealthy , literate and educated individuals who saw the possibility to engage in public life but were prevented from doing so on the basis of their sex.6 It could be argued that , under such conditions , madness was the middle class woman 's protest against her subordination and oppression . By directly rejecting her gender- and class - specific roles , the madwoman embodied everything that confronted the Victorian Domestic Ideology serving to imprison her within the domestic sphere . The leading psychoanalyst of the time , Freud , believed it was the case that women were beginning to ' resist the social definitions that confine them to the doll 's house of bourgeois femininity'.7 Such women were notable for their sexual deviance , in terms of promiscuity , bearing children out of wedlock , nymphomania , masturbation and homosexuality , all of which were thought to be signs of madness . Such practices received considerable attention , largely from men trying to suppress such behaviour for fear it would corrupt their womenfolk and disrupt society . These views relate to medieval associations of womanhood with witchcraft , in which increased sexuality was prominent in labelling women 's deviant status . The link between women 's heightened sexual desire and fornication with the served to oppress female sexuality with the threat of accused witchcraft and being sentenced to death . During this translated to the control of female sexuality with the threat of accused madness and subsequent institutionalisation or castration of the sex organs . Middle class women may have found madness a suitable outlet for their anger and frustration , with no other ways to communicate their distress other than attracting attention to their deteriorating health and radical behaviour . It would certainly have gained them the sympathy and attention from those around them , if not the change in their lifestyles that they truly desired.8 However , the extent to which such action was profitable is debatable , with evidence suggesting that ' hysteria was at best a private , ineffectual response to the frustrations of women 's lives ... [ in which ] the sympathy of the family , [ and ] the attention of the physician were slight in relation to its costs in powerlessness and silence'.9 The prevailing ideals of femininity would have appeared insurmountable for a middle class woman of the time , particularly those with professional aspirations of earning a living as artists or writers , in which cases it was thought that ' rebelliousness could produce nervous disorder',10 resulting in few women practicing their chosen career free from the associated stigma of madness . A different perspective on madness can be found within the working class , largely disregarded in psychiatry . A predominating view of the time was that ' insanity was an expensive disease'11 , reserved for the affluent middle and upper classes where ' sickness and invalidism for women were almost in vogue'12 , signifying plentiful leisure time and the fact that they did not have to enter into paid employment . Whilst middle and upper class women were retiring to bed with various nervous afflictions , their working class counterparts were busy working to support their families ; hence they suffered the dual oppression of class and gender in the suppression of their activities and even less autonomy , working class women had more to protest against , added to the fact that the Victorian Domestic Ideology was being imposed upon them too in an attempt to universally enforce middle class standards . This created friction between the desired standards the working class strived to emulate and the reality of what they could achieve given their limited economic and social means , inevitably leading to feelings of frustration and helplessness . Whereas uncontrollable sexuality was a key feature of middle class madness , assumed moral weakness of the working class was the main reason given as the cause of their madness , asserting that ' Poverty was , after all , of the moral causes of insanity'.14 Furthermore , different manifestations of insanity were identified between the classes , with hysteria being largely associated with the working class whilst neurasthenia was more commonly identified with the middle and upper classes . Though both showed similar symptoms , the latter was considered a ' more prestigious and attractive form of female nervousness than hysteria'15 , thus reserved for the elite members of society . The treatment of diagnosed madness available to middle and upper class women would have further inhibited their freedom and creativity , usually in the form of the rest cure.16 In such a practice , women were prevented from any intellectual or moral growth , being inescapably confined to the domestic environment and prevented from exercising any pursuits of their own . Whilst there may have existed the notion that ' presents a tempting escape from the contingency of the feminine role'17 , in the sense that women were temporarily freed of household burdens , it is probably more accurate to see such treatment as exceedingly damaging to their existing oppressed positions . It is contestable as to whether many of the women diagnosed as mad were genuinely of ill mental health or whether this was a simple yet effective way to repress those not conforming to social ideals constructed by men . Coincidentally , at the same time that middle class women began demanding more rights and opportunities , ' the female nervous disorders of anorexia nervosa , hysteria , and neurasthenia became epidemic'.18 This emphasises the notion of patriarchal control over the subordinate members of society , namely women , through the legitimacy of professional medicalisation . In contrast , working class women could not hope to receive what they would have perceived as a reward in such treatment , instead they would have faced incarceration in public county asylums . They too were shunned from society rather than treated , further adding to their humiliation when ' visits to the asylum , to view the mad , became a routine part of social life'.19 Conversely , their isolation was a public matter , unlike the private affair of the middle and upper classes , with their literary depiction of the ' madwoman in the attic'.20 So marked was this difference in institutionalisation that by , of all the institutionalised insane were , middle class ideals were incorporated into working class life , present within the asylum itself . The design of these institutions was seen as ' inevitably reproducing structures of class and gender'22 , thus aiming to recreate social and moral norms in an artificial environment through appropriate segregation . Working class madwomen suffered extreme stigma under in county asylums , whilst the middle and upper class women were more often , when institutionalised , put into private asylums , thus accentuating how the ' affluent and middling groups had very different experiences ... [ the ] divide between private and state institutions reflected ... a basic class division'.23 Ultimately , it is apparent that both perceived causes and treatments of madness differed between the working and middle classes , affecting the lives of many women , as well as re - emphasising class divisions in society . Whereas working class women may have used madness as a protest against their economical oppression , middle and upper class women were more likely to use it to protest against the social ideals forced upon them , which also permeated through to the working class as part of . It can be concluded that madness was gendered in class specific ways , with distinctly separate discourses on the subject regarding each class .",0 "< heading > INTRODUCTION Vinegar is formed by aerobic bacteria oxidizing grain alcohol to acetic acid and water . More generally , vinegar can be defined as a solution composed of acetic acid ( ) , water , and , perhaps , other substances . The objective of this experiment is to measure the total acid concentration in given samples of vinegar . The method used to measure the total acidity of the vinegar being studied is an analytical chemistry technique called an acid - base titration . A titration mixes solutions which contain reactants for a known chemical reaction under conditions such that : a ) The point at which both reactants have been completely consumed by the known reaction can be detected ( end point ) b ) The amount of reactant can be calculated from the known concentration of reactant in a standard solution , the volume of standard solution used , and the balanced known chemical equation . For an acid - base titration , the known chemical reaction in general is : FORMULA and for the titration of the vinegar in this experiment the following specific reaction will be used to calculate the acetic acid content of the vinegar sample : FORMULA hydroxide will be the standard reactant solution for this titration , and acetic acid the calculated unknown reactant . The end point in this experiment will be detected with an acid / base indicator . An acid / base indicator is a colored substance with or more different colors depending on the value of the pH of the solution . Indicators are also very weak acids or bases and react with added acid or base if no other base or acid is present in a solution . Phenolphthalein is the indicator used in this experiment , and phenolphthalein is colorless in acid and neutral solutions but is red in basic solutions . The phenolphthalein will change color with the addition of a single drop of sodium hydroxide if no other acid ( acetic acid for this experiment ) is present in the phenolphthalein - sodium hydroxide solution . < heading > METHOD We needed to prepare and standardize the solution via titration with a primary acid standard , potassium hydrogen phthalate ( ) M using as a colour indicator phenolphthalein . We then had to titrate with our standardized base to determine the total acid content of our vinegar samples and express the results as acetic acid ( % m / v ) . Note : When determining the total acidity , we changed the volume of the sample taken from . We also titrated of the diluted sample instead of . Using a paper , we had to determine the approximate pH values of the original undiluted samples of vinegar . Finally , we had to add a few drops of barium chloride solution to separate aliquots of the original undiluted vinegar samples in test tubes and record our observations . We had to do the same procedure as above , adding silver nitrate solution this time . < heading > RESULTS - CALCULATIONS For the calculation of the nominal concentration of the we had the following results : Titration : < table/ > FORMULA For the determination of acidity we had the following results : < table/>1st Sample : FORMULA FORMULA But the sample was diluted by . So in order to find the % w / v we should multiply w% by times . FORMULA Sample : FORMULA FORMULA But the sample was diluted by . So in order to find the % w / v we should multiply w% by times . FORMULA Sample : FORMULA FORMULA But the sample was diluted by . So in order to find the % w / v we should multiply w% by times . FORMULA Where : FORMULA < table/>
DISCUSSION Total Acidity: From the literature we know that the legal minimum values for the acidity of vinegar when expressed as are > 4 % . From the results we obtained , we can clearly state that samples and 3 generally meet the above minimum value , and sample is far below the minimum requirements . Specifically , the ( ) and ( ) sample values are considered very high , and this can be contributed to the method . In this method we titrate not only acetic acid but all the acids that are in the samples , so this is an error based on the method that should be taken into serious consideration when expressing the results . As far as the sample is concerned , the relative low value ( ) that is calculated can be justified by the fact that there might be mineral acids dissolved in the sample . < heading > pH paper: The literature values for in are usually close to value ~3 . From the results we have using the pH paper , we can observe that sample number and are very close to that value but the value for sample is way far that value . Perhaps the presence of Mineral Acids ( pH ~ 1 - 2 ) in the rd sample has altered this result . < heading > Reactions with silver nitrate and barium chloride solutions: We know that the test with the AgNO 3 is a test to determine the presence of Cl- and the test using the BaCl 2 is a test to determine SO 4- . After performing these tests , we observed that the tests using were all negative , something that indicates that there is no presence of SO 4- in our samples . When performing the tests using AgNO 3 we observed turbidity and precipitants in samples1 and , and small turbidity in the tube containing sample . This indicates that Cl- is present in all samples , but in larger quantities in samples . Taking all the results from all the teams that performed the same experiment , we constructed diagrams ( for each sample ) that shows the variation of the results related to the mean value , taking SE ( ) as a measuring unit for an upper and a lower limit . , where σ = standard deviation and n = sample number ( in this experiment , n = because we had duplicate samples ) For the sample we had : < table/>
For the sample we had : < table/>
For the sample we had : < table/>
As we can see in the charts above , in the sample , our value for the acidity of vinegar is out of the confidence limits that we have set and therefore a significant error has occurred . This could be mainly due to the human factor as we observe that most of the other teams were inside these confidence limits , so it is not a problem caused by the method . Such errors should not occur and are minimized by training and exercise . As for the and samples , we observe that we are inside the confidence limits and in fact we are very close to the mean values . All in all , many errors may occur . A common error is the sampling error which is partly avoided by the use of sample when titrating . Limitations due to the uncertainty of the instruments also exist but we consider them as not significant when doing our calculations .","This report has been divided into parts : < list>1 st part : Analysis of reducing sugars by the and method ( Volumetric)2 nd part : Use of polarimetry to determine sucrose concentration1st PART INTRODUCTION Lane and method is used for the determination of reducing sugars only . A burette is used to add the carbohydrate solution being analyzed to a flask containing a known amount of boiling copper sulfate solution and a methylene blue indicator . The reducing sugars in the carbohydrate solution react with the copper sulfate present in the flask . Once all the copper sulfate in solution has reacted , any further addition of reducing sugars causes the indicator to change from blue to red . The volume of sugar solution required to reach the end point is recorded . < heading > METHOD The method was completed after following the instructions of the handout , without any alterations . < heading > RESULTS - CALCULATIONS Determination of reducing sugar in solution ( ) Titration Result : of sugar solution FORMULA Preparation of jam solution and determination of reducing sugars in jam FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA < heading > DISCUSSION The disadvantages of the and method are ( i ) the results depend on the precise reaction times , temperatures and reagent concentrations used and so these parameters must be carefully controlled ; ( ii ) it can not distinguish between different types of reducing sugar , and ( iii ) it can not directly determine the concentration of non - reducing sugars , ( iv ) it is susceptible to interference from other types of molecules that act as reducing agents .. Limitations due to the uncertainty of the instruments also exist but we consider them as not significant when doing our calculations . < heading>2nd PART INTRODUCTION Molecules that contain an asymmetric carbon atom have the ability to rotate plane polarized light . A polarimeter is a device that measures the angle that plane polarized light is rotated on passing through a solution . A polarimeter consists of a source of monochromatic light , a polarizer , a sample cell of known length , and an analyzer to measure the angle of rotation . The extent of polarization is related to the concentration of the optically active molecules in solution by the equation , where  is the measured angle of rotation , [  ] is the optical activity ( which is a constant for each type of molecule ) , l is the pathlength and c is the concentration . The overall angle of rotation depends on the temperature and wavelength of light used . < figure/> METHOD The method was completed after following the instructions of the handout , without any alterations . < heading > RESULTS - CALCULATIONS
FORMULA FORMULA The standard equation for specific rotation is : FORMULA Where : a obs is the observed rotation c is the concentration ( ml ) l is the cell length ( dm ) = in this instrument [ a]20D for sucrose is + 66.50 o [ a]20D for invert sugars is -19.80 o For sucrose before inversion : FORMULA For sucrose after inversion : FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA g sucrose gives g invert sugars , since sucrose has a relative molecular mass of and invert sugars have a relative molecular mass of . Therefore change in FORMULA So mg are in of a diluted sample ( sample ) In sample the concentration of sucrose would be : FORMULA < heading > DISCUSSION A common error in the polarimetric method is to have air bubbles in the tube of the polarimeter , which will distort the results . Limitations due to the uncertainty of the instruments also exist but we consider them as not significant when doing our calculations .",1 "holistic healing systems to scientific medicine is extremely problematic . They do not share the same starting points or very little common ground and it is especially problematic to define the ' holistic ' approach embedded in complementary and alternative medicine ( ) ( and ) . However , the increase in the use of over can not be ignored ( 2001:142 , ) and the reasons for this increase are far from clear ( Ca nt and , ) . To consider , therefore , the extent to which can be an alternative or complementary medicine source to scientific medicine is far from easy . In this essay I will briefly describe both ' scientific ' and ' alternative ' and ' complementary ' medicines.(1 ) My arguments will focus on areas . , operates on a much less hierarchical method than the biomedical model and can therefore provide a contrasting alternative structure for the provision of health care , although this may be impossible to accommodate it within the NHS structure ( Sharma 1992:3 ) . , encourages patient participation ( Sharma ) , as opposed to the biomedical model where the patient is the passive recipient ( Aakster 1986:268 ) and can therefore offer a considerably different consultation system . However , this may only be possible for certain individuals , those who are articulate and knowledgeable and those with lesser knowledge or articulation skills / abilities will be excluded . , there is much evidence supporting the use of as a complementary form of medicine in conjunction with scientific medicines , for example health promotion / disease prevention These will be very crude descriptions of complex practices as there is insufficient space in this essay to give substantial detail . ( Blaxter , DoH 2003 ) that support government initiatives such as a day ' campaign ( DoH 2003 ) or improving mental health and wellbeing ( ) or managing chronic illness in hospices ( 1999:2 ) . < heading The modern biomedical model is ' defined by the absence of disease ' ( Blaxter 2004:19 ) and diagnosis is made mainly on physical aspects - something is wrong with a particular part of the body and it is up to the physician to identify the illness and treat the sysmptom either by the use of drugs or surgery ( 2001:155 , 1989:7 ) . Biomedical knowledge is scientifically proven and treatment is therefore based on that knowledge ( ) . The dissection of knowledge into ' specialisms ' creates powerful experts ( 2001:156 ) and whilst this can ensure a great depth of knowledge about a particular illness or disease , it may result in patients having to see different specialists in order to identify their particular illness . < heading < /heading > In the case of , it must be noted that this label includes a vast range of diverse medicines , including homoeopathy , chiropody , osteopathy , spiritual healing , herbalism and acupuncture ( , Ca nt and , et al 2006:832 ) , but they do share the common practice of providing ' holistic ' treatment ( ) . However , defining holistic is extremely difficult ( and 1989:587 , Sharma 1992:108 ) . of the key aspects of the holistic approach is the addressing of imbalances in the whole body , in other words , mind , body and spirit , to create good health ( , Zollman ) or even extend holism to include environments external to the body ( Mason et al 2006:832 , Blaxter 1990:233 ) . However , patients often use a use a variety of alternative or complementary medicines to address different illnesses ( Sharma ) , thereby emulating the ' specialisms ' of the biomedical model . Another key aspect is the way in which practitioners work with the patient so that the individual takes responsibility for their own heath ( 1989:71 ) . The problem with this is that they can adversely be responsible for their illness ( Coward 1989:64/71 ) < heading > The increase in CAM It is generally agreed that there has been a significant increase in the use of over ( 2001:142 ) . In it was estimated that of the population had used some form of ( ) , it is estimated that in people use them ( 2001:142 ) . The increased used has also meant a growth in the number of practitioners - numbers are estimated to be growing - 6 times faster than medical doctors ( Ca nt and 1991:40 ) . Furthermore , according to a survey conducted by ( 1992:210 ) of people surveyed said they would like included in the NHS and this would further increase the availability and use of . < heading > 's linear structure as an alternative Coward ( ) argues that the structural changes required to accommodate into the are unthinkable . With its segmented and regimented structure of highly paid experts and nurses whose responsibilities for patient care remains unvalued . Whilst ( ) does not believe that the medical professionals would ever give up their exclusivity and allow practitioners to dilute their power . It is interesting to note however , that although the medical profession is responsible for making decisions in respect of medicines used , to the exclusion of , public pressure can ' force their hand ' ( Saks 1995:229 ) . For example in the case of acupuncture that was rejected by the medical profession during has now become more acceptable in because of increased public demand . Other arguments range from a call for the dissolution of the medical profession , ( Illich 1973:34 cited in ) to break up the monopoly which is seen as counter productive to industrial development , to those such as ( cited in ) who believes that a powerful medical profession separate from government ensures public interest are protected , for example nuclear waste . practitioners have a less ' God likeness ' ( and ( ) , but the drawback of this is that fails to compete equitably for research funding . The medical profession are not the only ones who would argue against a change in NHS structure . Under the pharmaceutical model ( cited in ) there is little mileage in supporting a system that does not follow conventional medicine . In that disease is associated with defect and can be fixed by drugs from which vast amounts of money are made . Therefore , although can offer an alternative to the medical profession 's hierarchical structure , there is little chance of incorporating a more linear method as there is far too much power to be lost by those with it ( Ca nt and ) and access to will continue to be on a ' postcode lottery ' basis - only available in areas where medical practices buy into it ( 1999:40 ) . Furthermore , the diverse range of therapies under the umbrella would add further complications to creating an alternative linear structure within the health care system ( Welsh et al 2004:236 ) . < heading > as alternative in terms of patient involvement The holistic approach reduces the distance between patient and practitioners ( and , Scott 1998:209 ) , making the return to health a joint aim , rather then just resorting to the physician 's expertise as in the biomedical model . However , the question arises as to whether this also results in ' deprofessionalisation ' ( and ) . With the more recent focus of individual responsibility ( agency ) for health people are no longer happy to be treated just as bodies and the approach enables them more involvement in their treatment ( 1989:7 ) . This presents a challenge to 's ' sick role ' ( Sharma 1992:27 ) in that sick people are no longer relieved from they social responsibilities . It is the increased responsibility that has been the predominant reason for the rise in the use of , not the dissatisfaction with biomedical professionals . For example , of people surveyed said ' they wanted to use all possible options in healthcare ' . Interestingly though , the most popular reason for choosing was ' they hoped to be cured without side - effects ' ( and , Ca nt and 1991:45 ) . This aspect of more patient power is particularly attractive to women ( Sharma 1992:20 ) who argue that natural processes have been medicalized by the ( male dominated ) biomedical model for example pregnancy , childbirth and the menopause ( cited in , and , and 1989:580 ) . In the case of the menopause there is much support for alternative methods to hormone replacement therapy for reducing symptoms ( Patient UK 2005 , WNAS ) , such as herbal or homoeopathic remedies . However , the concept of extending causes of illness to external factors ( Mason et al 2006:832 , Blaxter 1990:233 ) could be argued to be extending medicalization to the whole of life ( Armstrong ) ( bio - psycho - social model ) . With more equality between patient and practitioner in treatments , women can feel they are regaining more control over their bodies . Sharma ( ) and Zollman ( ) both provide evidence that this it is not only predominantly women who are the main users of , but that it is only women who are more highly educated , with higher incomes and senior / middle management professionals . As a result there is little challenge to the inverse care law whereby those in most need , the poor , the elderly , have the least access to health care ( ) . < heading > as complimentary to scientific medicine The move towards prevention rather than cure has been informed by major considerations . the scepticism toward modern medicine to cure all ills ( Goldstein , Sharma 1995:39 ) and the spiralling costs of proving NHS health care ( Goldstein 2000:32 ) . Whilst the biomedical model can be praised for reducing infectious diseases and extending life for both young and old ( 2004:99 ) , it has in some respects been a victim of its own success . More complex and degenerative diseases have replaced previous ones , resulting in the need for more research and more complex and expensive drugs and surgery , for example , hip replacements and chemotherapy . The emphasis on prevention is supported by the government in its paper ( DoH 2004b ) as well as being supported by biomedical professionals , practitioners , and the fitness industry , who have shared values with ( Goldstein 2000:28 ) . philosophy around illness is based on how individuals deal with the effects of increasing levels of stress presented by the modern world ( 1989:82 ) and this supports the idea that individuals can cure themselves , or play an active part in preventing disease . In such a way , individuals can make ' informed choices ' ( DoH 2004:5 ) and take steps towards changing their lifestyles to improve overall health and actively reduce influences known to cause disease . For instance , taking stress as an example , increasing physical activity and reducing the intake of certain foods or drink can alleviate compounded stress ( DoH 2004c:60 ) . Once responsibility is taken for individual health the step towards sampling is made easier by the wealth of information generated by the industry , in the form of internet web sites , self - help books and shops ( ) , the increasing incidence of recommendation from friends and family who have tried or other of the therapies ( Sharma 1992:69 ) and the availability of ' over the counter ' ( Ca nt and Sharma 1996:583 ) . The negative aspect of this is that lay people can not possibly acquire levels of knowledge equal to those of medical professionals and this may have adverse affects in terms of actually being able to prevent or cure disease or leads to the belief that they alone are responsible for the occurrence of their illness ( Coward 1989:64/71 ) . There is also evidence of chronically or terminally ill patients using to compliment treatments and drugs prescribed by biomedical professionals , to find relief either from pain or reduce side effects of those prescribed drugs / treatments ( 1999:2 ) . For example , of cancer patients have been recorded as using to manage their illness ( Datamonitor 2002:1 ) and in particular there is high usage of at ( Kohn 1999:2 ) . reports that acupuncture to relieve nausea and imagery to improve quality of life are often the highest used amongst cancer patients ( Kohn 1999 exec summary ) . Patient power is also evident in that of nurses were asked for information about complementary therapies by their patients ( Kohn 1999 ) . There is evidence , therefore , that to quite a considerable extent can be complementary to scientific medicines for some groups of people , for example women and those with chronic disease . < heading > Conclusion There can be little doubt about the gaining popularity of in the ( 2001:142 , , Ca nt and , Sharma 1992:210 ) , but it is also evident that generalising about and its practitioners is problematic as is understanding the concept of ' holism ' embedded in philosophy ( and 1989:587 , Sharma 1992:108 ) . In this essay I have argued that offers a direct alternative , more linear structure to medical care , but that it may not be possible to accommodate such as structure within the hierarchical medical professionalism of the ( Sharma 1992:3 , ) . This is especially unlikely as attracts little research funding and will have a hard time competing with powerful pharmaceutical companies . My argument supported the considerably different consultation procedure used by practitioners , which reduces the distance between the patient and themselves ( and , Scott 1998:209 ) . To a great extent this method challenges biomedical model that puts the patient in the passive role ( Aakster 1986:268 ) and supports the move toward patient empowerment ( , ) . However , it raises concern that only those able to act in such a way , the more educated and higher paid ( Sharma , Zollman ) , are more likely to access , but it will be beyond the reach of those in most need , the poor and the elderly ( ) . My final argument is that can be used extensively to promote health / prevent disease . Strengthening the body to combat disease is the focus of 's holistic practices and this can not only be used to improve / maintain good health , but also relieve symptoms in chronic illness . Complementary to support natural processes , such as child birth and menopause , which have been medicalized by the scientific biomedical medicine ( cited in , and , and ) , can be dealt with by the individual , using ( Patient UK 2005 , WNAS ) , without incurring unpleasant side - effects . Furthermore , those coping with chronic disease can be offered complementary alternatives to help improve quality of life and aiding pain relief ( 1999:2 ) . Therefore , there are areas where can , to a greater or lesser extent , be alternative or complementary to scientific medicine , but these are dependant upon complex practice and policy considerations .","Printed inside the front cover of the and Faber edition of and other poems , , is quoted to have written : < quote>""The poem succeeds - as it brilliantly does - by virtue of its incoherence , not of its plan ; by virtue of its ambiguities , not of its explanations ... "" It is possible to suggest that in fact does not invite the reader to understand the text . However , it is possible to ' make sense ' of the poem through an understanding of how the text was written , and how it came to be written . Cultural Materialism holds the view that "" The literary text ... is always part and parcel of a much wider cultural , political , social and economic dispensation ... the literary text is directly involved in history . "" By looking at from this perspective it is possible to ' make sense ' of the text and understand it as a literary piece that has arisen through a period of historical culture . < fnote > Hans Bertens Literary Theory the ( London : Routledge , ) p.176 < /fnote > Eliot is regarded to be one of the great literary icons of the movement which developed radically through and . Modernism rejected previously established forms and artistic ideals . Evident in The Waste Land is the breakdown of chronology in literature and the shift towards the process of reflection . has been linked with Ulysses as well as with non - literary works , which share aspects that allow us to identify them as being works of art . Such works "" originally signified cultural disruption and radically new ways of interpreting the world "" . However , readings of from a ' post - modern ' perspective have placed it within the literary canon . In order to ' make sense ' of the text , and propose ways in which a reader should focus on the text as a piece of literature . Their suggestions are strongly related to the methods of textual analysis employed by Cultural Materialists ; "" to work on the material - the words , the shapes "" ; "" to piece together the references , allusions and collage - like nature of the material "" ; and "" to situate the works historically and critically so that their difficulty is translated into effective meaning and feeling . "" It is arguably these methods that can best help a reader ' make sense ' of . < fnote > and Modernism ( : Icon Books Ltd , 2001 ) p.47 < /fnote> Introducing Modernism p.49 < /fnote > Through the application of ideas about contextual significance in textual analysis , it is possible to understand the text through the way in which it subverts hegemonic forms . Modernist artists were in part , reacting against the established and accepted lavish narrative techniques of the period . The most obvious evidence of this within the text is its form and structure . It is divided into sections , or books , much like some of the epic poems written by Romantic poets , for example or . However , despite passages of narrative , 's verse becomes fragmented and more abstract . A clear example is the transition of the narrative passage at into a more disjointed form : < quote > The Chair she sat in , like a burnished throne , Glowed on the marble , where the glass Held up by the standards wrought with fruited vines ( The passage is a clear introduction and can be credited with classic poetic techniques , for example the assonance between the words ' throne ' and ' Glowed ' . However , line indicates a development of both language and style . The verse moves into a dialogic passage between what we might assume to be a male and female . One could suggest that this is linked to the literary modernist technique of "" Rework[ing ] slang and argotic expressions of everyday encounters into the texture of ... prose and verse . "" The technique of collage was popular among artists across a wide range of genres . Eliot , together with other writers like Guillaume Apollinaire employed this technique as is evident in this shift in style . Thus , the text can be seen to be undermining previously accepted realist styles of writing and replacing them with a reflective collage of reality . < fnote > Introducing Modernism p.39 < /fnote > Written in , The Waste Land not only subverts traditional classical forms , but also established ideals of society . In "" "" , Eliot manipulates and challenges hegemonic Romantic ideas about nature in order to evoke immediately the sterility of the modern experience . comments on the "" paradox of the seasons "" which "" inverts the attitude towards the life - cycle ... giving an ironic turn "" to the text . This is related to the modernist interrelation of memory and desire , which was largely due to the work of Freud and psychoanalysts alike . In 's observations it is possible to identify such themes within these opening lines . "" Spring disturbs the dead land , stirring memory and desire ; lets it forget . "" Cultural Materialism allows us to ' make sense ' of the text as part of a political artistic movement which used art as the basis of a social critique of conservative expectations . < fnote > George Williamson A Reader 's Guide to , A by ( London : Thames and Hudson , ) p.130 < /fnote > Cultural Materialism applies a critique and attempts to identify within a text , power relationships which reflect how society is a construction of contesting sites of power . Understanding the text on this level might suggest that it is one which concerns and questions identity and reality . The poem moves swiftly through a multitude of fictional characters . In particular the various female figures that are represented might reflect a societal ignorance towards identity and a sanctioning of man . Cultural Materialism employs various methods of textual analysis in order to ' make sense ' of a text . Although he is perhaps not considered a cultural materialist , idea of how the novel is built upon varieties of social vocabularies also evokes the importance of the text 's own historical culture . Through observing The Waste Land on this level , it is possible to illustrate how presents this ignorance of identity and authority of man . It is possible to divide ' A Game of Chess ' into sections , each of which focuses on a different female figure . All of these women , in a sense , are reflective of an artificial , infertile society . The is presented through a narrative voice whose sensual language evokes a sexuality suggesting it is male . Indeed , this female figure has been interpreted as being a prostitute . This is also evident in the contrast drawn between the aristocratic and lavish surroundings , and ' her strange synthetic perfumes ' ( line ) , which suggests that she does not belong there . The perfume , itself , is used as a metaphor , suggesting that although this woman is outwardly secure , she is inwardly ' troubled , confused ' ( line ) ; her appearance is false . The lines - 139 introduce us to a woman whose own heteroglossia suggests she is hysterical . Her irrational threat to ' rush out as I am , and walk the street ' ( line131 ) is suggestive of her hysteria . She appears to represent a weaker sex and modern infertility and thus empowers the male sex . In the final section the dominant speaker can be read as a female publican whose heteroglossia is more fluent , but expressive only of gossip and thus remains artificial ; there is no depth . The presentation of these women as being infertile and lacking true identity through the use of different voices and vocabularies seems to empower man over them . Eliot uses language to perhaps challenge identity and break away from realist and symbolic art forms . Literary modernists were often concerned with the exploration of the "" relationship of words to reality "" and "" attempt to set in crisis accepted ways of coding and understanding a changing world . "" Cultural Materialism allows an interpretation of 's "" creative play with words "" as an exploitation of identity and empowerment through the absence of the notion of ' self ' , where the poet is omnipresent . There is no continuous narrator or identifiable voice , which seems to alienate the reader ; we could question if we are ever spoken to directly . The way in which the speaker changes constantly , suggests that none of them are given power over us ; through isolating the reader , the text refuses us any sense of power also . However , many of the figures portrayed are in some way victims of society , both pre - modern and modern ; allows us to suggest that 's cathartic work perhaps empowers these figures by articulating their inner anxieties rather than asserting a power over the reader . < fnote > Introducing Modernism p.59 < /fnote> Introducing Modernism p.61 < /fnote > Cultural Materialism adopts methods of textual analysis , considering that "" meaning in language only arises from differences and relationships along the chain of signifiers . "" It is therefore possible to ' make sense ' of The Waste Land through exploring the way that it is structured around a number of binary opposites . Cultural Materialism also insists that texts are "" absolutely inseparable from their historical context . "" Practitioners approach literary texts in the same way as other texts ; they aim to "" ... trace and bring to light relations of power and process of ideological and cultural construction . "" Thus , not only is it possible to understand the text on the basis of its binary structure , but take the analysis stage further and read these oppositions as "" time - and place - bound verbal construction[s ] that [ are] ... in way or another political . "" < fnote > Introducing Modernism p. < /fnote> Literary Theory The Basics p. < /fnote> Literary Theory The p.177 < /fnote > A dominant binary opposition is that of life and death ; fertility and infertility . The reversal of ideas about the seasons in the opening lines draws attention to this . The ' lilacs ' are symbolic of new life and fertility which grow from the ' dead ' and infertile land . Taking into account when and where the text was written might suggest that this opposition is a comment of dissent within a post - war culture . New technologies of the modern period allowed society to see the effects of ; the previous belief in the ' nobility ' of war was called into question . Within such a context , the binary opposition of life and death is particularly prominent . In book , ' , it is made significantly poignant through the use of war - like images . Furthermore , the amalgamation of senses in lines embodies this opposition , illustrating ' life ' through the human sense of touch : ' cold blast ' , but also implying ' death ' through the way the speaker can ' hear / The rattle of the bones ' . went further to effect behaviour and expectations , particularly in social , sexual and gender relations . Through employing Cultural Materialism it is possible to detect this through the representation of emotions and relationships within the binary structure of the poem . There appears to be sides of sexuality within the text both of which diminish the possibility that sex can bring regeneration , cultural or personal . of the sexual dimensions represented could be described as a dry , baron interchange inseparable from neurosis and self - destruction . This is particularly clear in the scene described by in lines - 256 which illustrates "" a seduction seemingly without any love or passion "" . The typist displays no desire to engage in sexual activity , "" but no desire to resist seduction "" . In the lines - 56 , the only sensation expressed is one of relief ; she is ' glad it 's over . ' Similarly Eliot 's ' young man carbuncular [ 's ] ' experience lacks sincerity : ' His vanity requires no response , / And makes a welcome of indifference . ' The side of sexuality represented in is of a rampant and fecund nature associated with a lack of culture and rapid aging . This is illustrated boldly in the characterisation of the landlady in the section of ' A Game of Chess ' through her re - telling of a conversation with , whose "" rejection of her offspring ( line ) "" once again emphasises the loss of the regenerative values of sex . Once again , by looking at the text as a piece of modernist writing , it is possible to assert that the text is making a subversive comment on the "" transgression of previous sexual protocols and rules in personal life "" . Thus , a reading enables us to ' make sense ' of the poem not only as a literary text , but as a work that embodies and evokes its own cultural context . < fnote > URL 14/05/04 < /fnote> Introducing Modernism p. < /fnote > Some of the key ideas of derive from the work of , who asserted that texts of the past should be used to ' read ' the present , "" Revealing politics of our own society by what we choose to emphasise or suppress of the past . "" This theory can be applied to the text on levels , the being a broader analysis of how the text is written . The Waste Land is structured around various literary references and significant myths , in particular those of the Fisher King and the Quest of the Holy Grail . suggests that the way in which has used these "" underlying myths "" allows the text to "" comment on the modern world "" and "" describe modern cultural emptiness within the context of ancient myths of a heroic quest that gives meaning and relevance to life . "" On a level , can be used to ' read ' our own post - modern ' present ' . A particular focus within the text is that of the city ; . The urbanisation and expansion of cities was of particular significance during the early modern period . 's repeated phrase ' Unreal city ' , however , might have an added depth when reading the text . Like , many artists articulated the consequent feelings of isolation caused by the expansion of streets and buildings in cities . Cities in can still seem daunting because of their busy and almost ' unreal ' atmosphere . Cultural Materialism allows us to read the text not only as an expression of the new modernity of , but relates it to how that modernity has shaped our own ' post - modern ' world . < fnote > Peter Barry Beginning Theory An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory ( Manchester : , ) < /fnote> URL < /fnote > Cultural Materialism enables the reader to ' make sense ' of on a number of different levels . In a sense , the poem as a whole might never be fully understood or explained . However , through working on the material in terms of structure and language ; observing and focusing on the allusions and references within the text , and finally setting it in its historical and cultural context , Cultural Materialism opens endless channels of interpretation . This essay has recognised this piece as one of the leading modernist literary works , which embodies the dissident voices and anxieties of the period in relation to both the past and present . The fragmented style seems to express the period of change , and its ambiguities raise many pertinent questions relating to various significant issues such as identity , sexuality and , indeed , the culture of modernity itself .",0 "< abstract> Abstract In this study , we intend to address whether globalisation cost job in by examining whether the increase in cross - border flows of goods , capital , and labour had caused adverse impacts on the employment statistics of labour market . We take international trade relative to domestic production , foreign direct investment ( ) relative to GDP , and international migration flow relative to population as key indicators . Exploiting the time- series data drawn from several archival sources , we apply multiple - regression to see whether the changes of these factors are associated with the changes of employment statistics , and if so , how . Analyses at levels are performed : national analysis investigates whether the change of the indicators are associated with the change of the employment rate of labour force ( and that of each age group ) at national level , while industry analysis utilize the industry - specific data on trade and employment to test the association between the changes of the . < /abstract> Introduction < /heading > Does globalisation , as asserted by its opponents , cost job in ? To address this issue , we need to clarify what processes should be considered as globalisation here . Globalisation has in become a popular concept widely used in explaining many different phenomena . Central to this notion is the increased interdependency between national societies due to the improvement of communication and transportation technology , but the manifestations of this trend vary widely , and cause the formulation of a definition applicable in all discussions extremely difficult . Current discussion of globalisation includes dimensions : economic , cultural , and political ( see table A ) . Such a wide scope and complexity of the processes discussed as part of globalisation make any claim of its general effect on any subject over - simplistic , and calls for more sophisticated analyses that ' unpack ' the notion of globalisation and give different factors individual assessment . < table/>Source : Entry ' globalisation , ' , 2000 , p , table compiled by author . Among the various aspects of globalisation , we focus on the "" increase of cross- border flows of market factors , e.g. , goods , capital and labour "" in this study , and use the national statistics on trade , capital flow ( specially the amount of foreign direct investment ) and migration flow to measure it . The factors are chosen because they are most often mentioned in public discussions of labour market outcomes , and thus have greatest relevance to the current debate . In , the shares of the factors in either GDP or population have all been increased considerably ( see Figure 1 - 3 , next page ) . < fnote > See p. for further discussion . < /fnote > Conventional discussions found in media and political debates usually focus on the direct effects of the components of the factors that are more visible from the domestic perspective , such as the number of jobs created by inward , the number of jobs lost in the layoffs accompanying corporate ' downsizing ' and ' outsourcing , ' and the competition with the imports from low - wage counties and foreign immigrant . Such an approach has major shortcomings . , it does not count in the contribution of outward components , namely export , emigrants , and some outward ( see Table B ) . , analyses in this current , while based on the number of job created and cost directly , tend to overlook other indirect influence on the whole labour market . < table/>To avoid the faults , we take a different approach in this study . , to obtain a better - balanced assessment of the increase of cross - border flows of market factors , we draw the key indicators of each factor from the statistics of both inward and outward components in our major analysis . , to include the indirect effect into our assessment of employment condition , we rely on the aggregate indicators of labour market instead of the counts of job loss or job gain associated with individual events . In summary , we intend to address whether globalisation cost job in by investigating whether the increase in cross - border flows of goods , capital , and labour had had caused adverse impacts on the employment statistics of labour market . < figure/>Sources : Data of trade , investment and GDP from , . Figure compiled by author . < figure/>Sources : Data of investment and GDP from , site . Figure compiled by author . < figure/>Sources : Data of population from Population Trends , site . Data of migration from , . ( ) and Recent Patterns and . . , p.64 . Figure compiled by author . < heading < /heading > levels of analyses are performed in this study . National analysis is aimed to address the main thesis by investigating how the changes in the quantities of international trade , , and migration flow are associated with the change in gross employment rate ( and that of each age group ) at national level . This approach constitutes the main part of this research , but is at the risk to be restricted by the limited sample size of national data ( available since , N = ) . Therefore , we incorporate industry analysis as a supplementary analysis , which utilizes the industry - specific data on trade and employment to test the association between the changes of the . Despite the shifted scopes and focuses of the approaches , the logics behind their design are basically the same . Therefore I will only focus on national analysis to be discussed in detail in the following sections , and leave the industry analysis to be addressed shortly in the end with emphasis on its difference from the national analysis . < heading > National Analysis Analysis Unit : : ( trade and ) , ( migration) Independent Variable TR , gross trade ( import plus export ) as % of , gross ( inward plus outward ) as % of GDP < /list > Source : National Account , 1946- , . MI , gross migration flow ( immigration plus emigration ) as % of population Source : Migration data from International Passenger Survey ( ) , . Data after adjusted as specified in p.4 , footnote . Population data after projected from on and since , population data before estimated using method specified in "" I : Population Estimates and Projections , "" , . The indicators chosen as measures of the "" cross - border flows of goods , capital , and labour "" are quite straightforward except . We specially focus on for the capital part because , as illustrated by and ( ) , "" we want to distinguish a foreign capital investment that is a long - term job creating from a short - run financial flow "" and "" direct foreign investment is job creating while currency transaction are likely to be short run . "" These indicators are expressed as ratios to GDP and population to represent the contribution of these factors relative to the magnitude of economy . Aside from the gross cross - border flow , the net flow ( trade balance , investment balance and net migration ) and the stock ( immigrant stock and stock ) are other aspects of the international movement of market factors that are often discussed in globalisation debates , and hence need to be addressed here for their exclusion from our conceptualization of globalisation . , we regard the net values of certain factors as source for measures of other concepts , perhaps , indicators of how attractive one nation is regarding the respective factor . Although the growth of those net values are certainly enabled by the process of globalisation , they still can not be appropriate measures of globalisation since the net flow of certain factor of country could be even when the economy of this country is highly internationally connected . , we do not consider the stock of immigrants as an index of globalisation because there have long been societies constituted primarily of immigrants , most of whom would eventually be granted citizenship and considered a legitimate part of this society . In other words , we do n't consider migration itself as a process of globalisation , but the increase of migration flow is . In contrast , the stock of may have its significant meaning in the discussion of globalisation , but that should be left for other researches to explore . < heading > Dependent Variable ER , employment rate . ERa , employment rate of age group : Data for the period 1959 to from the estimates produced by . Data from onward from ( ) . In the labour market outcome , we chose national employment rate of labour force , out of claimant counts , unemployment rate and job centre vacancies , as our key indicator . Claimant counts is dismissed for its potential vulnerability to other factors such as welfare policy change . Unemployment rate is considered a better indicator , but lacks the capability to reflect the existence of discouraged workers and therefore abandoned . The aggregate number of job center vacancies seems to be an informative indicator of the job - supply , but it was later dismissed too for its potentially biased representativeness and restricted availability in terms of time period . In order to obtain a more detailed understanding of how the change in these independent variables associated the change of labour market structure in terms of age , we also plan to perform similar analyses to the different age groups , in which the dependent variable will be the employment rate of each respective group . < heading > Control Variable GR , GDP growth rate < list > NT , net trade balance ( export minus import ) as % of gross tradeNF , net ( inward minus outward ) as % of gross FDI Hypothesis The null hypothesis to be tested is stated as follow : "" The changes of either international gross trade relative to GDP , gross flow relative to GDP , and gross migration flow relative to population , do not provide any information in help us predict the change in employment rate of labour force or of any age group , while the possible effects of GDP growth rate , net trade relative to gross trade , net relative to gross and net migration relative to gross migration being controlled . "" < heading Analysis This study is conducted by applying multiple - regression on existing archival data . So the availability of the relevant data became the greatest concern . Ideally , we would like to build a comprehensive regression model to test the effects of all the independent variables and control variables at one time . However , the feasibility of this approach is totally ruled out by the more restricted time - period of available population data ( ) compared with data on trade and ( 1946- ) and employment ( 1959- ) . Therefore we plan to build models : using data since to examine the effect of trade and ( called "" T model "" ) , the other using data since to test the contribution of migration flow ( called "" M model "" ) . The regression equations for the models are listed as follow , where ∆X y means the change of variable X from , cT X means the regression coefficient in T model for variable X , and ay means the error term in for age group a in year y. < list> T Model : 1959- FORMULA FORMULA < /list> M Model : < /heading > FORMULA FORMULA < /list > Once the data analysis is completed , we will test the value for each regression equation to determine whether the null hypothesis is rejected . We will further perform t - test on the regression coefficient of each variable to see whether its change is significantly associated with the change of employment rate . Attention must be drawn to the strategy that we use the change rather than value regarding most variables ( except GDP growth rate , which itself is an indicator for change ) in the regression model . By focusing on the association between the changes of variables , we intended to reduce the chance of having results contaminated by certain confounding long - term social - economical trends . However , this strategy implies the risk of failing to capture the influences of the independent variables that were not reflected by the employment statistics of . In fact , the undetermined time - span for globalisation processes to create labour market impacts posed a major challenge to the study of this issue . In this study , we plan to address this risk by performing regression procedure between the changes in independent variables with the changes of employment statistic during different time intervals . For instance , the change of the independent variables between year y-1 and y ( y , y ... ) may be correlated with the change of the employment rate during the time interval [ y-1 , y ] , [ y , y+1 ] , [ y-1 , y+1 ] and [ y-1 , y+2 ] . By comparing the F value calculated form each regression model , we would be able to determine what time interval during which the employment rate change can be best predicted by the independent variable we have . This result may shed some initial light into the under - investigated time - span issue regarding the impact of globalisation on labour market . As stated previously , the greatest threat for this analysis comes from its relatively small size of sample , which is restricted by both the availability of relevant data and the length of relevant history and is considered marginal for performing multiple regressions . Given all the constraints , however , it provides a feasible path to empirically assess whether globalisation cost job in an aggregate level . We may not be able to claim that globalisation does not cost any job if the statistical testing turned out to be insignificant , but at least , we will be able to tell whether such effects , if they exist anyway , are strong enough to be reflected in the aggregate level or not . < heading > II . Industry Analysis Analysis Unit : Some industry sections as defined by ( ) Time Span : < heading > Independent Variable: TRi , gross trade of industry i as % of domestic production of industry I Source : trade data from time - series Trade by Industry - MQ10 , , domestic production data from Detailed Index of Production Dataset C1 , , < heading > Dependent Variable EGRiy , employee number growth rate of industry i in y Source : employment data from time - series EG7 , , < heading > Control Variable NTi , net trade as % of gross trade in industry i IRiy , domestic industry production growth rate of industry i at year y Source : as independent variable . < heading > Hypothesis The null hypothesis is as follow : "" The changes of industry - specific gross trade relative to domestic production do not provide any information in helping us predict the change in the number of job employed in the respective industry , while the possible effect of net trade relative to gross trade and industry - specific production growth rate being controlled . "" < heading > Regression Equation: FORMULA Industry analysis applies the identical logic underlying national analysis to the industry- specific data on trade and employment . major difference is that , in the industry - related employment statistics , there exist no corresponding measures of the employment rate in national statistics , so we use employment growth rate as substitute indicator . The availability of applicable data is largely limited by the absence of comparable industry classification schemes in early trade and employment data . Hence we are forced to restrict our analysis to the time when became widely used in coding . Also , this analysis can only reflect the employment dynamics of the portion of workforce that is associated to good trading ( e.g. , agriculture , manufacturing , etc ) , which is actually shrinking in terms of its share in total workforce . Nevertheless , we can still get useful information regarding how the change of employment in certain industries might be associated with the change of the trade share in their domestic production . Such information is crucial in responding to some popular challenges in globalisation debates . < heading > Schedule This study is estimated to be finished in . Here is an outline of schedule . nd Week , data collection , data analysis , draft of report th Week , final draft of report < heading > Conclusion In summary , analyses concerning the application of multiple regressions on existing archival data are developed in this study to address whether globalisation cost job in . National analysis investigates how the change in gross flows of trade , and migration , as shares of GDP and population respectively , are associated with the changes of the national employment rate of workforce and those of different age groups . Industry analysis , based on the comparable industry - specific data on trade and employment since , explore the association between the changes of the factors . Both analyses are to certain degree restricted in terms of data availability and the applicability of findings . Nonetheless , both can still provide valuable information in responding to current debate .","< heading > Referral information Source of referral and a summary of key information presented to on with severe abdominal pain was interviewed on < heading > History All relevant information gathered from the patient about the presenting illness , co - existing problems , current treatment , significant past medical history and the social and family background . The patient 's view of the nature of the problem and their expectations for treatment. Presenting Complaint < /heading > presented to on with severe abdominal pain located around the umbilicus < heading > History of presenting complaint The abdominal pain started on after had his catheter changed and has increased in severity since then . saw his GP on who prescribed ciprofloxacin which had no effect . The pain is now radiating into the right iliac fossa , is colicky in nature and rated at a scale of out of for intensity . stated that the pain had been present constantly over . preferred to lie still in order to relieve the pain . The pain is associated with nausea and there has been one episode of vomiting which contained blood and was dark brown in colour . has not opened his bowels since but had been passing wind ( flatus ) . stated that his appetite is variable but that recently he has felt bloated after eating and is unable to finish his meal approximately every other day . < heading > Past Medical History Medical Atrial FibrillationBladder Tumour Prostatic HyperplasiaPrevious Stomach UlcerDiverticular Disease and neoplasm of sigmoid colonMyocardial Infarction AsthmaNo DiabetesNo hx of stroke or anginaNo hx of DVT / pulmonary embolismNo hx of Tuberculosis or Rheumatic Fever Surgical Partial gastrectomy for previous stomach ulcerLaparotomy x2 - colonic neoplasm and obstruction of small bowelTURBT ( trans urethral resection bladder tumour)2000 Anterior resection for colonic polyp < /list> Social History lives alone in a terraced house and is retired . His previous occupation was a long distance driver and sand and gravel pit worker . stopped smoking but prior to this was a heavy smoker ( approximately pack year history - for ) . is an occasional drinker . < heading > Allergies There are no known drug allergies < heading > Medication Fluvastatin 40mgLansoprazole 15 mg ODFrusemide 20 mg BDFerrous sulphate mg ODCiprofloxacin 500 mg BDPerindopril 4 mg ODTamulosin ODWarfarin Finasteride mg OD Family History 's mother had hyperthyroidism and bowel cancer . 's youngest brother died from a stroke . < heading > Systems Review Cardiovascular system No significant findings stated that his appetite is variable but that recently he has felt bloated after eating and is unable to finish his meal every other day . occasionally suffers from heartburn and is currently taking a proton pump inhibitor as he has a history of peptic ulcer disease . No weight loss . Genitourinary System has a long term catheter after a failed ( trial without catheter ) post TURBT Central Nervous System No significant findings < heading > Analysis of history The most likely single cause of the presentation , other possible causes and reasons for these choices . The findings to be looked for on physical examination to help decide the cause. In summary presented with a history of severe abdominal pain and episode of vomiting . described the pain as being around his umbilicus and radiating to the right iliac fossa . This indicates that the pain around the umbilicus is referred pain from the midgut ( midgut structures being distal duodenum , jejunum , ileum , caecum , appendix , ascending colon and transverse colon ) . also described the pain as being colicky in nature . This occurs due to the contraction of smooth muscle against resistance in e.g. ureters , intestine . The pain could therefore be referred from the small intestine . Causes of acute abdominal pain from the small intestine could be due to small bowel obstruction - the cardinal symptoms of intestinal obstruction are : < list > Colicky abdominal painVomitingAbsolute > The symptoms have been illustrated in the history and so the distension can be looked for on examination , however not all of these features need to be present in a case of intestinal obstruction . Small bowel obstruction is commonly caused by adhesions due to scars from previous surgery . From 's history we know that he has previously had operations on his abdomen and so this may be a potential cause for his presenting complaint . has also previously had a laparotomy to remove adhesions . Bowel sounds should be auscultated to rule out a paralytic ileus ( pseudo obstruction due to reduced bowel motility ) . However , this most commonly occurs post operatively or can be due to anticholinergic agents - none of which apply to . Bowel sounds are normally found to be tinkling in small bowel obstruction . Other causes of small bowel obstruction include ; malignancy ( very rare in small intestine and stated that there had been no weight loss ) , intersussception ( common in children < 4 yrs ) , volvulus and impacted faeces . The pain in the right iliac fossa could be due to a hernia and so the hernial orifices should be palpated on examination . Small bowel obstruction could result from a strangulation of the bowel and this occurs frequently in femoral hernias as the neck of the femoral canal is narrow . It is important to identify a strangulated femoral hernia / strangulated bowel as they are associated with a high mortality rate . Features suggesting strangulation to look for on examination include ; rapid pulse , pyrexia , colicky pain becoming continuous as peritonitis develops , tenderness and abdominal rigidity . Midgut pain which radiates to the right iliac fossa is also indicative of appendicitis . There is often guarding over the site of the appendix ( point ) on examination due to the inflammatory process spreading to involve the wall of the peritoneum producing localised intense pain which is continuous and so this should be looked for on examination . However the initial midgut pain is often dull in nature and becomes severe when the peritoneum is involved . Bowel sounds are often absent as the abdomen becomes tender and rigid . is also associated with vomiting which stated in his history . The patient is normally pyrexic and tachycardic and so these should also be noted on examination . < heading > Physical examination and mental state examination Highlight the findings most relevant to your clinical problem solving by underlining them General Examination ( ) < /heading > On examination was lieing in bed and was alert . had a nasogastric tube and catheter . did not have a walking aid and there was no sputum pot or urine pot . There was no finger clubbing , palmar erythema , cyanosis of the fingers , leuchonychia or koilonychias . No mouth ulcerations , central cyanosis and no evidence of vitamin deficiencies . No lymphadenopathy . Signs of dehydration were present : dry mucous membranes , normal skin turgor . < list> General Observations Pulse - 95 bpm irregularly irregular ( atrial fibrillation)Blood pmTemperature - CSaturations - 98 % on I + II + 0JVP →No ankle oedema RS : Clear vesicular breath sounds CNS GCS 15/15 < heading > Abdominal Examination Inspection On inspection there was mild distension of the abdomen . Scars from previous operations were noted - gastrectomy and laparotomy . No visible hernias . Palpation The abdomen was tender to palpation especially in the right iliac fossa Auscultation Bowel sounds were present and were high pitched of the abdomen was resonant . ( from notes ) Tender right femoral lump < heading > Analysis of history and examination Reasons for your choice of the cause of the patient 's problem(s ) and any other cause that still needs to be considered at this stage On observation and examination the patient was apyrexial and tachycardic . A nasogastric tube was in situ for aspiration of gastric contents as had been vomiting and there appeared to be signs of dehydration as the mucous membranes were dry . The distension of the abdomen and resonance on percussion indicate that the distension is due to gas and not free fluid . Tenderness in the right iliac fossa and a palpable lump may indicate the presence of a femoral hernia . Given that bowel sounds were present ( and the patient presented with pain ) an ileus can be ruled out ( functional obstruction due to reduced bowel motility ) . can also be ruled out as 's temperature was stable , bowel sounds were present and there was no guarding over point on examination . Bowel sounds were also high pitched indicating obstruction of the bowel . The likely diagnosis at this point could be either an obstructed femoral hernia or obstruction due to adhesions as a result of 's previous surgery and history of adhesions . < heading > Formulation of the patient 's problem(s ) Encapsulate this in physical , psychological and social terms ( the triple diagnosis) is an man who lives alone . has a significant history of past medical problems , the treatment of which may have contributed to his presenting complaint i.e. previous abdominal surgery . has obviously been in hospital before , psychologically he stated that he was not particularly concerned about his condition but frustrated at being in hospital again and was keen to get the problem rectified so that he could return home . 's history of medical problems may also hinder his recovery post operatively i.e. recent and heavy smoking history . < heading > Management Use the framework of RAPRIOP to structure your proposed management . to the guidelines to the writing of portfolio cases for the details of the issues to be addressed under each heading. Investigations Plain AXR ( ): - to look for dilatation of bowel Marked dilatation of loops of small intestine . Plan : NBM , pump inhibitor to reduce gastric acid production - used for 's reflux and history of peptic ulcer < heading > Prescription / medical intervention Operative ( ): High incision for exploration of right groin - risk of strangulated femoral hernia Findings : Nothing in femoral canal , no bile / peritoneal fluid , no dilated small bowel . Multiple adhesions to midline . ( ): Abnormal results - K 4.2 , Na 145 ( upper limit ) , Creatinine , , , Comment - creatinine , and urea levels are raised which may indicate dehydration , levels decreased indicating anaemia , raised indicates inflammation . < heading > Reassurance and explanation Reassuring the patient - It was explained to that during his right groin exploration multiple adhesions had been found in the abdomen and these were the most likely cause of the symptoms he was experiencing . Nature of the Disease - Previous surgery has caused some of the loops of bowel which are normally separated to join together . This has caused the bowel to become obstructed . Management Plan - was advised that if his condition deteriorates he may need a laparotomy to remove the adhesions and consequent bowel obstruction . would need to be advised that his condition will be monitored to see if the situation can resolve itself without the need for further surgery . ( ): Still no bowel opening , abdomen soft and tender , tympanic bowel sounds present . was also coughing green phlegm . Comment - tinkling bowel sounds indicate bowel obstruction , green phlegm indicates possible respiratory tract infection Repeat AXR ( ): - to look for evidence of small bowel dilation Marked dilatation of loops of small intestine still present , dilatation increased compared to previous x - ray ( ) Some haze on left lung base < list> Plan ( ): < /heading > NBM , tube remain in place , IV access and IV fluids , Monitor urine outputIV Augmentin - to treat any respiratory tract infectionAbdominal Examination SHO ( ): Mild distension of abdomen . Tenderness in Left Iliac Fossa - mobile mass in left inguinal region - no cough impulse , non pulsatile / non expansile . High pitched bowel sounds . < list> Blood results ( ): < /heading > ESR 39 , K 3.4↓ , , ↑ , Creatinine ↑ , / medical intervention Operative - : - General anaesthetic and Epidural IV Cefuroxime and Metronidazole - to prevent infection Left groin exploration and laparotomy . Adhesiolysis and excision of small bowel stricture with repair of left femoral hernia < list> Findings : < /heading > left sided femoral hernia - contents extraperitoneal fatDense adhesions of small intestine to each other and previous scarsIleal stricture with an adhesive band - collapse of the distal part of ileum and dilatation of proximal small intestine Post Op: NBM , , tube , analgesia , C2 Stepdown Observation1 day post op: Pulse - 70 bpm irregularly irregular ( atrial fibrillation)Blood output 40ml / hr Referral and team working Pain management team , initially pain was delivered via an epidural tap , this was then changed to ( patient controlled analgesia ) . was also referred to the physiotherapists for chest exercises to help clear his respiratory infection . < heading > Outcome A description of the progress of the patient as far as possible . This should include consideration of further issues to be resolved . Where appropriate you should contact by telephone patients who have been discharged home. Unfortunately , developed a chest infection approximately after the operation . Sputum samples were sent and treatment was advised by the microbiologist mg for . The wound from the operation also became infected and purulent discharge was drained . Swabs of the discharge were taken and were found to be MRSA positive . The consultant microbiologist advised the following treatment for and to then review : < list > Trimethoprim 200 mg acid mg < /list > A referral was made to the tissue viability nurse who advised that the wound be treated with therapy . The dietician was also contacted and advised that be commenced on feeding as he had had a prolonged period without adequate nutrition and was at risk of re - feeding syndrome . Later swabs of the infected wound were still MRSA positive - the consultant microbiologist advised that a static dose of vancomycin g over mins should be given . It was also advised that the condition of the wound be assessed as it may be colonised with but not infected elsewhere . Assessment of the wound showed that it was colonised and so treatment was stopped . Referral to for a rehabilitation bed was organised . < heading > Evidence based care and issues for research A brief consideration of the evidence base required for the diagnosis and management of the patient 's problem(s) Many cases of small bowel obstruction will settle on conservative treatment but in patients with an increasing temperature , raised pulse rate , increasing pain and a raised white cell count , exploratory laparotomy is needed . It is important to try and manage the obstruction conservatively through drip and suck as further surgery could increase the risk of recurrent adhesions and therefore repeat episodes of bowel obstruction . In patients with simple or partial obstruction , resolution occurs in virtually all patients with within [ 1 ] . If the bowel is gangrenous due to strangulation then a gut resection is needed . It is important to recognise a potential case of strangulated femoral hernia . Evidence has shown that if untreated , strangulated obstructions cause death in of patients . If surgery is performed within , the mortality decreases to . The mortality rate is if the surgery is postponed beyond in these patients [ 1 ] . < heading > Commentary A commentary on issues of health care delivery , ethical issues or disability relevant to the patient and/or problem of cases of small bowel obstruction in adults are due to adhesions [ ] . Other common causes are hernias and Crohns Disease . Adhesions can occur after abdominal surgery , and can cause bowel obstruction either in the early or late postoperative period . Early postoperative adhesions are often formed of fibrin ( fibrinous adhesions ) and can be a transient occurrence . Adhesions that present or after surgery are more permanent and are formed of fibrous tissue ( fibrous adhesions ) . Bowel obstruction caused by either fibrinous or fibrous adhesions may settle with conservative management although a laparotomy may be necessary . 's previous surgery and history of small bowel obstruction were risk factors for recurrent adhesive obstruction . Obstruction of the small bowel leads to proximal dilatation of the intestine due to accumulation of secretions and swallowed air . This bowel dilatation stimulates cell secretory activity resulting in more fluid accumulation . This leads to increased peristalsis both above and below the obstruction with frequent loose stools and flatus early in its course . Vomiting occurs if the level of obstruction is proximal . Increasing small - bowel distention leads to increased intraluminal pressures . This can cause compression of mucosal lymphatics leading to bowel wall lymphedema . With even higher intraluminal hydrostatic pressures , increased hydrostatic pressure in the capillary beds results in massive spacing of fluid , electrolytes , and proteins into the intestinal lumen . The fluid loss and dehydration that ensue may be severe and contribute to increased morbidity and mortality [ 1 ] . MRSA is a huge problem for hospitals nationwide . Immediate , effective medication is vital in order to treat the infection and prevent further wound dehisence . < heading > Impact on your learning Describe what you have learnt from this case Physical findings in small bowel obstruction The importance of surgical history in small bowel obstruction The management of small bowel obstruction - Adhesive Obstruction - initially managed conservatively and drip is indicated when the obstruction is one of repeated episodes due to massive intra abdominal adhesions , rendering surgery hazardous and where a short period of observation with conservative treatment is indicated . Conservative treatment is abandoned if there is increased distension , aggravation of pain , increase in abdominal tenderness or rise in pulse . Use of tube - Nasogastric tube for gastric aspiration , aims to decompress the bowel and removes the risk of inhalation of gastric contents during induction of anaesthesia . IV fluid replacement - normal saline to replace fluid lost during vomiting Refeeding syndrome - This is a syndrome of hypophosphataemia , hypomagnesaemia , hypocalcaemia and fluid retention which is seen in severely malnourished patients when they are started on enteral or parenteral nuitrition . When the patient is straved , total body loss of these minerals is compensated for by movement of ions out from the cells into plasma , to maintain near normal plasma levels . When feeding is started the increase in insulin level encourages ions to move intracellularly and plasma concentrations fall . deficiency may also be a feature . Life - theatening dysrhythmias and congestive cardiac failure can result . Vac therapy - vacuum assisted closure of wounds . The treatment pulls excess fluid and bacteria from the wound site improving blood flow to the wound bed aiding the healing process . Symptoms of small bowel obstruction include : Colicky abdominal pain , felt in mid - abdomen . Need to know site , radiation , duration and relieving factors . no flatus , constipation is present distention , early in the course of the illness if the obstruction is high - seen as vomiting , earlier if the obstruction is relatively proximal in the bowel Signs : dehydration due to loss of fluid from when vomiting . ( the gastrointestinal tract secretes litres of fluid per day and during obstruction , this tends to be sequestered ) Hypovolaemia may result in hypotension and tachycardia . inspection and palpation may reveal scars , distension , peristalsis , hernias , but no tenderness . If the blood supply is cut off then tenderness develops . auscultation : hyperactive - borborygmus - or ileus rectal examination : may be empty after of symptoms < list> Investigations blood urea and electrolytes white cell count radiology : supine : obstructive picture of dilated small bowel sitting : multiple air / fluid levels in obstruction [ >",0 "< abstract> Executive Summary The main bookshops in have all managed to stay in business , although in close proximity to one another , as they all have very focused target clientele , whilst also trying to appeal to the general public . Also , they may generate revenue from selling goods other than books . < /abstract> Introduction This report examines the retail practices of the main bookshops in , taking into account the location , the internal layout , the items sold , the range of books , and the general atmosphere of 's , , and WH Smith . The information used in the report was gathered by visiting the bookshops individually , and recording information on key areas necessary for the report . The findings were then analysed , and each bookshop compared with one another . < heading > Blackwell's 's is located on , which may seem like an odd location at . However , it is next to parts of , which is ideal for academics . Also , the location is perfect for attracting tourists , as there is a tour bus stop , and is a popular tourist attraction . Therefore , 's have made use of its prestigious history in order to make 's more appealing to tourists , for instance , advertising the fact that it has a "" record breaking of books "" . The layout of 's is rather confusing , with many twists and turns . All the academic works are in . They are spread out over many levels , with many high bookcases . This creates a certain style , and atmosphere which would appeal to academic clientele . This is a theme which spreads throughout the store , but to a lesser extent . The children 's section has been given a cosy feel , and prominently displays the recommended books , with a few special offers . The general fiction section has a good range of books , but not as extensive as it 's academic section . In order to appeal to general customers , there are many special offers . These include recommended "" Books of the Month "" , signed copies of texts , advertisement of prize winning and short listed books , which are all needed to encourage sales in 's weaker area of general fiction . There are also "" texts "" which is another way in which they use tourism to their advantage . < heading > WH Smith WH Smith , in contrast to 's , has a less focused target market . It is on , which , as the main shopping street , is ideal for attracting customers . As is not just a bookshop , and focuses on a wide variety of areas , for example , stationary , the book department seems somewhat small and insignificant . The range of books is limited , although they do stock some non - fiction books . The fiction section is comprised of best sellers , and certain genres , including science fiction and crime . However , the range of books is limited , as WH Smith stock a relatively small number of books . There is also a children 's section with fiction for ages 5 - 8 , 8 - 12 and teenage years . There is also a good range of educational texts , from primary school level to A level . WH Smith targets the occasional buyer , using offers such as "" buy get price "" and advertising the and books . They also advertise a "" "" and a "" "" which is price . All these offers are used to entice the browser who may not have been in WH Smith for books . They also recommend certain books and have money off some titles , which saves time for busy browsers , and appeals to people who are not used to buying books . The general atmosphere inside the book department of WH Smith is generally poor . The lights are bright , and the bookcases suitable as the wall bookcases are high which is practical and makes use of space , and the central bookcases are lower down , which is beneficial as it feels more spacious . The bookcases in the children 's department are also lower down , but are not necessarily designed with children in mind . This may be due to the fact that the books are displayed with parents in mind , highlighting books that parents might feel are suitable for their children . However , despite these positive points , it must be noted that the décor is worn out , and unclean , which is not appealing to customers . < heading > Waterstone's Waterstone 's , down the road from WH Smith , is in a fantastic location , being situated on the main road , and on a cross road , with entrances on and . This means that Waterstone 's would have more passers - by with entrances , and in turn would encourage more custom . Waterstone 's sells predominantly books , however it does sell notepads in addition to wrapping paper and cards . This is promoting books as gifts . There is also a coffee shop , a chain . This allows customers to sit and read their purchases , or books they are considering buying . This creates a more relaxed atmosphere and also attracts the buyer who treats reading as a leisure activity . The coffee shop may also attract a broader spectrum of customer . The window displays the top bestsellers , books on offer , and the collection . This is a way in which Waterstone 's have tried to appeal to the customers who buy books for , and for readers who are too busy during . Downstairs is the main fiction section , containing best sellers , new books , crime , and classic fiction . It also has an "" Oxford Recommends "" section . Therefore , like 's , this is utilising the tourism market . The downstairs is deceptively small , which is useful as it does n't intimidate the general shopper . However , there are more floors and a basement . This is useful , as it enables a large number of books to be held , whilst appearing less intimidating . Also , the higher floors contain more specialised books , such as science fiction , architecture , poetry , popular science and law . This is perfect as the more experienced book buyers will feel more comfortable . The general atmosphere of Waterstone 's is on of quiet appreciation , appealing to frequent readers , but also attempting to attract occasional buyers , with offers and also book signings to bring in more customers than just the usual ones . < heading > Borders Borders is located on , further down from Waterstone 's and , which may not be ideal as it does n't have as many passers - by , but being located next to a local supermarket would increase it 's footfall . is unique in it 's retail practices , as it focuses equally on DVDs , music , books and games . This does not detract from the quality or range of the books department , but most likely increases the sales , as it brings in more customers through the doors . Also there is a Paperchase concession , and a , which reaps the same benefits as the Waterstone 's and the 's coffee shops . The window displays a range of items , such as DVDs , as well as books , and also a book signing , and a talk from a talk from an author . It also advertises special offers such as for 2 , which is a device used for the same reasons as the other bookshops . The internal layout of is remarkably different to the other bookshops researched . It is very spacious , and each floor is big , therefore only has floors . The best sellers and new books are at the front , with crime and science fiction . The rest of the general fiction section is on the left hand side of the shop , some of which is next to , which encourages people to read whilst having a coffee , and therefore encouraging sales . also have chairs around the shop for this purpose . Although chairs were present in both 's and Waterstone 's , it is evidently more successful in , as they were being utilised . This is most likely sue to the relaxed atmosphere in , created by the friendly staff and relaxing music , whereas the staff in the other bookshops were intimidating . The non - fiction section is both at the back of the shop and downstairs . This is rather confusing , as there is no particular way in understanding which topics are upstairs and which are downstairs . Also downstairs is the children 's section , next to games . This encourages children who go downstairs , to look at the games , to buy books , encouraging sales . < heading > Conclusion From the researched gathered , it is evident that although all major bookshops aim to attract the tourists , the passer - by , and the occasional browser , each shop has a target group , which each chain aims to please , as once they have established a certain client base , it is best to stay focused on that group . WH Smith only aims to sell to the occasional buyers , and does not target certain groups in society . 's target group are academics , and people who still regard reading as a precious and intellectual past time , as does . Borders however target the more relaxed reader , and possibly people who do not normally buy books , and may be in browsing in the music department . may also be targeting the large number of students in , as it has an inviting atmosphere for students , and did conduct a trial offering student discount , and have student discount on a regular basis . Therefore , as each chain target different groups of people , they have all managed to remain successful in although remarkably close to each other .","< heading>1 . Introduction The report aims to identify through research whether is a suitable market for a hospitality company to enter and expand its business . based boutique hotel in the countryside was established in , and is planning an expansion to . After a successful operation in the the hotel was rolled out across other countries during . Currently is operating in countries and . unit runs in each country and units in the ; all are discretely sized properties . The same brand name is utilized across all countries : ( FBH ) . All the properties have a special identity adapted to the culture of each country while offering a unique atmosphere , charm , authenticity and calm everywhere in a beautiful scenic mountainside or countryside setting . As being such a huge success in the company decided to expand and make presence in , where nature is outstanding with its huge mountains and lakes . It is an interesting place for the company to explore because environmental scanning of suggested that it could be an easy environment to get in , in the view of more similarities with the than differences . is the world 's largest country , rich in natural resources . The country profile compiled by Datamonitor ( ) states : "" are rightly proud of their tradition of tolerance , openness and stability "" , which suggests that they are a welcoming nation . It can be considered as an attractive market , because it is politically stable , economically very well developed , accounting for the largest economy in the world ( see Appendix 2 for details ) . International marketing intends to offer a product tailored to the needs of the local customers within a global framework ( and , ) . Therefore it is necessary to recognise the needs and interest of the customers one aims to offer their product to . The main characteristics of FBH are personalised , high quality service , relaxing ambience , pampering spa treatments , fine wines and fine dining , all of which created and delivered with attention to detail . Therefore the targeted segment is a specialised niche , luxury market with high education and high disposable income , health awareness and aged . < heading>2.1 Evaluation of the Business Environment A successful company always needs to be adaptive to the changes happening in the environment it operates in ( and , ) . Both macro- and micro - environments need to be taken into consideration when evaluating business environment . The macro- environment has been analysed through Political , Economical , Social , Technological and Environmental ( PESTE ) scanning in order to identify key similarities and differences between external environments of and ( see Appendix 2 for more details ) . The micro- environment has been investigated through analysing potential employees and customers as internal factors affecting marketing and direct competitors as external factors . For a company the environment can be considered as easy to enter for the following reasons : both are open economies encouraging tourism , there is high business- and consumer confidence ( and , ) . Joining ( ) in enabled to specialise in some profitable industries ( , ) such as aeronautics or network technologies . 's independent foreign policy helped some firms especially in tourism sector to work on some lucrative joint venture projects in connection with ( Datamonitor Canada , ) . The macro- economic framework created in supported well 's economy to produce at its prospective ( , ) , there were no major imbalances . The only exception was when outbreaks of Severe ( SARS ) in , the Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy ( ) in western and forest fires and electricity blackout in affected some sectors and regions ; but in general did not have a big affect on annual GDP growth according to , ( ibid ) . These disasters negatively influenced the tourism industry in , while the was not that much affected by these happenings . There are more natural resources such as oil , natural gas and timber ( , ) in than in the , which in terms of exports accounts for a great deal . Also the close trading relationship between and the can not be ignored as it is unique . of total exports exit for the market ( , ) while being the biggest trading partner for the it accounts for of total exports ( Datamonitor UK , ) . From political point of view there is major difference that needs attention , the issue of the - speaking province of in who rejected "" a referendum on secession from the Federation in "" ( , ) . There is a big divide between the Francophone province and the rest of the country . Many feel their ethnicity is at risk from the huge Anglophone culture of . Also the east - west split influences the political culture in . Economically both countries are very well developed , counting for , the for the largest economy in the world and future predictions are promising , too . ( Appendix 2 , Economical factors ) From socio - cultural point of view the main difference is again the French- internal tension in . There is bilingualism in ( , ) and official language in the . There will be no language barriers when conducting a business in which is a great advantage ( , Social influences ) . Technologically both countries are very advanced there is a lot of investment in new technologies in both countries ( , Technological influences ) . When conducting business in a foreign country this fact is essential in terms of marketing communication possibilities . The spread use of the internet is just possible feature to be used for successful marketing . From environmental point of view there are a lot more opportunities in than in the . 's natural environment is outstanding with its mountains , lakes , national parks , wildlife suggesting a lot of opportunities for tourism ( Appendix 2 , Environmental influences ) . As sport and health tourism are among the most popular ones nowadays these are supportive factors however the increasing popularity of ' new ' destinations such as South- America , and the can not be ignored . There is a future forecast by ( ) that there will be the lowest growth in tourism arrivals in the North- part , while the highest growth is expected in until . While is an attractive environment there is a big marketing challenge for hospitality industries to remain at the top . < heading>2.2 Demand There is a need for analysing the demand for travel and tourism in the destination country before deciding whether to enter the foreign market . Drivers of each type of hospitality demand apply to all countries for travel and tourism according to and ( ) which need to be constantly monitored by marketing managers in order to gain competitiveness . The same external factors of market demand influence all hospitality industries , the difference in success lies in the way they respond to these determinants . Looking at international arrivals , visitors are far the biggest sector for ( Loverseed , ) . There is an interesting growth from which might be surprising after the terrorist attack , however it can be explained that many tourists cancelled their overseas holiday plans choosing instead as ' safe ' place and alike to their home . There is a decrease ( Appendix 3 ) in travellers according to , which might be associated with 's choice not to participate in the conflict , SARS outbreak ( ibid ) . Nevertheless the table below shows that is still the largest inbound market to . < table/>After the international demand comes from the and . For is an attractive destination as the prices related to tourism such as food and lodgings are comparatively lower than in their home countries , thus is a ' good value for money ' ( Loverseed , ) . Travel and Tourism research also suggests that domestic and international business demand comes from where a large convention and meetings clientele exists . Advantages of business customers are that bookings are arranged very much in advance and cancellations are rare , whereas domestic leisure consumers are more likely to change their minds . Economic factors influence the volume of demand ( and , ) . Looking at disposable income in and tourist expenditures in , both show growth comparing with which suggest ' income elasticity ' ( Appendix 4 and 5 ) . There was a slight fall back in expenditure in and but it has risen again . International tourism receipts decreased in ( Appendix 4 ) , mainly due to SARS outbreak however this affected domestic tourism in a positive way . Inflation in is very low and has remained between the range of per cent since , which was established by and the Government as a target and is predicted till when it will be reviewed again ( , ) . Exchange rates are very in favour of , there was a currency appreciation in . "" Sharp and rapid appreciation of dollar weighed on demand . "" ( , ) . Low interest rates sustained domestic demand and personal consumption rose by in , while there were not very large wage increases . Future outlook is very positive , though there is a risk to be considered which the rise in oil prices is . Although would benefit from higher export income it would bring down the demand from the and would put downward pressure on exports , but this is impossible to predict with accuracy . Demographic data suggest the average household in consists of persons which is typical of developed economies ( , ) . In more detailed segmentation and niche marketing have been introduced in order to get a better picture about consumer needs . Especially in the luxury market sector , there are people with high income but probably with different interest coming from different business backgrounds . Geographic factors are becoming more and more influencing on travelling decisions . As suggests that tourist are becoming more interested in activity inclusive vacations rather than classical sightseeing ( , ) . The climate , diverse nature and scenic appeal of are definitely attractive for future visitors . From socio - cultural point of view holidays are believed to be a necessity rather than a luxury and this applies to . Growth in earlier discussed disposable income , short working hours a week ( average in in was according to ) , personal mobility enables people to travel more and more often ( , ) . Tourist arrivals by road are the highest in terms of method of transport ( Appendix 6 ) . National though in have their regulations for entrance by private car . Sustainability is a concern taken care of in . Influence of the media and the information technology are another factors influencing demand . In of households make travel arrangements through ) , which is going to increase in the future . Governmental regulations on eco - tourism are very effective in in order to protect the nature and the wildlife . People in luxury segment are looking for something inspirational , satisfying their special interest . < heading>2.3 Supply Factors in Canada When entering a foreign market there will be presence of existing hospitality companies and the competition needs to be examined . Porter ( ) recognised that understanding and analysing competitors helps to convey the best from a company . He identified ' competitive forces ' that drive industry competition : ' bargaining power of buyers , bargaining power of suppliers , threat of new entrants , threat of substitute products or services , intensity of rivalry among existing firms . A combined strength of these forces establishes probable revenue for the industry . Suppliers and rivalry among existing competitors is being looked at in more detail . Main issues in bargaining power of suppliers from hospitality prospective are the workforce and labour relations from marketing manager point of view . and 's figure ( cited in , ) of country clusters shows that belonging to as well as the and will make it easier to work there . having of the official languages there are no language barriers . On the other hand there might be issues with the question of skilled staff , as to be able to deliver high - standard service . In the luxury market sector skilled , dedicated personnel is essential to perform at their best ensuring customer satisfaction . While unemployment remains relatively high : in "" new jobs were created "" , principally in the services segment . literacy in ( , ) shows sophistication . A large number of highly skilled employees at FBH will probably take away a great part of the company 's profit . According to 's ( ) forces model ' intensity of competitive rivalry ' needs to be analysed , in case of FBH number and type of competitors . As targeting a niche market segment both domestic and international competition need to be looked at . Thorough research of the author indicated that there are a large number of boutique hotels in . Due to space limitation the ones big large number of rooms is being ignored , only the ' smaller ' ones are being looked at . However research suggests that in there is a different understanding of ' small ' than in . Key competitor hotel brands identified are the hotels and restaurants across , from which in , have been chosen to be analysed ; and other small boutique hotels in the area such as : , and . There is which however is not a hotel but can not be ignored because of its title , a top restaurant in town of being unique in the area ( Appendix 10 ) . These hotels all target a niche market sector . < heading>2.4 Market Attractiveness Canada attracts both small and large companies from any part of the world ( Osland et al . , ) and has one of the world 's most open economies for foreign investment . Dynamically encourages to commence a new business activity or expand their existing one by setting up small number of restrictions and regulations ( Government , ) . Federal requirement is to file a notification within of the implementation with . Selecting an entry mode is of the most central strategic decisions an intercultural company has to make ( , cited in et al . , ) . Implementing the appropriate mode of entry may help to achieve competitive advantage . Firm specific internal and location specific external factors need to be considered ( , ) when looking for the right method of entry strategy . Internal factors in case of FBH are as follows : a relatively small hotel with small number of bedrooms , with international experience in countries in and , high economies of scale , using global reservation system , need for investment in training . External factors suggest a politically stable country with business confidence , high level of economic development , not much cultural distance from the home country . However climate change can not be ignored when evaluating market attractiveness . The outstanding natural environment in with its scenic mountains and lakes , national parks are all determining attractiveness for tourism and are a critical factor when defining a quality tourism product according to in ( and Higham , ) . The loss of these natural settings out coming from climate change could have a great deal of negative implications on tourism in and the area as well . The tourism industry must be adaptive to climate change and should work together with scientists in order to develop a sustainable tourism program . ( ) ranks the entry modes in export- , intermediate- and hierarchical groups . Export modes are indirect or direct exporting , or export marketing groups ; which are typical choices when entering a foreign market for the time and supplying from the domestic set . , types of intermediate entry strategies are franchising , joint venture and management contracting , where there is a shared ownership between the parent company and the local firm . Finally hierarchical modes are where the company has an entire ownership and control . There are advantages and disadvantages in all categories depending on several factors . Research showed that for FBH most suitable forms of entry would be franchising or whole ownership . Franchising is easier in developed countries suggests and Kundu ( ) . Wholly owned subsidiaries require the greatest resource commitment , though it enables highest control and lowest technology risk ( Osland et al . , ) . There is a need for high personal control at FBH to ensure consistency . While in case of franchising the franchisee has the power of operational control and the franchiser has not a great deal of direct control . Root ( , cited in , ) states that there are different rules companies follow when entering foreign market . If decision is to enter all foreign markets in the same way it is ' naive ' , when the most effective mode is chosen he calls it ' pragmatic ' and when all the possible entry modes are investigated and then the choice is made taking in account maximum profit that is carried out following the ' strategy rules ' . FBH being present in several countries already suggests experience and capital to be able to invest . Some of the existing properties have been franchised , but for the new subsidiary an ownership might be more suitable to begin with . Also the employees need to represent the company itself rather than the country they work in . There is a plan to relocate some professionals from the based hotel to in order to train the new , locally hired staff and transfer the knowledge and policy of the hotel which is necessary in case of transnational organization according to ( ) . Subsequently there is the question of whether to acquire an existing building or to proceed with foreign direct investment . Acquisition might cause some difficulty as FBH is a standardised hard brand in terms of quality which will be explained later . However it might be a possibility to buy an establishment where a different industry operates that would be a ' conglomerate ' form of acquisition ( , cited in , ) in order to be able to establish own brand . Nevertheless it is time consuming and there is a need for high investment FBH should consider building a hotel with the opportunity to design according to the latest fashion and create its own image , and the possibility to implement ' state of the art technology . ' Market entry strategy suggested is a wholly owned subsidiary , a greenfield investment . < heading>2.5 determines potential clientele . From geographic prospective target markets are visitors from the as home country market , as host country market , regional , global countries and ( Table 1 p. ) . Regional demand comes from which according to the statistics is the highest . International demand comes from home country - UK at the place , followed by and . There is a mix of geographic target markets for FBH . However the standards of FBH target consumers are elegant ambience , relaxation , pampering , fine dining , and sophisticated staff . The similar values and lifestyles form their behaviour . Therefore the market segment is based on ' affinity classes ' ( and , ) rather than ' affinity zones ' . It is a narrow niche market looking for perfection . Niche markets such as spa are emerging in ( Loverseed , ) and they are targeted by smaller competitors , who are proposing original and appealing packages to attract specific interest travellers . Golf and cruises are behind the spa tourism . The spa usage is more likely to be linked with holiday taking as it is supposed be a stress relieving , fitness and health activity for both genders rather than beauty treatments or weight loss for only women as it used to be in the past ( Travel and Tourism Analyst , ) . Health consciousness of highly educated consumers creates a demand for health tourism in a relaxing and beautiful area offering nutritious and gourmet meal at the same time . Targeting a niche market who is not interested in mass destinations where ' sun - sea - sand ' desires are fulfilled but looking for something more personalised and meaningful in order to learn about themselves and their lives . Enjoying a relaxing holiday treat while remaining healthy , keeping fit and young - looking in a beautiful scenic setting of mountains . Sports tourism is another niche market in ( Travel and Tourism ) . According to statistics mainly consumers at the higher end of the income scale take part in sporting activities due to the high costs of sporting outfits for skiing or golfing . offering sporting facilities by its nature invites the to enjoy the outdoor activities , as well as the couple of hosted in made sporting activities popular . FBH is located in the mountain close to ski resorts and offering spa facilities . Prioritised target market is a low volume , high value global market for both business and leisure in a luxury price band . < heading>2.6 Strategic Orientation for FBH There are types of centricity identified ( , ) from an international hotel marketing perspective : ethno - centric , poly - centric , region - centric and geo - centric . "" Centricity "" is a tool to analyse companies , it is ideal , can not be perfectly implemented but helps to recognize an approach FBH should take when considering international expansion to . Following 's structure the following ideas have been formed : The ethno - centric orientation targets the consumers of home market , providing domestic offer , applying domestic marketing in any part of the world . This is a perfectly acceptable route when looking after people from in , which could be a possible approach adopted by FBH as it has been seen from statistics earlier that visitors are the largest inbound market in . The poly - centric orientation focuses on the host market , tailoring their marketing to the needs of local customers . There is a great domestic demand in but considering that there are no fundamental differences between the and as seen from the PESTE analysis of the environment perhaps this approach would not be the best to follow . The regio - centric direction concentrates on the regional demand , consumers from the in this case . FBH could possibly follow this approach as demand is the greatest in the host country . Finally the geo - centric orientation addresses the global market , having an affirmative mind - set towards any culture in the world and implementing the best management techniques from many different countries . Though there is a great regional , host- and home market demand in FBH targets a narrow , niche Anglo- market . The similar values are recognised rather than the country of origin . After investigating all the possible "" centricities "" it is recommended that FBH should adopt geo - centric orientation concentrating on global elite . < heading>2.7 Brand Image and Positioning The brand in the hospitality industry is a ' source of competitive advantage ' ( Bailey and Ball , p. ) as they support differentiation based upon characteristics of the actual brand . It encloses several advantages for the consumer , both ' functional and emotional ' . It is predicted that the number of the existing branded bedrooms will reach by ( Slattery , cited in and Ball , ) . ( ) states that a brand name should not be syllables and be easily understood everywhere to ease communication between supplier and consumer . The brand name ' finesse ' was originally designed to be easily recognised and pronounced worldwide in several languages . As ( 2005 ) suggests an "" ex nihilo "" formation of an international brand name , when it is understood in a similar way across different languages and cultures . These hotels distinguish themselves through the excellence of their warm welcome , individually designed and decorated rooms and suites , truly outstanding quality gourmet restaurant , the greatest vintages of fine wine and high - standard service and personal care . If needs of a specific target market are not met customers will not be loyal to the brand ( , ) . It is a challenge to achieve brand consistency . A brand name with the same name across different countries has to deliver the same standards everywhere in order to be identified by customers constantly and on repeating visits . < quote>""Branding can facilitate differentiation and positioning in a competitive marketplace "" ( ibid p.30). As prioritised market segment has been identified as luxury , following STP figure adapted from ( and , 2004 ) helps to get to positioning strategy on the following route : segmenting , targeting , positioning . There are Relais et in and some boutique hotels with small number of rooms . Consumer benefits are high standards , exceptional personalised service and stylish , individually designed rooms what the competitors do not offer . Product differentiation as in order to attract consumers , product and service should be different or better . present on all products throughout the hotel ( Appendix 11 ) . There is high brand awareness because of the presence for and also the high brand image fulfil quest for perfection . Enthusiastic staff is attentive to the smallest detail doing everything possible in their power to satisfy customer needs and furthermore make their stay a special and memorable one . Courtesy , comfort , cuisine , tranquillity , passion are all fundamental values . Gastronomy is created with special signature dishes from the famous head chef who works together with his team of dedicated professionals using their talent , creativity and local , organic produce to deliver outstanding culinary delights to the customers . Caters for all special dietary requirements , and provides special menu for blind people . Slattery ( cited in , ) has identified terms "" soft "" and "" hard "" in order to differentiate stages of consistency . Following this defined features the brand has been analysed . FBH uses the same brand name across all the countries it operates in , targets a specific segment , customers expect a consistent offer in terms of product , service , location . However there is no totally "" soft "" or "" hard "" brand all these characteristics mentioned above suggest that FBH should be a hard brand . Key loyalty emotions such as being pampered , relaxed and sophisticated are rated highest by luxury market consumers ( Barsky and ) . Getting feedback on customers ' emotions which appear through the experience with the product itself and the services offered in the hotel it is essential aspect for a successful brand and for gaining regular clientele . FBH is putting a lot of effort into investigating these characteristics moreover for the reason that according to research carried out by and Nash ( , p.39 . ) there is no evidence that any hotel "" have ever measured or used consumer emotions as a management tool "" . There are other things that FBH differentiate itself from its competitors . While positioning the brand number and types of services and their special characteristics have been analysed which are offered by each hotel . features included : designer suites , ski - in ski - out and heli - skiing possibility , spa and fitness facilities , gourmet restaurant preferably with a celebrity chef , individually named rather than numbered rooms . While all the hotels being looked at are close to the skiing gondolas with minor differences this positioning suggested more anticipation . However it has been found that for example does not offer individually designed suites however it is an elegant stylish boutique hotel in the heart of within steps away from the mountains . There are no spa and fitness facilities on - site however it offers a fine dining restaurant . is in the lowest position . Highest competitor was identified as . However the gourmet meals they offer are prepared in the guest suites by a personal chef in front of the fire place , which might be rather a big advantage for some of the targeted customers . None of the hotels offer rooms with creative names as it is at FBH , where the individually addressed decoration , fragrance and matching toiletries are all aiming to present unique qualities . All the rooms give a different experience , which might create a regular clientele returning with the wish to stay in another room with a diverse atmosphere or on a different occasion . FBH believes this is a good pulling power among all the others that offering quality , nutritionally supervised gourmet dining and refreshing spa facilities and outdoor activities in . Brand positioning map describes all these differences between the competitors ( ) . < heading>2.8 The marketing mix explains the tools that are used to control demand ( and , ) . elements of the hospitality marketing mix are being discussed in details : location , product , distribution , pricing and marketing communications . of all location decisions are crucial when entering a foreign market . being an attractive market to enter and targeting upscale market interested in sports , health , fine dining . Ideal location is in the mountains but in short driving distance from large and gateway cities such as and Calgary- both have international airport- to offer a leisure escape or even a different business venue close to the city . Suitable sites are premium where the most beautiful ski resorts are and the hot springs offering spa facilities . Close to competitors and to where the Olympic and will take place . Close the border as they are the major inbound market . Closeness to is another aspect in terms of high quality , freshly caught seafood offered in the gourmet restaurant , which will need a daily delivery . Considering all the above explained factors exact location chosen for the unit is in , on Whistler mountainside in village of Whistler . Future plans include the roll out of the brand into area and to part of , between and . the ' product ' element of the marketing mix is being discussed . According to and ( 2005 ) it is an essential matter to decide whether to standardise or adapt products when planning international marketing strategy . A large number of firms offer a standardised "" core "" product and adapt if necessary . Within the product there is a range of characteristics that might need different level of standardisation or adaptation according to different customer routine in various cultures . However there is a very strong argument against this from ( ) who believes that there is no need to differentiate in little details that might come out from various cultures . The company should concentrate on global- rather than personal needs . He states that the development of technology converts all consumers into a global customer who desires the latest product with lowest price . He holds the idea that the world demand has been irreversibly homogenized and ' this makes the multinational corporation obsolete and the global corporation absolute ' ( ibid , p. . ) . Nevertheless Usunier and ( ) strongly emphasise that cultural differences need to be recognised . They suggest that the offered hospitality and tourism product may be analysed with groups of product attributes , in order to meet customer expectations . These are physical , service and symbolic attributes . FBH offers an international luxury hotel product and customers are expecting a consistent offer , hence there is a need for standardisation in terms of high quality . Physical attributes such as size and facilities need to be standardised , on the other hand design should be adapted to the host country as the individually decorated rooms are created by famous designers . Each room will have its own name and fragrance according to the style and atmosphere it will offer . At the same time this will apply to the lounge areas and , the main dining rooms and private dining room . Leisure facilities offering spa treatments shall be standardised in terms of quality but adapted to local needs and potentials . The restaurant is planned to accept guests . Wedding receptions , business meetings , corporate days will be accommodated in the private dining room up to customers . Other physical attributes such as safety and hygiene regulations , climate and environment generated issues will be necessary to adapt . Service attributes are not easy to standardize ( ibid ) , they are more reliant on culture . However , consistent service standards are expected at FBH . Courtesy , welcoming smile and open attitude , telephone answered in rings , skilled multilingual staff are all standards of performance in all FBH around the world . Some adaptation might be needed in terms of training unskilled staff or customers arriving from fundamentally different cultures . Symbolic attributes are normally explaining physical attributes . The size of the hotel , the colours used in décor , the name of the brand and logo all represent a meaning . Though this can be understood in different ways by various cultures in case of FBH this would not apply . attributes should be standardised . distribution channels are being looked at . As FBH targets a narrow niche market direct marketing will be used to deliver the customers , avoiding intermediaries or using some specialist ones if needed such as it used in the . The element is the pricing . and ( 2003 ) state that there are internal and external factors which influence pricing decisions of a company . They also advise that after the target market and positioning has been chosen pricing should be easy to complete . In case of FBH high - income segment suggests high prices also for the reason that there is a price quality relationship . ( 2001 ) believe that a valuable design can catch the attention of the targeted market segment and makes it possible for the hotel to set the prices consequently . This theory applies to FBH as all the suites , restaurants and lounges are individually designed by professionals creating a special value and lifestyle is one of the main characteristics of the brand . However this will draw a danger as well in terms of product life cycle , as refurbishment and maintenance will require high investment . But design is element among all the others . Competitors ' prices are similar to FBH prices , that is a competition - based pricing ( and ) . In order to attract new customers and also to keep the existing clientele there is a definite need for powerful marketing communication . Creating a relationship between the seller and the buyer through advertising , sales promotion , personal selling and public relations ( and , ) are the possible routes of marketing communication . The cultural differences would apply again if thinking of a foreign market , but not in the case of and the . Anecdotal evidence shows that in the there is a big popularity of direct mail , in the host country direct mail will be the primary tool of marketing communication . Media in is among the top countries in terms of advertisement expenditure ( and , ) . A very good customer database shall be developed in order to understand habits and needs of customers the most and according to that information satisfy their needs . < heading>3 . Conclusion The research suggests that the negative affects on 's hospitality industry are demolishing and tourism is taking a positive turn in which is fully expected to flourish and develop , future outlook is promising . Niche markets are small at current but showing increase as specific interest is more and more the leading driver for demand . The extensive spread of the World Wide Web creates a great opportunity for customers to browse for the best deals when looking for a holiday destination which is undoubtedly a marketing challenge . The will draw the world 's attention to and especially and area where it will take place . There will be a great presence of media from around the world , which is a big opportunity for tourism and hospitality industries and for FBH to benefit from such a global event . FBH will make an arrangement to be a sponsor of the and will work out professional marketing plans in order to create special offers , packages and be prepared to accommodate sport stars taking part in the event . is continuing to be among the top destinations in the world ( Loverseed , ) , the challenge for the hotel and tourism industry and within it the is to create a bright image of the country , a new ' brand ' that will make it successful with its admirable nature and differentiate itself from the competitors . can be considered as a suitable market for - based to enter .",0 "< abstract>1 . Introduction If a tensile force ( F ) is applied to an atom in a crystal , then the spacing between the atoms ( a ) in that row of the crystal will be increased ( x ) . The restoring force acting between the atoms , will be proportional to this increase ( F = k x ) . In a simple cubic structure , there will be a atoms per row . Stress , is the force per unit area on the crystal , and strain is the ratio of the increase in separation to the initial separation . So the ratio of stress to strain can be expressed as : FORMULA [ equation ] ( More complicated crystal structures require more complicated expressions ) This ratio of stress to strain is known as an modulus . The modulus of a solid is "" the ratio of the stress applied to a body to the strain produced "" [ ] FORMULA [ equation ] The application of forces in different ways to a material can produce different types of stress and strain , and each of these has a corresponding elastic modulus . The application of a ' tensile force ' , which is perpendicular to the cross - section of a body , acts to ' stretch ' the body . In this case , the ' tensile stress ' is the ratio of the tensile force ( F ) to the cross - sectional area ( A ) , and the ' tensile strain ' is given by the ratio of the extension of the body ( Δl ) to its original length ( l 0 ) . Using these definitions with equation we can define the ' 's modulus ' ( E ) as [ ] : FORMULA [ equation ] Similarly , the application of a ' torsional force ' , parallel to the cross - sectional area of the body , which acts to ' twist ' the body . The ' torsional stress ' is then the ratio of the tangential force ( F ) to the area ( A ) on which it acts , while the ' torsional strain ' is given by the angle of deformation ( θ ) , and allows the ' Shear modulus ' ( G ) to be defined [ ] : FORMULA [ equation ] If a force is applied momentarily , the effect will propagate down the body in the form of a wave pulse . From equations and we can see that the force is related to the elastic modulus of the material , and so appears in the wave equation describing a longitudinal wave travelling through a thin solid [ 5 ] : FORMULA [ equation ] Where η is the strain , and ρ the density of the material . Making the velocity of the wave ( c ): FORMULA [ equation ] When dealing with a cylindrical rod however , the body is not thin , and so the wave equation becomes much more complex . A similar process follows for the shear modulus , where waves also propagate along the body when a momentary torsional force is applied . When these ' elastic ' wave pulses travel along a cylindrical rod , length ( L ) , they are reflected back when they reach the end . If a continuous wave were applied , an ' excited state ' could be set up along the rod at particular frequencies . If such a continuous wave is set up using a torsional vibration , the velocity of the wave is given by [ 1 ] : FORMULA [ equation 1.6 ] And from simple wave mechanics , it can be shown that the frequency ( f ) at which the oscillations will produce resonances is : FORMULA [ equation ] The frequencies at which resonances would be set up along the rod are clearly dependent on the Shear modulus . Combining equations and produces this equation relating the Shear modulus to the resonant frequencies [ 1 ] : FORMULA [ equation ] Where f n is the frequency at which the n th resonant mode is found . The plotting of f n against n , should produce a straight line graph through the origin , and rearranging equation allows the gradient to be used to calculate the Shear modulus : FORMULA [ equation ] A similar theory applies to ' bending ' oscillations , for calculating 's modulus . However this time the velocity of the wave is not solely dependent on E and ρ , but also on the radius ( R ) of the rod being oscillated . The equation for this is [ 1 ] : FORMULA [ equation ] This time the frequency does not scale with n , but rather n 2 . Plotting a graph of n against the square root of the frequency will produce a straight line graph with equation : FORMULA [ equation ] 's modulus can now be calculated either from the gradient ( A ) of the graph , or the y - intercept ( B ): FORMULA or FORMULA [ equations and ] For isotropic materials ( a material whose physical properties are independent of direction [ ] ) , the ' ) is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain [ ] : FORMULA [ equation ] This can also be expressed in terms of the Shear and 's moduli in the form [ 7 ] : FORMULA [ equation ] And so an estimate of the ratio can be calculated from the Shear and 's moduli calculated earlier . < heading>2 . Experimental Detail V - blocks were used to support a cylindrical bar , with soft padding under the bar so as to have as little effect on the vibration of the bar as possible . The end of the bar contained a coil , and is placed between the poles of a permanent magnet , as centrally as possible , to maximise the strength and uniformity of the field . The ends of the coil were connected to an alternating current ( ) supply , the frequency of which could be varied using an ' oscillator ' . For measuring the bending modes , bars with coils wrapped around the radius of the bar were used . For the torsional modes , the bars had coils parallel to their length . < figure/>On the other end of the rod , a gramophone pickup was rested . In order to maximise the sensitivity of the pickup , it was placed as close to the end as possible , and as central to the rod as possible , so that the motion was perpendicular to the pickup 's arm . The signal from the pickup was amplified and then fed into the y - axis an oscilloscope . The materials being investigated were Aluminium , Copper and Corundum ( Al 2O 3 - a ceramic ) . Note these are all isotropic materials . < picture/>To measure the frequencies at which resonances occurred , the oscillator supply frequency was increased until the oscilloscope connected to the gramophone pickup showed a resonance had been reached . Resonances were determined by the increase in amplitude of the vibrations from the normal vibrations . Measurements were made across the range of frequencies from 1kHz to 25kHz . This was a large enough range to obtain around resonances , which allows the plotting of a reasonable graph . Measuring at higher frequencies resulted in the amplitude of the resonances being too low to distinguish from the general oscillations . Errors in the values measured for frequency were estimated from the precision of the read - out display for the oscillator . The amplitude was also recorded at each resonant frequency , to aid in the determination of proper resonances from intermediate ones , during the data analysis . These measurements were taken from the y - axis on the oscilloscope . Errors were not applicable , as these readings were not being used in the actual calculations . Both the torsional and bending bars for each metal were then measured . The radius was measured with a micrometer , and the length measured using a ruler . The errors in these values were estimated according to the accuracy of the device , giving ±0.1 mm as the error in the radius , and ±1 mm for the length . Values of the density of the various materials were sourced from [ ] . The error quoted on the value for density in this book , were negligibly small for the purposes of this experiment . < heading>3 . Results The raw results were analysed through the comparison of amplitudes , and the plotting of preliminary graphs . The ' proper ' resonances have higher amplitudes relative to any ' intermediate ' resonances , and the couple of proper resonances have significantly higher amplitudes . Plotting graphs of frequency against mode for torsional measurements , and frequency against ( + 1 ) for bending measurements , should produce a straight lines passing through the origin . Having identified the resonances , subsequent resonances can be found by matching them to this line . Using these methods , the intermediate resonances were distinguished from the proper resonances and removed before the calculations were made . < heading>3.1 Torsional Oscillations Once the proper resonances had been determined , graphs of the frequency against the mode were plotted for each material ( figure ) The gradient was taken from each of the graphs , and with the measured values of the length ( L ) of each rod , was used to calculate the Shear modulus ( G ) using equation . The values calculated were : < table/>The error value quoted is derived from the error given in the linear fit as quoted by the graphing program Origin , which was used in the data analysis , and combined with the error in the length measurement . < figure/>3.2 Bending Oscillations The proper resonances once again were isolated from intermediate ones , and then graphs of the square root of the frequency was plotted against the mode in a graph for each of the three materials ( figure ) As before the gradient was taken from each of the graphs , and this time was used to calculate 's modulus ( E ) , along with the measured values of the bars ' radius ( R ) and length ( L ) and the referenced value for the density , using equation . The values calculated were : < table/>The error value was again derived from the error given in the linear fit as quoted by the graphing program Origin , and combined with the errors in the length and radius measurements . Only equation was used , as equation is very sensitive to systematic errors that may be occurring in the experiment . < figure/>3.3 Poisson Ratio Estimates of the ratio for each material were also calculated using the results for the Shear modulus , and 's modulus with equation : < table/>The errors were estimated by combining the errors in the calculations of the Shear modulus and 's modulus . < heading>4 . Discussion Here is a summary of the results calculated , compared to the reference values from and [ 8 ] : < table/>The values for the Shear modulus agree well for aluminium , and reasonably well for copper . However the value for bears no relation to the actual value at all . The values for 's modulus , are all in complete disagreement with the values form and . The values for the ratio are in total disagreement with the reference values , and in fact are negative , which can not be true . This is as the values calculated are derived from the values for the Shear modulus and 's modulus calculated , and these values are clearly inaccurate . Until more accurate values of these moduli can be calculated , it is not possible to find a meaningful estimate of the ratio . Ignoring the results , every value calculated here seems to differ significantly from the actual value for the materials . All of the values are or less of their actual value , and so this suggest that a systematic error is responsible . Looking at the equation , used to calculate 's modulus , we can see that the ' main input value ' into this equation is the gradient of the graph . This value is then raised to the power . This is a very large power to raise by , and any small deviation in the gradient would have a large effect on the value of 's modulus calculated . Inputting the reference value of 's modulus for into equation , and working backwards gives that the ideal gradient would be approx . Compared with the gradient from the graph produced of this is not the enormous difference seen in the final calculated values . It seems it does not take much of an error in the gradient to cause significant problems in the final solution . For the Shear modulus , however , the value of the gradient is only squared , and so the calculations are less sensitive , allowing the values for Aluminium and Copper to agree reasonably with the expected values . The value for corundum is still significantly out . This could be explained if too many intermediate resonances were included in the results . This would make the gradient shallower , and so reduce the value of G calculated . From the results above it is clear that even for the best result ( Shear modulus of ) the errors have been severely underestimated . The graphs ( figures and 4 ) show that the error bars are no where near large enough to encompass the linear trends , and so the error estimates in the frequency are probably the source of this underestimate . The error in frequency was estimated according to the precision of the oscillator read - out , however this does not well represent the uncertainty in the frequency at which the resonance occurs . In the experiment , the resonance was present over a small range of frequencies around the point measured , and it would be more realistic to have estimated the error based on the width of this range . The calculation of 's modulus could be improved in ways . , taking significantly more values for resonant frequencies , over a much larger range of frequencies , would significantly reduce the error in the linear trend from which the gradient was taken . In order to achieve this , the experiment would have to be much more sensitive to the small changes in amplitude required to observe resonances at higher frequencies . Improvements could also be made by more accurately determining the exact frequencies at which the bar is resonating . This could be done by using a more precise oscillator , where the frequency is know to a higher accuracy , and can be varied more finely . Improving the values for the Shear modulus could be made in the same way . The more precise measurements would help reduced the amount by which the values differ from the expected ones . While taking values over a greater range , would enable a more accurate measurement to be taken for corundum , assuming the lack of proper resonances was the cause of the discrepancy observed .","This essay will describe and critically assess the methods used to construct the "" Responding to Others "" interview . It will highlight any strengths and weaknesses that became apparent during the interview and look at ways of developing better interviewing skills . However , before this an ' interview ' must be defined . It is a formal meeting for the purpose of assessing their merits and to obtain information . This specific interview was to assess an applicant 's suitability for a position in . < heading > Constructing the Interview When constructing the interview we looked at the different types of interview , unstructured , semi - structured and fully structured . As the purpose of the interview was to ascertain as far as possible whether the interviewee was the kind of person who would be suitable to work in a health care setting we decided upon a semi - structured interview . This type of interview allows for the interviewer to follow up ideas , probe responses and ask for further clarification . Similarly there is scope for the interviewee to choose what and how much they say about a particular topic . A purely structured interview is very specific and does not easily allow the interviewer to gain an insight into a persons beliefs and values . On the other hand an unstructured interview could end up with a lot of "" chatting "" but no real important issues learnt . Using a semi - structured interview allowed us to ask ' open ' questions which gave the interviewee complete freedom when replying . An example of an open question is "" Tell me about the way you learnt of your diagnosis "" ( ) . As you can see from this question it allows the interviewee to "" tell their story "" . We thought that the few questions needed to get the interviewee talking in order that she would feel at ease before the more probing questions towards the middle of the interview which would ask for her ideas and opinions . We therefore put question at the beginning hoping this would encourage the interviewee to relax and talk about herself . As a group we decided to record the interview on tape in order that the interviewer could concentrate asking the questions and observing the interviewee rather than spending the time making notes . We were aware that this would be time consuming if there were many interviews to be done but for the purpose of this interview we felt that it would be the best method . It would also enable us to not only listen to the words used but also where the emphasis was placed on particular words . This can be very important because the meaning of a sentence can be changed completely . It became apparent once we had piloted the interview that some of the questions needed amending slightly in order and content . For example questions eight and should be merged into question as we were getting the answers to both when asking question . Although we were trying to get the interviewee to tell us about herself in question we soon realised that it needed to be more specific . It was too vague and did not give a clear idea of what we wanted thereby making the interviewee feel more nervous which was in complete contrast of what we were trying to obtain . We should have led into the question by referring to the details on her Curriculum Vitae . This would have given her some direction as to what information we were looking for . We were aware that we needed to keep the questions clear and use no jargon as this could easily confuse the interviewee and make her more nervous . It can be seen that jargon is often used by professionals to protect them from having to face up to the impact of the information on a patient . For example , it has been found that of patients claimed not to have understood the information given to them . In addition to of well educated students did not understand the meaning of terms such as anti - emetic or dilated ( Lee ) . In addition to this we felt that it was necessary to have prompts ready in case the interviewee was too vague with her answers and they would help to make the interview flow more easily . A further point that we needed to bare in mind when constructing the questions was to be careful asking questions drawn on concepts . An example of this would be a question with regard to sexual harassment which is a common phenomena . However , a study has shown that when asking women in there 70 's and 's about incidents of sexual harassment during the war there were many blank expressions on the women 's faces . It was the concept they had difficulty with because when the question was rephrased to "" if they could recall experiencing anything at the hands of men which they perceived as ill - meaning , mischievous or unkind "" , the stories began to flow . ( ) . It can be seen therefore that the question needs to be phrased in a way that is going to be understood by the interviewee . < heading > Conducting the interview The interview was conducted in a small room but unfortunately there was another interview being conducted at the same time . This was not ideal and was quite difficult at times because the interviewer could not always hear the answers given by the interviewee . The interviewer introduced herself and gave a brief summary of the sort of questions that was going to be asked . As we had decided to use a tape recorder we asked permission before we began with the questions . Permission was given but on the understanding that the tape would be destroyed once it had been transcribed . The interviewer sat with open posture and head slightly forward thereby giving the impression that she was very attentive and interested in what the interviewee had to say . There was good eye contact throughout the interview and some humour was used which we felt helped to make the interviewee relax and open up further . The interviewer improvised with the questions where appropriate , the script was not followed exactly as planned . When the answers were being given the interviewer gave plenty of agreeing nods which once again showed interest . We were aware that the interviewee needed time to answer the questions and when there was a slight pause the interviewer smiled and did not rush in with a prompt too quickly . However , it was noted that the interviewee was sat with a straight back and hands crossed on the desk throughout the interview . Non - verbal communication plays an important part when interviewing , this is made up of such things as eye contact , dress and body language . It has been seen to be times more powerful than verbal communication . In addition to this it must be understood that cultural patterns differ with regard to non - verbal communication . A study has shown a difference in the timing of gaze while speaking and listening between white and ( ) . It is important to avoid misunderstanding provoked by cultural differences in both verbal and non - verbal communication . The spoken word can be interpreted in so many different ways depending on the tone , pitch , volume and perhaps the most important part of this is where the emphasis is placed on certain words . When all questions had been answered the interviewee was thanked for her time and acknowledged that she gave some very interesting answers . This was to convey a positive attitude and show empathy . Before closing the interview we asked if there were any questions the interviewee wanted to ask and then stood up to shake her hand . The interview was piloted times before we came up with what we felt were the right questions in the right order . We each took a turn at the different roles and this allowed us to critically analysis the methods we had used and develop ways of improving our skills . As an observer we were able to take more notice of non - verbal communication such as body language and to see how the interviewee reacted to certain questions . Being the interviewer gave an insight into any additional questions or probes that we needed to include . < heading > Responding to Others This part of the essay will look at what needs to be developed in order to improve interviewing skills as a health and social care professional . I will reflect on the things I have learnt but reflection needs to be defined . This is the ability to examine your own actions , thoughts and feelings . It is a key issue when developing professional knowledge and judgement . It is described as "" The creative process whereby novel solutions are found to professional problems at work "" . ( Schon ) When looking at the interview one of the and possibly the most important issues that we did not establish was the interviewee 's name . This is essential to ensure that you have the right person and to avoid any breaches of confidentiality . Also at the beginning of the interview it would have been better to state how long it was likely to last . This enables the interviewee to prioritise her thoughts and answers and it avoids the difficult situation of the interviewer having to cut short any answers . In addition to this we could have made "" small talk "" about the weather or the journey as this is helpful in reducing the interviewee 's anxiety . However , if this goes on for too long it could in fact cause more anxiety . Furthermore , at the beginning of the interview we briefly explained what sort of questions we were going to ask and said we would include a question on disputes within the workforce . It could be argued that by using the word ' dispute ' we immediately made the interviewee feel anxious and it may have been better for us to be more general about the content of questions we were going to ask . Interviews should be as ' normal ' as possible for the interviewee which means the vocabulary used should be as close to the persons normal social conversation in order not to distract the interviewee and make them feel overwhelmed by the questioning . It can be seen that this can often be a problem as the professional can be worlds apart from the interviewee in education , income and class . A real effort must be made to put all these things aside in order to obtain the information that is needed from the interview . ( Newell ) I have also learnt that the conditions of the interview need to be carefully considered in order to optimise the chances of a successful interview . For example , excessive noise can raise stress levels and also gives the impression of a lack of privacy . This was evident in our interview and could have been one of the reasons the interviewee 's hands remained crossed and she did not appear to be relaxed . If this can not be avoided the noise should be acknowledged with the interviewee and if it is too difficult to continue then as a last resort it could be rescheduled ( ) . In hindsight we should have mentioned the noise levels during our interview . Furthermore we needed to be aware of critical thinking as this is a very important quality for a health and social care professional to have . Research has shown that it makes a big difference to the quality of service that the service user obtains when the professional is a critical thinker . This involves the careful examination and evaluation of beliefs and actions ( Gibbs and Gambrill ) . With this in mind I feel we could have altered our questions slightly to probe more into whether the interviewee was a critical thinker . We needed to confirm that she could recognise many different perspectives within topic and would not just accept an outcome if she did not agree with it but would be ready to "" question the answer "" . Without critical thinking the outcome could be helper induced harm , for example institutionalised healthy deaf children could become incorrectly labelled as having emotional problems ( ) . When we came together in our group we decided we would each come up with a set of questions and then meet on another date to collate them and pick out the best from each list . We decided this would be a better method than brainstorming in a group because it has been seen that it is more creative and does not inhibit the individuals ideas . We were able to be critical of each others questions and reword them to the satisfaction of all and it was therefore a very positive exercise . When we came to pilot the interview one member did not want to be the interviewer or interviewee but we felt this was possibly due to nerves . However , if they are not willing to partake fully in other group activities then the theory of social loafing must be recognised . During my placement a particular incident has highlighted to me the importance of effective communication when working within a multi - disciplinary team . I was visiting a family who had been referred to by their . The mother was struggling to cope with her children under the age of two and was again expecting another baby . The health visitor felt that she was isolated and needed help to encourage her to participate in toddler groups and other activities . At the visit the co - ordinator from Home - start outlined the situation as she saw it and of course mentioned the pregnancy . However , it turned out that she had lost the baby prior to our visit and had failed to notify . This shows a complete lack of basic communication skills between the professionals and is wholly unacceptable . In conclusion , therefore , effective communication and interviewing skills between a multi - disciplinary team and the service user are possibly the most important issues when trying to ensure the service user obtains the correct care .",0 "Strategy as a response to external and Threats and to internal as a means of achieving competitive advantage ( de Wit&Meyer , ) This view of strategy is what underlies SWOT analysis as a modern analytical approach used to support the search for a favorable competitive position . It is the simplest form of presentation that is of practical value for describing a business and its environment . ( , ) < table/>I. Real opportunity - the strengths enable it to pursue opportunities successfully . II . If the weaknesses significantly lower its performance , decision - maker must consider actions to overcome the weakness . III . Real threat - it is not equipped to deal with the threat . IV . Strength can help overcome such threat . < heading > Some Limitations of SWOT No weightings of factors to determine which factors are the most important at the present time/ the most relevant for the firm ? classification on factors as weakness / threat or strength / opportunity opening oil sector : threat - potential expansion of supplies , rising oil price opportunity - profitable investment for giants such as More important is to have a careful identification of these external and internal factors followed by an appraisal of their implications ( Grant , 2005 ) Strength versus distinctive competence Strong capacity of a firm is not necessarily the unique competence in comparison to rivals . Static and not forward looking Can only be done once , no point of review Over - Simplification Not good at dealing with a complex and often paradoxical world ( Broklesby&Cummings ) - Icarus Paradox - strengths potentially being weakness . However , while is more appropriate for smaller businesses , its nature also leads to its wide application , from project to nation , where a relatively quick analysis is needed . Absence of ethical aspect and personal motive in strategic planning - Certain industries such as mining must consider the degree of risk the society might entail . They may be examined against the standards of responsiveness to the expectations of society the strategist elects . - What the executives want to do also forms an element of strategic decision . Of all the components of strategic choice , the combination of resources and competence is most crucial to success . ( de Wit&Meyer , ) Provides little guidance to managers Planners are left without indication as to where to search for such variables , or what to do after finding them in terms of how best to incorporate them in strategy formulation . SWOT remains rooted in vagueness , relies on an over - simplified process . ( , ) It is an atheoretical framework , of limited prescriptive power for practice and minor significance for research ( Dess , ) < heading > SWOT from More , More Customization , ( ) suggested a step model for assessing internal strengths and weaknesses . After initial survey of both strengths and weaknesses , the focus turned to resources and capabilities that can be used to build a potential competitive advantage . < fnote > Their steps include surveying , categorising , investigation , and evaluating . < /fnote > SWOT 's focus on the strengths rather than the weaknesses when evaluating a firm 's internal capabilities is also used by ( ) in his VRIO model . < fnote > In this model , a firm would assess their capabilities based on their value(V ) , ) , imitability(I ) , and organisation(O ) . < /fnote > SWOT serves as a stepping stone towards the implementation of the Balance Score Card and ( Lee&Ko ) . < fnote > SWOT is implemented to develop the key performance indicators ( ) with main perspectives of BSC . < /fnote > Combination of SWOT and 's dimensions of quality ( Storr&Hurst ) < heading > Learning Process I have briefly learnt the framework before but was initially not confident if there would be enough to say about this simple model due to its limited content in both lecture handout and seminar presentation . However , by discussing with people with more subject knowledge and learning independently , especially via e - resources , I have realized there are much more insights to explore . During the research of this assignment , of the questions that I have found intriguing is that whether strategic analyses such as SWOT a creative interpretation of a problem situation ( de Wit&Meyer , ) , whose evaluation depends on the idiosyncratic views held by strategists or a logical analysis with which business managers could assess their competitive positions , hence choose the action from a variety of options that brings the best chances of success . This assignment has left me with a genuine interest in the area of international strategies and strategic thinking , which I would like to explore further . I have found this form of assignment both enjoyable and intellectually stimulating and would definitely put in more time into reading relevant literatures for my next reflective piece on .","< abstract> Executive Summary Sales price structure of the product is analysed and recommendations on the customer margins for products are given as respectively . Financial appraisal of the project is carried out and the financial viability of the project is assessed using tools , which include : , , . Factors that may change over the life of the project have to be recognized . They include : - Reverse in market trend - Strategic change - Unforeseen events A wider range of factors are evaluated and a SWOT analysis of the project is produced . Successful launch requires realistic assumption of competitor response which is presented in the form of . < /abstract> Introduction < /heading > The Cleaning System market has seen the launch of a new product from of 's competitors , which has left with unsatisfactory sales . A ' new to the world ' cleaning system product ' Powermop ' is thus developed and it is suggested to be marketed under . The price of the various products to the end consumer has been decided . A financial appraisal of the launch has been requested by the management . Advice on customer margins and factors that may change over the life of the project is suggested . A SWOT analysis of the project and possible competitor reactions are presented and analysed in this report . < heading > Financial Analysis Advice on Customer Margins: After analysing the price structure ( see Appendix 1 ) , which includes the calculations for < list > Product Unit Cost Net PricePrice to Retailer < /list > It shows that different levels of customer margins will lead to different levels of profit . This would affect the revenue figure thus the overall profit . As our major customers are hoping for better margins , margins on the products are suggested as below . < table/>According to information provided by ( see Appendix 2 ) , the suggested margins on will give a better margin on both and ( £ ; £ ) compared to margins of ( £ ; £ ) , the current cleaning system product offered by , while the total margin ( £ ) exceeds that of any products in the current market including other competitors . It is likely that our major customers will respond to this increase in margin positively thus enhancing the prospect of a successful launch . < heading > Financial viability The project is only accepted when it is believed to generate a positive for the organization in the future . Forecast on total cost of the project and future cash flow is produced ( see Appendix 3 ) and the net cash flow figures are presented as the different between the turnover and total cost , where total cost is based on production cost , instore promotional cost and outside store promotional cost . Cost of Capital is assumed at . ( See Appendix 4 ) < list > The project generates a positive of £ . Discounted : : 28.2% Both and Discounted take the time value of money into consideration . evaluates the project over its entire life of whereas ignores receipts after payback period and the overall profitability . provides a margin of error indicating the project is able to afford a of before it is unprofitable . However , assumes reinvestment at , which is not possible as there is no parallel project being developed . The value will increase if it is possible to obtain finance with less Cost of Capital . But if discount rates alter over life of the project , can no longer be applied . < heading > Changing factors and consequences In obtaining the above figures assumptions are made , which can alter during the course of the project : < list>5 % market growth for each of yearsCost of capital of time before competitor enter the market Market conditions : < /heading > Reverse in market trend of public moving away from carpets to tile flooring , hence overestimated sales volume and spare capacity Change in economic climate , declining buyer 's power ; consumers switching to supermarket own brands of positive response from consumers , hence overestimated demand expected change in raw material price in global market < heading factors : < /heading>3 - year product life , prolong or shortenEffectiveness of marketing scheme ; overspendingOverhead increase ; change in profit levelDifferent accounting treatment ; change in profit figure Strategic factors : < /heading> Changing target market , household to office buildingBulk selling ; different marginsEstablish own product brand ; different strategies from Flash Brand Other factors : < /heading > Unforeseen events such as fire , union strike < heading > SWOT analysis ( see Appendix 5) Strength With previous experience of successful marketing and launching of similar products , Powermop enjoys the benefit of being part of the well - established . This innovative product is new to the world , easy to use , convenient and is believed to able to attract a lot of consumers . Product loyalty among consumers can be easily established at this stage enhancing a continuous sale . It can be marketed to target various market segments from households to office building . Being part of the renowned group is another strength not to be neglected . It offers specialisation in activities thus improves efficiency . Overheads , selling and administration , R&D and marketing expense are split between departments . The project can be financed internally and is also likely to obtain outside finance on better terms due to 's worldwide presence and reputation . More capital can be devoted into product development , marketing scheme and customer service . < heading > Weakness New product from competitors is expected to come in the market as soon as after the launch of Powermop . Therefore it has only less than 1 year to penetrate the market and enjoy the monopoly , within which time much market share has to be gained and secured to combat the early new entrants . Being the in the powered cleaning system market , Powermop is competing against many traditional products including its own product , which will be expected to sustain at the same level of market share in the non - powered cleaning system market . It will also have much marketing expense such as introductory offer , outside store promotion to build consumers ' awareness for this product and achieve product trust , of which the competitors will enjoy the benefit but avoid the cost . The of the whole project is not exceptionally high partly due to the high promotional cost ( in and out store ) . < heading > Opportunity The product is sold as a kit so there will be much room to boost sales on refill solutions and pads . Development can be made on existing features to enhance the product differentiation . Alternatively , patent can be applied to protect market share and prolong monopoly . Taking advantage of the existing presence and distribution network of , the product can be promoted in different regions towards different consumer groups , in order to achieve economies of scale thus improve profitability . At the introductory stage of the product , it can be offered at a discount rate or form part of the promotion of other Flash products to quickly enter the market . Once the product is established customer margins may be cut and lower cost of capital can also be attempted to gain a greater value . < heading > Threat The market has a high degree of rivalry and this product is very likely to attract competitors to enter the market with imitating product as soon as possible . It is essential to maintain the competitive advantage by emphasising on the leading technology and innovation in the market . Despite efforts to defer substitute , it is possible that competitors already have similar product development underway or will be able to catch up very quickly . The consumers could be satisfied with traditional mops and are unwilling to switch . This requires frequent market survey and close monitoring of the market . As the existing product costs of Powermop , it can be perceived as up - market , in which case it is not best marketed under . Other threats include declining economy conditions leading to reducing buyer 's power , possible request of increase on customer margins by retailers . < heading > Analyses on Possible Competitor Reactions Competitor 's Reaction Profile A competitor 's capabilities and ability to increase capabilities can be analyzed using a SWOT analysis . However , it is fundamental to predict its likely responses to competitor move , namely its reaction profile ( see Appendix 6 ) . It is essential to determine the reasons for a competitor 's reaction or behaviour to learn more about its competitive advantages and vulnerabilities . < heading > Possible Competitor Response According to previous experience competitors are almost certain to retaliate to the launch of Powermop . On the one hand the process of development in new products will be hastened and launching will be planned ; on the other hand if the competitor feel confident about its current market position and has the resources to defend it , it might cut price starting a price war or increase marketing expense on existing non - powered mop in an attempt to seize more market share and becomes market leader . The competitor may also choose either to be passive towards the launch of Powermop and focusing on current market , or react to the new product by developing its own . Alternatively , the competitor can wait until the product is reasonable accepted by the consumer and a ready market is established , then will they launch a more innovative product based on Powermop but offering more advanced feature . In this highly competitive market , the competitor 's ability to react swiftly to change should be evaluated - seen be able to adapt and strike back quickly . < heading > Strategic Management < /heading > Other tools that can help to assess the competitors ' capabilities , advantages , strategies and reaction patterns : < list < /list> Porter , , Sustaining Superior Performance . Free Press , . < /fnote > Following the gathering of information on competitors , attempts to identify each competitor 's strategy can then be made . common generic strategies are given below : < fnote > Porter , , Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance . Free Press , . < /fnote> Differentiation StrategyOverall Cost Leadership StrategyFocus or > The result of the competitor analysis should be an improved ability to predict the competitor 's behaviour and even to influence that behaviour to 's advantage . < heading > Conclusion The appropriate customer margins on Powermop Starter Kit , Pad and Solution would be , respectively . This will enable the project to generate a positive whilst retailers obtaining a better margin . The project is assessed using both financial measures such as and Discounted , and non - financial measures such as SWOT analysis focusing on both internal and external environment of the project . A successful launching requires careful consideration of changing variables over the life of the project and competitor response . This will also help to identify competitors ' strategies and enable the project to react strategically to achieve its overall success .",1 "guarantees that a competitive market will exhaust all the gains from trade : an equilibrium allocation achieved by a set of competitive markets will necessarily be Pareto efficient . Under these conditions , competitive markets also lead to efficiency involving the allocation of resources over time and under uncertainty . As education is not a homogenous product , this essay argues that in the market for tertiary and higher education , it would be more efficient for educational institutions to operate as profit - motivated firms instead of state sector agents . Nevertheless , market failure exists and equity issues are omitted in . Therefore , the part of this essay examines the situations in which state intervention in the education system , especially that for basic education , is warranted . Before concluding , a few caveats and policy recommendations for a quasi - market solution in the education sector would be highlighted . < fnote > Varian , , pg < /fnote > A Pareto efficient allocation is one where there is no way of making some individual better off without making someone else worse off and there are no mutually advantageous trades to be made . Referring to figure , point f satisfies the conditions for Pareto efficiency . Consumption efficiency is achieved when consumers ' indifference curves are tangent to each other on the contract curve . Ie : FORMULA where denotes the marginal rate of substitution between education and all other goods in consumption by a consumer . Production efficiency is also attained when producers ' isoquants are tangent . < fnote > Varian , , pg < /fnote > Ie : FORMULA MRTS refers to the marginal rate of technical substitution and it measures the rate at which the available technology allows for the substitution of factor for another in the production process . MPL denotes the marginal productivity of labour which is the increase in output due to the employment of extra unit of labour . is the marginal productivity of capital and is the increase in output due to the employment of extra unit of capital There is allocation efficiency when FORMULA ie : the rate at which consumers are willing to trade education for all other commodities is equal to the marginal rate of transformation , , which is the rate resources can be used to transform the production of education to all other commodities . demonstrates that competition , along with maximizing behavior on the part of institutions leads to a efficient outcome . < figure/>According to The Economist , like the have realized that their system of large "" - size - fit- all "" public schools was failing badly . spends of its GDP ( Gross Domestic Product ) on education , significantly more per head than the international average and far more than countries such as and whose schools do better . In , it appears as if the money poured into education was going to waste . have been increasing by for but outputs have only increased by a year , implying that productivity has been falling by a year . Public organizations , according to , do not directly concentrate the cost and benefits on decision makers . Hence they have an incentive to shirk . The market process , on the other hand , forces schools to compete for students and schools inept at providing services would lose their ' customers ' ( students ) to other schools . The organization of public schools protects educators from such competition because payments are not made directly by the students receiving the services , nor do public employees bear the consequence of poor service . By contrasting private and public educational systems with data on high school students , et al ( ) found that , after controlling for family background variables that predict achievement , children attending private schools learn at a faster rate . Therefore the evidence , in agreement with the Welfare Theorem , suggests that public provision is costly not only in terms of current expenditure but also in terms of forgone investment in human capital . < fnote > The Economist , "" notes "" , , The economist print edition < /fnote> The Economist , "" Back to School "" , , The economist print edition < /fnote> The Economist , "" Pick a number , any number "" , , The Economist Print edition < /fnote> , , , pg < /fnote> One difficulty with the et al findings is that they fail to examine what differences in family characteristics cause certain children to be sent to private schools in the place . For example , the decision to send a child to a private school may signal the presence of other parental investments in their children , which may be responsible for some portion of the differential rates . However since this last effect can not explain all of the difference , the study does confirm 's prediction . < /fnote > Although equality is deemed desirable , many argue that the reality of the transfers produced by public provision of education coincides much more closely with "" Director 's Law "" which states that public expenditure are made primarily for the benefit of the middle class . Peltzman ( ) found that the effect of subsidized higher education has been to shift students to public universities without greatly affecting total higher education enrollment . He concluded that the effect of such subsidies has been to transfer wealth to middle and upper - income families who would have sent their children to college anyway . In addition , proposes that governments willingly bear the costs associated with public provision because it reduces the costs of other governmental actions- in particular the costs of transferring wealth . Therefore , arguments for public provision of higher education on grounds of equity are unconvincing . < fnote > , , , pg < /fnote> , , , pg < /fnote> , , , pg < /fnote > To enhance efficiency in the tertiary education system , the strategy that follows is to use market forces ( with regulation where relevant ) to allocate resources with taxpayer subsides in respect of external benefits and redistributive activity to promote access . It is argued that since consumers ( university students ) are matured enough and there is sufficient information on good universities available , so long as each student knows only the prices of the goods ( university and degree course ) , he can determine his demands . Moreover , if the market functions well enough to determine the competitive prices , we are guaranteed an efficient outcome . Universities , however , are not the conventional firms of economic theory ( , ): they neither make a ' well - defined ' , homogenous product nor do they always seek to maximize profit . Thus red - in - tooth - and - claw competition is not necessarily the best environment for higher education . Therefore the role of the government in this system is to promote access by making available funding and scholarship grants , provide quality assurance with regular inspection of the general education standards in schools and setting incentives for the provision of subjects like music , drama , or some languages which are less able to flourish in a more market - oriented system . In this manner , government would serve its proper function of improving the operation of the invisible hand without substituting the dead hand of bureaucracy . < fnote > Nicholas Barr,2004 , pg < /fnote> , 2004,pg < /fnote > In sum , the part of the essay has shown that in the presences of perfect information and perfectly competitive markets , it follows from that the resulting competitive equilibrium is efficient . Nevertheless , acknowledging the fact that in reality market failures like externalities , imperfect information and monopolies exist , the part of this essay examines the circumstances in which it would be more efficient for government to intervene in the provision of education , especially basic education . Education is not a public good nor does it face general increasing returns to scale . Nevertheless , education creates important external benefits concerning productivity , shared values and civic participation . These benefits may be difficult to quantify but can not on that account be ignored . Referring to figure , because the marginal social benefits ( ) of education exceeds the marginal private benefits ( ) , left to profit - motivated private schools , the amount of education provided , Q , would be less than the socially optimum level , Q * . < fnote > , , pg 301 < /fnote>
Furthermore , in a market system for early education , since children ( the immediate consumers ) are not well - informed , decisions are left mostly to parents . However , parental preferences may be inefficient because they might themselves have imperfect information or they might not consider the child 's best interest but those of the family as a whole . Hence government intervention in the form of publishing a list of school fees or regulating them would help to ameliorate the problem of imperfect information . < fnote > Nicholas Barr,2004 , pg < /fnote > In small communities and rural areas , the number of children may be too small to justify school of reasonable size , so that competition can not be relied on to protect the interests of parents and children . As in other case of natural monopolies , where the Welfare Theorem does not hold , the alternatives to profit - motivated schools are unrestricted private monopoly , state - controlled private monopoly and public operation --- a choice among evils . This argument is clearly valid and significant , although its force has been greatly weakened in by improvements in transportation and increasing concentration of the population in urban communities . < fnote , "" The role of government in education "" in and the Public interest , : Rutgers college < /fnote > To summarize , in a free private enterprise exchange economy , government 's primary role is to preserve the rules of the game by enforcing contracts , preventing coercion , and keeping markets free . Beyond this , there are major grounds on which government intervention is to be justified . , the existence of positive externalities in which the action of individual yields significant gains for other individuals for which it is not feasible to make them compensate him . , where there is imperfect information and the situation complicated by intergenerational distributional and efficiency issues which arise when parents act as stewards for children . , in the presences of a ' natural monopoly ' which makes effective competition impossible . In all circumstances voluntary exchange is impossible and thus the Welfare Theorem breaks down and it would be more efficient for schools to function as state sector agents . < fnote > A natural monopoly arises where there is large fixed costs and the ideal solution in this scenario would be for the natural monopoly to operate the service and provide education at price equals marginal cost . A lump sum subsidy would then be provided by the government to keep the school in operation < /fnote> Milton Friedman , "" The role of government in education "" in and the Public interest , : Rutgers college < /fnote > Before concluding , caveats are to be considered when determining if the education system would be more efficient under profit - motivated schools or state sector agents . Next , a few alternative policy recommendations would also be suggested . , it is implicitly assumed in this essay that state sector agents are neither profit - seekers nor price takers and that the existence of profit - motivated firms signals the presences of perfect competition . However , in reality government policies like ranking of schools could induce competition , albeit imperfect , amongst state sector agents . , there are a few measurement problems associated with the results under both systems . Using standardized test scores to judge the effectiveness of the educational outcome is an imperfect measure per se . While it is possible to measure the quantity of some inputs ( teachers ' and pupils ' time , buildings and equipment ) it is not possible to accurately measure their quality . Therefore , while theories supporting separately both the case for private and public provision of education exist , in reality it is difficult to judge base on the outcomes , which system is more effective . Moreover , it is also difficult to ascertain the optimal level of provision for education because viewed as a positive externality , the amount of education chosen by an individual in a market system would generally be less than the optimal amount . However if claims of the screening hypothesis are valid , then education leads to but does not cause an increase in individual productivity . When increased productivity leads to higher income , an individual may acquire more education than is socially efficient . Therefore neither the market system nor central planning seems to be able to ascertain the optimal amount of education to be provided . < fnote > Nicholas Barr,2004 , pg < /fnote > Thirdly , a theory is only as useful as its application and application of any theory has to take into account the context . For example , under certain conditions , the Welfare Theorem may provide a strong case for private provision of education , however , in countries like there is an even stronger case for schools to be state sector agents . The government has included in the national curriculum social studies to inculcate nationalistic values and emphasizes the importance of racial harmony which is essential in a multi - racial society like . The problem , however , lies in drawing a line between providing for the common social values required for a stable society on the one hand , and indoctrination inhibiting freedom of thought and belief on the other . In contrast , in developing countries like it might be better for society to have more profit - motivated schools competing for students as it is not uncommon for teachers in state schools to go on strike to demand higher pay . These strikes could happen before the student 's examination and are detrimental to the child 's education . Therefore if they could afford it , most would rather attend private schools to get a better education . In this case , congruent with the Welfare Theorem , on efficiency grounds schools should be profit - motivated firms . However , on grounds of equity the government has to intervene to ensure that the poor are not left behind . < fnote > The conditions are mentioned in the part of the essay and include factors like perfect competition and government failure < /fnote > In view of the above mentioned loopholes in both systems , a quasi - market solution is recommended . Under the voucher scheme , governments could require a minimum level of education which they could finance by giving parents vouchers redeemable for a specified maximum sum per child per year if spent on "" approved "" educational services . Parents would then be free to spend this sum and any additional sum on purchasing educational services from an "" approved "" institution of their own choice . The educational services could be rendered by private enterprises operated for profit , or by non - profit institutions of various kinds . The role of the government would be limited to assuring that the schools met certain minimum standards such as the inclusion of a minimum common content in their programs , much as it now inspects restaurants to assure that they maintain minimum sanitary standards . In fact the education system in appears to be heading in this direction as can be seen from the policy recommendations in the recent schools white paper . For example , allowing schools to become independent trusts , with more say over admissions , staffing and finances . Local authorities are to be "" champions "" for good schools , rather than education providers . A "" schools commissioner "" and network of advisers would also be there to help parents make informed decisions . < fnote > Milton Friedman , "" The role of government in education "" in and the Public interest , : Rutgers college < /fnote> , "" in blow to school reforms "" , < /fnote > In conclusion , this essay first showed that it follows from the First Welfare theorem that for higher education it would be more efficient to have profit - motivated institutions . Nevertheless , due to market failure , government intervention is warranted to improve efficiency and equity . However , the law of states that if it says "" - size - fit - all "" it fits none at all . Hence one has to take into account the caveats involving measurement problems and context when trying to apply theory in reality .","< heading > Question 1 The sample data concerns the marks of students obtained in statistics exam ( qtmark ) and a plethora of variables which might affect the marks of these students majority aged . A summary of descriptive statistic in shows that the average marks obtained was . The median was also while the minimum and maximum were respectively . A standard deviation of implies that majority of the results vary . The correlation matrix in shows that some notable variables with positive effect on exam results include ability , attendance and time spent on revision while variables like expenditure on alcohol and coming from the are found to have a negative impact on qtmark . Amongst all the variables , ability was found to be the most significant variable affecting qtmark as demonstrated by its high correlation of . The fact that the ability of all students is normally distributed suggests a fair and adequate sample for regression . According to Romer , generally students with good attendance perform better in examinations . This concurs with the strong positive correlation of and 0.24 between qtmarks and attending classes ( attc ) and lectures ( attl ) respectively in our data set . Most of the students attended an approximate mean of for both lectures and classes . There is a slight disparity in the data set because there is a weak negative correlation of between the proportion of revision lectures attended ( attr ) and the test result . This could be attributed to the low mean proportion of revision lectures attended , . Nevertheless , when attr was tested it was found to have a positive impact on qtmark . For students who have been consistently working hard , as evident from the number of A - grades obtained at A - level ( alevelsa ) which is also positively related ( correlation of ) to qtmark , the higher positive correlation of compared to ( hrsqt1 ) proves that more time spent on revision ( hrsqt ) would result in higher marks . < fnote > Romer , - 173 < /fnote> Referring to the model in question which included the other relevant variables - ability and hrsqt < /fnote> Where hrsqt1 refers to spent working on statistics during before exam < /fnote > Some of the data do not appear to be very convincing because of the small sample size . There are observations as to whether a student has a home computer and this is only available for would have been more useful to find out in addition to owning a computer , the number of spent on using the computer for statistics . There does not seem to be a simple explanation for the outliers in the scatter plots in for the regression of qtmark against variables like alcohol expenditure . However , their impact on the regression is not significant . < heading > Question > FORMULA , restrict the sample to those having ability and hrsqt to obtain a bivariate regression for these respective students only . Table in shows that there is a positive relationship between ( qtmark ) mark in statistic exam and the ( attr ) proportion of revision lectures attended ; if attr increased by then qtmark would increase by . If attr were , qtmark would be addition , of the variation in qtmark is explained by attr because the R FORMULA value is about 0.000049 . In a bivariate model , the R 2 value is a good measure for how good of a fit the model truly is ; the higher the R value , the better the fit for the model . In this case we can see that this regression is not the best fit . Next , test the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between qtmark and attr , that is , the true slope coefficient = . Holding all other variables constant , the estimated value of coefficient is . Under the null hypothesis , we observe that the t - value is and the p - value of obtaining such a t - value is . In other words , accept the null hypothesis that attr has no effect on qtmark . Under the same null hypothesis that the true slope coefficient is , the F - value is . If we square the t - value of the slope coefficient of attr , we will see that this will be the F - value . This shows the close relationship between the t and the F statistic . This can only be true when the degree of freedom for the F - statistic is , which includes this particular regression . Hence we can see that at the level , we do not reject the null hypothesis . < heading > Question 2b FORMULA In ( ) , the variables hrsqt and ability are independent variables and part of the regression . However , the sample is still restricted to students having both hrsqt and ability - the number of observations are students in both regressions . This multi - variate model is assumed to be linear in parameters . The coefficients of ability , hrsqt and attr are called partial regression coefficients . Table in shows that there is still a positive linear relationship between qtmark and attr because a increase in attr will result in a increase in qtmark , given that all other explanatory variables ( hrsqt and ability ) are held constant . However , the intercept has changed ; if ability , hrsqt and attr all equal to , qtmark will be . The R 2 has increased to . As R 2 is bounded by and one , the goodness of fit for this model is still relatively low . In this - variable model , the multiple coefficient of determination R 2 is the proportion of the variation in ( this case ) qtmark explained by the variables ability , hrsqt and attr . This is an extension of the - variable model in ( ) . The multiple correlation R is simply the measure of the degree of association between qtmark and all the explanatory variables jointly . < heading > Hypothesis Testing Ho : β1 = 0 H 1 : β1 ≠ [ - sided test as attr can affect qtmark either way ] t = , t 0.05,343 = Therefore , reject and conclude that attr does have an effect on qtmark , holding ability and hrsqt variables constant . < heading > Test for overall significance Ho : β1= β2= β3 H 1 : βj ≠ ; j = , F = , , = at significance level Therefore , reject and conclude that the regressors ability , hrsqt and attr have an impact on qtmark . < heading > Question > FORMULA Where FORMULA ; ; FORMULA and the default is FORMULA < fnote > Reason for choice of dummy variable range : conducted and percentile of hrsqt to obtain , , 5 and respectively . This is to have equal variation in each range to provide more accurate results for the respective dummy variables for the regression < /fnote > FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA Therefore at the significant level , do not reject FORMULA and conclude that the dummy variables are not jointly significant to this regression . Referring to the line graph in appendix , conclude that there is nonlinearity in the effect of hrsqt on qtmark . < heading > Question 3 Restricted model : FORMULA Unrestricted model : FORMULA < heading > Test for constant differences < fnote > Table showing the results of these regressions can be found in Appendix 3 Compared with the expected value of qtmark in ( which is ) , the expected value of qtmark of students of is about -5.2 marks , for an actual mark of . Similarly , for students of , the expected mark was lower by , for an actual mark of . Hence conclude that differences in qtmarks are not constant between students and previous years ' students . < heading > Interpreting coefficients Referring to table in Appendix 3 , , FORMULA and FORMULA demonstrate that a unit change in ability , change in class ) and unit increase in the number of A - grades obtained(alevelsa ) , will result in , and increase in qtmark respectively . Holding ability , attc and alevelsa constant , ( -5.2 ) and FORMULA ( -7.19 ) are the differential intercept coefficients and they measure the change in the expected value of qtmark for and respondents respectively relative to respondents . < heading > Test for significance of dummy variables < fnote > Results for the regression can be found in table n appendix 3 FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA Therefore at the significance level , reject FORMULA and conclude that the dummy variables have a significant impact on the regression . < heading > Question 4 FORMULA The results from the regression ( in Appendix 4 ) showed that in except in , the number of A - grades obtained at A - level had the largest effect ( compared to other variables like ability and proportion of class attended ) on the marks obtained in statistics exam . The coefficient on ability was the largest in , implying that an increase in ability had the greatest effect on marks for the respondents . On the other hand , an increase in class attendance had the greatest impact on marks for the respondents . < heading > Chow test Restricted model : FORMULA Unrestricted model : : FORMULA Year 2003 : FORMULA : FORMULA FORMULA , FORMULA At the significance level , reject FORMULA and conclude that the coefficients are not constant across the subsamples . < heading > Question > Restricted model : FORMULA < fnote > In this restricted model , a pooled regression was performed < /fnote > Unrestricted model : : FORMULA : FORMULA : FORMULA FORMULA , FORMULA Therefore at the significance level , do not reject FORMULA and conclude that the slope coefficients are constant across the regression equations . < heading > Question 6 The attributes of a good model are ( i ) Parsimony- a model can never completely capture the reality ; some amount of abstraction or simplification is inevitable in any model building . The 's razor or the principle of parsimony states that a model be kept as simple as possible . ( ii ) Identifiabilty- for a given set of data , the estimated parameters must have unique values . ( iii ) Goodness of fit- Since the basic thrust of regression analysis is to explain as much of the variation in the dependent variable as possible by explanatory variables included in the model , a model is judged good if this explanation , as measured by the adjusted as high as possible.(iv)Theoretical consistency- No matter how high the goodness of fit measures , a model may not be judged good if or more coefficients have the wrong signs . In constructing a model , we need to have some theoretical underpinning to it . ( v ) Predictive power- , the laureate notes : "" the only relevant test of the validity of a hypothesis model is comparison of its prediction with experience "" . Taking into account the above attributes of a good model , my statistically preferred model for qtmark is as follows : < fnote > Damodar Gujarati , , pg406 < /fnote > FORMULA where is split into dummy variables : mgrad1 ( default ) = grade A and IB 7 , mgrad2 = grade B and IB 6 , mgrad3 = grade C or D and IB 5 or 4 , and mgradnone = No maths / stats < heading > Justification for model The variables Age , computer , printer , sch6fc , schmix , expfood , expcd , exprent , female , expalc , topb , domestic ( > 2 siblings and paruni=0),domestic1(siblings<2 and paruni>=1 ) , domestic2 ( > 2siblings or paruni=0),were excluded from the model as their t statistic indicated that they are insignificant to the determination of qtmark . Imperfect multicollinearity occurs when there is a very high correlation between or more explanatory variables . Therefore the variables hrsall , attc and alevels were excluded because of their high correlation with hrsqt , attl and alevelsa respectively . With multicollinearity , our application of ( ) to the equation is no longer . The standard error on the coefficient estimate would become increasingly larger . As a result , the t - ratios on the coefficient estimates will be smaller and we are more likely to accept any null hypothesis ( whether true or variable course was excluded though it is statistically significant because when tested , its coefficient was found to be -1.39 which is inconsistent with theory as we would expect that the study of a subject related to economics to have a positive impact on marks for statistics exam . < fnote > conclude that domestic factors insignificant < /fnote> Interpreting results As seen from question and , omission of relevant variables ability and hrsqt would result in a bias estimator . Our model shows a unit increase in ability and hrsqt increases qtmark by ( ) and ( ) respectively . = = = FORMULA Differential intercepts FORMULA and FORMULA are statistically significant ( shown in question ) suggesting that the average qtmark differs across . Therefore they are included to show that qtmark in and is lower than ( ) by and respectively . In this regression model , it is assumed that the regression lines are parallel regression lines , hence only the intercept and not the slope coefficient varies among ( this is the conclusion derived from questions 4 and 5 ) . This implies that the other variables in the model like ability and attl are constant across . is chosen to be the default so that the coefficients of the other dummy variables are comparable to ' smart ' students in relation to qtmark . The results in in Appendix 6 show that , k FORMULA and FORMULA are all significant ( high t - statistic ) and we can conclude that students with better math / stats grades will have higher qtmark . and 's report proposes that students attending a fee paying school ( schfee ) would have achieve higher results as there is a cost involved ( school fees ) in not studying . A possible explanation for the negative coefficient ( -2.57 ) on schfee could be lesser time for studying because the student has to work in order to pay the school fees . Another interesting result from this regression is that students are found to have lower qtmarks ( ) . This might be because their school fees are subsidized or that they have a better aptitude for other subjects like language and literature . < fnote > Devadoss , S. and , 1996 , pg < /fnote> Test for overall significance FORMULA FORMULA F statistic = ; , = at significance level Therefore at the significance level , do not reject . < heading > Conclusion When a test and Heteroscedasticity test was performed on the above equation ( Appendix 6 ) it was found to show no evidence of omitted variables or incorrect functional form . Therefore this is my preferred model by estimation using the method . Congruent with my personal education experience , I can conclude that in addition to ability , consistent effort plays an important role in achieving good results .",1 "The Victorian period saw a pilferer of different art forms emerging which depicted the street children that had become common throughout the urban areas of the country . The focus of both the art world and the development of philanthropy had a wide range of intentions , which throughout the period provided both constructive and unconstructive contributions towards solving the problem of the destitution of these children . Many literary and artistic forms of this kind maintained the middle class as it emerged during the process of industrialisation . Whilst , in contrast , it is clear that other artists aimed to construct the image of the ' street waif ' with the aim to address the poverty and victimisation suffered by these children within Victorian society . A strong middle class agenda that aimed to maintain their own self - definition and class values is a prominent reason for the consistent construction of the image of the street child as a ' nuisance ' ( , ) or an immoral character . The construction of the ' street waif ' was often in stark contrast to the values of the middle class that upheld the class distinction . Middle class values of thrift and prudence were not present in the images and thus the contrast in values presented allowed for the middle class to maintain the social divisions that had emerged within society . For example , ' horrified investigators described such behaviour , in terms of a savage animal - like existence and strong contrasts were drawn with an idealised , obedient middle class child ' ( Duckworth , ) . The success of artwork to achieve this middle class agenda is illustrated in photography , as it became ' a natural source to draw on for the process of extending urban spectatorship into the territory of the poor ' ( Mancoff and , ) . Therefore conservative middle class prejudices to the poor were upheld through such depictions . For instance , the new genre of photography provided new ' truth claims [ that ] served to justify something else quite old : the conviction that poverty was natural ' ( Mancoff and , ) . Moreover , the construction of their image in this way aimed to maintain any challenge to the domination of middle class values in society . The ' apparent ' threat is noted in that ' their uncontrolled existence embraced all symptoms of social disorganisation and challenged the very foundation of ordered society ' ( , ) . Racial depictions of the street children aimed to maintain the clearly definable identity of the middle class from the working class . Mancoff and note that ' the repeated illustration of such extremely evident racial and physical differences works by association to suggest the difference of the street people as a whole ' ( Mancoff and , ) . Such a constant effort to mark the working class and street children as different is part of the middle class culture of categorisation . illustrated such classification noting that ' the streets were filled with a new and different race of people ' ( , ) . Thus literature and art of this type was to the middle class important in supporting the ' processes by which a society comes to represent and envisage groups within it ' ( , ) . The strong sense of difference between the middle and working classes helped to develop a social structure and hierarchy , with each classes place in society clearly marked . Mayhew and note the emergence of ' distinct and broadly , marked races , [ ... ] the vagabond and the citizen- the nomadic and the civilised tribes ' ( Brantlinger and Ulin , cited in and , ) . The prominence of the influence of such art work is made explicit as ' class division [ became ] read as racial difference ' ( Mancoff and , ) . The presence of a middle class agenda to order society , with racism being an important aspect of this is therefore clearly shown . Dr. 's justification of the manipulation of philanthropic photography provides a clear example . He argued the ' careful posing [ ... ] and dirtying of faces of his subjects - was justified as a means of capturing the truth of types rather than individuals ' ( Mancoff and , ) . The depiction of the street child as a social menace could arguably be construed as a conscious effort to maintain the flourishing child labour market that many industries were dependent on . It was during the process of industrialisation that led to the emergence of the middle class that was characterised by entrepreneurs and industrialists . The careful construction of the street waif image therefore worked in the interest of the middle class industrialists ' and factory owners . The construction of such images is further reflected in the factory and educational laws which provide a clear indication of the intentional support of the middle class art world of the child labour market needed by the middle class industrialists . The laws ' were not conceived in a spirit of pure altruism but were interwoven with supply of young hands and the demands of industry ' ( Rose ) . notes that a day can be gained by a child in bending the tine clasp round safety pins ' ( Keating ) , and thus the benefits of child labour and the profits that could be gained is clearly illustrated . The constraints and conventions of middle class society , moreover affected the construction of these images . The consistency of the images as a social menace within the majority of art work seemingly was due to artists ' attempting to produce works that would be widely accepted by middle class Victorian society . On many occasions such conventional depictions aimed to either establish an artist 's status or improve it . Photography , as a new genre at the time , provides and interesting example . Mancoff and note that it drew ' on traditional aesthetic authorities as part of a strategy to justify photography 's status as an art ' ( Mancoff and , ) . Moreover , theatre was further affected by such strong conventions and the portrayal of the street child ' phenomenon ' was exploited by artists ; The Watercress Girl ' is remarked as being ' clear and simple enough to satisfy the most homely playgoer ' ( , ) . An emerging middle class fascination with society and the social sciences in this period was seemingly fuelled by illustrations of the ' street waif ' . The intellectual debate that occurred marked a clear interest in street children and yet seemed to provide a means for the middle class to avoid finding a resolution for the occurring destitution . Ideas of both repulsion and fascination are explicitly illustrated by ' Place [ who ] defends his interpretative code by both agreeing and disagreeing with and thus reasserting the nearly equal pulls of fascination and repulsion ' ( Childers , ) . In turn such intellectual debate thus supported the inertia of the middle class that had become typical of this period towards the problem of street children . Moreover , such illustrations often maintained existing middle class debates , such as the process of civilisation and ' the virtues and disadvantages of town and country living ' ( , ) . Mayhew and Thompsons ' are noted for employing tactics ' to assert the limitations of ameliorative reform ' ( Mancoff and , ) . The affect of intellectual debate on creating inaction towards the problem is further exacerbated by the problem starting to be dealt with regards to the issue of demoralisation rather than destitution . For example , 's report ' notes ' there is every indication that a solution to their "" demoralization "" is possible ' ( Childers ) . The discussion and observation of the problems faced by street children seems to have accordingly replaced any constructive action by the middle classes and the acceptance of a ' culture of poverty ' ( Mancoff and , ) is abundantly clear . In contrast , realistic depictions of the poverty faced within cities was constructive in addressing the underlying problem as it raised society 's awareness and was foremost in changing attitudes . It is noted that there was , ' a massive transmission of information about child destitution that even by the made the details of childhood in poverty well known ' ( , ) . The wide range of information would have arguably acted as a prominent means of pressurising society to address the problem . Artists ' depictions did not simply illustrate of the street child ' phenomenon ' but presented the victimisation of these children and , for example , the dangers of child prostitution . Arguably the accumulation of these works would have collectively acted as a critique of government inaction . notes that ' was well aware of a common prejudice against "" girls selling watercress [ as ] we know in many cases that is an excuse for begging "" ' ( Parliamentary Papers , cited in , ) . His awareness of this provides an indication of his attempt to overcome this middle class chauvinism in his works . Arguably , realistic depictions were successful in changing the attitudes held by middle class society , from the children being regarded as savage to being seen as a victim . The contemporary commentators of the period are noted for making ' great efforts to know these children ' ( , ) and in doing so made observations , in contrast to anticipated middle class expectations . For example , their homes did not present a ' malodorous horror but a floor scrubbed times a week ' ( , ) . In helping to change the social prejudice that existed , such works , even if in avertedly , supported the middle class and their philanthropic organisations , such as girl Mission and . Therefore the conscious construction of the way in which the street waif was depicted was vital in supporting an attempt to start to address the problem of child poverty and simultaneously supported middle class work on the issue . The negative depiction of the street waif was important in supporting a strong middle class agenda that aimed to maintain their class identity and convictions . The large amount art work supported a strong fascination with this social ' phenomenon ' and fuelled an intellectual debate that supported middle class morals and values . However , realistic depictions by some artists not only challenged middle class convictions and social categorisation but provided a forum in which the underlying problem of severe destitution in urban areas could finally be brought to the attention of society as an important social problem .","' Doing the Business ' by explores the interrelationships between the working class and detectives operating within the End area of . The analysis is set in and the author aims to establish the importance of entrepreneurship as characteristic of the working class in the East End of . Hobbs reaffirms that the importance of entrepreneurship is vital in the functioning of police in this area . Thus through the commonality of entrepreneurship the author attempts to establish a relationship , that the culture of is mirrored in the culture of the division that functions within . argues this emanates from the commonality of entrepreneurship being vital in both for the inhabitants of survival and the success of police work in this area . Therefore , the book attempts to deal with this commonality in establishing the place of entrepreneurship an integral and fundamental part of East End life as well as emerging as a necessary aspect of the work of detectives in this area . Resultantly , attempts to establish the uniqueness of this commonality both for the people of the East End and its use by the police who function within the area . The author calls upon numerous techniques in order to analyse and establish these relationships , including ethnographic study , interviews , case studies and close analysis of other theorists . A of the book outlines the emergence of and the division and its particular focus on the maintenance of law and order in the working class areas in , particularly the East End . provides a detailed chronology of the emergence of the distinct area of the East End and its relationship to the rest of the Capital . Hobb 's further detailed chronology of the is important as it establishes both the East End as a unique area of and the as an elite department of the police force . This is vital in the founding of his analysis of the relationships between the East End and the and how its culture came to mirror the culture of the area . For example , before the establishment of a unified police force not the disunity of policing and the inherent corruption that existed , noting ' the policemen continued according to tradition to sell justice ' ( Parliamentary papers cited in Hobbs ) . Hobb 's extends the uniqueness of the division noting that ' when the presence becomes invisible , covert and indistinguishable in appearance from the policed , it has been traditionally perceived as un - British and therefore threatening ' ( Hobbs 1989 34 ) . Such detailing therefore establishes an image of the division through history and sets up his argument for the defining feature of the department , entrepreneurialism being its unique and dominant feature . Hobb 's continues to establish the unique function of the through the use of the case studies , including . These are greatly important as it adds depth to the relationship between the and their use of entrepreneurship in the investigative process . notes ' these cases help us to understand , how a formal organisation evolves ' naturally ' as a response to forces unrelated , or even opposed , to the formal rules and priorities of an administrative structure ' ( Hobbs 1989 46 ) . Thus a good grounding for the establishment of the relationships is used by , however the detail given and space within the book given to this , is arguably detrimental to the exploration of the relationships in further depth . The relationship between the working class in the East End and their development of entrepreneurial skills is substantially argued and sustained by . The author closely analyses this relationship and how it comes to characterise the East End and an area functioning in a unique way . notes the entrepreneurial skill that emerged as an inherent part of East End life and that was ' created by the area 's relationship with the City and by unique economic and employment structures , the origins of which are located around the banks of the Thames ' ( Hobbs 1989 115 ) . The book provides a detailed and through analysis of the life style and culture of the East End and establishes that the potency of the East End culture had not only led to the uniqueness of the area , but entrepreneurial skills becoming inherent in the working class in its urban milieu . Hobbs consideration of the youth of the area aims to substantiate this relationship through the idea of the entrepreneurial culture being transmitted from ' generation to generation ' ( Hobbs 1989 117 ) . The dedication of a chapter of this book to the detailing of the culture and sub cultures of the youth is arguably to the loss of the further exploration of the relationship between entrepreneurial skill and . Arguably this is due to his East End background . Thus there is seemingly an attempt b the author to firmly establish the zeal of and the uniqueness of the area 's culture . Hobb 's concentration on sub culture and youth illustrates this , as he duly notes in his chapter his scholarly background in this area . Adversely , systematic breakdown of the types of jobs in the East End does add the additional dimension of the relationship between the working class and entrepreneurial skill as he comments on the varying success and practice of this in the every day lives of and in how its application has emerged because ' East Enders exist on the brink of legitimate commercial enterprise and legality ' ( Hobbs 1989 140 . Thus the author successfully uses the recognisable characteristics of the East End to establish the emergence of wide spread entrepreneurialism . The relationship between entrepreneurial skill and the work of detectives in the book is established in the penultimate chapters . , is adamant to assert that the entrepreneurialism of the division is what characterises and separates it from the uniform branch of . Hobbs firmly establishes this during his chronology of the police force at the beginning of the book and reasserts this later towards the end of the book , stressing the elite reputation of the department and thus its uniqueness from the rest of the force . In doing this his argument is persuasive through the assessment of the different entrance criteria of the and the detectives ' performance ' in the courtroom . Hobbs reasserts the place of entrepreneurship in the force and its legality as an important factor of policing through the process of paperwork and bureaucracy . Thus the entrepreneurial skill employed by the detectives in the East End is firmly established by the author . The relationship between and the detectives being similar due to the commonality of entrepreneurialism is problematic . Arguably , does not explore this vital relationship enough , and this arguably is due to the time spent on the detailing of the chronology of both the police force , the East End as an area , and the lifestyle and culture of the East Enders . The book suggests that the relationship of the detectives who use entrepreneurialism in their work mirrors the lives of , who are dominated by the need for this skill in lives . This relationship is presented as inherent in the area . notes that ' sharing much of their working environment with working class entrepreneurs , some of it is bound to rub off on the detective and this is increasingly likely when much detective work is in itself entrepreneurial ' ( Hobbs 1989 197 ) . There is an indication that the employment and commonalities held between agents and is a conscious construct of the agents in order to pursue their work . For example , ' the essence of power lies in their skill in utilizing working class vocabularies , both ; linguistic and presentational to enhance their police function ' ( Hobbs 1989 207 ) . Hobbs states ' the relationship between the demises of and the is symbiotic , appropriately based upon the trading of moral identities ' ( Hobbs 1989 216 ) . Although this relationship and the employment of entrepreneurialism is clear in the book in both the cases of the East Enders and the detectives could have established whether the commonality between East Enders and detectives was inherent or a conscious construction on behalf of the , which is a failing of the book . The title suggests that the parallels are caused inherently through the commonality of entrepreneurialism , but some of the evidence arguably suggests otherwise . The title and content of the book suggests that the employment of entrepreneurialism consequently results in the groups sharing in common features . Although strongly and substantially argues that entrepreneurialism is a key and dominant feature in the lives of the East Enders and the detectives , arguably the existence of the commonality between the groups does not necessarily lead to the ability to draw close parallels between them . A singular parallel of the presence of entrepreneurialism is arguably the only one that can be drawn , even through there seems to be an inherent suggestion that further parallels would exist in the functioning of the groups in the same area . This vital and interesting relationship , which encompasses the other relationships that the book explores is only developed in the penultimate chapters of his book and could have been explored further . The book explores interesting relationships that co - exist in the East End of and substantially explores the relationship between both the detectives of the East End working class to entrepreneurialism . However , the inherit or conscious construction of the relationship could have been explored further . Hobbs does however provide an interesting insight into the lives of both and the working of the in this area . of the book 's strengths is the affect of the City on the East End and the emergence of its unique character . Hobb 's additionally provides an interesting foresight on how the area will be changed with the further development of the City and changes in 's economic markets , which he firmly establishes as affecting the people of the East End area and its characteristics .",1 "< heading>1 . IntroductionConventional agriculture does not necessarily take into account of its effects on the environment ( except as forced by law ) and the conservation of natural resources for the future generations . Soil erosion , loss of biodiversity , groundwater pollution and human health problems are some of the effects caused by conventional methods of agricultural production . The severity of the problems requires an alternative perspective . Organic farming is an alternative way for agriculture . However , although the elimination of agrochemicals would presumably satisfy most concern about pollution and human health , the production potential of organic farming is still a debatable issue . of defines organic farming as "" a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agro - ecosystem health , including biodiversity , biological cycles , and soil biological activity . It emphasises the use of management practices in preference to the minimum use of off - farm inputs , taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems . This is accomplished by using , where possible , agronomic , biological , and mechanical methods , as opposed to using synthetic materials , to fulfil any specific function within the system "" ( , ) . According to definition , organic farming not only promotes the avoidance of chemical fertilizers and pesticides , but it also promotes alternative agronomic , biological and mechanical methods in order to ensure the health of agro - ecosystems . Thus , in contrary to its popular image , organic farming is not "" just throwing a bunch of seeds on a field and coming back later in to harvest what 's left "" ( , : ) . Organic farmers in addition to strict avoidance of using agrochemicals because they can cause damage to humans , wildlife and soil , they adopt many other techniques to obtain a highly productive system , such as the prevention of erosion , the adding of humus and other organic matter to soil , rotation systems and biological control techniques . < heading>2 . Is organic farming better for human health ? < /heading products are perfectly sanitary and do not contain pesticides residues . On the other hand , as and ( ) point out , "" pesticides are by design biologically active and hence hazardous chemicals "" . Therefore , there is the possibility of unforeseen effects although there is no still scientific proof that pesticide residues in foods have caused such health problems as cancer , miscarriages , birth deformities or nerve disorders . Moreover , according to ( ) , it is impossible to demonstrate what effects pesticides have on human beings ( since there is a limited evidence and lack of epidemiological data ) . For this reason , the experts use their findings from animal toxicity data to extrapolate potential effects of pesticides on human health . Despite the confounding factors of these studies , the experts believe that the potential for serious impact on human health is cause for concern . It is also worth mentioning that "" scientific and medical journals increasingly report the risks posed to human health by pesticides , including links between pesticides and diseases such as breast cancer and lymphoma "" ( , ) . According to ( ) also , farmers who spray agricultural insecticides are extremely susceptible to toxic effects of agrochemicals . A research by federal government scientists of has shown that farmers who used agricultural insecticides experienced increased symptoms of nervous system disorders ( Windham , ) . Plants or fruits produced with organic farming are nutritionally balanced and therefore are better food source for humans than conventional products . On contrary , as ( ) points out , conventional agricultural products contain mineral imbalances and deficiencies . Roots of plants grown with conventional methods lose their ability to forage for nutrients as zinc , calcium , selenium , and others , due to high amounts of fertilizers incorporated in soil . As a result , plants create a lush growth with lower nutritional value for humans , especially for some important trace elements . On the other hand this is still a debatable issue , since there is no evidence for nutritional superiority of foods from organic farms in relation to foods from conventional farms ( , ) . The health and the comfort of livestock is one of the most important objectives of organic farmers . The significant difference between organic and conventional farming in terms of livestock management is that as much as possible of the feed is organically grown . Considerable care also is put in reducing stress and making the animals comfortable . For example various measures to avoid stressful living conditions such as adaptation to local climatic stresses , dry shelters , avoidance of mineral deficiencies , appropriate veterinary measures , preventative rather than curative measures against diseases and prevention of parasites . These practices according to and , ( ) provide a premium quality of livestock products ( meat , milk , eggs ) , which lack hazardous residues for human health such as hormones and antibiotics . This in turn serves in a healthier way of life for humans choosing organic animal products for their diet ( , ) . < picture/>When nitrate is in excess in the soil , it is not fully converted to protein , and may accumulate in plants . It has been observed that some leafy vegetable crops such as lettuce , kale , turnips , spinach and beets easily accumulate high concentrations of nitrates , especially in shady conditions . The accumulation of high nitrate concentrations is a recognized danger of conventional agriculture , because nitrate concentrations are rapidly increased in the soil by synthetic fertilizers . In some cases nitrates are converted to nitrites in human body that react to hemoglobin in the blood to inhibit oxygen transport . Unfortunately , infants are quite susceptible to high levels of nitrites . In many cases also ground water is polluted by nitrates due to leaching of nitrogen from the soil . The leaching of nitrogen is accelerated by chemical fertilizers because of their high solubility . The runoff from nitrogen fertilizers finally results to high nitrate concentrations of our drinking water , which are harmful to human health ( , ) . < heading>3 . Is organic farming better for wildlife ? < /heading > Conventional agriculture had inevitably a negative impact on wildlife . Over , the agricultural development led to the simplification of agro - ecosystems and to the monoculture production systems . The anticipated result of such change was the homogeneity of agricultural landscapes and the removal of non crop vegetation from the farm unit . Consequently , hedgerows , shelter belts and field margins removed from intensive agricultural units resulting to reduced capacity of agricultural areas to serve as habitat for wild species . According to and ( 2004 ) , this has resulted to high rates of wildlife mortality , reduced reproductive success of many species and inevitably to the broad decline of many taxonomic groups of wildlife . Synthetic fertilizers , particularly nitrogen and phosphorus , pose serious risks for wildlife population . The extensive eutrophication of freshwater and marine ecosystems in many areas where agriculture is concentrated have negative impact on aquatic populations as well as the habitat quality of some bird species . As a result , the extensive use of chemical fertilizers has led to indirect mortality and extinction of many species , due to reduced capacity of lakes and marine ecosystems to serve as wildlife habitats ( and , ) . The use of pesticides has many detrimental effects on wildlife biodiversity of agricultural and surrounding ecosystems . < quote > "" It is estimated that of ground applied pesticides and of aerially applied pesticides reach their target . The remaining amount is released into surrounding ecosystems and enters the food chain , affecting animal populations at every trophic level . Over 672 million birds are exposed to pesticides in alone with of these animals dying from this exposure . Birds exposed to sublethal doses of pesticides are often afflicted with chronic symptoms that affect their behaviour and reproductive success . "" ( and , 2004) On the other hand , "" organic agriculture aims to be in harmony rather than in conflict with natural systems "" ( , ) . Organic farming emphasizes on the sustainability of the agro - ecosystems by adopting a set of alternatives practices such as biological control , integrated pest management , no - till agriculture , multi - cropping , intercropping , strip - cropping and crop rotation . This environmental friendly approach results to the avoidance of pesticide use , reducing dangers associated with wild species mortality . ( ) also , in recognition of the need to establish conservation in organic agriculture , recommends some practices as certification standards for organic farmers . These standards require the prohibition on clearing of primary ecosystems as well as the maintenance of an appropriate portion of the farm as wildlife habitat . General recommendations are made also on the establishment : "" of hedges , hedgerows and ecologically diversified field margins as well as areas with wildlife corridors that provide linkages and connectivity to native habitats "" ( and , ) . These high quality habitats ( hedges and field margins free of chemicals ) will serve as shelters for wildlife , enhancing biodiversity conservation . Cover cropping also is an important technique adopted by organic growers in terms of biodiversity enhancement . Cover cropping is a type of non - crop cover grown specifically for soil improvement purposes and the prevention of soil erosion , and is very well fitted in perennial crops like orchards and vineyards . Cover crops may provide a physical temporary habitat for many different species of ground - nesting birds and small mammals ( and , ) . < heading>4 . Is organic farming better for the environment ? < /heading > is the major cause of pollution from agricultural lands . The high solubility of nitrogen fertilizers results to quick leaching from the soil and finally to the pollution of underground water . Thus , the large increase that has occurred due to synthetic nitrogen fertilizers is the major cause of the rising nitrate levels that are observed in many water supply sources . Furthermore , chemical fertilizers do not supply humus , so the nutrient and water - holding capacity of the soil may be less than with organic fertilizers . This lower capacity leads to faster leaching of nutrients from the soil ( , ) . On the other hand , organic farming adopts a set of measures against nutrient leaching . The maintenance of soil organic matter levels and the adoption of soil improvement practices , such as the incorporation of crop residues and cover cropping , are conducive to the increase rate of nutrient recycling and the reduction of nutrient leaching . Although reduced tillage also is not a required practice in certified organic agriculture , it is a practice that is adopted by organic growers because no - till systems provide improved nutrient and water holding capacities , resulting to reduced nutrient losses ( and , ) . Organic farmers also avoid the use of synthetic phosphate fertilizers ( phosphorus in conjunction with nitrogen poses risks for the eutrophication of waters ) using naturally occurring mineral soil amendments ( e.g. rock phosphate ) . According to , ( ) , the use of rock phosphate , instead of synthetic phosphate , results in less nutrient losses due to the gradual release of nutrients . It is worth mentioning that the cost of chemical fertilizers to environment includes not only the pollution caused by the fertilizer leaching , but also the pollution caused by the waste products which are not recycled . The handling and the disposal of organic wastes is an international problem and big volumes of potential humus create severe environmental problems . Unlike to conventional farmers , organic farmers replace fertilizers with human , animal and food processing wastes reducing indirectly the pollution of underground water by reducing the volume of wastes which are not recycled and buried in the soil . Consequently , both the organic wastes recycling and the reduction of the synthetic fertilizer leaching are major environmental benefits of organic farming ( and , ) . The main side effects of nitrogen fertilizers stem from the use of energy , which is needed for fertilizer manufacture . fertilizer requires a lot of energy to produce . Furthermore , chemical fertilizers , as well as chemical pesticides , are either synthesized from oil or require large amounts of oil to extract and process them . As mentioned earlier also , organic farmers adopt reduced tillage practices , reducing the required amount of crop production energy . Therefore , organic farming has fewer impacts on oil sources than conventional farming , minimizing the use of non - renewable forms of energy . Consequently , organic may be a less productive system than conventional farming , but more importantly , it is also an optimum input system ( , ) . Conventional agriculture tends to use broad spectrum chemicals as quick solutions to disease and pest problems . However , this method prevents a desirable biological balance because it simplifies the biological community and makes it more unstable . Additionally , pests are able to gain resistance against chemicals . This biological imbalance promotes the more extensive use of chemicals and serves to the exposure of pesticide toxic effects to the agricultural and surrounding ecosystems . On the other hand , pest management in organic systems is achieved by adopting preventive rather than curative measures . Organic pest management primarily relies on developing biological diversity in the field to disrupt habitat for pest organisms . The use of crop rotation and polycultures , such as intercropping and strip - cropping , are characteristic examples of discouraging favorable habitats for the development of high pest populations . Organic farming also emphasizes the prevention of pest damage by manipulation of plant growth . For example , proper fertilization promotes capacity of crop to resist pests . A primary strategy of organic farming is that improved physical , chemical and biological properties of soils lead to optimum conditions for plant growth , promoting plant resistance to pests . Organic farming also promotes the prevention of pest damage by choice of resistant varieties and adoption of biological control methods ( and , and , ) . < heading>5 . Conclusion Humans , nowadays , are very much concerned about the environmental impacts of conventional agriculture . The side effects of the modern agriculture raise serious questions about the overall benefits of agriculture . Organic farming seems to be an alternative way , although it is undoubtedly a less productive system .","< heading > Introduction In the egg production can be simply classified as being intensive , semi - intensive and extensive . The farm visited , practised all types of egg production , battery , barn and free - range . Each system produced eggs for different markets < heading > The Farm Wall - Hanger employs a resident farm manager and assistant , fulltime stockmen and part time egg collectors . The farm has flocks of birds , all housed separately , producing eggs for different markets . < list > One free - range flock of hensOne barn flock of hensTwo battery flocks of hens , and other battery flocks of hens. In the farms with or more laying birds , represent of the laying flock ( ) . The hens lay brown eggs . Chicks arrive onto the farm at a old from hatcheries . At day - old the chicks cost each . The breed of chick , and the method of rearing depends upon the system that they are intended for . Chicks are reared on a separate farm to the laying farm . At point of lay the pullets are worth £ . On the rearing farm birds go through a vigorous vaccination programme . To be able to sell their eggs under , has to be controlled and inhibited ( a food - bourne zoonose which has caused a decline in demand in the past ) . Vaccination is a regulation . Beak trimming costs per bird . It is done to protect the birds , as through boredom and being aggressive the birds will peck tails etc . It prevents cannibalism . The hook on the end of the beak is removed , giving the beak a rounded end . Caged birds have their beaks trimmed at , whereas barn and free - range tend to be done . This is more permanent and more of the beak is removed . is the legal limit . The same materials are fed to each flock of birds , but in different concentrations . The diets consist of ; < list > WheatSoyaBarleyVitaminsMineralsLimestone ( Calcium)Fats and Oils At the birds are removed and slaughtered ( pies etc ) . At the birds are expected to be at a level of production . The farm currently has to pay per bird to have it slaughtered ( in comparison to the that they were paid ) . This is due to the broiler market being worth very little . - The laying program involves many factors being managed , including space , temperature , feeding , water and lighting . The onset of egg production is stimulated by many factors including body weight and an increasing number of . As a result , the poultry industry has developed lighting programs to maximise egg numbers , egg size and therefore the return on each bird . When the birds reach point of lay and are moved to the laying barns , are increased to , with the bird thinking it is spring time , it begins to lay . For daylight is maintained for this length , encouraging it to lay . The chickens lay their eggs in clutches , e.g. they will lay eggs in a short time space , but then wo n't lay any for a while . The company aims to maintain production at a level of for . Egg collection is automated ( on a conveyor belt ) or manual , and are taken to the packing room where any eggs not up to standard ( seconds - cracked , misshaped , coloured , dirty ) are removed ( generally of all eggs ) . The eggs are then taken to the Foods Ltd packaging centre Standlake , ( ) where they are graded , weight selected and then packaged . Egg collection is and takes . As mentioned the farm is sells its eggs under , and as a result has to abide by many rules and regulations . With laying birds many rules apply , related to the buying in of pullets , hygiene , housekeeping , laying flock monitoring , the environment ( e.g. lights , protection against the elements and predators ) , feed and water , and staff ( competence and training ) . Wall - Hanger produces on average eggs per week . The cost of production varies between each system , with it costing on average : < list per dozenBarn per - range per dozen Battery 42p per dozen ( at a loss)Barn 57p per - range per dozen The prices fluctuate by , depending upon the market . Seconds eggs sell for . Mortalities in a system can cause great financial losses for a farmer . Wall - Hanger loses of its flock per week . It loses a great number of birds in the free - range system ( by the end of the flock ) . By it will have lost of its barn flock and of the battery flock . Reasons for losses must be researched and controlled . After each batch of birds the drinkers etc are dismantled and the shed is washed and disinfected to prevent an outbreak of disease . The diagram below briefly illustrates the egg production chain . < figure/> Battery The battery system of egg farming is known as ' factory farming ' and is the most intensive and common method of conventional egg production . It is a production driven system . Public perception of factory farming is negative , but none - the - less battery layed eggs account for of eggs sold in the on the high street ( ) . of eggs used for processing are battery eggs . This farm uses Hy - line chickens . Chicks are reared in cages so as not to cause any added stress to them when they are moved to the laying house . < heading > Welfare < /heading > This is the most unnatural egg production system practiced , with some of the freedoms not being completely satisfied , e.g. freedom to display most normal patterns of behaviour- wing flapping , resting undisturbed . The birds are in cages , having cm² space legally ( ) . The cages are stacked tiers high . With poor lighting it must be hard to check the health of each bird . There are birds to a wire - bottomed cage . falls through the wire floor onto a conveyor belt . There were water nipples at the back of the cage , and feed was available to the bird by putting its head through the bars at the front of the cage into a trough ( and chain ) feed system . There is a slight slant to the bottom of the cage that causes eggs to roll out and onto a conveyor belt . The general appearance of the bird was not good . They had featherless necks from where they had rubbed on the bars whilst feeding , were pale and must have been bored given the reaction they gave us whilst walking through . The air quality was low ( dusty ) , and the birds were noisy . The warmth and smell made the house a magnet for flies . Of all the systems of egg production , this has the highest degree of control over the birds environment , and because of this it is quite favourable . It makes best use of land available as stocking densities in a building can be high . It is a productive system and is probably the most efficient and cost effective system available . The future for battery egg production is uncertain , as by , all conventional cages will be withdrawn from use . The only cages that will be legal after this time will be enriched cages . These cages are bigger ( cm² space per bird ) , taller , having a perching area , a littered nesting area and can hold birds . This is obviously far better for the birds welfare , but at a substantial cost to the farmer , in terms of investment in new cages and the extra labour requirements . Farmers who are currently operating the caged system may have reinvested in new cages , but due to uncertainties are operating with the old ones ( at a cost to the current birds welfare ) . The future for battery farming is very uncertain as legislation changes . This will cause huge problems for the egg industry , particularly because chicks are pre - ordered many years in advance . < heading > Barn Egg Production Barn production is often referred to as the semi - intensive / extensive system of egg production . It is also known as ' perchery eggs ' eggs account for of egg sales in the high street . This farm rears chickens for barn production on litter ( not in cages ) . The building that is used was built to the farms own design , but complies with legislation . The building has a slatted floor ( allows muck to drop into a pit ) . The maximum stocking density is birds / m² , and no flock can be birds . Flocks must be divided into colonies of birds . Rules also indicate that there needs to be one drinking nipple per birds , and cm² feed space per bird . There also needs to be perching space per bird . There must be 1.2 m² of nestbox floor space per birds . This barn unit uses a system that pushes birds out of the box after a certain length of time . This prevents the bird from becoming broody and the nest box from getting dirty due to birds sleeping in them . Lighting is used to encourage birds to roost . The welfare of the birds in this system is of a better standard than those in cages , and this is recognised by the RSPCA . These eggs are sold as RSPCA Freedom Foods , encouraging the consumer to buy more welfare friendly produced food . The future for barn egg production is likely to be relatively uncertain also , as demand is relatively low in comparison to the other systems , and more farms are likely to convert their battery buildings into barn systems . If there is a surplus to demand , prices will decrease and price premiums may be lost . < heading > Free - Range This is considered as the extensive method of egg production , with all of the freedoms being satisfied ( ( 1 ) Freedom from thirst , hunger or malnutrition;(2 ) appropriate comfort and shelter;(3)prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment of injury and disease;(4)freedom to display most normal patterns of from fear - Agric Notebook ) . Free - range eggs account for of eggs sold in the , and the market for free - range eggs is expected to grow , as the public continue to become more aware of welfare issues , ethics and health . Free - range hens must have continuous daylight access to runs ( predominantly covered in vegetation ) , with a maximum of birds / ha . The same regulations as with the barn system apply with this system . The houses have pop - holes in the walls allowing the birds to access the runs . Land is a limiting factor for the farm that was visited , having ha , so only being able to stock birds . The farm complies with regulations needed to sell its eggs under , and . Foxes are not a problem to this system ( electric fence ) . Buzzards are not common to the area either . < heading > Conclusion Currently the laying flock is declining , and is expected to do so whilst ther eis such uncertainty with its future . It can probably be expected that the farms consisting of smaller flocks ( under birds ) may be unable to change and keep its costs low enough to remain profitable . There is no future for battery production in , and farms need to be able to change in order to keep competitive and continue producing . Enriched cages are an alternative method , but legislation is unclear . There is the opportunity to convert to barn or free - range , but demand may not meet supply . Wall hanger farm has the problem that it does not have enough land to increase its free - range so will have to be carefull with the path that it chooses to take . Demand in the is high , but there is an oversupply . The was self sufficient ( ) , but the value of egg output in the has declined . Imports of eggs and products ( and ( ) ) is likely to cause a further decline in the value of egg output . Birds are becoming more productive as knowledge and technology continues to improve , and will be needed in the future as the world populationcontinues to grow . Wealth improvements in the Less Economically Developed World will result diets changing from being cereal based to having animal products included . Eggs are cheap and easy to produce and could be of great benefit in the future . The table on the following page shows the advantages and disadvantages of each system in terms of productivity , bird welfare etc . it indicates that barn production is probably the best in terms of production costs , having a future , but demand needs to increase . Free - range has benefits in terms of welfare and achievable prices , but is an expensive method of production . Battery production is the best in terms of costs , but is not able to be practiced in the future . < list> Battery - Advantages Greatest control over the birds environmentEnables mechanisation of routine operationsLow labour inputMakes best use of fixed assets - buildings ( large stocking densities)Most cost effective ( costs to produce eggs) Disadvantages Negative perception of factory farmingIssues with welfareBirds are not necessarily more productiveLow price for eggs ( dozen)Uncertain future ( cages are due to be banned in 2012)Imports of cheap battery eggs from new members of the may take the market space left after the ban Barn - Advantages Stocking densities at a level where costs of production are lowGood bird welfareBetter prices for eggsEggs can be sold as a Freedom FoodEggs are larger ( see table below ) and of better eating quality than batteryWall - Hanger 's system is up - to - date Disadvantages Has the lowest market share of the systems explainedRelatively high production costs ( / dozen)Many regulations related to space per birdIf battery systems are converted to this , supply may be far greater than demand - the price / dozen will decrease Free - Range - Advantages An extensive systemMore bird and environmentally friendlyThe freedoms are satisfiedEggs are larger and of better eating quality than batteryBetter price premiums ( / dozen)Opportunities of diversifying into niche markets Disadvantages Requires landGreatest production costs - 60p / dozen , and less productive than batteryGreater cost of feed as birds require a higher feed in takeGreatest mortality rates
Both barn and free - range systems are very productive , producing a higher percentage of larger eggs than the caged system , producing less seconds . The only fall back is that the birds tend to start laying at a later age and have to intake an energy rich diet as they exert more energy during exercise . < abstract> Executive Summary Egg production in the is uncertain The laying flock is in decline Cheap imports could destroy the home market production will be banned in , but enriched cages will be introduced As the demand for free - range eggs is expected to grow in the future , and with more producers likely to convert to this system , the future looks more certain . < /abstract >",0 "< heading > Introduction The 1980s witnessed a breakthrough in neural networking techniques that drew computer scientists , psychologists and linguists alike into a heated yet focussed debate on the nature of human cognition in general , and language acquisition in particular . The computing technique was called ) and in of its proponents , and , claimed to have developed a model that could emulate human performance on several cognitive tasks using a single mechanism , or non rule - based approach . This theoretical stance ran counter to that of the traditional rule - based , or symbol - manipulating processing theorists who , over , had produced empirical evidence that supported a dual mechanism approach for the acquisition of morphology . This essay is concerned with the extent to which Connectionism can both describe and predict the processes involved in the acquisition of the past tense form of verbs and whether it is successful in upholding the claim that a single mechanism model is adequate to account for empirical data from development studies of morphological acquisition . This essay firstly describes the characteristics of the dual and single mechanism approaches to morphological acquisition . Then the ability of models to account for empirical data with respect to the acquisition of regular , irregular and novel past tense forms will be discussed together with other pertinent aspects of modelling techniques . Finally , the approach is evaluated and the conclusions summarised . < heading > Dual Mechanism Theory The theoretical framework of generative grammar introduced by in and subsequently developed by cognitive scientists , linguists and language philosophers , has led to the ' traditional ' view that language acquisition and processing require the assumption that the child 's innate language facility is endowed with principles of ( UG ) , and mechanisms that permit the extraction of grammatical rules from the systematic analysis of inputs from perceptual and behavioural experience . Pinker and ( 1988:74 ) refer to such rules as "" symbol - manipulating processes "" , and states that the mechanisms are provided by the brain 's information processing capabilities . The following diagram , adapted from ( ) , illustrates a schematic representation of this dual aspect model for generating the past tense form in . < figure/>The box on the left - hand side of the diagram represents the concept of the lexicon which , among other lexical characteristics , stores irregular past forms . As each verb is input to the system , regardless of its phonological characteristics , if a match is made to an item in this exceptions list , the appropriate irregular past form is selected for output and the regular past tense rule ( add ' ed ' ) is blocked . Otherwise , the regular input verb stem passes directly through the regular rule system . Therefore , in the adult , the dual mechanism theory proposes a memory store for irregular past verb forms and a standard past - rule mechanism for regular verbs . The consequences for this configuration on predicting the characteristics of past tense acquisition will be discussed during the course of this essay . < heading > Single Mechanism Theory The Rumelhart and ( RM ) PDP model differs from the dual mechanism approach in major respects . , it claims that a single system , utilising phonological feature analysis of input items , can account for the acquisition , and adult formulation , of the past tense of both regular and irregular verbs , in the form of a neural network that directly connects input and output units . , this connectionist model contains no explicit rules , rather , the trained "" network merely reflects the statistics of the featural representations of the verb forms . "" ( ) . The challenge for was to demonstrate that an initially undifferentiated network could ' learn ' the phonological relationships between present and past forms in order to demonstrate , within a single mechanism , the stages of a child 's acquisition of past tense morphology , the characteristics of error patterns empirically observed , and the ability to produce correct transformations of regular , irregular and novel verb stems . < heading > Evaluation of the Connectionist Approach < /heading > One aspect of the evaluation of the approach relates to its ability to account for the stages in the child 's acquisition of past tense morphology as reported by ( ) and ( ): ) Initial past forms of regular and irregular verbs are produced accurately . ) The regular transformation ( add ' ed ' ) is applied to all verbs including previously correctly produced irregular forms ( e.g. , * goed ) . This phenomenon is called over - regularisation . ) Over - regularisation decreases and eventually both regular and irregular forms are produced correctly . The effect of Stage 2 is to produce a so - called "" U - shape "" in the child 's performance profile , which soon recovers during Stage 3 so that accuracy scores eventually asymptote at near adult performance levels . The following subsections document how successfully the and subsequent models simulate these trends and the characteristics of children 's past verb form error patterns . < heading > Overview of Results from RM Simulation The input regime to 's model involved distinct phases which were designed to emulate the stages of the child 's learning profile : < list>1 ) Training Phase : highest frequency verbs ( regular ) in trials2 ) Learning Phase : medium frequency verbs ( regular ) in trials3 ) : low frequency verbs ( > It was observed that the learning effect for irregular verbs achieved during the Training Phase dropped dramatically on the trial of . Since performance immediately showed a steady recovery that started to asymptote around the th trial , claimed that this output pattern emulated the U - shape curve characteristic of the onset of Stage 2 in the child 's acquisition profile . ( , , Figure ) . The other important finding was that the model not only identified the regular past rule , but also produced over - regularisation of irregular verbs , double pasts ( e.g. , * wented ) , and generated all the irregular categories of the past tense in as classified by and ( ) . On the face of it , the rule - less model appeared to respond to its challenge remarkably well , however , its shortcomings were considered to be so severe that it was quickly discredited as a viable alternative to the dual mechanism approach . The comments of and Prince ( ) , and ( ) and ( ) are summarised below . < heading > The shift from a high ( ) to low ( ) density irregular verb set between the Training and Learning Phases created an artificial U - shaped curve effect . Inflated strengthening of connections for the regular past form resulted in the over - regularisation of irregular verbs and the elevated successful regularisation of regular forms . < heading > Double - pasts: report that incorrect output forms , such as * ated , were produced by the application of both internal vowel modification and the regular ' ed ' suffix . Pinker and ( ) claim that such errors are not generated by children in this way , instead they result from a confusion between the irregular past form and the verb stem , the former of which undergoes past form transformations . < heading > No Change Pasts: RM 's model demonstrated effective treatment of verbs that show no change between the present and past especially if they end in /d/ or /t/. Pinker and Prince ( ) attribute the occurrence of fewer over - regularisations to an artefact of the phonological analysis system used that accidentally strengthens the correct transformation patterns in these cases . Furthermore , they attribute children 's success in producing this past form correctly to a process of ' misperception ' : the final /t/ signals an already - transformed past tense form . < heading > Output not resembling human language: The phonological analysis system used by 's model ( Wickelphonology ) produced some past forms so bizarre that they would not be expected to occur in human language , e.g. , ' membled ' for mailed , and ' toureder ' for toured . Pinker and ( ) claim that this type of output severely undermines the validity of the system and , as a consequence , the integrity of the model 's approach . < heading > Homophonic Verbs: There are a few instances in of homophonic verbs , e.g. , ring rang , wring wrung and ring ringed . On the basis of phonological input , 's model is not able to distinguish between these semantically different verbs . According to and Prince ( ) this is a serious shortcoming and results from the model 's inability to recognise lexical identity . < heading > Generalisation to Novel Verbs: Of the regular verbs used in , the pattern association process failed to produce past form solutions for novel verbs ( jump , pump , soak , warm , trail and glare ) , and overall , the performance levels in this phase of the simulation were deemed to be surprisingly low by and ( ) . On this basis , and Prince ( ) concluded that the model had failed to generalise the past tense transformation in to novel verbs . < heading > A Single Model for Two Processes: The fundamental flaw that the dual mechanism proponents level at modelling is the claim that a single network can handle completely different processes effectively . Pinker and ( ) insist that such a unitary system , that relies only on phonological feature decomposition , can never be viable as a model of cognition or language . They claim that "" Some symbol referring to the object qua object , and some variable types referring to task - relevant classes of objects that cut across featural similarity are required . "" ( and , ) . < heading > Default Mapping: In there are irregular verbs , and as and Pinker ( ) point out , this disproportionate bias towards the regular form of the past , will always give single layer connectionist models an advantage for the past tense paradigm . Such architectures would be unable to generalise the plural forms that exist in where the most common form is limited to noun shape ( broken ) , and the minority form conforms more to a general rule ( sound ) . < heading to the Shortcomings of RM Simulation Many of the shortcoming outlined above can and have been relatively rectified by the development of improved phonological analysis algorithms and multilayer architectures . and ( ) , using a standard phonological representation in place of the system , were able to eliminate several of the factors that caused stem reversal and bizarre output solutions . architectures provide "" hidden units "" that act like a specialised , local , dynamic memory that deal with irregularities and sub - regularities within the input data set . These more recent developments in neural architectures also help to reduce the ' gradient / descent ' problem in models ( Elman , ) where early errors are not eliminated but instead continue to persist due to the fact that radical , - off correction procedures are not compatible with the design of the system . Plunkett and Marchman ( ) and ( ) , using multilayer techniques , identified optimum training regime rates , and the recommended parameters for vocabulary composition ( proportions of high and low ' type ' / ' token ' frequency verbs ) , as a function of vocabulary size . They also identified the proportion of regular to irregular verbs in the training set required to trigger over - regularisation in a manner that converged on the developmental data reported by Marcus et al ( ) . Finally , ( ) predicts that multilayer architectures have the potential to overcome the problem of distinguishing between the variants of homophonic verbs by utilising a non - semantic feature that will not weaken the predictive power of phonologically similar verbs . < heading > Conclusion < /heading > This essay has evaluated the ability of models to sustain their initial claim that a single mechanism approach can emulate the child 's acquisition of the past tense in . The success of the PDP model ( RM ) was to reveal the necessity for both improved phonological feature analysis techniques , and a multilayer architecture , to achieve results that converge convincingly on observed child data . The irony of this latter discovery is that such advances in network design ( hidden units ) have essentially converted the single mechanism architecture into one that could be described as exhibiting the properties of a dual mechanism . Proponents in both camps concede that the exercise has significantly sharpened the quality of debate on the validity of computer - based modelling despite and 's ( : ) prophetic words that initial shortcomings were "" .. irremediable ; or if remediable , only by copying tenets of the maligned symbolic theory . ""","< heading > Introduction Modality has been discussed by philosophers , in relation to logic , for and yet , as ( ) points outs , it is only since that it has become a subject of analysis for linguists . My endeavour to find a succinct and useful definition of modality for the purposes of this essay , proved entirely fruitless . The many authoritative sources I consulted provided the following : "" Modality : A term used in grammatical and semantic analysis to refer to contrasts in mood signalled by the verb and associated categories "" , ( ) ; "" is concerned with the status of the proposition that describes the event "" , Palmer ( ) ; "" is the category by which speakers express attitudes towards the event contained in the proposition "" , Downing and Locke ( 2001:381 ) . The fact that these definitions fall short of a clear yet descriptive explanation reflect the fact that the rich texture of semantic nuances modality represents can not be distinguished on the basis of pure grammatical form . On the contrary , the same modal expressions are employed in to convey a vast complexity of different and even contradictory meanings , e.g. , necessity , possibility , certainty , obligation , permission , willingness , ability . This essay firstly defines modality in terms of its grammatical manifestations . This is followed by an analysis of the various semantic categories that have been subsumed under the umbrella term modality . Finally , the arguments that I believe support the statement in this essay title , that modality is primarily a semantic notion , are articulated and the main conclusions are summarised . < heading as a Grammatical Notion Modality in is syntactically represented in a variety of verbal and non - verbal forms . et al ( ) , Berk ( ) and Downing and Locke ( 2001 ) , identify the following verbal markers of modality : < list verbs , e.g. , think , believe , assume , deduce , allow , forbid , command , promise , want , insist , wonder , wish . Modal auxiliaries , e.g. , may , might , can , could , must , ought to , shall , should , will , would and need ( characterised by no 3 rd person singular inflection , interrogative and negative not do - supported , no passive voice ) . Semi - modal or lexico - modal auxiliaries , e.g. , have got to , be bound / about / supposed/ willing to . Modal idioms , e.g. , had better , would rather / sooner . Catenatives , e.g. , appear / seem / happen to . , e.g. , Be an angel ; Let 's go ; Somebody turn the TV off ; Enjoy ! , e.g. , I suggest / recommend he see a doctor ; I wish I were rich ; God save the Queen ( items in the subjunctive are is also marked by the following non - verbal categories : < list > adjectives , e.g. , sure , certain , probable , likely , conceivable , doubtful . Adverbs , e.g. , Perhaps , maybe , supposedly , surely , allegedly , obviously , presumably . Modal nouns , e.g. , chance , likelihood , probability . Certain if - clauses , e.g. , ' if you do n't mind my saying so ' , ' what if you 're wrong?'Use of non - assertive terms , e.g. , ' he 'd do anything to help you' . Suprasegmental characteristics of speech , e.g. , intonation , hesitation. The above clearly illustrates that the notion of modality is not easily definable in terms of its grammatical or physical manifestation in language , in fact Berk ( ) states : "" Modality has nothing to do with form "" . < heading as a Semantic Notion The term modality was originally derived from traditional modal logic in which the relationship between necessity ( nec ) and possibility ( poss ) of a proposition ( p ) was formalised in terms of affirmative and negative modal operators as Lyons ( 1977:787 ) explains : ( ) FORMULA ( ) Greek philosophers were concerned with what is now called modality , i.e. , the necessary truth of a proposition as in ( ) , and realised by the modal expression : ( ) FORMULA Linguists and logical semanticists have more recently been interested in exploring how language reflects the underlying notions of proposition necessity and possibility , and a number of complex frameworks have been proposed , all of which largely overlap , but none of which appears to account for all the grammatical forms , outlined above , in a comprehensive way . According to ( ) , in identified mood categories , in which the proposition involves ' an element of will ' such as an obligation , permission or order , and the other where no element of will is involved , such as a deduction , a conjecture or an expression of doubt . The former of these became to be known as modality as it relates , in broad terms , to notions of duty , and the latter Epistemic modality owing to its association with the nature of the speaker 's knowledge regarding the truth of the proposition . Figure shows how the notion of modality has been differentiated so far in this essay . < figure/>The next subsections examine the meaning of the terms Epistemic and Deontic , and illustrate how they have been applied to the notion of modality . < heading > Epistemic Modality In general terms , Epistemic , or extrinsic modality refers to the speaker 's judgement on the likelihood of a proposition being true . In addition to the relationship between necessity and possibility discussed above , further dimensions appear to be involved : certainty - uncertainty and objectivity - subjectivity . The following examples show how modal expressions correspond to points along these continua as a function of the speaker 's judgement of the veracity of , and the strength of objective evidence for , the proposition ' John is rich ' . Underlined items mean they are stressed . Alternative , equivalent modal expressions ( a , b ) are provided : < list>- Certainty : Logical necessity based on objective deduction : ( ) FORMULA ( ) : Reasonable inference : ( ) FORMULA ( ) : Pure supposition : ( ) FORMULA ( ) < /list > The examples above illustrate the range of certainty from logical necessity to speculative possibility . Individual linguistics have developed their own conceptual models of these underlying relationships and have tended to employ different and sometimes conflicting terminology . ( ) uses just ' modality ' in place of Epistemic modality to refer to an ' interpersonal function ' in language . However , I believe the columns ' Probable ' and ' Possible ' in Table II ( page ) should be reversed to allow the ' likelihood ' continuum to be represented in the conventional order . Lyons ( ) criticises linguists for focussing on the subjective characteristics of Epistemic modality and analyses the ' must ' in ( ) and the ' may ' in ( ) respectively , as examples of objective and subjective Epistemic modality ; ( ) describes this continuum as progressing from the ' strong ' to the ' weak ' form of modal expression . Palmer ( ) introduces an additional layer into the hierarchy in Figure , ( Propositional ) , and divides the source of judgement on the proposition into cognitively - generated ( Epistemic ) , and that derived from sensory or other means ( Evidential ) . < figure/>The importance of 's model of modality lies in its ability to accommodate the multifarious manifestations of modality across languages more satisfactorily than has henceforth been possible , an endeavour which only emphasises further the complexity of the semantic attributes of modality . < heading > Deontic Modality Historically , Epistemic modality was derived from the wider category called root , or modality . It is described as intrinsic modality and refers to the speaker 's intervention through obligation or permission . Berk ( ) effectively employs the terms Directive and Volition to cover the many manifestations of modality , and Downing and Locke ( 2001 ) distinguish between ' inescapable ' and ' unfulfilled ' obligation in relation to the former , and ' willingness ' and ' intention ' with respect to the latter . The following examples combine their approaches to classification : < list>- Directives - Inescapable Obligation : ( ) FORMULA ( ) FORMULA ( subjective source ) ( ) FORMULA ( objective source ) - Unfulfilled Obligation : ( ) FORMULA ( ) FORMULA ( ) FORMULA - Suggestion : ( ) FORMULA - Reprimand : ( ) FORMULA - Permission : ( ) FORMULA - Request : ( ) FORMULA - Volition - Willingness : ( ) FORMULA - Refusal : ( ) FORMULA - Insistence : ( ) constraint : ( ) FORMULA - Threat : ( ) FORMULA - Promise : ( ) < /list > The examples above illustrate the range of commitment to the obligational or volitional element of the proposition whether they reside within the speaker or addressee of the statement . Again , as the sub - categories above suggest , modality has , like Epistemic modality , been subjected to detailed semantic analysis by linguists . For example , ( ) claims the ' strong ' pole of this continuum represents obligation , and the ' weak ' , permission . ( ) uses the term ' modulation ' in place of to refer to an ' ideation function ' in language which essentially includes the concepts covered by the examples above , but also the use of modal expressions to convey ' ability ' as in : ( ) FORMULA As with Epistemic modality , Palmer ( ) introduces an additional layer into the hierarchy in Figure , ( Event ) , and divides the above and categories into expressions of ) , and Willingness and Ability ( Dynamic ) . < figure/>As mentioned earlier in relation to Epistemic modality , 's model is important because of its attempt to achieve cross - lingual adequacy , but simultaneously illustrates the tendency for semantically ambiguous and confusing terms to proliferate in this field of linguistics . By contrast , ( ) endeavours to develop a model of the relationship between modality and negation across languages , results in the narrow selection of specific modals forms and necessary exclusion of many of the instances of modality discussed here . < heading > Evaluation of Modality as a Grammatical or Semantic Notion The evolutionary development of modality in linguistics from its roots in modal logic has followed a progression that has encouraged the construction of increasingly complex models . In fact , in relation to the types of modality that have been identified , ) concludes : "" So far , there is no consensus among either linguists or logicians on the establishment of a comprehensive framework which is both theoretically coherent and empirically satisfactory . "" ) . Modality refers to necessity , possibility , certainty , obligation , permission , willingness and ability , but given the wide application of this term , as indicated by the examples above , this list is far from exhaustive . Nevertheless , as Lyons ( ) argues , it is clear that there are strong semantic associations not only among the instances of what is generally called Epistemic modality , and those grouped under the general heading of modality , but also , between these categories themselves , both of which can be realised through the use of the same modal expressions . Interestingly , as Palmer ( ) illustrates , this phenomenon occurs in many languages . Therefore , grammatical expressions of modality serve no function in discriminating between categories of modality . This is neatly illustrated by ( ) selection of the modal auxiliaries ' must ' , ' shall ' , ' will ' , ' should ' , ' can ' , ' could ' , ' may ' and ' might ' to describe points along both continua . < heading > Conclusion The concept of modality is about ' how ' man operates in the cognitive , physical and social world , where ' how ' refers to ' mode of thought ' or ' mode of behaviour ' . Linguistic expressions of modality reflect how man expresses his interpretations of observations and events occurring around him , and how he tries to influence them . The grammatical system that supports the multifarious aspects of modality in is itself multifaceted , using not only a specific category of auxiliary , but also a variety of other modal lexical devices . This complex grammatical system of modality singularly fails to distinguish between the various semantic nuances that modality conveys . is primarily a semantically - driven notion that has required the recruitment of many different grammatical forms in order to permit the adequate expression of its complexity .",1 "Antibodies are glycoprotein molecules which are found in the blood and tissue of many living beings . Antibody molecules are created by the immune system in white blood cells known as B lymphocytes upon recognition of a toxin or potentially threatening entity ; the foreign bodies whose presence cause the generation of antibodies are known as antigens - as they generate the production of antibodies . Antibodies provide the major defense against pathogens , toxins and extracellular bacteria ; they are therefore essential in immunology and drug design . Normally in the body , B - lymphocyte cells produce different antibodies with slightly different properties . Monoclonal antibodies on the other hand are such that they all originate from a single clone of cells - thus they are all identical , they are typically produced by immunizing a mouse or rat , with an antigen , the B cells from the immunized animal are then fused with B cells that do not produce their own immunoglobin . The procedure undertaken to produce monoclonal antibodies ( ) was discovered in , much of the literature relating to the structure and function of antibodies and immunoglobin dates from and 's , however in have found a unique and important place in molecular biology and the development and design of drugs as they can provide information about the role of a specific molecule in disease , and also form the basis of new treatments . In this essay the function in structure of antibodies in general will be discussed and the importance of monoclonal antibodies will be considered . In addition to this , the biophysical techniques used to discern the structure are addressed . The determination of the structure of a biological molecule such as an antibody can be achieved using a number of experimental techniques in conjunction with post - experimental computational methods - such as molecular replacement software . In order to make sense of much of the literature pertaining to antibody structure it is useful to be familiar with the terminology and nomenclature used to refer to different elements of the antibody . There is a common structure shared by all antibody molecules - this common structure loosely resembles a capital letter Y and this is known to comprise distinct protein subunits . The following figure shows a schematic of the shape of a typical antibody molecule showing the principle regions and features . < picture/>For any given antibody molecule there are heavy chains ( shown dark blue in Figure ) which are typically in size and are usually identical to each other . The light chains ( shown pale blue in Figure ) are typically around 23kDa in size and will also be identical to each other - meaning that the antibody has a high level of axial symmetry . Different antibodies have different heavy and light chains and these differences make the antibody bind specifically to different antigens . The antibody 's specificity is defined in the ' arms ' of the Y - shape and the variable regions determining which antigen is bound to is called the complementarity determining region ( ) . The protein domains of the antibody are named in relation to which of the chains they belong to and whether they belong to the constant or the variable region ( this variability relates to the amino acid sequence ) . For example the domain C H4 belongs to the heavy chain in the constant region , similarly the domain V L describes the domain of the variable region of the light chain . The region of the antibody connecting the light chain - containing proteins is often referred to as the hinge as this is a region of high flexibility . Another commonly used nomenclature to describe the generic structure of antibodies originates from the fact the molecules can be cleaved using proteases forming fragments of the original molecule . These regions are called Fab and Fc . The Fab region ( antigen binding ) describes the arms and the hinge of the antibody . The Fc region ( Fragment crystallisable ) describes the stem of the antibody - so - called due to its propensity to crystallize upon being cleaved . As previously stated , antibodies play a crucial role in the immune system , defending the body against toxins that enter the bloodstream and countering disease threat posed by microbes and viruses . The primary function of antibodies is that of binding to antigens . The region of the antibody binds specifically to or a small number of closely related antigens . The result of this biding is that the effect of the toxin in irradicated and the host is protected . It is sometimes the case that there is no immediate effect of the antibody binding to the antigen , but the presence of the antibody - antigen complex causes biological activity thus protecting the host from the threat - this is called an ' Effector Function ' of the antibody . There is a wealth of examples in the literature of the research undertaken to determine the structure of monoclonal antibodies using a number of biophysical techniques such as X - ray diffraction , , and mass spectrometry . , a number of examples have been selected chosen so as to show the range of techniques and to display how combining the information from these different techniques can aid in the formation of an overall description of the structure and function of antibodies . microscopy was the technique to be used to image antibodies [ ] it predates the use of or X - ray techniques by and is still used in a reduced capacity to address some specific questions of function and structure . There is an upper limit on the resolution that can be achieved using electron microscopy due the physical limitation associated with accelerating the electrons and thus reducing the wavelength . This problem does not exist with x - rays as they are of sufficiently small wavelength to be able to produce images of macromolecules at the atomic level . However X - ray crystallography is not without its own challenges . The crystal sample needs to be pure , concentrated , stable and conformationally inflexible and there are often problems associated with obtaining a crystal of antibodies largely due to the oligosaccharides found on the CH domains . In the process of X - ray crystallography x - rays are fired at the crystal where they undergo diffraction through the lattice formed by the molecules , the diffracted x - rays are then detected , typically by a . A larger magnitude of the angular deviation of the x - ray corresponds to a higher resolution of the structure . The data collected during this process then undergoes post - processing such that the maximal amount of information can be extracted . The nature of this processing can vary and there are a number of mathematical tricks that can sharpen resolution , eliminate clutter and provide error correction . However at its most basic the processing involves performing a transform on the location of the maximal intensities found - from this the structure of the crystal and be inferred and thus the shape of the molecule . In their paper et al [ 3 ] describe the use of X - ray crystallographic techniques to discern the structure of the Fab ' fragment of a human myeloma ( IgG1 ) protein to a resolution of nm . The paper describes the finding of irregular beta sheets in both the light and heavy polypeptide chains which are roughly parallel and surround a tightly packed interior of hydrophobic side chains . The research was also able to identify the spatial location of the hypervariable portions of both the light and heavy chains - and to speculate as to the role these hypervariable portion have in defining the function of the immunoglobin . In the paper ' Refined structure of an intact IgG2a monoclonal antibody ' [ 4 ] Harris et al describe their X - ray crystallographic data . It is interesting to compare these papers [ ] and [ 4 ] and to regard how the understanding and technology has progress in . For example , in the et al paper , which is concerned with the imaging of the monoclonal antibody Mab231 , much is made of the computing techniques to obtain the images , and the resolution obtained , orders of magnitude greater than that obtained by et al . The principle of relies on the quantum mechanical affect of the intrinsic spin of nuclei . The intrinsic spin is perturbed using a magnetic field and then a resonant field is applied usually in the form of the magnetic component of radio frequency electromagnetic radiation . This mobility and resonance can be detected using the principle of electromagnetic induction . What characterizes the sample is its ability to recover from the resonance and this gives information regarding the structure of the sample . can be used to obtain information about different levels of the structure of the proteins ( primary , secondary and ) for example use of techniques like to discern the primary structure ( amino acid sequence ) of the proteins . The use of to discern aspects of the antibody structure and function are found in references [ ] and [ 6 ] . Anglister et al [ 5 ] used to probe the nature of antibody - antigen combining sites and obtain spectra from the cleaved Fab fragment of a monoclonal anti - spin - label antibody using deuterated amino acids to form the proteins of the antibody . Anglister et al go on to postulate that the combining - site structures must be almost identical to the native structures . A major difference between crystallographic techniques and is that the specimen can be viewed close to their natural states when is the probing technique . Furthermore dynamical structural information can be found with - of course this can not be the case with crystallography as the molecule needs to be tightly bound in the crystal lattice . et al use for the study of the dynamical properties of the hinge region of The hinge region is typically mobile and is therefore a prime target for dynamical imaging . It was concluded that the hinge region of the mouse IgG2a molecule has a mosaic structure with heterogeneous nature of flexibility with the rigid core part flanked by upper and lower hinges , which are highly flexible peptide segments . It was suggested that the rigidity in the N - terminal side of the upper hinge is due to the interaction with a CH domain of the antibody . The examples presented here are among many which have gone to aid the understanding of the structure and function of monoclonal antibodies and immunoglobin in general . The growth of this pool of knowledge will aid in the increased use of monoclonal antibodies as a therapy for diseases and ailments such as arthritis and cancers .","< heading>1 Introduction1.1 Overview In this report an experiment is described in which the chemotaxis of strains of bacteria are investigated . The motivation behind the design of the experiment is described in detail identifying the reasons and the rationale behind all of the decisions made during the design of the experiment . The expectations underlying the anticipated results of the experiment are described which in many cases provided the driving force of the rationale behind the design of the experiment . After the description of the design of the experiment there follows a brief summary of the procedure and conduct of the experiment . Finally there are a number of suggestions as to how the experiment could be improved continued or amended if undertaken again . < heading>1.2 Scope and Limitations The goal of this exercise was to design and carry out an experiment which would show a feature of the motile behaviour of bacteria . There were bacteria available for use ( Myxococcus Xanthus and ) and a number of chemicals were made available , these chemicals could have been chemo - attractors , chemo - repellors or they could have had no eect whatsoever on the bacteria in question . There were many factors which could have been investigated during this experiment , many degrees of freedom which could have been varied to discover something about the nature of chemotaxis in bacteria . The experiment described herein was designed to extract quantitative data which could be used to extract some law or property of the bacteria movement . This was conducted in a rigorous and methodical fashion - however the price of this rigour is that the scope of the experiment was perhaps more limited than other experiments . < heading>2 Design of the Experiment A decision was made to attempt to obtain quantitative data regarding the chemotaxis behaviour of the bacteria under analysis . In addition to the analysis of the motile behaviour of the bacteria , attepts were made to discern the effect of a chemical to the motility ; the chemical under scrutiny was succinic acid . The motile behaviour of both and E.coli were be observed and recorded and compared . The experiments designed fall distinctly into categories ; macroscopic experiments conducted on agar plates whereby the bulk motion of bacteria can be observed and microscopic experiments where bacteria are placed on a microscope slide and observed under an optical microscope to discern the behaviour and motility of individual bacterium . < heading>2.1 A constraint that was considered during this aspect of the experiment is that was only enough agar to make approximately plates . This meant that that scope the macroscopic experiments were designed with this in mind . The table < table/>shows the content of the plates in the experiment . The reasoning behind the each plate will now be described . Plates and were the control plates for the M. Xanthus and E. coli cultures respectively . Figure shows a schematic of the control plates ( 0 and 1 ) . The control plates consisted of agar with no succinic acid and would thus provide information regarding the motile behaviour of the bacteria in the absence of any chemicals . The control plates consisted of a streak and a spot of < picture/>the bacteria , providing the information required to act as the control for all the subsequent plates . Figure shows a schematic diagram of how the gradient of the chemical was obtained . In each of the gradient experiments ( plates ) a streak of the bacteria was applied to the plate in the direction of the gradient ( from low to high ) . < picture/>The shallow gradient ( plates and 3 ) was created using agar with a mM concentration succinic acid allowed to set at an angle , having set - the plate was filled using agar with no succinic acid , the idea being that the gradient would be formed where there is more succcinic acid . The steeper gradient was created for plates and 5 in the same way and using succinic acid with a concentration of mM. of plates , and 4 would show the effect of the differing concentrations of succinic acid to and comparison of plate , , and 5 would show the effect of the different concentrations of succinic acid to . The purpose of the gradient - type experiments was to show that if succinic acid was a chemoattractor , there would be increased activity in the regions of higher concentration of the chemical and a net migration towards the high concentration regions , whereas if succinic acid were found to be a repellant , then the reverse would be found , with net migration away from the high concentration regions . < picture/>Figure shows how the plates were constructed for plates . In these experiments the concentration of succinic acid was gradually increased in subsequent plates to show the effect of the chemical on the bacteria in a homogenous environment . and of each of the spots after a given time would show the effect of the differing effect of the chemical , furthermore , measurement of the swarming of the bacteria would allow quantification of the motility of the bacteria . For example it was anticipated that a graph of average distance moved versus concentration of the succinic acid could be constructed . Unlike the gradient experiments , the homogenous plate experiments were specifically designed to enable quantification of the motility . The idea behind this experiment was to show that with no chemo - attractors present exhibits a type of random walk with phases of motion . A translation which corresponds to anticlockwise flaggella motion , this translation is then followed by a tumbling phase where the bacterium rotates due to clockwise flagella rotation . This tumbling reorientates the bacterium thus when the tranlaton phase is entered again the bacterium is facing in a random direction . Having measured the bacterial motion in the absence of chemicals , a succinic acid gradient would be added and the random walk would be measured in the presence of the chemical . The measurements would be taken by observing a bacterium in the tumbling phase the then wait until it entered the translation phase . The direction of the translation and the time spent in the translation phase would be recorded . Figure shows a schematic diagram of the view through the microscope . The viewing area would be split into imaginary regions thus enabling the direction of the motion to be roughly quantised . A stop watch would be used to measure the length of time spent in the translation phase . < heading>2.2 Microscope Experiments The aspect of the experiment was to observe the bacteria under a microscope , then to somehow quantify the motion seen . The challenge in this experiment was precisely how to perform this quantification It was hoped that the data collected in this experiment in the absence of any chemicals would be used to show that the motion of the bacteria is described by motion , thus a diffusion coefficent could be ascribed to the motion . Futhermore in the presence of a succinic acid chemical gradient , it was hoped that the motion would statistically described by a biased random walk , therefore < picture/>the diffusion would be non - homogenous and the diffusion coefficient would be different in different directions . < heading>3 Results & Conclusions In this section the results of the experiment are summarised with some suggestions for improvement and how the experiments would be changed if performed again . < heading>3.1 The M. Xanthus displayed no apparent motion in any of the plates observed . This could be for a number of reasons . The way in which moves may not be efficient on the agar medium , or it could be that the bacteria were well fed and therefore had no impetus to be motile in the search for food . As no motility was observed in the M. Xanthus no conclusions could drawn regarding its reaction to the succinic acid . The E. coli did display some motion . The control ( plate ) showed the the bacteria had swarmed over non uniformly around the single spot . The control streak also displayed some motion away from the original place . The control streak moved roughly uniformly . Comparison of plates and 5 showed the effect of the gradient on the motility . It was apparent that the motion on plate was less than on the control and the motion on plate was less than on plate . The motion on both plates was a roughly uniform . This implies that motility decreases with increased concentrations of succinic acid , and as no gradient effects were observed it also implies that the gradient became less apparent due to diffusion . Plates showed that the E - coli did move in some cases . Although no quantitative data was recorded comparison between the plates showed that there was less motion in the plates with higher concentrations of succinic acid . This implies that succinic acid suppresses the motility of . However to draw firmer conclusions more experiments should take place . If the experiment were conducted again more spots would be placed on each plate , thus giving more data , also observations would be made at regular time intervals and for a longer complete time . Tests should also be conducted to ensure that the bacteria are starved and are likely to form flagella . < heading>3.2 Microscope Experiments The grand designs of the experiment were made with little experience of actually handling the equipment , however both and were successfully observed under the microscope . were particularly impressive in that they occasionally displayed the tumbling behaviour . However it became apparent that were well fed and therefore had no need to grow the flagella . More experiments were conducted using starved bacteria - and these were more successful in that the transitions between the tumbling phase and the translation phase could clearly be observed for individual bacterium . Indeed had more time been available quantitative data may have been obtained in the manner described in the previous section . The recording of data was complicated immensely by fluid effects . By far the overwhelming motion of the bacteria is due to a drift cause by fluid motion and pressure gradients under the cover slip . The fluid effects are quite drastic when another fluid ( such as succinic acid)is added to the sample . Although quantitive data could be collected in this fashion - fluid drift effects could have to be accounted for in the analysis , or a way to counter the flow should be designed into the experiments .",1 "imperialism in the era appears aggressive , coercive and plainly exploitative . Indeed , it seems antithetical to liberalism that is embedded on the principles of self - determination , autonomy and individual freedom . However , this incongruity metropolitan theory and colonialisation has been accurately accounted for by neo - Marxists such as . The ' Highest stage of capitalism ' theory emphasises that the annexation of exotic territory was influenced purely by economic needs , as imperialism was essential for the very survival of capitalism ; the acquisition of materials such as rubber , copper , sugar , tea and diamonds would elevate the income of the rising bourgeois and the proletariat and keep domestic public discontent down to a minimum , an idea amplified by advocates of the social imperialism theory . Interestingly , this interpretation is suggestive of a crucial point : that imperialism is not a direct contradiction of liberalism but liberalism itself is paradoxical . As highlights , it is a ' doctrine based on individualist theories of man and society ' and thus implies that individuals are politically equal , but have the freedom to be economically dissimilar ; theoretically , a strange blend of universality and differentiation . This mixture is also the bedrock of imperialism ; the phenomena was not just driven by economic self - interest , as interpretations would lead us to believe , but also by ideology that intended to ' provide the natives with the guarantees essential to the good distribution of justice and lead them prudently and consistently to a higher level of civilisation ' . < fnote > V.I.Lenin , Imperialism : : A popular outline , ( edn . , , ) < /fnote> , Keywords : A vocabulary of culture and society , ( , ) , p.181 . < /fnote> A.P. Ansom , le , Letter written . < /fnote > This universalism , in the form of importing liberte , egalite and fraternite , combined with racialism , in the sense that the believed they had a right to adopt coercive and violent measures against the colonised for the sake of manufacturing a liberal society simply because they perceived themselves to be morally and materialistically superior , is criticised by , who exemplifies 's mission civillastrice in . She shows that although the abolished the slave trade in , introduced the politique des races an exhaustive attempt to attack the ' continuing institution of aristocratic rule in the form of hereditary and established an education system which all could infiltrate , not just children of the old elite , so ' a society in which careers would be ... open to talent rather than based on privilege ' would be created , they failed to follow these principles themselves . Fascinatingly , all were treated as subjects and not citizens , although was viciously anti - monarchical . Notably , concealed this by passing the naturalisation law which allowed worthy natives to rise to equal citizenship with the ; accordingly , this diverted attention from the large majority that actually remained subjects . Disguise was also used by the who ' displayed submissive maharajahs in jewelled robes- freely loyal rather than captive ' at royal jubilees and coronations . Apparently , supposed liberal ends justified illiberal imperial practices and resultantly the colonisers ' managed to obscure the fundamental contradiction between democracy and the forcible acquisition of an empire ' . < fnote > Alice L.Conklin , ' Colonialism and human rights , a contradiction in terms ? The case of and , , , ( ) , p.426 . < /fnote> Conklin , ' Colonialism and human rights ' , p. . < /fnote> , The Age of Empire , , ( , ) , p. . < /fnote> , A mission to civilize : in and , , ( USA , ) , p. . < /fnote > However , the detachment of imperialism with liberalism denies firstly that civilisation was not seen as a peaceful construction born from the willingness and education of , and that the beginning of superior was ' characterised by struggle , conflict , and crisis ' . Significantly , and elevate the paradox of liberal ideology : ' A contradiction that runs throughout modernity ... the immanent forces of desire and association , the love of the community , and on the other , the strong hand of an overarching authority that imposes and enforces an order on the social field ' . , just as an enlightened and educated few had to guide the masses in period to ensure an ' achieved condition of refinement and order ' , namely civilisation , the superpowers now perceived themselves as having a duty to elevate the backward and irrational natives to a higher standard of living : ' subjects ... were not just barbarians , they were barbarians capable of , and in the process of receiving , civilisation understood in the most democratic and universal sense ' . < fnote > and , , ( USA , ) , p.70 . < /fnote> Hardt and , , . < /fnote> Conklin , ' Colonialism and human rights ' , p.433 . < /fnote > But , illiberal means to a liberal end being central to liberalism is questionable as in the general election , in achieved a landslide victory principally because of its anti - imperialistic message : it was against the existence of slavery in . Moreover , liberal philosopher condemned imperialism , believing a minority of business elites who perverted true capitalism and exercised illegitimate and undemocratic influence over government and mass opinion controlled it . This is exemplified by the fact that approximately forty - five percent of 's cotton exports went to ; a plausible reason for creating formal colonies- namely and Africa- which would guarantee trade access to the ' the brightest jewel in the imperial crown ' . Additionally , detached imperialism from liberalism , offering an alternative interpretation of it being a feature of the old pre - capitalist autocratic and militaristic elite trying to hold on to some form of influence by flying the imperialist flag with liberal colours . Nevertheless , and seem to deny that classical liberalism is a - headed monster ; an inherent part of the ideology is uncontrolled economic advancement and the establishment of an authority that guarantees security . Indeed , ' the anarchic organisation of the international system of states ' was repaired by the epoch of empire . < fnote > , Critics of Empire : radical attitudes to colonialism in , , ( , ) , p.258 . < /fnote> Hobsbawm , The Age of Empire , . < /fnote> Norman Etherington , Theories of Imperialism . War , and , ( , ) , . < /fnote> , , ( and , ) , p.245 . < /fnote > The notion that imperialism is a perversion of liberalism is elaborated by the observations of ; the impulse for imperialism , the very act of imperialism itself , and the intended outcome were far from being liberal , apart from in an economic sense . Certainly , , and all had developed labour and radical democratic parties and systems of public social welfare and security before any of the superpowers . Furthermore , of the latter part of was mainly a ' by - product of an era of economic and political rivalry between competing national economies ' ; the acquisition of colonies became a status symbol and declaration of power- surely , did not have liberal tendencies when it conquered undesirable stretches of desert and mountain- and also often a disguise for militaristic and demographic inferiority , as was the case with . This search for supremacy also explains the fact that racism was rampant in the metropolis : workers called strike - breakers crumiri , after a tribe , and the called criminal gangs , originally the name of indigenous chiefs . Ultimately , this shows that imperialism was merely a last struggle by government to achieve some degree of rule as their own countries slipped into the unconquerable system of democracy where all member of societies were treated as equal , confirmed by the mounting consideration and eventual implementation of universal male franchise in . The view of imperialism being utterly illiberal and demonstrative of pre - democratic practices , for the even mirroring the conduct of the detested ancien regime , is substantiated by the fear amongst some imperialists of colonial self - rule : ' will shift the burden of physical toil ... on to the coloured races , and itself be content with the role of rentier , and this way ... pave the way for the economic and ... political emancipation of the coloured races ' . This is demonstrated in the campaign for self - rule , a country that is seemingly educated , civilised and Western enough to govern themselves ; the and opposed the proposal staunchly , even at the cost of igniting civil war . To , the creation of liberal institutions in the was merely a clever ' rationalisation of empire ' and a deterrent of the real , unimpeded liberation of the subjugated natives . < fnote > Hobsbawm , The Age of Empire , p.76 . < /fnote> H.G.V.Schulze - Gaevernitiz , Britischer Imperialismus und englischer des . Jahrunderts , ( , ) < /fnote> Conklin , ' Colonialism and human rights ' , p.421 . < /fnote > However , this interpretation denies the expensive and exhaustive attempt of the colonisers to improve their economically and socially . In , for example , there was of railway worldwide . By , there was . flourished because of this : by , it was only to in the world as a supplier of cotton yarn , and because of the development of a ' sensitive inter - regional crop failure grain trade ' , , for example , was able to import , of grain to lessen the catastrophic effects of a severe famine in . Moreover , in , the eradicated traditional institutions : indigenous languages , slavery , barbaric customary law and feudal chieftaincies . Unquestionably , to claim that imperialism was not rooted by any degree of social liberal theory , but instead solely on the seeking of power and increase in material , is to neglect the genuine post - Enlightenment humanitarian urge to intervene beyond to better the circumstances of . < fnote > B.R.Tomlinson , The political economy of the Raj , , ( , ) , p.1 . < /fnote> I.D.Derbyshire , ' Economic change and the Railways in , , , vol.21 , issue , ( ) , p.539 . < /fnote> Conklin , A mission to civilize , p.6 . < /fnote> Andrew Porter , European Imperialism , , ( , ) , p.20 . < /fnote > To adopt a wholly cynical , view of imperialism- that there is an immediate link between monopoly capitalism and colonialism- is to still agree that the phenomenon is a branch of economic liberalism . However , this rejects an additional dimension to imperialism that perhaps makes formal imperialism more liberal then informal imperialism , which is conventionally thought of as the symbol of ' the free - trading and freely competing liberal world of the : the creation of a wider society based on the principles of equality , individual freedom and rational not backward or supernatural thought . Just as informal imperialism is regarded as the economic high point of capitalism , formal imperialism was the high point of social universalism . Here , we have met the crux of this argument : that universal civilisation and equality , according to imperialists , was a manufactured state , not a natural one . The colonisers , therefore , had a right to ensure the natives attained a higher state of society through undemocratic and often violent methods . It is a contemporary fashion to be sceptical of imperialism if you believe in such liberal values as human rights , autonomy and freedom . But one must examine more closely the contradictory nature of liberalism in to understand why imperialism originated from and was part of this ideology . < fnote > , Marxist Theories of Imperialism ; A critical survey , ( edn . , , ) , p.1 - 9 . < /fnote> Hobsbawm , The Age of Empire , p.59 . < /fnote >","< heading > Introduction: The use of detergents to remove fatty deposits works on a basic principle - the addition of a molecule which has both polar ( hydrophilic ) and non - polar ( hydrophobic ) groups . In effect , this molecule will act as a ' bridge ' between the oil and the water which would otherwise naturally repel one another . Below is a rough diagram showing this - the fat molecule is at the centre of the diagram and it is surrounded , in a shell / skin type configuration , by the molecules containing the hydrophilic / hydrophobic groups - these are known as surfactants ; < figure/>The ionic / hydrophilic ' head ' of the detergent enables it to dissolve in water , but when it does so ; it forms spherical groups of carboxylate chains called micelles . Because the ' tails ' of the micelle are lipophilic they will dissolve into a fat molecule if there is present . The other point of importance is once the fat molecule is surrounded , it effectively has a cloud of slightly negative charge around it . Because of this , the oil droplets will not be able to rejoin as they are now naturally repelled from one another . < enote > Lewis E & Berry M ( 2000 ) , , Longman , , p731 < /enote > Detergents , particularly washing up liquids , contain a number of ingredients which assist them to dissolve oil / fat in water . These include ; non - ionic surfactants ( usually ) and anionic surfactants ( usually ) . It is these ingredients within common household detergents that help to remove grease from dirty dishes . Anionic surfactants are generally used in toiletry type products from which lather is wanted , for example , shampoo , bath and shower products . They have a negatively charged carboxylic , sulphate or sulphonate group at the end of an alkyl chain and are commonly in the form of salts of sodium and magnesium . Non - ionic surfactants have structures in which the hydrophilic region contains lots hydroxyl or ester groups which have double bonded oxygen atoms which are able to bond with the hydrogen atoms of water - they are mostly used as emulsifiers . There are other groups of surfactants , these are ; cationic and zwitterionic of which zwitterionic is commonly used within the food industry . < enote > URL ( 25/01/2004 ) < /enote > Detergents will remove grease , food particles and any other contaminants from food service . They will also remove micro - organisms ; however , micro - organisms will not be killed . For this to be achieved , a disinfectant must be used . < heading > Method: The method was followed exactly as described in the practical class handbook . In summary , dilution series ( ) were made with different detergents . oil was the added to the solutions and they were shaken until a good emulsion was formed ( ) . The solutions were then allowed to separate and of the lower layer ( the emulsion ) was removed and placed in an evaporating dish . This was then placed in an oven at ° C so that the water could be removed . The amount of oil recovered could then be determined by taking the difference of the before and after weights of the evaporating dish . The results were then tabulated and plotted on a graph . < heading > Results:
Discussion: The important thing that can be concluded from the results is that even just the water ( without detergent ) is able to suspend some oil in an emulsion ; It is known that water and oil naturally repel from one another so , at , this result may seem anomalous . However , the water and oil mixture was shaken very vigorously for . During this time , the size of the oil droplets within the water would have been greatly reduced . This therefore means that the time required for the oil droplets to coalesce and eventually come out of suspension will be fairly significant . In this case the dish containing the oil / water emulsion was placed in an oven at ° C . This means that the water would evaporate before all the oil had time to come out of suspension . It is for this reason that g was set as the y axis intercept on chart . This then gives a true indication of how much oil , each of the detergents , at various concentrations , is able to suspend in emulsion . It should also be remembered that the procedure was carried out with cold water and that detergents are designed for use with warm water and that oil will naturally disperse more easily if the water ( and , therefore , the detergent ) is warmer . This in affect is cancelled out by the fact that the mixture was vigorously shaken for , and this , although not directed by the manufacturers , will aid the dispersion of the oil within the water . This means the results obtained will roughly reflect the performance of the detergents in the home . Looking at the graph it can immediately be seen that at all concentrations , the detergent was able to suspend more oil in emulsion than the own brand detergent . The detergent was only able to dissolve of the oil that the detergent was able to do at each of the concentrations examined . The reason for this is to do with the composition of the detergents . Detergents are composed of main parts which are of interest with respect to this experiment , these are ; anionic and non - ionic surfactants . Both of these act to decrease the surface tension between the oil and the water and therefore allow the oil to be suspended within the water , in affect , creating an emulsion . The larger the composition of these ingredients within the detergent , the better it will be at emulsifying oil in solution . Below is a table showing the composition of the to detergents ; < table/>In cheaper detergents , the bulk of the liquid is likely to be some aqueous based substance which will be substantially cheaper than the non - ionic and anionic surfactants . However , looking at the table above it can be seen that the detergent is comparable to , if not better than the detergent . It must therefore be concluded that the detergent has better quality surfactants . It can therefore be concluded that a larger volume ( more ) of the own brand detergent will be required to have the same cleaning affect as the detergent - or at least in helping to remove the grease / oil from washing - up to the water . < heading > Conclusion: If this experiment was to be repeated , as well as doing more repeats ( the reliability of the results can not be expressed to any great extent as repeat was done ) it would be interesting to see how the detergent compared to the own brand at lower concentrations . Another factor which would have affected the results was how well the samples were shaken - samples being shaken by someone 's right hand may be more vigorously shaken if that person is right handed . Therefore , shaking the sample an equal time in each hand would over come this . Better still would be to use a machine to do this and thus eliminating any differences which may be caused by different shaking methods from different people . When using detergents such as these to wash dishes they would be used at much lower concentrations , probably ( approximately detergent in 5L water ) . The problem with doing this with the volumes used in the experiment is that the amount of oil held in emulsion would be virtually impossible to measure so a much greater volume of solution would need to be made so that the weight of oil to measure was realistic .",0 "< heading > INTRODUCTION In this report , a torque sensor was designed . It was a shaft - type cantilever , which was clamped to a frame at one end , with the other end left free to be twisted under a torque . This torque was applied via a thin steel bar attached to the free end of the shaft , and a force applied to the other end of the steel bar . The shaft was a hollow one , made of steel with the dimensions as follows : length L = 200 mm ; outside diameter d = and the internal diameter d i = . Once this test - rig was set up , it had been proposed that the rig was instrumented so that an automatic measurement of the torsion could be given . Diagrams of the test rig were shown below . < figure/>
METHOD To give this automatic read out of the torsion , it was decided that a torque cell should be implemented . A torque cell was a transducer and transducers were devices used for the measurement of a physical quantity by electrical means , i.e. used to convert non - electrical measurands into electrical quantities . They were used because this method often assisted subsequent operations on the data . In this case , the torque cell was converted an applied torque into an electrical output signal . A torque cell contained a mechanical element- the circular shaft , and a sensor- strain gauges . the type of strain gauges was chosen . In fact there were types of gauges , metal or semiconductor . The metal gauges were in the form of a flat coil of wire or etched metal foil and the semiconductor gauges were a strip of semiconductor material in - between connection leads . The element was wafer - like and had an insulating backing material so that it could be stuck like a postage stamp onto surfaces , using a suitable adhesive . Strain gauges worked on the principal that : FORMULA where < list > R = resistance , = resistivity , L = length , and A = area of So when the element was stretched , its length increased , its cross - sectional area decreased , and there was also a change in its resistivity . The result was that the resistance of the element changes . Generally , the semiconductor strain gauges were made from silicon and they had a much higher gauge factors than the metal ones which made them much more sensitive than the metal ones ( factors were or -100 to -140 depending on whether the silicon was doped with ' P ' or ' N ' type material , compared with gauge factors of for the metal ones ) , but it did n't mean that they were automatically better than the metal ones though . The strain gauges based on semiconductor materials were rather more expensive , more difficult to apply and had greater sensitivity to temperature changes than the metal ones . The greater sensitivity to temperature changes meant that the relative change in resistance is now non - linear and therefore more complicated . Due to these negative points , the metal foil strain gauges were chosen . active strain gauges are used in order to obtain maximum possible bridge output voltages , to provide temperature compensation , and to make the sensor / transducer insensitive to forces and moments other than the one being measured . These are mounted on perpendicular 45 helices that are diametrically opposite to one another . Gauges 1 and 3 , are mounted on the right hand helix , and sense a positive strain ( tension ) , and gauges and 4 , mounted on the left - hand helix , sense a negative strain ( compression ) . The helices define the principal stress and strain directions for a circular shaft subject to pure torsion . This set - up described can be seen in the following diagram < figure/>The torque , T transmitted by a shaft is related to the maximum shear stress , produced on the shaft surface by the equation : FORMULA where J is the polar moment of area of the shaft section and r the radius of the shaft . For a hollow circular shaft J = ( d 04 - d i4)/2 , where d 0 is the outside diameter of the shaft and d i is the internal diameter of the shaft . Thus the maximum shear stress is : FORMULA The above set - up of the strain gauges therefore would be able to sense , and thus provide us with the information of the shearing stresses on the shaft . It can be seen from the above diagram how the strain gauges will be set up . We already know that when strain gauges are put under a strain that their resistance changes . Thus , we need a circuit that will convert a change in resistance into an output voltage . A circuit commonly used for this purpose is a Wheatstone bridge circuit . ( Shown below ) < figure/>As can be seen from the diagram previous , the output voltage , V of the bridge can be determined by treating the top and bottom parts of the bridge as individual voltage dividers . Thus , FORMULA FORMULA The output voltage V of the bridge is : FORMULA Where R 1 = gauge etc . The above equation indicates that the initial output voltage , V = 0 if FORMULA This means that the bridge is balanced . The ability to do this makes it considerably easier to measure small changes in voltage output , V 0 . We are using a circuit with active bridges . Providing that they are correctly connected into the bridge , so that opposite pair ( e.g. R 1 , R 2 ) are in tension and the other opposite pair ( e.g. R 3 , R 4 ) are in compression ; then the sensitivity is times that of a single element gauge . This bridge also compensates for changes in gauge resistance due to temperature . For metal gauges the effect of temperature is to multiply each gauge resistance by the factor 1 + T ; which cancels out in the above voltage equation , as those gauges in tension will have their resistance increased by a temperature change and those in compression will have theirs decreased . As ; FORMULA and ; FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA Also : FORMULA FORMULA Where G = factor , or strain sensitivity and = strain then ; FORMULA FORMULA This shows that there is a linear variation between the output and the variation of resistance of the strain gauges . < heading > a) It was shown earlier that there is a relationship between the maximum shear stress , on the surface of the shaft and the torque , T in the system , given by the following equation : FORMULA Where J is the polar moment of area of the system and r is the outside radius of the shaft . This can be rearranged into the following form using J = ( d - d i4)/2 for a hollow circular shaft : FORMULA < heading > b) Now the relationship between the strain and the shear stress will be looked at . For a circular shaft subject to pure torsion , the direction of the maximum stresses resulting from this shear are at to the shaft axis . This can be seen from looking at the diagram earlier showing the set - up of the strain gauges and the following equation : FORMULA These stresses at right angles to each other will give rise to strains in these directions of : FORMULA and FORMULA where E is 's modulus for the material and 's ratio , which is given by = -T / L which are the transverse and longitudinal strains . These strains can be measured by the use of the resistive strain gauges aligned as shown in the earlier diagram . < heading > c) When looking at the relationship between the resistance and the strain for each gauge , we can start with the following equation that : FORMULA Thus the fractional changes in resistance of each of the strain gauges is : FORMULA or FORMULA < heading > d) When looking at the relationship between the bridge output and the torque we go back to the simple equations . To balance the circuit R = R 2R 3 so that V 0 , which is the potential between B and D on the earlier diagram of the circuit , is . So when there is a change in the resistance of R 1 then FORMULA Similarly , the potential difference across R 4 is : FORMULA Thus the potential difference between B and D is : FORMULA This is a balanced condition again . Also : FORMULA When a force is applied to the shaft , each of the resistors will change their resistance . The changes in resistance in relation to the denominator terms where we have the sum of the resistances is insignificant and can be neglected . Thus : FORMULA FORMULA We also know that : FORMULA when balanced there is no change in output voltage so : FORMULA And ; FORMULA therefore ; FORMULA FORMULA Hence , the output voltage V from the bridge is proportional to the torque T acting on the shaft . The sensitivity of the torque cell depends on the diameter of the shaft ( d o ) , the shaft material ( E and ) , the gauge factor ( G ) , and the voltage applied to the Wheatstone bridge ( V S ) . The range of the torque cell depends on the diameter of the shaft and the proportional limit of the material in torsion . We need now though to amplify the output signal of the circuit as the strain gauges in the circuit will only be changing their resistance by a small amount , so the output voltage will therefore only change by a small amount too . Also we need to consider the fact that when we amplify the signal , we will also amplify any noise in the signal , so a filter needs to be employed to attenuate the noise in the signal before amplification . To do this we will use an active filter . This is a device that will combine an operational amplifier and an filter . We chose to use a non - inverting op amp as this will amplify the signal and will give a positive value for a positive torque . A diagram of a non - inverting op amp is shown below : < figure/>The resistors in the above circuit can be used to calculate the gain of the circuit ( G C ) . The formula that is used to do this is as follows : FORMULA FORMULA where G is the gain of the amplifier . This will be combined with a low - pass RC filter in order to attenuate the noise in the signal . Electrical noise can be a problem as the output voltage from the Wheatstone bridge circuit is only a few millivolts . The electrical noise occurs as a result of magnetic fields generated by current flow in wires in close proximity to the lead wires or bridge , which induce voltage ( noise ) in the signal loop . This combination of op amp and filter is called an active filter . Active filters are used where select frequencies can be attenuated and the signal amplified during the filtering process . Shown below is an active filter with a non - inverting op amp and a low - pass filter : < figure/>Now all that is needed is to employ this into the circuit and combine it with the Wheatstone bridge circuit . Taking the output signal from the Wheatstone bridge circuit and using it as the input signal for the active filter does this , as this is the signal that needs to be amplified . The combined circuit is shown below : < figure/>The circuit has now been set up with strain gauges to sense the stresses in the shaft , and these mechanical outputs have been converted into electrical ones and amplified to a sufficiently high level with the noise attenuated so the signal can be read by a voltage - measuring instrument . This system now needs to be able to be read and calibrated for data presentation . To calibrate this system , we need to precisely measure R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , V S ; the gain G of the amplifier ; and the sensitivity S R of the recorder ( i.e. the voltmeter ) . The system calibration constant C for the entire system is then given by : FORMULA Where , S A = the amplifier sensitivity , and S R = the recorder sensitivity ( volts per division ) The strain recorded with the system is given in terms of the system calibration constant as : FORMULA where , d S = the deflection of the recorder in divisions .","< heading > Introduction The principal contribution of micro morphology analyses are that it enables simultaneous new high - resolution analysis of the microscopic properties of individual sediments and artefactual and bioarchaeological remains , within precise depositional and post depositional contexts in occupation deposits . These are one of the critical sources of gaining sociocultural and environmental information , and becoming an integral part of the excavation process . ( Matthews.2005 : - 356 ) Furthermore the samples examined will enable study of the use of space in early agricultural and urban sites including in around 7400 - 6200BC . Çatalhöyük is known as one of the largest and most complex of sociocultural settlements . The sample deposits , which applied to this report , mainly include palaeoecological sequences and landscapes , architectural materials , plant remains and dung , sequences of floors and deposits and ritual contexts(Renfrew and ) . These micro - stratigraphic sequences and micro - residues in accumulated occupation deposits contribute to identify the trace of routine practices , microenvironment and aspects of material culture as well as exceptional events and changes through time and across space form its foundation to closure . In short , information of the complex spatial organisation and chronological cycles of domestic , ritual and economic activities within building are explored by archaeologist at the micro scale . ( ) Thus , this report mainly includes the basic outline of research questions , micro - morphological methodology employed in sample collection , and thin section preparation . < heading>1 . major questions , issues , and rationale for micro morphological analysis Neolithic sites in the ancient often represent planning within individual buildings and settlements . In East , planning is often represented . This evidence largely suggests that there are powerful organisations for sharing and maintaining sociocultural conventions . Moreover , the traces of ritual features are identified from this micro morphological sample . This suggests that ritual is playing a significant role in both private and wider sociocultural cohesion in . In , to investigate preservation of organic and inorganic remains at the base of the mound , the research project was started . The main research aim of research project is to place the complex architecture and symbolism within its sociocultural and palaeoecological context , as well as investigating its nature of deposit , as well as origins and development . However , of the critical considerations in this aim is to establish the spatio - temporal and contextual relationships between the paintings and other features , as well as artefactual and bioarchaeological remains within the settlement and landscape . ( ) Generally , building is known as complex micro stratigraphic sequences due to the various reasons . For example , changing concept of space , such as moving bin from southwest to north east . Although there are complexities , building has variety of significant architecture remains , as hearths , floor surfaces , biological remains , and micro residues , as well as evidence of shrine . ( Matthews URL ) The sequence of wall plaster is from the south - eastern corner above hearths . Mostly the origin of this archaeological sediment is made of un - burnt white plasters , which comprised wall within the building 17(Matthews.2005:367 ) , and red ochre is used for paintings , which is considered as evidence of ritual activities . Ritual feature has were always considered as higher , cleaner , although rarely on south wall . ( Matthews.2006 : ) All of the plasters and washes in this sequence are coated in soot , except significantly the last plaster was perhaps related to ritual closure of the building . Many of these plasters have similar modal thickness , - 400 um . ( ) Map 1 represents the location of this sequence . This white plaster sequence include charred plants , shells , minerals ( mica , quartz ) , bone , and lumps < figure/>2 . Micro - morphological methodology for sample collection The technique of micro - morphology has been developed by the study of soil science , and has been improving internationally by standardized descriptive methodology.(Matthews.2005:356 - 357 ) < heading > Methodology employed in sample collection and preparation The most characteristic area of the sequence is selected for sample collection ; especially it is applied least disturbed sample area by physical biotabation . Holding up the template or measurements sample area where including most characteristic units , the most boundaries between units , or the most interesting feature . Mainly , samples are collected to intervals in order to study spatial area in the field . The lid is placed against the section face vertically , and scores its outline into the section face with a knife . Removed and marked the outline of the sample on the section drawing with its sample number . The sediment cut from the vertical sides of the sample with a large army knife . Cut slot to a depth of deep . The vertical slots should be angled into the centre of the sample in order to encourage the sample to separate from the section face later . The sediments should be cut from the top edge of the sample , as well as from the base of the sample . The sample should be placed face down onto the tissues , top upper most , it is better to keep sample in this during the wrapping procedure . Wrap the sample again with slightly tighter . Label the site name , sample number , site references , context type , date , and arrows indicating the top and the face on the sample . Place labelled sample into the wooden box . Keep the sample on an open shelf in order to dry the materials . In this case , sun light is not preferable . The samples should be wrapped tighter with more tape for export . Cut away corners of tissue and tape in order to exposed sediment . Re label . ( from hand out ) < heading>2 ) The general guide to the principal of microscope . < /heading> The way of preparing the petrological Microscope Turn the switch on microscopeThe strength of light is available to change by using the dial on left hand side . Put sediment sample on the rotating stage . Commonly use objective with red line for use . Examine right piece in order to change the focus . Similarly examine left in order to change the focus.3 ) Prior requirements for microscopic examination of a thin section Examine the hand - specimen , noting the sample colour , grain - size , texture , the possible minerals , and any variations throughout the specimen . < heading>3 . Results The result from micro - morphological analysis can apply to examine and explore the trends in the principal depositional components and deposit - types , including material types and surfaces , plant remains and dung and occupation deposits for all thin section samples . ( Matthews.2005:356 - 357 ) < list > Site : section no . Unit no . Thin section no . : references : Unit 4625 , Building , south area , level type : wall plasterDeposit type : Deposit type no. Boundary Thickness : 9mm×5.5 mm . Minimum thickness : size : < 0.002mmFine material : mineral and organicGroundmass : crystallic - b - fubric and ( undifferentiated ) ( sparkly building materials)Colour : PPL = pale brown . brownRelated distribution : Microstructure : c / f ratiosorting : white silty clay ( Moderately sorted)Inclusion orientation : moderately oriented : of the individuals are oriented with their principal axes within of each other . Inclusion distribution : Basic(general descriptive criteria p34)Sorting: Charred plants ( charcoal plants remain)Size : 0.02mm(20micron ) Largest size : : < . is too small to identify the plant type. Other organic remains: Shell fragmentsSize : length 0.1mmColour : Sparkling -carbonised Inorganic remains:1)Phytolithssize : : < 5%Bone ( Omnivore corporolite)Size:0.24mm(240micron)Abundance : : black and yellow Minerals: QuartzSize : length 1 mm Thickness 0.75mmColour : whiteMicaSize : : chambers ( hols ) from root or insects Pedofeatures Many space4 . Interpretation Interpretation of material types , surfaces and textures would contribute to providing some answers to questions : the source location , the meanings of materials , major life cycles of building and particular events , as well as how these sediments are transformed into architectural material , because many plasters and mud bricks include well preserved impressions and siliceous remains of plants that would have served as stabilisers and provided added tensile strength and flexibility . ( Matthews.2005:364 ): < heading>1 ) Wall plasters < /heading > Wall plasters within buildings have symbolic as well as functional meaning . At , field and microscopic analyses have identified marked contextual variation of wall plasters . For example , the large elaborate rooms were frequently coated with multiple layers of fine white plaster . Generally , white plaster was coated for living , sleeping and reception rooms . This material also protects the underlying wall surfaces from abrasion , as well as prevent from dust . At , the majority of white wall plasters made from fine unconsolidated soft lime sediments with a silty clay particle size , which closely resemble naturally - occurring soft lime deposits with 95 per cent pure carbonates of calcium and magnesium , derived from Pleistocene lake reworking of limestone , which vary in calcium and magnesium concentrations in some outcrops . Many of the wall plasters at were applied on top of a 5 mm thick foundation layer of very pale brown / white silty clay with impressions of added vegetal stabilizers , which would have provided both strength and flexibility . Although the wall plaster in the southeast corner of has a much rougher surface throughout the sequence . ( ) < heading>2 ) Plant and dung remains In integrative archaeobotanical research , micro morphology can contribute by enabling simultaneous analysis of a diverse range of plant materials within specific depositional context . Generally , plant remains in thin - section have been identified by comparison initially to reference material in the microscope slide collection . ( Matthews.2005:373 - 375 ) The range of plant remains preserved in thin - section includes charred plant remains , which is only represented that have been subject to low temperature burning or reducing conditions , generally ° . On the other hand , there are also siliceous plant remains including phytoliths and calcitic ashes . The term ' phytolith ' refers anatomically only to specific silica bodies or short cells , which consistently often occur in building materials , were originally added as fresh vegetal stabilizers that did not fragment during manufacturing processes and provided strength and flexibility during use of the plaster . Generally , micro morphological analysis of plant remains within single depositional units and study of their precise associations with other bioarchaeological , artefactural and mineralogical remains is contributing to interpretation of use and discard of plant remains and sociocultural and ecological perceptions and practices , including identification of dung in fuel and in animal pens . ( Matthews.2005:373~375 ) < heading > Discussion and Interpretation Charred plant remains are comparatively abundant in a range of occupation deposits , but are often small due to abrasion by trampling and sweeping and the thinness of residual lenses or layers . ( ) There may not be an exact correlation with trends in archaeobotanical analyses of charred plant remains and phytoliths . The abundance and size of charred and siliceous plant remains have been plotted in Figures . ( Matthews.2005:375 ) < table/>According to the result from the micro morphological data of thin section , the mean abundance(% ) and median size(mm ) are both close to the figure1 . Therefore it would be considered that the sample from thin section no . is relatively close to the average of micromorphological analysed data . < heading>5 . Future research directions Although various remains have been identified through the micromorphological analysis by microscope , the particularity of the remains is still left . For example the details of charred plant remain . It would be improved with the increase of the ability of microscope and the future research about micromorphological study .",0 "< heading > Aim: The aim of this experiment is to determine the composition of a commercially available alcoholic beverage ( strongbow ) by analysis using the technique of gas chromatography . < heading > Introduction / Background: The basis of chromatography lies in a seperative process between phases , these being the stationary phase and the mobile phase . The mobile phase , and injected sample flow across the stationary phase , and each component of the sample will be distributed between the at differing amounts due to their relative affinity for each phase . The distribution ratio is determined by the physical and chemical characteristics of the sample , however it is also affected by operating conditions such as temperature and pressure . Temperature must be carefully selected , as a compromise between elution time and resolution quality . A high temperature is needed to cause vaporization of the volatile liquid however elution time is very fast and resolution is therefore resolution is poor . However lower temperatures cause spreading of the peaks and therefore sensitivity is reduced . Ideally a chromatogram will show a series of separate peaks , each of which corresponds to a component of the injected sample . The sequence of elution corresponds to the retention time of each component upon the stationary phase of the column . The area of each peak is related to the concentration of each component and therefore gas chromatography can be used as a quantitative method . < figure/>During the specific process of gas chromatography , a sample is injected into a stream of gas , which is programmed at a specific temperature ; usually oC above the boiling point of the least volatile component . The column temperature can then either be kept constant ( isothermal ) or the temperature can be programmed to progressively increase to improve the separation . The components of the sample will then distribute themselves according to their relative affinities for the stationary phase , and are then recorded and quantified by measuring a physical property . The most common detector to find in a system is a flame ionisation detector . < figure/> Method: To begin a calibration mixture was prepared in triplicate of the following composition : of propan-1 - ol internal standard solution and 400L of 80mg% ethanol standard solution ; this was taken by micro syringe into clean dry clip top vials which were flowingly capped to prevent loss of ethanol . In an identical manner , a calibration mixture was prepared in triplicate , this was of the following composition : of propan-1 - ol and ethanol solution . Vials were then capped , again to prevent loss of ethanol . A sample of the alcoholic beverage ( strongbow ) was then prepared . To do this 20mL of the alcoholic beverage was measured and placed into a volumetric flask , this was then degassed using an ultra - sonic bath ( for 15minutes ) . From this degassed sample a solution was prepared in triplicate by pouring the solution into a beaker and taking 2mL of the degassed drink by micro syringe , placing this into a volumetric flask and diluting to volume with distilled water ( dilution factor of 1:25 ) . The samples for analysis were then prepared by taking of propan-1 - ol internal standard solution and 400L of the diluted drink ( also from a beaker ) by micro syringe . These samples were also made up I n triplicate and the vials stoppered to prevent loss of ethanol vapours . Moving on a "" Perkin Elmer - auto system , gas chromatograph "" was set up to the following parameters : a pressure of , an injector and detector temperature of oC and a column temperature of oC ( isotherm ) . The carrier gas used was , the column type was a capillary tube composed of fused silicate coated in polyamide being m long and 0.25 mm in diameter and having a m film coating inside . Hence the stationary phase is m in diameter and was composed of carbowax polyethylene glycol base . The detector used in this experiment was a flame ionisation detector ( FID ) . To utilise the gas chromatograph a sample of was taken of each mixture , to do this the sample was taken by syringe plunger , the syringe was filled with the sample mixture times before a sample was injected ( to ensure an uncontaminated sample ) . The sample was then injected through the septum on the top of the instrument , by a swift movement and then the integrator stripped by pressing the "" run "" button on the chromatograph . The syringe was withdrawn after , and the created chromatogram printed . This process was repeated for all prepared samples . < heading > Results:
Questions: Briefly explain the mechanisms of the seperative process that is occurring within the column in a system . What factors can be altered to affect the separation ? < /heading > Within a column there are phases , mobile and stationary . Generally in Gas chromatography the stationary phase is composed of a solid ( inert ) support coated with a liquid phase . The liquid phase is chose after considering the polar characteristics of the analyte . The sample / analyte will be passed across the stationary phase as a component of the mobile phase ( a carrier gas ) , each component in the sample will have a relative attraction / interaction with each phase , this will determine each components retention time on the column . The retention time is determined by the chemical and physical properties of each component and instrumental / method differences . The following factors affect the separation and hence the retention time sof components on the column . Volatility of compound : The more volatile a component , the faster it will travel through the column , and hence the faster its elution time . Polarity of compounds : Polar compounds will travel more slowly especially if the column is also polar , this is due to increased interactions between the analyte and the stationary phase . Column temperature : At higher temperatures sample components will spend most of their time in the gas phase and hence elution time will be quicker . However this means that chromatogram resolution is poor . C olumn packing polarity : Non - polar liquids tend to be non - selective and therefore elution order is determined by the boiling points ( volatility ) of the components , the lower boiling point components being eluted . However with polar liquids volatility is not so easily determined due to interactions between the analyte and the stationary phase , hence polar columns tend to show slower elution times but also a larger effect on relative retention times . Flow rate / Pressure of the gas through the column : An increase in either of these factors will provide faster elution times of the sample components . Length of the column : columns will mean a heightened elution time , this in turn also means better separation . < heading > Describe a method by which non - volatile alcohols or carboxylic acids may be analysed by . < /heading > To analyse compounds , which are non - volatile in nature , chemical derivation is required . Alcohols and Carboxylic acids are low in volatility due to their ability to hydrogen bond , this creates a locked together structure which requires much energy to break . Derivation works to mask the hydrogen bonding , a common way to do this for alcohols and carboxylic acids is to derivitise to an ester . This can be done by the addition of M solution of potassium hydroxide in ethanol ( ) , refluxed for ~1hour . The solution is then cooled and water ( 5 mL ) is added , following this the mixture is extracted thoroughly with hexane - diethyl ether ( , v / v ; x 5 mL ) . The solvent extract is washed with water , dried over anhydrous sodium sulphate and the non - saponifiable materials are recovered on removal of the solvent in a rotary evaporator . The water washings are added to the aqueous layer , which is acidified with 6 M hydrochloric acid and extracted with diethyl ether - hexane ( , v / v ; x 5 mL ) . The sample is recovered after washing the extract with water , drying it over anhydrous sodium sulphate and removing the solvent by evaporation.1 < heading > Conclusions Analysis of our results show there to be a 2.43 mg % alcohol content of the commercial alcoholic beverage . The quoted value is of , our results may be subject to many experimental errors , such as the injection of our sample , caused by different operators injecting each sample , and errors in pipette use . In addition there may be slight error caused by the computer integration of the peaks produced in the chromatogram .","< heading > Aim: The aim of this experiment is to determine the concentration of in a series of metal fluoride solutions . < heading > Introduction / Background: Electrochemical methods of analysis are based on the theory of galvanic cells . In a galvanic cell electrode systems are interested into a medium of ions . The electrodes are then joined externally forming a circuit and the electron flow , which is established , causes a potential difference . This works on the theory of a spontaneous chemical reaction which sets up a potential difference , created by the reactions at each electrode . The electromotive force of the galvanic cell is dependant upon the difference between the potentials of the electrodes . Cells are normally formed by combining a standard / reference electrode with an electrode whose potential or ionic behaviour is under study . Potential is dependant upon solution concentration therefore this technique can be used to determine concentrations via calibration plots of known concentrations . The most used reference electrode is the calomel electrode ; this is composed of mercury and mercurous chloride ( calomel ) in contact with a solution containing chloride ions ( potassium chloride ) . The concentration of the chloride determines the absolute potential ; the electromotive forces however are also dependant upon temperature . The measuring electrode can be one of many types : < list in contact with a solution of its own ions . Inert material in contact with ions in different oxidation states . Membrane separating solutions of the same ion at different concentrations. Experimental method: To begin a solution of ( 0.1 M ) was taken and diluted to the following concentrations , , 1mM , 0.1mM , 0.01mM , and 0.001mM. This was achieved by using a pipette to transfer of the solution into a volumetric flask , and diluted to volume . From this was then taken and further diluted to volume , and so on for the other concentrations ( dilution by a factor of ) . Into separate beakers ( , ) , labelled A - E was transferred of each of the standard solutions . Following this into polythene beakers labelled was added 25mL of each metal fluoride solution ( BaF 2 , MgF 2 , PbF 2 , , ) , care was taken not to shake the saturated fluoride solution and the solution was pipette - ed from the top to avoid uptake of un - dissolved solid . To each of these polythene beakers was added of TISAB reagent , this was mixed well and subsequently placed in a thermostat - ed water bath , allowing the solution temperatures to equilibrate . Following this each solution was taken in turn and its potential difference measured . Electrodes were connected to the potentiometer , washed with distilled water and placed in the standard solution ( 10mM ) , the potential was allowed to stabilised ( around 1min ) and the potential difference read . This was then repeated with the other standard solutions ( B - E ) and samples ( F - J ) , washing the electrodes with distilled water between each measurement . < heading > Results:
Questions: Describe the construction of the fluoride selective electrode . < /heading > The Fluoride ion selective electrode is one of the most important and useful as the detection of the fluoride ion is rather difficult by most other methods . The ion selective electrode ( solid state electrode ) falls into the category of a membrane - separating electrode . This in the case of the fluoride selective electrode is comprised of a single crystal of lanthanum fluoride doped with some europium ( II ) to increase the conductivity of the crystal ; this forms the membrane of the cell . The electrode contains an electrolyte solution that is typically composed of and , the membrane of the cell separates different concentrations of this solution . The ion selective electrode is then used in conjunction with a standard electrode , both being dipped together into a solution containing ions . < figure/> State the equation with respect to the fluoride ion Nernst equation FORMULA With respect to the Fluoride Ion : FORMULA < heading > What gradient would you expect for the calibration of vs. ] and how does this compare with your results ? < /heading > The gradient of our plot is calculated to be , -0.0209 , I would expect a value very close to due to the ( Expected ) linear nature of the calibration plot , linear increase of potential difference with fluoride ion concentration , this relationship is proportional . The R value is found to be , standing as proof and as a measure of the linear relationship . < heading > Why is the TISAB reagent required ? < /heading > TISAB serves to minimise interferences with the fluoride electrode . Dilution with this buffer will provide a high ionic strength background , which will swap out any moderate variations in ionic strength between solutions . This keeps the activity coefficient of the fluoride ion constant from solution to solution . The buffer contains , a chelating agent that prevents any complex formation with the F- ion , therefore also maintaining its activity from solution to solution . < heading > Comment on the shape of the curve for [ F- ] vs. ionic radius . < /heading > This plot can be seen in results - "" Plot of [ F- ] vs. radius "" , the shape of this curve is that of a parabola . < heading > Why has CaF2 the lowest solubility ? < /heading > Calcium Fluoride has the lowest solubility due to its high lattice enthalpy of mol -1 . It occurs naturally as the mineral Fluorite , this adopts the calcium fluorite structure , the fluoride ions lie in a cubic arrangement with the fluoride and calcium ions being of comparable size , the insertion of the calcium ions into the structure causes an expansion of the cubic arrangement and the fluoride ions are no longer in contact with one another . Fluorite contains calcium ions in a cubic closest - packed arrangement with fluoride ions being in a tetrahedral environment , the unit cell consists of atoms and tetrahedral sites all of which are occupied by fluoride ions . , Due to this close packed structure with all the tetrahedral holes being occupied this makes it difficult for any substance to penetrate and form a solution of calcium fluoride .",1 "< heading > Introduction It is well known that each individual has a unique DNA profile like a "" fingerprint "" . The vast majority of nucleotides in human DNA that are inherited from parents are identical ; however there are a few that are different which are called polymorphisms . These changes affect the length of the DNA fragments produced by restriction enzymes , these fragments are called restriction fragment length polymorphisms ( 's ) . By electrophoresis the different lengths of DNA are separated out in order to determine the size of the 's which are unique to each individual creating a DNA fingerprint . The technique of DNA fingerprinting was invented by in , but before being able to fingerprint DNA certain processes have to be carried out to prepare the DNA sample to be analysed . of the techniques used in DNA fingerprinting is a method called ( PCR ) . It was invented by in and he was later awarded a Noble Prize in Chemistry for his work in . This technique involves taking a sample of DNA and amplifying it to make a larger sample which is an exact copy . of the sequences to be amplified by was the human β - globin gene ( Saikial . ; . ; Mullis and Faloona 1987)3 . Before looking at these techniques background information on DNA , the basis of these methods needs to be discussed . < heading > Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid DNA is a polymer chain of nucleotides of which each nucleotide comprise of parts ; an inorganic phosphate group , a base and a sugar . The sugar present in nucleotides is always the same - deoxyribose , as is the phosphate group , but the bases can take of forms : adenine , thymine , cytosine or guanine ( see figure ) . These bases form complementary pairs , in other words will only bond to and will only bond to via hydrogen bonds . Adenine and Thymine are doubly bonded where as and are triply bonded but the pairs take essentially the same shape ( see figure ) . The nucleotides are bonded in a specific order to form a polymer chain ; of these chains are wrapped around each other in a spiral shape to form a ' double helix ' ( and , ) . The polymer chains are bonded together via hydrogen bonds and can be separated in to single strands via a process known as denaturation either by heating or by a chemical process . The chains are complementary to each other : so if there were an adenine base on strand then would appear on the other strand in the same position . The specific order of the nitrogenous bases forms what is known as the genetic code ; the letter of each base is taken as a label and a sequence is formed . These codes give instructions to cells and determine things like hair colour , eye colour and also instruction synthesis of proteins and other biological molecules . The main part of DNA is situated in the nucleus of a cell where it is organised in chromosomes . < figure/>
Newton , , , A. ( ) PCR ( ) . . . A DNA molecule is capable of self replication , which means it can make an exact copy of itself . This occurs just before cell division . The double helix unwinds to form single strands , this is the parent template . A protein molecule called DNA polymerase , an enzyme bonds free nucleotides together to form a new strand which is complementary to the template . As a DNA molecule consists of strands , new strands are synthesized . The new strands or daughter strands coil together with its complementary parent template to form a new double helix . At the end of replication new double helixes are formed , both identical , each consisting of parent template strand and daughter strand , this is called semi conservative replication . When the cell divides in , one of these double helical strands goes into of the cell so you end up with identical cells containing the same genetic information . The basis of genetic uniqueness is due to main factors : inheritance and mutations . genome is inherited from the father and from the mother . The inheritance of these genes means that everyone is individual as no one will inherit the exact same genes , with the exception of identical twins . Mutations of the DNA sequence can also occur which can make cell genetic information individual , part of the sequence could be missing this is called deletion , or extra bases added in this is called insertion or part of the sequence could be in a different order this is a rearrangement . This means that every cell in your body is unique to you ; they are ' host specific ' . < heading > DNA Fingerprinting The step in fingerprinting a DNA sample is to extract and purify the sample required . Humans have nucleic DNA compacted with proteins into chromatin - the substance that forms chromosomes contained within cells . Separation is achieved by removing the unwanted components by enzyme action , agents to denature proteins , salts and organic solvents . The source of DNA has to contain nucleated cells for fingerprinting - this can be blood , semen , hair , bones , saliva or urine containing epithelial cells from the kidney . These sources will all give high molecular weight DNA which is required when analyzing the DNA fingerprint . The large molecules , which form chromosomal DNA , are relatively unstable and so are easily broken into smaller fragments this makes it easier for the sample to be increased in quantity , if it is needed . Isolation of different types of samples can be achieved by different methods depending upon what type of DNA sample it is , for example different methods of extraction from bloods sample are by organic extraction using phenol / chloroform , non - organic extraction or by a spin column procedure . Samples usually contain impurities which need to be removed as they can inhibit restriction enzymes . Purification of the extracted DNA is achieved by alcohol precipitation , ion exchange chromatography or filtration 7 . The quality of the sample is important and may affect the accuracy of the DNA fingerprint , contamination may come from primers used in the method to increase the quantity of a sample as these primers are sometimes similar to those used for fingerprinting . Once the DNA is extracted there are methods available to help make the process of fingerprinting easier for example if the sample to be analysed is of limiting amount then a technique called may need to be applied . The Polymerase chain reaction , , is an in vitro process where nucleic acids are synthesized to replicate a specific target segment of DNA which is known as the template . Before amplification can occur , the specific section of DNA that is to be amplified must be denatured , the double helix is then heated breaking the hydrogen bonds between the bases on each strands releasing single strands of DNA , the template . The temperature required to break the hydrogen bonds is oC. After cooling , amplification of DNA is achieved by using oligonucleotide primers , or "" amplifiers "" . Amplifiers are short , single - stranded DNA sequences which are complementary to the distinct ends , usually labeled 5′ and 3′ ( see figure ) of the template DNA molecule . The process of the primers binding to the template is called annealing . After binding to the single strand of DNA , the primers are extended by DNA polymerase , an enzyme which bonds deoxynucleoside triphosphates ( dNTPs ) together to form a chain . Deoxynucleoside triphosphates have a similar structure to nucleotides , the components that make up DNA , but they contain phosphate groups . These dNTPs are added in a sequence which complements the template strand of DNA , this is called extension . Extension is usually performed at , the optimum temperature for DNA polymerase . This results in a new strand of DNA being synthesized which is complementary to the template strand and forms a double helix of DNA . This process is then repeated ; the template and new strand are heated to break the bonds . The new strand is then used as a template for the next cyclic of amplification to form another new identical strand . is a cyclic process so multiplication is quick and amplification can occur in a matter of . The method is extremely useful for producing small amounts of DNA even if degraded , the starting material may only consist of a single cell , and samples that were dried , mummified , embedded in amber and buried have been examined and amplified in this way . It is relatively easy for to produce DNA molecules which are base pairs long , however it is much more difficult when DNA molecule is larger which can be a problem . The reaction conditions are specific and changing a condition will affect the efficiency of the reaction . < figure/>Once the sample is large enough , a process called restriction analysis is carried out . This starts with an enzyme called restriction endonuclease , this cleaves the double strand of DNA at or near short recognition sequences . This can be used to detect DNA - based polymorphisms , these fragments are termed restriction fragment length polymorphisms ( ) . Usually , the required polymorphisms are those based on a variable number of tandem repeats ( VNTR ) which are at fixed positions . The recognition sites on the VNTRs can be detected by restriction endonuclease and cleaved . These shorter sequences can then be separated by gel electrophoresis . The sample is placed on a gel and when a current is applied the negatively charged fragments of DNA move across the gel . The fragments of smaller molecular mass will move furthest down the field creating bands of DNA arranged in size order . The fragment length can be determined from the distance moved , measured from the starting point . This generates a specific pattern , in the form of bands , which is the fingerprint . When the DNA fragments have been separated out it can then , be transferred from the gel plate to a solid membrane to be viewed . Developed in by , the Southern Blotting procedure is a method of visualizing specific fragments of DNA . The test DNA is digested with or more restriction enzymes , denatured to become single stranded and then transferred to a solid membrane for hybridization . Once the DNA is fixed to the membrane a label probe is added , this is a short DNA strand which detects the presence of complementary sequences . The probe maybe radioactively labeled . The probe binds to the complementary sequences on the test DNA . After incubation for under controlled conditions , excess probe is washed off and an x - ray film is placed on the membrane to reveal the pattern of DNA fragments , which are homologous to the probe . The pattern appears as dark bands , this is a DNA fingerprint . This procedure provides pieces of information , whether there is a particular DNA fragment present and the relative size . Dot blotting is a more straightforward technique for obtaining this information , if it simply the presences of a fragment and its relative size , is all that is required . An aliquot of denatured DNA is spotted onto a membrane and by means of successive hybridization , the formation of bases pairs between complementary sequences , with a sequence - specific probe , the required information is provided . < figure/>The techniques described above , are the methods that are required to generate a DNA fingerprint - consisting of a pattern of bands , once this is obtained the fingerprint can then be analysed . The individual loci can be analysed , the single locus approach , or several loci can be analysed at the same time . Which method is used depends on the application and the amount of detail needed to compare or identify the fingerprint . < heading > Application of DNA Fingerprinting DNA profiling has many applications , in forensic science to identify suspects , to establish relationships in kinship and in human treatment . In forensic testing small samples of somatic cells are required , in kinship haploid genomes provide single gametes which is of concern . It is unusual at a crime scene to find a fingerprint of high quality ; however it is likely that samples of hair , blood or semen are found . Only a microscopic sample is required as can be used to amplify the sample . As evidence from crime scene , using a DNA fingerprint as identification is n't always straightforward and is never alone enough evidence as proof of guilt . A DNA fingerprint maybe used to identify a suspect for conviction , to exclude a suspect or to identify a victim ( see figure ) . In the case of using fingerprints to determine kinship , closely related genetic information is inherited since a child 's fingerprint comes from the mother and from the father . Similarities in the fingerprints can be established to determine kinship much more successfully than other techniques such as blood testing . In treatment , a fingerprint is used to detect abnormalities in chromosomes which can cause problems with development of the embryo and possibly termination . Other applications in DNA fingerprinting are in disease diagnosis and understanding . Gastric cancer can be diagnosed by identifying damaged genomes and by identification of the bacteria Helicobacter pylori , which causes the disease . DNA fingerprinting of Mycobacterium tuberculosis to gain an overall understanding of the diversity of M. tuberculosis strains10 also uses it in the prevention and control of Tuberculosis 10 . < picture/>Krawczak , M. , Schmidtke , J. ( ) DNA Fingerprinting . . . There are many legal and ethical issues which need to be considered when obtaining this kind of detailed information about a person . If scientists are not careful this information maybe abused for personal , commercial , police or political use rather than medically to improve quality of life . Not only can a DNA fingerprint identify and place a suspect at a crime scene but it can also be evidence of a crime itself . There is also the question of taking a sample with or without consent at a crime scene from a victim , a suspect or others who maybe connected . The DNA fingerprint does n't just identify a person but also contains information on genetic heritage . This can have huge implications for the future on how to deal with the information .","This article describes the stereoselective synthesis of - hydroxymethyl azabicyclic ring via novel methodology epoxide - initiated cationic cyclisation of azides . The authors report a study on epoxide - initiated cationic cyclisation of azides and the synthesis of stereo- and enantioselective total synthesis of natural and unnatural indolizidine alkaloids 167B and Azabicyclic rings are present in many biologically active natural compounds . Within this indolizidines alkaloids are the one of the most important classes known for their numerous pharmaceutical applications , and because of this they are desirable . The stereoselective synthesis of the - hydromethyl azabicyclic ring is important as it is a potential precursor to the total synthesis of indolizidine alkaloids - 167B and 209D ( Figure ) . < figure/>One of the main steps to forming - hydroxymethyl azabicyclic compound is centred around work by Aube and Peason on intramolecular reaction of alkyl azides . By treating the - membered epoxyazide 7 with a lewis acid , the - hydroxymethyl azabicyclic compound was formed ( scheme ) from an aminodiazonion intermediate followed by intramolecular reaction to form the iminium ion intermediate ( scheme ) . These type of reactions were derived from alkenes and alcohols and have proved to be facile in both intra- and intermolecular examples . For the formation of , the stereospecific reagent is used and give a separable mixture of cis and trans where trans is the major isomer ( compared with for cis ) , however it does n't report how the stereoisomers were confirmed at this point . The formation of key intermediate was in good yield , overall . The known ketoester , was treated with modified , relatively neutral titanium carbene reagent developed by , olefinester was isolated in yield . This method was used as initial trials using olefination were poor yielding . The alcohol 5 was then formed via the addition of lithium aluminium hydride . The corresponding azidoolefin was formed by treatment of with CH 3SO 2Cl / Et followed by in . < figure/>
The key cyclisation step was investigated to compare a variety of lewis acid used and it was found that EtAlCl 2 gave the highest yield of , however this was not the only parameter they varied in this investigation which could put some doubt on which factors are involved in the increase of the yield . Possible reasons for the increased yield with this particular lewis acid however , are given . The stereochemistry of compound was confirmed by when using as the lewis acid and was found to be a single diastereoisomer , though low yielding with this particular lewis acid ( ) . Further experiments were carried out to confirm the relative stereochemistry of the cyclised product , a experiment was carried out on the corresponding acetate along with single crystal X - ray analysis , both confirming the stereochemistry . An investigation into the general use of this method is done by varying ring size in compound ( scheme ) . When n=2 , the yield in the formation of and is lower ( ) compared with when n=1 . These larger rings were obtained in an inseparable mixture of cis- and trans - isomers , however no reasoning was given for this . In the cyclisation step to form , single diastereoisomers were formed when n=1 , , this is due to the fact that the cis - isomers fail to give any cyclised product when using EtAlCl 2 as the lewis acid , however again no reasoning is given for this occurring . The relative stereochemistry of and were assigned by experiments . < figure/>The key step in the stereoselective synthesis of indolizidines and 209D is comparable to that in the synthesis of - hydroxymethyl azabicyclic compound . The relative stereochemistry is similar and therefore 8 can be used as a precursor to the synthesis of ( ± ) indolizidine alkaloids 167B and 209D. Taking - hydroxymethyl indolizidine and performing a functional group manipulation of the hydroxyl side chain , indolizidine was synthesised in a yield of and 209D was synthesis in a yield of ( Scheme 4 ) . To determine the relative stereochemistry of these compounds , the spectroscopic data was compared to that of the same compounds previously synthesised but via a different route . < figure/>The main step in the enantioselective synthesis of ( + ) - and ( -)-Indolizidines 167B and 209D is the Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation , ( scheme ) . The synthesis of optically active epoxyazide is produced via the Sharpless of racemic azidoolefin using a catalytic amount of osmium tetroxide and a chiral ligand ( DHQD)2PHAL . Although this ligand is not enantiomeric it acts as though it were in the dehydoxylation step , attacking the alkene from the top face . The formation of affords an inseparable mixture of diasteroisomers in good yield ( ) , where the ratio of cis : trans is calculated from data . Selective mesylation of the primary hydroxyl group is then followed by the formation of epoxyazide as a separable mixture of cis-(+ ) and trans-(- ) in ratio . The corresponding enantiomers synthesised are determined via measuring the optical rotation and quoted as a [ α]D value determining whether it is S or R enantiomer . The major trans-(- ) isomer was then cyclised using the standard conditions as previously described , followed by functional group manipulation to afford the S enantiomers ( measure by optical rotation ) of and 209D in , 78%ee and , 75%ee respectively . The spectral data was compared to that of the natural ( -)-(5R , 9R)-Indolizidines and found that the only difference was in rotation therefore the synthesis produces the unnatural ( + ) -(5S,9S)-Indolizidine 167B and The journal does not quote a reference as to where this spectral data comes from for the natural enantiomers at this point . The ee of compound was fairly moderate ( 77%ee ) due to the poor selectivity of the step and no explanation was made as to why they used this method considering its poor selectivity . < figure/>The enantioselctive synthesis of the natural ( -)-(5R , 9R)-Indolizidines and 209D was readily available via using the chiral ligand ( DHQ)2PHAL in the Sharpless attacking from the opposite face ( scheme ) . Taking the trans product 7- ( + ) and following a similar synthesis as for the unnatural compound , the natural ( -)-(5R , 9R)-Indolizidines and 209D were successfully synthesised in , 78%ee and , 75%ee respectively . Again the corresponding enantiomers were assigned by measuring the optical rotation and quoted as [ α]D values . < figure/>In summary this manuscript describes a reasonable route to the synthesis of stereo- and enantioselective synthesis of indolizidines and 209D ; however , it is lacking in some important information . In the introduction to this article the authors describe previous methods to forming azabicyclic ring systems containing a nitrogen atom via cation - induced inter- and intramolecular electrophilic cyclisation reaction . However there is no comparison between the method described and a previous synthesis and therefore the value of this work can not be ascertained . When describing the total synthesis of indolizidines and 209D there are references made to various other methods of stereo- and enantioselective syntheses however again the authors make no comparison between their own work and the work previously carried out . There is no clear scientific reason as to why this new methodology was carried out and although the target compounds are synthesised in reasonable yields and ee , it is unclear as to whether this is an improvement on previous synthetic routes ; this is a failing of the paper .",1 "< heading > < /heading > The beetle the type is a small family car . It 's the most popular car among the family , also its one of the famous cars from . It has its own unique design which makes it recognizable among a of other cars . The production went from until it was only interrupted by . Over were produced at . Also know by different names such as or in it was known as . The car was m ( ft ) long , ( ft ) wide and m ( ft ) high . It weighed ( ) and consists of cylinders and a L engine . passengers were able to travel without any difficulty . The tank could take up to 40 L ( ) allowing it to go on long journeys . The car was originally known as Type 1 until for the time in used the name "" "" in all their brochures which meant "" The "" in . The name was reused when the new beetle was introduced in and has been in use ever since . The beetle has an interesting history which goes back to the . This took place in when wanted a private motorized transport to be widely available thus he got an engineer to produce a vehicle which many claim that it was based on a sketch him self drew in . He wanted the car to transport adults and children at a speed of Km / h and that the cost of it should be the same as a motorcycle and sidecar , not more than that . A saving scheme was launched so people will be able to purchase the cars that were produced . But most of the people who paid in to the scheme never got their cars as a result of the nd . It was originally planed that the beetle should be designed as an armored car to be used during war time . It resembles a tankette without a turrer or armor . The popular belief is that the honor of designing the beetle goes to but in had already made a similar model which was very economical . A person named produced the "" "" and standard the "" Superior "" , which was advertised as "" . It was the cheapest wheel car at that time . The prototypes produced by in , was called "" durch "" which meant strength through joy . This name was given to it because the cars were made for members of the leisure organization . The prototype had the distinctive round shape and a rear mounted engine . They had only produced a small amount of cars by the time the war started . The volumes produced were military vehicles . The air being cooled was very useful in desert heat . Very little number of beetles was made due to gasoline shortages during war time the cars were fueled by wood pyrolysis gas produced under the hood . The production was halted due to heavy damage sustained in air raids on the factory . Most of the equipment was moved to underground bunkers for protection . Beetles were produced at such a rate that the car was produced in . The reliability and the sturdiness helped more consumers come looking for the beetle . By the total production exceeded and by over were produced . The car was known under various names the called it The car was known under various names the called it , It was called Fusca in , in , in ; The called it , and in it was called , It was called Bug in . The super beetle was produced in it had front suspension better turning radius , and more space in the front luggage compartment . It also had a padded dash board and a curved wind shield made it popular among people . The main production of the was done in and the last one was produced in Puebla . Even though the was modified with time there is not much of a difference between the old type one and the one that we see on the roads . The original has still being one of the best selling cars of all time . < heading > very popular beverage known by every one by its nick name coke is a carbonated soft drink produced by in It was invented in as a patent medicine which was sold for a glass . It was supposed to be mixed with still water . It was sold at soda fountains because the at that time believed that carbonated was good for your health . claimed cured a myriad of diseases , including morphine addiction , dyspepsia , neurasthenia , headache , and impotence . In he him self was addicted to morphine and sold the company to a businessman whose influencer ended up making it one of the soft drinks that dominated the market in . Though people talk about the health effect to date it still remains as a soft drink which is popular world wide . The inspiration for the coca cola bottle was got by a coco pod . With time it gradually transformed in to the design that is used now a days . Described as the "" design icon of "" by pop artist the bottle is one of containers that can be recognized easily without any difficulty due to its unique design . The bottle was made in . This was the time when the packaging and the actual coca cola product was imitated . In the company came up with a popular belief that anyone could recognize the bottle at any circumstance even if he feels the bottle in the dark . And that the cola bottle should be shaped that in such away that even though it was broken by glance at it some one could say that it was a coke bottle . They needed a bottle that could fight other substitutions . This is how the glass coke bottle was born . After conducting research the coca cola company found out that the consumers still prefer to drink off a glass bottle than anything else . The inspiration for creating the bottle with fluted sides and the bulging middle with its distinctive grooves came out from nut . The coca leaf contributes to the drinks unique flavor . The famous bottle , called the "" Contour bottle "" within the company , was created in by a former glassblower , , who employed as a manager at of , . pharmacist invented the drink in . developed a non alcoholic version of due to legislations . of coca leaf per gallon of syrup . The drink was sold on the 8 th of May in at in . drinks were sold per day for some . It was advertised in in . And it was given the name by 's bookkeeper who suggested that the ingredients that were used most had a nice alliterative sound . That 's how the beverage got its name . He came up with the logo and the distinctive cursive script . The typeface used , known as script , was developed in and was the form of formal handwriting in during that period . The design was so successful that became of the wealthiest men in even though the designer just got the same salary . During the company made sure that the fighting forces could count on where ever they were and they set up bottling plants around the world . The sight of the bottle reminded them of home and good will towards the soft drink . Now is sold in countries and even now remains as of the most popular beverages around the world . URL URL < heading > Pop art This was something that came up in the and in the in the late1950s . Most of the themes and techniques have been drawn from mass culture . Pop art can be defined as a visual artistic movement . Pop art like pop music where there is a subgenre of popular music . Since the term spans many rock , hip hop , rhythm and blues ( R&B ) , country , dance and operatic pop acts , it 's quite hard to give a clear cut definition for pop music . It is reasonable to say that "" pop music "" is a loosely defined category . This aimed on employing images of popular as culture in art . It emphasizes the unpredictability in the taste of any culture . Pop art is widely interpreted as a reaction to the dominant ideas of world war II movement or an expansion upon them . . Pop art most of the time targeted a broad audience , even though much pop art is considered as being very academic . In a peroson who wrote reviews for "" Art news and "" coined the term and stated that it has a popular culture of its day . "" pop "" movement was widely recognized by . In the meantime , the movement was sometimes called , a name which reveals some of the thinking behind this type of art , and the strong influence of dada pioneer some of the famous pop figures are , , and . , born in on to a working class family . He was born and bred in the part of . Having left college with no formal qualifications he grew up to be a painter and college artist . He was introduced to the G reen Box notes of in through through Roland Penrose . Who also helped him get a teaching post which lasted till . During this time he did further research . The homage of duchamp could be clearly seen at the exhibition of paintings he had at in . Another exhibition about Man and machine motion was organized in . This exhibition lead the foot steps to his next exhibit This is at whitechapel in it was a huge success that it even resulted in him getting promoted and securing his carrier as a teacher . He received a grant from the arts council in to work on : ' in . ended up relocating his research in to the Hattoin Gallery . made the retrospective of 's work . He had another exhibition in in . made friends with and he ended up producing the collage for the inside of the Beatles White Album . The world got to know about him in the due to number of exhibitions consisting of his work taking place . Since has been engaged with a project to produce a suite of illustrations for Ulysses . Some of his works are which is popular as The Maze . It shows a dirty protester with long hair and a beard stylised in a way to make him appear similar to a martyr . Also The onother one of his works emphasizes on an , a member of the order dedicated to defend in . His creation named the shows a soldier undertaking solitary patrol on a street . now has a comprehensive collection of 's work open for the public to look and admire what a great artist he is . Another name that comes in to our mind when talking about pop art is born on th of may in Auguta , even though art had noting to do with his child hood . He grew up to be one of the well known artists . He studied at and then moved to in in . Johns ' early technique of painting was with thick , dripping encaustic over a collage made from found materials such as newspaper . is most famous for his pinting "" Flag "" . His work is often described as a ' Neo - Dadaist ' , as opposed to Pop Art , even though his subject matter often includes images and objects from popular culture . At the beginning most of his works were concentrated on flags , maps , letters and numbers . His treatment of the surface is often lush and painterly ; he is famous for using media as ( wax - based paint ) , and plaster relief in his designs . His other major works include False start ( ) , Study of skin ( ) and Seasons ( ) In and pop art became the fashion among the youth . For example , designed album covers for and the and placed film stars such as in his pictures in the same way that was immortalizing in the . Pop art came in a number of waves , but all its adherents , , , and shared some interest in the consumer , modern experience . URL < heading > 101 Tower in , TaiwanIt has won the reputation for being the world 's largest tower . It 's situated in the city of . Its official name is 101 it has got this name because it is situated in and had floors over the ground . The structure was finished in . is one of the world greatest buildings of all times . And the honor goes to and , and , project and construction management , the designers and the builders of this great piece of art . The tower is m ( ) high . It has m ( sq . ft . ) of office space and a retail space of m ( sq . ft . ) . And also a parking space of m ( sq . ft . ) where vehicals can be parked without any difficulty . The tower also has a spire made by using the bamboo plant . Designing a building this high always prone the risk of facing earthquakes , and failing at such a circumstance . is a country which is subjected to earthquakes most of the time of the year . So to make sure it 's safe a mass damper system has been used in the structure . To over come this challenge and to insure safety , ( lbs . ) , spherical steel mass which is located on the th floor and is visible from the restaurant and observation decks . The energy is transferred from the building to the swinging sphere , keeping the building stable without making it collapse on to the ground . The tower adopts heavily from the culture . The interior and the exterior , inherits the shape of bamboo flowers . The lucky number , which means blooming or success , is represented by the clearly delineated exterior sections of the building . Even the Jin Mao Tower in used the design . There are observation decks are located in the th floor and the st this includes the highest restaurant in the th floor includes a indoor observation area where the st floor indicates an outdoor observation area this is the highest out door observation area according to .. The towers use to elevators to cope up with its activities . The high - speed elevators reach a maximum speed of / minute ( 55 ft./second ) when traveling to the floor . It is quipped with the world 's fastest elevators . Each elevator is designed in sucha way that it is aerodynamic and with emergency braking systems , and the world 's triple - stage anti - overshooting system . The cost for each elevator is . The roof top topping out ceremony was held on the st of president of and the mayor of participated in the event . The final section of the spire was put in place , thus giving 101 the official world 's tallest building title . This is the only supertall building built in a highly active earthquake zone . still holds the record for the world 's tallest twin towers but the 101 still hold the worlds tallest title . The tower is also famous for being the tallest building in . The shopping mall , mall , officially opened in . Exterior construction elevators and elevator shaft were fully disassembled in . The towers hold of the worlds tallest building titles to structural top , to roof and occupied floor . has rented out floors of the bilding . The official top - out of the tower at a ceremony held on . Till now and even it will remain as of the greatest creations done by man kind . < picture/ > URL URL < heading > Mary Quant < /heading > As Ernestine carter one said in It is given to a fortunate few to be born at the right time , in the right place , with the right talents . In recent fashion There are : , Dior and . And as well all know was widely credited with inventing the icon of fashion . Mary quant has said that when she did her very rough drawing she used to mark the focal point with a daisy so she could decide later . But since the daisy always looked better and because it was luck for her they started using it in cosmetics . This talented lady was born in Kent on 11 th of in . She studied illustration at 's college which is some sort of visualization such as drawing , painting , photograph or other work of art that stresses subject more than form . Illustration is basically about decorating a story poem or textual information for example like in new paper articles . The aim is to provide visual representation of something described in the text . The foots steps of her carrier wood have started off from , this would have had a great influence on quant ending up being one of the greatest fashion designers of all time . She got married to an accountant named in in she opened her clothes shop on the road in and it was named . Mary was one of the fashion designers who took credit for inventing the mini skirts and the hot pants ( born ) is an fashion designer , of the many designers who took credit for inventing the miniskirt a called . After the designing clothes for this play called "" mad house pyjamas "" and because of the positive feed back she got from the opening she decided to carry out designing more clothes . Besides quant was n't satisfied with the clothes that was available for her this she decided to follow her instincts and make her own clothes . Even though at the beginning she started off alone all by her self after some time she had many machinists working under her who helped her produce unusual clothes which she found fascinating . Rather than concentrating on the fact that how good it looks she also considered the fact that how easy and convenient the dress would be for the beholder . Starting from she kept on making her skirts shorter allowing women to run to the bus and do their activities more easily . Even though quant most famous inventory is the mini skirt , even developed it separately . The mini skirt was the fashion in . There are still doubts as in to who came up with the idea . Quant not only designed the mini skirt but also she designed many other dresses which had a huge influence on the society . She is also credited with inventing the coloured and patterned tights . She also accompanied the garment . Quant opened her shop which was also named bazaar in . After her shop was a very popular hunt for fashionable . She was so successful and popular that by she was exporting garments to the . The demand was so much that she went in to mass production setting up . She was so popular in the time when she introduced the micro skirt and plastic raincoats . She was also appointed of ) in for the revolutionary service she did for the fashion industry . Her last big fashion development was in , she launched hot pants . These are short , tight shorts , usually made out of cotton , nylon , or some other common material . They are meant to emphasize the buttocks and the legs of a female . In she concentrated more on household goods and make up . She resigned as director of in after a buy out . She has a son , the lived together in while she set up her business there in . < picture/ >","< heading > Front door : - The front door will have a motion sensor which will be activated when the person comes in and will be on until the person leaves the front door from this the system will know whether the person is inside the house or not . < heading > All other Doors : - Each door will have a motion sensor to monitor whether the person has come in or not . After the sensor in the front door is activated of the other sensors should be activated at a time which shows that the person is in a room . If sensors are activated at the same time , it may be a burglary so this can be used as a security system as well . < heading > Windows : - All the windows will have an alarm which should be switched off before opening the windows . This will be used to prevent thieves from breaking in to the house . < heading > Kitchen : - The kitchen will have a fire alarm . A carbon monoxide detector will be used to make sure there are no gas leaks . Also there will be a motion sensor to make sure that the person is not still fro a long time . < heading way : - The hall way will have a light which works a as a motion sensor . If the person is stationary for a considerable amount of time the system will know that something has gone wrong . < heading > Bedroom : - The bedroom will have a sensor connected to the light to see whether the light is on or not . The bed will be fixed with a pressure sensor a heart beat sensor and a temperature sensor . The pressure sensor will be used to find out whether the person is on the bed or not . The heart rate sensor will monitor the person heart beat and if there is a change the system will take action and do the necessary such as informing some one using an alarm system . The temperature sensor will be used in a shower which will be used to find out whether the person is in a critical condition and needs assistance . < heading > Bathroom : - A temperature sensor will be used in the shower which will automatically control the temperature if the water is too hot . The bathroom floor will have infrared sensors running across the floor . So if is cut the system will know that the person has fallen and needs help . The shower will have a sensor which will show whether it has been turned off or not . < heading > Lounge:- The sofa will be equipped with a heart rate sensor and a pressure sensor and the room will have a motion sensor to find out whether the person has been still for a long time .",1 "< abstract> Abstract: The aim of this experiment was to obtain measurements of photosynthetic activity in isolated chloroplasts using an oxygen electrode . evolution was measured for samples in various conditions and then the rate of oxygen evolution was calculated . The rate of oxygen evolution in control conditions was determined to be of O 2 / mg chlorophyll / hour . It was discovered that when in presence of there was no evolution of oxygen . Upon addition of with potassium phosphate , the rate increased to of O 2 / mg chlorophyll / hour . However , without a source of phosphate the rate remained the same as the control . A limiting amount of ferricyanide also revealed to keep the rate of oxygen evolution constant . Upon addition of ammonium chloride rate increased over three fold , and subsequent addition of did not change the value of of O 2 / mg chlorophyll / hour . Finally with double the concentration of chlorophyll , rate calculated as μmol of also doubled . < /abstract> Introduction: This experiment was concerned with the electron transport chain of pea seedling photosynthesis and its relationship to synthesis . The "" light reaction "" of photosynthesis ( photophosphorylation ) was studied in osmotically shocked chloroplasts so that hydrophilic reagents such as electron acceptors have access to the thylakoid membrane . Then CO 2 fixation ( also known as the "" dark reaction "" ) was driven by electron transport and photophosphorylation . The electrode used consists of a platinum cathode and silver anodes . A thin membrane is stretched over the electrode which separates the electrode elements bathed in an electrolyte of saturated KCl from the reaction solution in the sample chamber . The membrane is permeable to gases including oxygen which then can come into contact with the surface of the platinum cathode . If a voltage of is applied across the cell , oxygen is reduced at the cathode . Hence the current flowing through the electrode system is directly proportional to the amount of oxygen passing through the membrane . According to the laws of diffusion , the rate of oxygen flowing through the membrane depends on the concentration of dissolved oxygen in sample . Therefore the extent of the current flow in the electrode is directly related to the concentration of dissolved oxygen . reaction was demonstrated using the oxygen electrode with potassium ferricyanide as the oxidant . In , demonstrated that the light reaction of photosynthesis is an electron transfer reaction by showing that isolated chloroplasts will evolve oxygen in the light as long as it is provided with a suitable electron acceptor , known as a oxidant . The oxygen evolved in photosynthesis comes from the oxidation of water , which is coupled to the reduction of the oxidant ( A ) . Photosynthetic phosphorylation is direct synthesis of coupled to electron transport , and non - cyclic photophosphorylation is synthesis driven by non - cyclic electron transport like that involved in the reaction . Cyclic photophosphorylation is driven by cyclic electron transport and no net oxidation reduction or oxygen evolution occurs . Below show the differences between cyclic and non - cyclic phosphorylation < heading > Cyclic phosphorylation : < /heading > FORMULA < heading > Non - cyclic phosphorylation: Method: The method described in the laboratory manual was followed . No changes were made to the set procedure . < heading > Results: Raw data and calculations can be found in the appendix ( p.6~9 ) The table below shows the various conditions studied and the values obtained for the rate of oxygen evolution . < table/>As can be seen from the results above , when , a herbicide , is added , there is no evolution of oxygen . When and potassium phosphate is added in the reaction medium , the rate of oxygen evolution increases . The increase is almost double the value obtained in the control when 30μl of 20mM is added . However , when alone is added without a source of phosphate , there is no change in rate . Addition of ammonium chloride , an uncoupler , also has the effect of increasing the rate , by times when of ammonium chloride is added . When is added subsequently , there is no change observed , the rate remains very high . Limiting amounts of ferricyanide appears to have no effect in changing the rate of oxygen evolution . This could be used to confirm the calibration of the electrode , as shown in the appendix on page . Doubling the amount of chlorophyll in the reaction sample has no effect in the rate of oxygen evolution because the units used are μmol of O / mg chlorophyll / hour . However , calculating the rate of oxygen evolution as μmol of O shows the following : < table/>This shows that the rate of oxygen evolution doubles when the concentration of chlorophyll doubles . Hence the concentration of chlorophyll and rate of oxygen evolution are directly proportional . Possible reasons for the outcome of these experiments will now be discussed in the next section . < heading > Discussion : < /heading> In the presence of DCMU With the addition of , the evolution of oxygen stops . This is because is a herbicide which acts as an electron transport inhibitor between the plastoquinone molecules Q A and Q B on the acceptor side of the reaction centre of photosystem II . However , because an artificial electron acceptor , ferricyanide is present , should not have any effect . This does not agree with the results obtained . Possibly at the point was added , there were no unreduced ferricyanide left . < heading > With the addition of , with and without potassium phosphate Addition of ADP with a source of phosphate was demonstrated to produce an increase in the rate of oxygen evolution . Prior to the addition of and the phosphate , there is a build up of protons in the thylakoid lumen . Once and phosphate are added synthase can begin to produce using the proton motive force . As protons are used up , the rate of electron transport will increase to maintain the proton gradient , and thus increasing the rate of oxygen production as a consequence . Usually , the electron transport will slow down with the accumulation of protons . Nevertheless , the rate will return to the initial value after the is used up . The value of n , the or P :O ratio , was calculated to be . Because it is greater than 1.5 , there is enough per molecule of made by non cyclic photophosphorylation alone to satisfy demands of the Calvin cycle . However , with no potassium phosphate , the rate of oxygen evolution was shown not to change after the addition of . This is because phosphate is necessary as well as to produce by proton motive force driven synthase . < figure/>In the case of the reaction , electrons flow through photosystem II directly to ferricyanide . < heading > With the addition of ammonium chloride Upon addition of ammonium chloride , there is an increase in the rate of oxygen evolution . Ammonium chloride , an uncoupler , has the effect of "" mopping "" up protons . As a consequence , electron transport does not slow down as there is no accumulation of protons . Hence , the rate of oxygen evolution increases . The diagram below ( Figure . ) describes the effect of ammonium chloride schematically . < figure/>O 2 evolution remains at μmol of O / mg chlorophyll / hour after addition of . This is because electron transport is probably occurring at the maximum and so the rate of oxygen evolution is also at the highest and will remain the same too . What effect has ammonium chloride had on the P/2e- ratio ? < heading > With limiting amounts of ferricyanide Limiting amounts of ferricyanide appears to have no effect in changing the rate of oxygen evolution . This is probably because the endogenous electron acceptors are still present and are able to be oxidised just like the oxidant , ferricyanide . Hence photophosphorylation continues and oxygen is evolved . < heading > With double the concentration of chlorophyll Calculating the rate of oxygen evolution as μmol of O shows that the rate of oxygen evolution doubles when the concentration of chlorophyll doubles . The concentration of chlorophyll and rate of oxygen evolution are directly proportional , because with more chlorophyll , the more electron transport can occur .","< abstract> ABSTRACT This essay describes some selected studies using comparative microbial genomics . investigations are discussed in detail , namely those on Enterococcus faecalis and Bacillus anthracis . These studies reflect the importance of comparative microbial genomics for the better understanding of microbes . It is apparent that the comparison of complete genome sequences can reveal the variation in gene content that may affect observed phenotypic differences in infectivity and virulence between closely related strains . In addition , genes that have been deliberately introduced into bio warfare agents can be identified . Among the many discoveries from studying the complete genome sequence of these examples , perhaps the most significant outcomes are the identification of virulence factors and surface exposed proteins that may be important targets for drug design against the pathogens . < /abstract> INTRODUCTION Comparative microbial genomics involves comparison of bacteria , requiring a range of sophisticated bioinformatic techniques , and is usually based on completely sequenced genomes . An important outcome of these comparative studies is to provide an insight into the genetic basis of observed phenotypic differences of different microbes and also different strains of the same species . Discovering the genetics behind phenotypic differences in infectivity and virulence allows the pathogenesis of bacteria to be understood . Moreover , these studies may also provide a better understanding of their resistance to certain antibiotics and even facilitate identification of genes that may have been deliberately introduced into bio warfare agents . According to Read et al . , "" genome based analysis of microbial pathogens will provide a powerful tool for the investigation of infectious disease outbreaks "" . As well as outlining studies involved in the identification of genes that are conserved between species to allow clarification of their phylogeny , this essay will discuss the uses of comparative microbial genomics to improve our current understanding of the genetics behind virulence of important pathogens . < heading > OVERVIEW OF RECENT STUDIES In their review in , et al . describe major comparative analyses that are currently taking place . The one of these involves Bacillus anthracis , a bacterium probably most well known due to its uses in bio terrorism attacks in . B. anthracis is the causative agent of anthrax , and Read et al . and et al . among many others , have been engaged in extensive comparative analyses of the anthracis genome with other organisms . These include Bacillus cereus , an opportunistic pathogen that causes food poisoning in humans , Bacillus thuringiensis and Bacillus subtilis as well as different strains of anthracis . In short , these analyses concluded that the common ancestor of cereus must be an insect pathogen rather than a soil bacterium . Other important results , such as the location of potential virulence factors and genes encoding surface proteins which could be targets for future vaccines were discussed , however , these details will be described subsequently in this essay . A , important ongoing analysis has been on interrogans , a spirochete that causes a disease which triggers influenza - like symptoms and sometimes kidney or liver damage , and haemorrhage in the worst cases . L. interrogans possess circular chromosomes and from these studies it was discovered that the larger of the consist mostly of housekeeping genes and the smaller contains genes involved in heme , cell envelope and vitamin B synthesis . The small gene was also discovered to have genes involved in attachment and invasion into eukaryotic cells . These organisms are unique in that they can penetrate mammalian collagen and hyaluronic acids . It is thought that the genes for motility , chemotaxis and the shape of the spirochete are also present on this chromosome . Knowing that the shape of the spirochete is a result of the gene products involved in cell - envelope murein layer synthesis may help to understand its virulence , since its shape and unusual motility is thought to contribute to its pathogenicity . The and analyses described by et al . concern members of the human gut flora , Enterococcus faecalis and Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron . E. faecalis is a normally harmless opportunistic pathogen , known for causing urinary tract infection . This bacterium is tough and is resistant to many physical and chemical stresses and is known to acquire resistance at a very fast rate . The genome of the vancomycin resistant chemical faecalis isolate was analysed . It has chromosome and plasmids and of its genome was found to be made up of mobile and foreign DNA . This leads to a high level of genome fluidity and is the probably the reason for the bacterium 's "" rapid acquisition and dissemination of virulence and drug resistance "" . ( Paulsen et al . , ) The study on E. faecalis described by Paulsen et al . will also be discussed later in more detail in this essay . Another member of the human gut flora , B. thetaiotaomicron , was studied by . and was found to have interesting features . For example , its genome included capsular polysaccharide biosynthesis loci and some of these genes are regulated by a promoter inversion , which are able to switch the genes on and off . B. thetaiotamicron also appears to possess other methods of gene regulation such as sigma factors as well as and component regulatory systems . This means that the organism is able to sense and respond with ease and flexibility to changes in the environment . Knowledge of the genetic basis behind these abilities is valuable for the better understanding of microbes such as thetaiotamicron . < heading > BACILLUS ANTHRACIS In 2002 Read et al . published a paper detailing the comparison of a reference with the whole genome sequence of anthracis isolated from a victim from the bioterrorist anthrax attack of in . The reference was a strain used in databases that was originally isolated from a dead cow in in . This strain was coined anthracis . The chromosome , that is , the anthracis isolate that lacks pXO1 and pXO2 virulence plasmids , was also aligned with the sequences from the isolate . The aim of these comparative studies was to find markers , including single nucleotide polymorphisms ( SNPs ) , inserted or deleted sequences ( indels ) and variable number tandem repeats ( VNTRs ) . differences were discovered between the main chromosomes of the and isolates , which suggested that the are very closely related . The differences were SNPs and indels . Although the differences that were found were few , many of these SNPs have a phenotypic effect . These changes , however , may be possibly due to the relaxed selection of anthracis in laboratory conditions . Because the isolates have no plasmids , the plasmids were compared with the anthracis strain pXO2 and Pasteur strain pXO2 . A total of SNPs , VNTRs and large indels were found . In addition to this , large inversions in the isolate 's pXO1 , in relation to the strain , was identified . The pXO1 was found to contain a pathogenicity island which includes genes for the tripartite lethal factor toxin . To evaluate the utility of the polymorphisms as genetic markers for strain discrimination , the genomic DNA of the following anthracis isolates were screened : the isolate , the isolate , isolates and isolates including lab isolates and from a goat in , which is the only known other natural occurrence of the genotype . The results obtained showed distinct groups , as shown in the diagram ( fig . ) on the next page . Of all the plasmid markers tested , SNPs and VNTRs varied between anthracis isolates . All but were found in the pXO2 , suggesting that this plasmid must be the source of most of the short - term variation in the anthracis genome . Following this study , Read et al . published another paper in which compares anthracis to a closely related bacteria rather than different strains of the same species . Several chromosomally encoded proteins that may contribute to pathogenicity were found , including haemolysins , phospholipases , iron acquisition factors . In addition , numerous surface proteins , which may be possible targets for vaccine and drugs were found . < figure/>In short , the study involved comparative genome hybridisation of Bacillus cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis strains against a DNA microarray of anthracis and confirmed the general similarity of chromosomal genes among this group of close relatives . However , pXO1 and pXO2 plasmids were found to be more variable between strains ; and as found in the previous study , this is where high proportions of transposons and genes involved in toxicity among other genes with unassigned functions are present . As mentioned before , anthracis was used as a bio weapon and the reason behind this is because the bacterium has a tough , environmentally resistant endospore that causes lethal inhalational anthrax . According to et al . , expression of the major plasmid encoded virulence determinants ( the tripartite toxin and poly - D - glutamic acid capsule ) is essential for full pathogenicity . The sequencing performed by Read et al . helped to identify additional genes that may contribute to virulence , either by encoding for functions necessary for survival and escape from macrophages in the mammalian host or by enhancing evasion of the immune system and the extent of damage it causes to the host . Plasmid transfer within the cereus group is well established after the works of et al . and there are a number of mobility genes on pXO1 . Despite genomic variability in the cereus group , the anthracis chromosome and virulence plasmids display little variation in G and C content and dinucleotide composition . This suggests that most genes in B. anthracis are native to the cereus group . cereus is a closely related strain to the anthracis and therefore most of its chromosomal proteins have homologues in cereus . This means that even potential chromosomal virulence - enhancing genes in B. anthracis have homologues in cereus , suggesting that the genes are not specifically associated with the pathogenesis of the B. anthracis but are common to the cereus group . et al . also describe the presence of a core set of genes in both anthracis and cereus which are involved in invasion , establishment and propagation within the host . Moreover , the chromosome of anthracis contains several homologues of genes known to be involved in cereus and thuringiensis pathogenesis . These include channel forming type haemolysins and a complex of non - haemolytic enterotoxins . Also , there is homology to proteins that contribute to virulence of monocytogenes , a positive pathogen . The homologies may have arisen due to similarities in the pathways of intracellular survival and survival and escape between these organisms . B. anthracis contains a gene encoding a homologue of the enhancin protein , a metalloprotease that boosts viral infectivity by degrading the mucin layer surrounding insect guts . Interestingly , a homologue of anthracis enhancin also found in genome of pestis , an organism that survives in both mammals and insects . B. anthracis also contains homologues of B. thuringiensis immune inhibitor A metalloprotease , a protein that enhances virulence in insects through the cleavage of bacteriocidal lectins . The presence of these genes suggests that a recent ancestor of anthracis infected insects . These results mirror the studies done by et al . , who also suggest that the insect intestine could well have been the natural ecological niche of the cereus group ancestor , due to the presence of genes involved in chitin and mucin breakdown . Germination of anthrax endospore is the key initial event in anthracis infectious cycle . The anthracis genome has operons utilised by endospores to recognise presence of specific molecules to initiate germination . Protection of DNA during dormancy and efficient DNA repair during germination are also important factors in endospore viability , genes of which some are found to be homologous to those in subtilis . Also , Read et al . describe that the anthracis chromosome encodes a "" machinery "" for sporulation that is similar to subtilis . Another outcome of these studies is that B. anthracis was discovered to have homologues of sortase transpeptidase which is responsible for attachment of secreted proteins to peptidoglycans on positive bacteria cell surfaces and also contains the genes for binding proteins with S - layer homology ( SLH ) domains to polysaccharide . At the time of Read et al . 's study the role of these SLH domain containing proteins were unknown but may be responsible for the interactions between anthracis and the external environment . If this is the case , it is an important target for vaccine and drug design . < heading > ENTEROCOCCUS FAECALIS A study was undertaken by Paulsen et al . which involved examining the complete genome sequence of faecalis , a vancomycin resistant clinical isolate . E. faecalis , a Gram - positive bacterium whose natural habitat is the mammalian gastrointestinal tract , is known to be able to withstand many extreme environmental conditions . ( Klare et al . , ) These include oxidative stress , desiccation , extremes of temperature and pH. The organism is also able to withstand salinity , bile acids , detergents and antimicrobials . E. faecalis is the vancomycin resistant clinical isolate that was reported in . The study of its genome sequence allows for a better understanding into the pathogenesis of faecalis and the role of mobile elements in genome evolution as well as providing an important insight into the transfer of vancomycin resistance . Over protein encoding open reading frames ( ORFs ) were identified on the chromosome and the plasmids of faecalis . What was significant is that of the faecalis genome is made up of mobile and exogenously acquired DNA . According to the authors , this is one of the highest proportions observed in a genome of a bacterium , and suggests that these mobile elements contribute to the accumulation of virulence and drug resistance factors in by E. faecalis . The vancomycin resistance was found to be encoded within a previously unknown mobile element with some similarities to the faecalis vancomycin resistance conjugative transposon . ( et al . , ) The vancomycin resistance genes in E. faecalis encode vancomycin resistance through the synthesis of modified peptidoglycan precursors and were discovered to be almost identical to those in the genes from the transposons mentioned earlier . However , the remainder of the faecalis element is very divergent from the transposon with multiple insertions , deletions and rearrangements . Paulsen et al . also identified insertion elements ( IS ) , with predominating types . of these is associated with a pathogenicity island and integrated plasmid genes . Previously , a large pathogenicity island was identified in E. faecalis which included genes for aggregation substance , cytolysin and other possible virulence or adaptation genes . ( Shankar et al . ) Trinucleotide composition analysis revealed that most of this island has a highly atypical composition , except for a region containing integrated plasmid genes . This region encodes multiple homologues of genes found in mitis , which are responsible for coding proteins involved in binding human platelets , and interaction that is important for the pathogenesis of infective endocarditis . The chromosome of faecalis has or more integrated plasmid remnants ( Paulsen et al . , ) , of them encoding aggregation substances that may be important in virulence . These are surface proteins that improve conjugative transfer and have an important role in adhesion to colonic mucosal fibronectin and also translocation across the intestinal epithelium . ( Sussmuth et al . , ) . According to Paulsen et al . , the presence of these plasmid remnants in faecalis emphasises the importance of plasmids for its genome fluidity . E. faecalis from previous studies is known to adhere to various cells and extracellular matrix components . The Enterococcus species have adhensins such as aggregation substance , haemagglutinin and various other virulence factors . In E. faecalis , possible choline or integrin binding motifs were identified , and are thought to be important in the adherence and internalisation processes of the bacterium . In addition , adhesion lipoproteins including an endocarditis specific antigen , sortases and motif cell wall surface anchor proteins were identified . Due to the atypical nucleotide composition of the proteins , Paulsen et al . suggest there are from foreign origin . To evade the immune system , a common tactic of pathogens is to have antigenic or phase variation of surface structures . This is indeed the case for E. faecalis : of the surface exposed proteins found contained homopolymeric sequences or iterative nucleotide motifs located within the ORF or promoter region , enabling "" phase variation via a slippage type mechanism . "" ( Paulsen et al . , ) Moreover , a large proportion of the faecalis genome are mobile elements , whether intact or partial . Many of these regions have a complex mosaic structure containing different elements , suggesting they are , as Paulsen et al . describe , "" hotspots "" for mobile element insertion . The apparent ease for the incorporation of mobile elements in these regions is probably the reason behind its rapid acquisition and dissemination of drug resistance . The study of the complete genome sequence of faecalis has allowed the identification of virulence factors and surface exposed proteins that may be important drug targets against this pathogen , similar to how the study of anthracis revealed domains that may be important targets for drug design . < heading > CONCLUSION From the examples studied , it can be seen that genome based analysis is a powerful tool , which can be used for investigating unexpected outbreaks of infectious diseases in all circumstances : spanning from biological warfare attacks , emerging agents to familiar pathogens . As even monomorphic species like anthracis show phenotypic variation in infection potential , the technique of genomic comparison can be used to investigate the genetic basis of pathogenesis . According to Read et al . , comparative analyses based on whole genome sequence data provide the most comprehensive picture of species diversity and does not pose the bias presented when using methods such as multilocus sequence typing , as the latter only samples a small fraction of the genome . The comparison of the whole genome is advantageous in that it allows for polymorphic loci to be identified , which can then be used for - based sampling of variation within bacterial populations . Moreover , comparative genomic sequence is a valuable method because it can reveal novel , lineage - specific markers that enhance the resolution of genotyping schemes . For example , in the study of anthracis by Read et al . ( ) , DNA sequence differences between the chromosomes of the and isolates were discovered . Solely by their profiles , these isolates would have been indistinguishable . Another obvious value of comparing complete genome sequences is that the variances in gene content that may affect observed phenotypic differences in infectivity and virulence between closely related strains can be revealed . In addition , genes that have been deliberately introduced into bio warfare agents can be identified . These comparisons , however , can only be efficient with complete genomes , opposed to multiple , unordered assemblies of "" draft "" sequences . Hence , there is a necessity for the acquisition of accurate data to increase the span of databases . This means the construction of databases derived from genome - based surveys of natural variation in all major pathogens and not only potential biological warfare agents . ( Read et al . , ) The hope is that databases will increase in breadth and as a consequence more comparative studies will reveal important aspects involved in the virulence and infectivity of various pathogens that affect us .",1 "< abstract> Executive Summary The Flexi Connector component is expected to reach its full capacity of units in , the expected demand is estimated to rise by per year alternative options are presented and analysed . Option 1 - involves expansion of the plant , this would lead to the of -$1,143,242 after using discount rate , $ using discount rate and $ after using rate . Option - involves using an existing plant in , which yields the of $ after with , $ with and $ after with Option 3 - involves building a new plant in , this gives of -$29,810,367 after with , -$25,996,435 with and $ using discount rate . Based on the analysis , the detailed plan should be established for and projects since produces highest after and the highest after With a detailed plan , there is a need to consider other factors apart from as well , such as labour availability at the area , accessiveness of materials , or other methods such as and This report has been based on assumptions that there is no inventory policy , and thus the production every year corresponds exactly to the demand , up to a point when demand reaches the maximum production capacity , from this point onwards the units of sales are equal to the maximum capacity . It also assumes that all cash flows occur at the end of the respective year . Additional assumptions are stated in the appendix . < /abstract> Introduction A report has been required to evaluate the alternative options of increasing the production capacity of Flexi - Connector component for . The current plant producing this component is projected to reach its full capacity of units in . The sale is expected to rise by per year . The possible alternatives to bring additional capacity of are as follows : Option 1 - Expansion of the existing plant , headed up by the site in to produce units starting from , with a cost involving . The selling price and variable costs would remain the same , with fixed cost rising from in . Option 2 - Using a plant in with existing equipment , headed up by The capacity of the plant would be units , with a total cost of spent on renovations of the site and equipment . Selling price and variable cost remain the same , with higher fixed manufacturing costs - from to from . Option 3 - Build a new greenfield plant in , headed up by site can produce units per year . The cost involves for acquiring a site , on building the plant and additional on equipments . Selling price remains the same , but variable cost would decrease to $ per unit . Fixed manufacturing cost would be $ beginning in , increasing to from . < heading > Evaluation of the NPV method method is the method of evaluating project that recognizes that the dollar received immediately is preferable to a dollar received at some future date . By taking into account the time value of money and discounting cash flows , projects can be appraised before the investment decision is made . This approach finds the present value of expected net cash flows of an investment , discounted at cost of capital and subtract from it the initial cash outlay of the project . The method has a clear decision rule to apply . In case the present value is positive , the project should be accepted ; if negative , it should be rejected . If the projects under consideration are mutually exclusive the one with the highest net present value should be chosen . is being most often recommended as the soundest technique for assessing alternative investment opportunities as it : - takes into account the time value of the money ( the discount factor is based on the opportunity cost of finance ) - includes all of the relevant cash flows irrespective of when they are expected to occur - addresses the objectives of the business : to maximise shareholders ´ wealth However , like other investment appraisal methods , it has limitations such as : It can be difficult to identify an appropriate discount rate , which is crucial for , i.e. if the discount factor is stated too high , the may come out unnecessarily negative , or if the discount rate is stated too low , all risk factors may not be included and the project maybe over appraised . Moreover , as the solution comes in dollars , the does not show the percentage rate of return . I.e. A particular project may seem to give the highest , but the percentage of return , in comparison of the capital initiated , may be lower than other projects . Moreover , in order to calculated , cash flows are usually assumed to occur at , which in practice is over simplistic . also does not show the demand trend , whether it as downward or upward . Despite having disadvantages stated above , it may be the most recommended technique . is conceivable as realistic as , however , the R value there is much harder to find through the method of trial and error . Moreover , unlike or takes into account the time factor and discounts cash flows accordingly . Thus the is necessary in assessing the alternative investment opportunities , and is definitely needed in order to asses a project in advance whether it is worth considering . However it is recommended that other methods , such as , are used at the same time as well , to asses the attractiveness of various options from different perspectives . < heading > Net Present Value Analysis The calculations using different discount rate and time horizons are included in and explained below . < heading > using a discount rate of in horizon When a discount factor of was used , in horizon , comes slightly negative , which means that the initial capital would not be recovered after , thus it would not be recommended at this stage . Option 2 -Waltham project as the only one comes with a positive of $ , since it involves the lowest initial capital . Option 3 project gives a clearly negative value of - $ , this is due to starting a brand new project , with the highest capital among alternatives required to buy a site and acquire new equipment . From these results , the project seems clearly most attractive since it shows a relatively high in relation to the size of the project and amount invested as an initial capital . However , discount rate in this set of calculations may mean that the projects have been penalized , since the discount rate might have been set too high and not corresponding to the company 's cost of capital . < heading > using a discount rate of in horizon Since the discount rate is reduced to , while the time considered remains at , in all projects should be expected to improve since the cash flow after discounting in should be higher . for project would increase to $ , however the seems a bit low in relation to the size of the project . would further improve to $ which remains the highest reward among alternatives . however still remains significantly negative . This is due to the plant being too expensive to establish , thus the capital is not recoverable after . Thus when the is considered at in horizon , the project still remains the most attractive one , followed by , while would still not be recommended . < heading > using a discount rate of in horizon The demand for Flexi - Connect is expected to remain strong for . This demand has already outweighed the capacity of and since . Thus when the time horizon is changed to , using discount rate , project with of $ , comes out last . This is because it has the lowest capacity among the other . The of is higher than . Despite having a lower value than , both and sites with a of over seems promising . , which gave a negative value in the calculations , comes out best when considered in horizon . Since has twice higher production capacity and lower variable cost than other plants , the reaches $ , which seems most attractive among all projects . Since and have limited production capacity at units and units respectively , they may not be able to cater for the demand later which is expected to rise to twice their maximum capacity . < heading > Recommendation According to rules , if the projects under consideration are mutually exclusive the one with the highest net present value should be chosen . From the analysis given above , it would be advisable to focus on and and establish a more detailed plan on these projects , based on expectation that Flexi - Connect is expected to remain strong for . alternative would not be recommended since it involves a higher amount of capital invested in than , but in horizon it yields a lower and in horizon insignificantly higher amount . However if the Flexi Connect is expected to remain strong for , may yield a higher than since then , but this is uncertain . When comparing with , would produce an earlier payback , but after that it would not be able to satisfy a complete demand and other expansion options would need to be considered again or may consider outsourcing as another option . In case of , in time it produces the highest but there is a need to consider a risk factor as well since payback will not be achieved before . Thus based on the arguments and supporting calculations included in the , there is a need to develop and projects more in detail , with the exact calculations on expenditure and other costs . < heading > Conclusion Based on the exact detailed plans , the decision can then be made on the chosen alternative with higher . However , apart from , other issued should be taken into account as well when making decisions , such as : it may not be advisable to invest in capacity that will be fully utilised only after yrs and idling afterwards ( , ) unless the company considers outsourcing ( to ask other businesses to produce the stock ) as an additional external source for keeping up the stock There is a need to consider the location of the plant , its proximity to the local market , and cost of transport to transfer components The availability of labour at the specified area , whether enough staff could be recruited to produce the component The availability of materials at that area The availability and skills of managers , and their ability to overlook additional plant With these specific points in mind , the most realistic and appropriate project with highest should be chosen .","had a devastating impact on the socio - economic and political landscape across and . The countries hit hardest by this economic catastrophe were and as both countries had experienced similar prosperity and growth in . Thus it was in these countries where long - standing socio - political and economic relationships were shook to their foundations ; resulting in the installation of new but very different regimes . This essay compares the social policies of 's government with the New Deal policies of 's government from . There are obvious fundamental differences between these administrations as they emerged from countries with very different historical cultural development . Moreover they represented opposing ideologies and political systems with the destroying and upholding democratic institutions . However , prevailing historical accounts have highlighted strikingly similarities between the New Deal and socio - economic policies ( ) . They both had the same motivations behind their policies to achieve social cohesion and build a national community in face a devastating crisis ; as ( ) argues they both called for the ' nationalistic mobilisation of society ' . Both were able to implement progressive "" leftist "" socio - economic reforms while maintaining conservative facades ; only possible through the promotion of nationalism . This essay however , challenges this dominant notion by presenting significant and even fundamental differences between and 's social policies . The most crucial difference was that the 's implemented radical , permanent and unorthodox socio - economic changes ; whereas 's government did not go as far with the installation of only limited , temporary social legislation . achieved economic recovery and full employment by prior to its rearmament programmes ; contrastingly the only reached recovery after it transformed into a war economy . Thus the social policies of the and the in were similar in kind but differed in extent and effect . Moreover , 's far - reaching reforms were only possible under a totalitarian regime with the government having total control over the economy and destroying all autonomous groups . Whereas 's incomplete , lacklustre policies were restricted by the nature of democratic government ; with its reliance on powerful vested interests and lobbies particularly the business community and workers but also all voters and partially autonomous states . Therefore the and New Deal social policies substantially differed as 's democratic principles ensured 's government was unable to implement the far - reaching , more radical reforms that would have dragged the country out of depression ; in contrast was able to use his unchallenged power to take total control over the economy . In order to explore these differences , this essay will examine the extent to which the went further than Roosevelt in various social policies including : programmes to deal with mass unemployment , attempts to stimulate industrial recovery and social welfare and social insurance reforms . Moreover , relations in both countries between the state and the trade union movement and the state and business community will be explored to examine the restrictions placed on democratic governments by economic interest groups . The major difference between and New Deal social policies was the extent to which the 's reforms went further than 's ; achieving economic recovery far earlier than in . Practically full employment existed in in whereas never approached this until the economy shifted to all - out war production . The cured their economic ills quicker as they reduced unemployment and stimulated industrial production faster . Moreover they used more unorthodox economic policies and had far greater state intervention into the economy ; the totalitarian system making it much easier to mobilise society . The crucial question is why recovered so quickly and fully in comparison to . The main reason for this was the government 's high level of government expenditure and the massive public investment policies designed to directly and indirectly stimulate demand . As R.J ( ) argues the ' government went much further than expected ' financing their policies by the unorthodox economic policies of deficit financing and high tax ; thereby significantly went much further than 's administration dared to . The 's from onwards gradually developed a policy of total control over the economy ; with momentous power over trade , finance , investment , state and business relations and relations between managers and labour . The ' price to pay ' ( Overy 1996:37 ) for this successful economic recovery was that the growth of state spending and the extension of controls were a by - product of the totalitarian political system . Therefore there was an essential ' difference between the liberal recovery policies such as those in and which were designed to stimulate ... recovery which would then become self - sustaining and reduce the need for state intervention , and those of the regime ' . and his democratic administration implemented temporary and emergency interventionist measures whereas the 's executed radical social policies to ensure a permanent grasp over the economy ; made possible only by the totalitarian nature of the state . In order to deal with the devastation of mass unemployment both and created new and unprecedented public works programmes . Moreover , both instigated similar youth work camps in the countryside organised on semi - military lines with the goal of greater social cohesion and social order by keeping the young off the streets . As ( ) argues ( ) like its equivalent ' served paramilitary and patriotic functions not essential to its announced purpose ' . However , while it was only in that public works became important in with ever worried about wasteful and unnecessary public spending ; ' the on the other hand immediately launched an all - out assault on unemployment ' ( ) with a massive programme of public works . The created direct employment through increased government expenditure on labour intensive schemes of repair , maintenance and construction achieving full employment by . and his followers were determine to maintain the distinction between the principles of welfare relief and social security thus their social policies ' did not culminate in ... government guarantees to pursue full employment through public action ' ( Skocpal in Esping - Anderson , ) . In there was not enough emphasis on public works even by ; in public works programmes covered out of unemployed and the only employed young ( Amenta and Skocpal in Weir et al ) . ' spending on these programmes was not guided by economic objectives ' ( Weir 1988:68 ) but on political objectives thus investment in these schemes was not to relieve unemployment but to ensure political support . As the continued it became increasingly ' difficult to assemble a majority in support of increased government spending and public employment ' ( Weir 1988:74 ) as and conservative interests turned against it ; thereby in socio - economic policies were dictated by political factions more than economic considerations . As and Cloward argue ( ) the new public works programmes turned out to be ' far from equal to the magnitude of need , or indeed even to the magnitude of the President 's promises ' ; moreover , they were far from equal to mobilisation . The and the pursued similar policies to stimulate industrial recovery with both adopting varieties of corporatist policy . Corporatism is the ' conservative archaic concept of socio - economic organisation ... between socialism and capitalist plutocracy ' ( 1973:912 ) . Capitalists and workers were meant to join together and eliminate competition , bring order , industrial peace and efficiency in industry . Both countries implemented government sponsored cartels to regulate output and production controls with price and wage manipulation . The same pattern existed in both and with systems of self - governing industrial codes and with both government policies being justified by "" national emergency "" propaganda . However ' in the process went not nearly so far ' ( 1973:913 ) as ( NIRA ) though initially welcomed by the business community was later restricted by this same group as it failed to stimulate the economy . In contrast , the industrial strategy in was very successful in stimulating growth as the 's created a ' private capital market ' ( ) to ensure funds flowed where they wanted and to extend their formal control over the banking and capital structure . In both countries corporatist policies and greater state intervention into the economy faced opposition across the board and yet where saw the victory of his all powerful - party state ; 's government had to concede to the interests of the capitalists . ( ) in presenting the similarities between and New Deal social policies argues ' the success or failure of and efforts to stimulate industrial recovery is ... not central to my argument ' ; however , this is critical as a major difference in the implementation of these reforms is that the 's were the successful where the failed . The and the New Dealers both reformed social insurance and social welfare ; had a long - standing tradition of centralized social reforms whereas in new and unprecedented forms of relief and social security were introduced . Rimlinger ( 1987:45 ) argues few historians accept and Cloward 's thesis that welfare policies were primarily used as instruments of social control . However , he argues fascist is the exception as the ' concept of social policy represented the full development of welfare policy as an instrument of social control ' ( Rimlinger 1987:47 ) . In contrast 's social policy was not so much an instrument of social control as though it was used to quell socialist feeling and to placate the masses ; policies in no way resemble the tyrannical grip over society . 's regime dismissed of social insurance employees replacing them with party activists and destroying the long established participation of worker and employer representatives ; from onwards social insurance was distorted to serve goals . Furthermore , ( in Bridenthal et al ) argues the rigid ideology of racism and sexism in their social policy reinforced the social control the party developed over its subjects . The pro - family welfare policies oppressed women using the slogan ' , , ' ( children , kitchen , church ) extolling and materially promoting motherhood and housework as the ideal role for pure women . The policy of compulsory sterilization to exclude "" unfavourable "" women from childbearing was linked to the pro - family policies as ' pronatalism for desirable births and its antinatalism for undesirable ones were tightly connected ' ( Bock in Bridenthal et al 1984:276 ) . This use of social control within 's social policy programmes led onto the euthanasia project that killed of institution inmates and finally to the . Theories of eugenics and similar euthanasia programmes existed in some states but schemes on the scale were unimaginable in democratic . The extent of the racist and sexist social control in the ideology behind social policy far outweighs the social control aspect of 's New Deal . The social welfare reforms culminating in the were moderate and restricted by various interests , for example , health insurance was ' politically impossible ' ( Orloff in Weir et al 1988:74 ) as the conservative significant influence opposed it . In the government faced substantial obstacles to the national uniformity and the centralized administration of social insurance due to the ' inability of the New Deal social reform coalition ... to overcome the deep resistance of congressional conservatives ' ( Orloff in Weir ) . Therefore while the 's used sinister and radical social policy initiatives to socially and racially control its population ; the were restricted by various interests when implementing simply moderate and restrained reforms . This examination of the various social policy initiatives adopted by the and New Deal government 's highlights that the major difference was the quick and efficient economic recovery compared to the stabilisation of the economy just before the war . was able to recover due to the massive extension in public spending and state control over the economy only possible in a totalitarian regime . The original architects of the New Deal recognised the structural components of the crisis and advocated economic planning and more radical employment and social policies . The early 1930s saw great demands for more progressive public action providing a ' rare opportunity for reorganising nation and political institutions and forming new political alliances ( Weir 1988:76 ) . However , the government did not take advantage of this unique situation as the later thirties saw a ' bewildering movement of the president from a planning initiative to a reform initiative ' ( ) . 's poor record of economic recovery was the result of the demise of the more progressive element of his policies and the ' failure of the planning apparatus to overcome the political opposition ' ( : ) . Thus the main differences between and New Deal social policy was that adopted radical and far - reaching solutions to the economic crisis ; whereas only implemented temporary and moderate reforms . The crucial question is why the were able to go so much further than the government in . ( ) argues the political and ideological differences between the 's and did not affect economic policy as much as might be expected ' . However , the democratic system ensured a sharing of power with various interest groups contributing to social policy ; whereas the totalitarian system involved colossal repression resulting in almost total state dominance over all areas of society . In in the big business and the workers movement had a massive influence over New Deal policy ; contrastingly in the gradually controlled the business element and successfully destroyed the trade unions . The fundamental difference here is that the used the threat of force and violent coercion to implement policies unhindered as the essence of a totalitarian regime means the suppression and subordination of all independent interest groups . When in the government relied on the compliance of private interest groups as ' the political economic coalitions of the New Deal ... go a long way towards explaining the successes and failures of New Deal recovery policy ' ( ) . For ( ) political instability and pressure group politics are the main explanation for the problems of the and they ' disappeared in the period in the wake of the intention to stifle and oppress all opposition ' . The direct opposite occurred in where politics and socio - economic policy of was ' driven by the interplay of sectoral dynamics ' ( ) . In the requirements of political stability , that is , the managing of different interest groups interfered and hindered the economic recovery . Thus in economic stabilisation or the relieving the masses of unemployed was sacrificed to maintain the political order and placate the capitalist class ; in contrast to where the dictatorial government imposed its will over and above all other interests . In order to understand how these countries managed the different interest groups firstly the relations between the workers , the business community and the state will be examined . Both leaders were hesitant towards the unions opposing the socialist element of the labour movement . However , while destroyed the unions unwittingly enabled the unions to increase their membership and influence . The replaced the trade unions with ( ) in to indoctrinate all workers into the mentality . The was engaged in an attempt at the total immersion of the individual into the national community and could ' never have been established without repressive political terror and it certainly could not have continued to exist without the threat of terror ' ( Mason 1993:152 ) . The "" Strength through Joy "" and "" "" programmes of improving workplaces and providing entertainment activities were social control mechanisms ' taken with politics and ideology in mind rather than with a scientific view to the problems of labour organisation ' ( , ) . Therefore social policy involved the placation , oppression and destruction of workers voices and the union movement . Contrastingly the early New Deal was pro - labour as wanted to appeal to workers ; the gave workers - time opportunities for solidarity and crucially granted them the right to collectively bargain . Thus the ignited the aspirations of the workers and resulted in a massive increase in unionization and rise in the influence of the workers movement in with the ' government conceding the strikers main demand - the right to organise ' ( Piven and Cloward 1979:173 ) . Therefore when the unions were being irreparably damaged and their influence on policy destroyed ; the unions enjoyed a period of power gaining social policy concessions from the government . However , it was capitalist and big business interests that dominantly shaped 's social policies . Unanimous support for relief measures in had evaporated by as the world of business was improving ( though unemployment was not falling ) ; as and Cloward ( ) argue ' with the worst of the national crisis apparently passed , opposition to relief in all its forms was rising , especially in the business community ' . Business attitudes towards the New Deal varied with economic conditions : in the worst of the crisis ensured high support for 's interventionist policies but in with the slight economic improvement the business world grew disaffected with state intervention into "" their "" sector . Thus the business community became the critical ' political economic factor that hindered the establishment of coherent and effective national economic policy ' ( ) . In direct contrast the though initially needing the support of big business to implement their socio - economic reforms were able to transcend this interest group by consolidating their hold over power in . By control over the whole economy was in state hands as set about reducing the autonomy of the economic elite and subordinating it to the interests of the state ' ( Overy 1996:54 ) . When they could industrial leaders ignored the political instructions and used cartel solidarity to obstruct bureaucrats but ultimately were ' compelled to accept them under threat of force ' ( 1996:58 ) . Therefore where the business interest was able to dominate the social policy arena in ; the party in the same period eliminated all autonomous groups ensuring its stranglehold over the economy . Paradoxically had more power and influence but it was the 's who did more for the workers in terms of employment due to the ascendancy of capitalist power under . In conclusion , the social policies of and in the display certain striking similarities in that they both pursued nationalistic social cohesion through unprecedented interventionist and progressive reforms . However , the major difference between the and New Deal social initiatives is that the were crucially able to implement unorthodox and far - reaching reforms ; whereas the government were restricted to temporary moderate measures . The 's more radical reforms ensured they achieved economic stability by ; in contrast 's more static policies meant the only fully recovered from the after the implementation of a war economy . The nature of the totalitarian system enabled the to take total control of the economy and instigate drastic social policy changes by eliminating all opposition . ( ) famously defined the state as the monopoly on the legitimate use of violence ; is the most extreme case of this with all social policy measures bolstered by the threat of brutal coercion . The government in contrast was unable and unwilling to employ the more major change necessary to drag out of the ; as it was reliant on various influential interests groups most importantly the ascendant business community . The central policy measures of the New Deal ' reflect 's preoccupation with ... appeasing business interests ' ( Weir ) and the limited nature of these reforms were a direct result of the opposition of the economic elite . Therefore contrary to 's ( ) claim , it was the fundamental political and ideological differences between these regimes that ensured the extent and success of their social policies reforms were essentially poles apart .",0 "Differential stains use different coloured dyes to illustrate differences between bacterial groups or provide contrast to different structures within the same organism . They are more complex than simple ones and work by reacting based on the chemical composition on organisms , so differences are clearly shown . The most common differential stains are : < list > Gram stainAcid fast stainSpore stainCapsule Stain The Gram Stain < /heading>
The Gram stain is usually the test performed for the identification of bacteria . It was developed in by , who wanted to differentiate between bacteria and lung tissue in the morgue in which he worked . He discovered that all bacteria fell into groups when stained by method , based on permeability : Gram positive ( + ) and negative ( - ) . The contrasting characteristics of and Gram - bacteria are shown in the following table : < table/>The Gram stain procedure uses different stains : crystal violet , 's iodine , and safranin respectively . Sometimes crystal violet is substituted with methylene blue , and safranin with fuchsin . Some Gram - positive bacteria may lose the crystal violet stain easily and are called Gram - variable , as they appear as a mixture of Gram - positive and Gram - negative bacteria . The following table shows what colour the bacteria show at each stage in the process . < table/>The following factors may prevent the stain procedure 's accuracy : < list > The bacteria cells are too old ( they should not be old)The environment ( e.g. an acidic pH)Too much or too little ethanolThe smears are too thick Acid - Fast Stain This procedure measures the resistance of a stained cell to decolourisation by acids . The bacteria that are not discoloured are called ' acid - fast ' , and are and Actinomycetes , which contain a waxy cell envelope preventing the penetration of most stains . < picture/>Carbol fuchsin is used , which can penetrate the cell wall as it is lipid soluble , and the cell wall is melted by steam heating . Acid - alcohol will only decolourise the bacteria species that are not acid - fast . After this counter stain , acid - fast organisms are red and the others are blue . This stain is common to staining , in that carbol fuchsin will not easily rinse away in positive cells , an acid alcohol is used as decolouriser , and the counterstain is methylene blue , which , as mentioned above , is sometimes used to replace crystal violet in staining . The Acid Fast stain is useful in the diagnosis of diseases caused by acid - fast species such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. leprae . < heading > Spore Stain This stain is used to detect the presence or location of spores in bacterial cells . Spores can resist many adverse environmental conditions , and their identification is very important in analysing body fluid or tissue because only a few genera produce spores such as Bacillus and , which together cause a number of diseases such as botulism , tetanus , anthrax , and gangrene . Malachite green is used to dye the cell and spore walls using steam . There is no need for a decolouriser in this staining procedure because , if washed with water , the dye comes away from the cell wall but not the spore wall . Therefore , the steam decolourises the cell walls . The vegetative cells are then counterstained with safranin . < heading > Capsule Stain""The cell walls of many bacterial species are surrounded by a polymeric substance referred to as a capsule ( if discrete ) or slime later ( if amorphous ) "" . These capsules perform numerous physiological functions , but are water soluble and so simple stains will not hold . Capsule staining works by staining the bacteria and background more intensely than the capsule itself . a negative acidic stain ( e.g. crystal violet ) is applied to the background , and then a basic stain is applied to the capsule ( e.g. copper sulphate ) . < enote > URL < /enote > Capsule staining is useful because the presence of large capsules generally indicates the presence of a virulent form of some bacterial species ( e.g. pneumococci ) . < heading > An Overview of the Differential Staining Procedures < /heading>
","< heading > Referral information Source of referral and a summary of key information is a hypertensive with a history of fatigue , shorteness of breath and leg swelling . She presented at the as an elective admission for renal biopsy on the . < heading > History All relevant information gathered from the patient about the presenting illness , co - existing problems , current treatment , significant past medical history and the social and family background . The patient 's view of the nature of the problem and their expectations for treatment . < /heading> Presenting Complaint . < /heading> Shortness of breathFatigueLeg swelling History of Presenting Complaint . < /heading > Shortness of breath : had been experiencing progressively worsening shortness of breath in prior to the current admission . She last remembers being ' completely well ' . Dyspnoea was described as "" not being able to catch my breath "" . She is finding it increasingly difficult to climb stairs and becomes easily fatigued on walking short distances of . She walks unaided and has no associated cough or known respiratory disease . She has had no wheeze or haemoptysis . Her dyspnoea is currently unassociated with chest pain or palpitations . She did however , experience a number of episodes of sharp pain around her heart in . This did n't radiate and was unaffected by exertion or rest . An echocardiogram revealed a small pericardial effusion which was thought to be related to her hypothyroidism . Her shortness of breath is unaffected by lying flat in bed ( orthopnoea ) and does not wake her at ( paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnoea ) . Breathlessness is relieved only by rest and unaffected by allergy trigger factors . Fatigue : has become increasingly fatigued since and reports having difficulty performing typical tasks with which she previously had no difficulty e.g. washing and dressing . She has no difficulty getting off to sleep and sleeps well apart from experiencing increasing frequency of nocturia . Her fatigue has been unassociated with dizziness or blackouts . has noticed swelling of her ankles and legs since . Swelling is worst at and evening and currently does not reside entirely . She has noticed a progressive worsening in severity of oedema . At the time of the current admission , presented with pitting oedema to the knees in both legs . She experiences pain due to the sheer accumulation of fluid , is unable to wear tight fitting shoes or boots and is becoming increasingly uncomfortable when sitting or lying . Prior to , she had never experienced any similar swelling . Thyroid and kidney function tests carried out in indicated proteinuria ( + + + ) for which she was referred to the care of a nephrologist for further investigation . does n't experience any dysuria . She has noticed recently a decrease in urine production during ; rarely passing water at all but has little difficulty at night with frequency of times . She has noticed no change to the urine stream or any haematuria . She reports occasionally experiencing a sharp abdominal pain on urination but this is infrequent . She has in addition noticed the appearance of a number of skin lesions over which seem to be confined to her trunk and upper limbs . These are extremely itchy and the resultant excoriation has left a number of scars on her trunk . The lesions are typically small , of maximum diameter , red in colour , non - pustular and seem to last for and then reside . Frequency of emergence of new lesions is approx . per week . Itching is unaffected by moisturing creams but relieved slightly by piriton tablets which she is currently not taking . She has had no previous skin disease . < heading > Past Medical History . < /heading> Hypertension - 6 month history . Hypothyroidism - 8 month history . - , single episode. No epilepsy , asthma , other current respiratory disease , diabetes , jaundice , strokes , rheumatoid arthritis , cervical arthropathy , obstructive sleep apnoea or acromegaly . No history of myocardial infarction , angina or stroke . No past history of rheumatic fever or tuberculosis . < heading > Surgical History . < /heading > Sterilisation - , no postoperative complications experienced . < heading > Systems Review : < /heading > No significant findings to note other than presenting symptoms . No other symptoms correlating to cardiovascular , musculoskeletal , abdominal , urinary or neurological systems . has noticed no change in appetite or weight . She has not experienced any night sweats , heartburn , indigestion , nausea , vomiting or joint stiffness / pain . She has not experienced any dizziness or fits . She has noticed no bowel disturbance or rectal bleeding . < heading > Medication . < /heading > Furosemide 40 mg BD - loop diuretic , pulmonary oedema due to left ventricular failure . mg OD - angiotensin - converting enzyme inhibitor , inhibits the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II . Used in the management of hypertension . mg OD - statin , competitively inhibits reductase , enzyme involved in cholesterol synthesis especially in the liver . takes no other alternative or over the counter medication . < heading > Allergies : < /heading > No known allergies . < heading > Family History : < /heading > There is no known family history of any medical condition . Mother is still living and the father died in his 70 's . < heading owns her house in , she is divorced and lives alone . She is fully independent and manages all her personal needs herself with no difficulty . She has sons aged , both of whom are fit and well and do not live locally . She is employed full - time as a carer and has been in her current position for . She is an ex - smoker with a pack year history , having given up . She drinks on average 3 - 4 bottles of lager or glasses of red wine in . < heading > Analysis of history The most likely single cause of the presentation , other possible causes and reasons for these choices . The findings to be looked for on physical examination to help decide . A reasonable diagnosis as chest pain was crushing and described as "" like a band stretched across the chest "" . The most severe episode of pain came on at rest in bed , lasted for a period of and was unrelievable . This description is characteristic of that associated with myocardial infarction as opposed to that of angina pectoris which is typically precipitated by exercise , anxiety or fear , relatively short - lived and can be relieved by rest or nitrates . In addition , the pain radiated down the left arm and was associated with sweating , shortness of breath and nausea at the time of onset . has suffered recurrent , he has inoperable multiple coronary artery disease and it is reasonable to assume this is a further such infarct . < heading > Cardiovascular . < /heading > Angina pectoris - pain is classically also crushing and tight across the centre of the chest but can be relieved by the factors above . Pericarditis - although also sharp or crushing in nature , the pain of pericarditis is not usually associated with any radiation . < heading > Respiratory . < /heading > Pulmonary embolus - sudden onset of pain as seen here but pleuritic pain is typically sharp in nature and unassociated with radiation . There was in addition no associated cough , haemoptysis but some shortness of breath . Pneumothorax - see above . < heading > Gastrointestinal . < /heading > Peptic ulcer - pain typically burning rather than crushing , radiates to the throat rather than limbs . Pain associated with peptic ulceration is commonly relieved by food and antacids and typically accompanied with excessive wind . < heading > Musculoskeletal . < /heading > Costochondritis - Pain typically sharp in nature and radiates to to the arms or around the chest to the back . Apart from the musculoskeletal pain , the affected individual otherwise looks well . Fractured rib - as above . < heading > Neurological . < /heading > Herpes zoster - sharp pain typically localised to a specific dermatome with accompanying rash again of specific dermatomal distribution . Findings on physical examination which may support a diagnosis of myocardial infarction are : the patient may look anxious or distressed . They may be breathless suggesting pulmonary oedema . A pale , sweaty , clammy skin is indicative of cardiogenic shock . The pulse may demonstrate tachycardia secondary to either left ventricular failure or anxiety or bradycardia in the case of an inferior MI where occlusion of the right coronary artery impairs functioning of the atrioventricular node . Blood pressure may be raised in anxiety or decreased in cardiogenic shock . Elevation of the jugular venous pressure is indicative of congestive cardiac failure or infarction of purely the right ventricle . < heading > Physical and mental state examination Highlight the findings most relevant to your clinical problem solving by underlining them A middle - aged man who appeared short of breath . He was receiving oxygen at L / min via a nasal cannula and was not obviously cyanosed nor jaundiced . He was cannulated , fully conscious , cooperative and talked expressively though became breathless on changing position in bed . < heading > General . < /heading> Hands . < /heading > No pale palmar creases or signs of peripheral cyanosis . No palmer erythema , clubbing , cyanosis , leukonychia , 's contracture , kolonychia , liver flap . < heading > Face . < /heading > pale palpebral conjunctivae - suggestive of anaemia . No signs of jaundice ( icteus ) or cyanosis . Xanthelasma - indicative of hypercholesterolaemia . < heading > Mouth . < /heading > No cyanosis No ulcers Not dehydrated < heading > Neck . < /heading > No lymphadenopathy . Temperature - 36.5ºC - absence of systemic infection e.g. pericarditis . < heading > Cardiovascular system . < /heading > No signs of peripheral or central cyanosis Mild bilateral pitting oedema - indicative of congestive cardiac failure . Pulse bpm - tachycardia , pressure 155/81 - known hypertension of long duration , indicative of current reasonable control . Radial pulse palpable , rate bpm - ( tachycardia resulting from possible anxiety ) , regular , radial and carotid pulses normal strength All other peripheral pulses palpable normal Heart sounds I and II normal No murmurs or displacement of the apex beat . Blood glucose ( non - fasting ) - mmol / l < heading > Respiratory system . < /heading > Respiratory rate / min - tachypnoea saturation on air - degree of impairment of respiratory function appeared shallow No cough , sputum , tracheal deviation Equal chest expansion , normal vesicular breath sounds Bilateral basal crackles - indicative of pulmonary oedema < heading > Abdomen . < /heading > Symmetrical No spider naevi , caput medusa or obvious abdominal distension , Spleen , kidneys and bladder impalpable No renal angle tenderness - infection unlikely No ascites or shifting dullness or palpable masses Abdomen soft and non - tender on palpation , percussion resonant , normal bowel sounds . < heading > Analysis of history and examination Reasons for your choice of the cause of the patient 's problem(s ) and any other cause that still needs to be considered at this stage Myocardial Infarction . Findings from the history and examination which support this diagnosis are : Pain severe in nature Pain of duration Pain was described as ' crushing and tight ' in nature with associated radiation to the left arm , sweating and breathlessness . The chest pain came on at rest and was not relieved by GTN spray or rest . Such a diagnosis can be confirmed from electrocardiogram tracings and levels of cardiac enzymes such as troponin infarction may be divided into elevation and non - ST elevation ( ) types . In infarction , necrosis is confined to the sub - endocardial tissue . is a diagnosis made after a patient presents with chest pain . Such a diagnosis is dependent frequently on identifying cardiac muscle trauma through serial blood levels of cardiac enzymes such as troponin T over period post - infarction . Sub - endocardial infarcts are associated with a good intial prognosis , incidence of cardiac failure and death is less than with transmural infarcts . Risk of subsequent arrythmias and reinfarction as with is however higher . Risk factors contributing to myocardial infarction as seen in this case include hypertension , hypercholesterolaemia , diabetes , smoking , and positive family history . Acute myocardial infarction refers to cell death secondary to ischaemia . Reduction in the diameter of coronary arteries as a result of atherosclerotic deposition is the most common cause . Rupture of such an atherosclerotic plaque and the subsequent formation of thrombus over the rupture site or haemorrhage within an atheromatous plaque results in rapid occlusion of the vessel . Acute myocardial infarction is the most serious of a range of clinical conditions resulting from plaque rupture . Degree of severity of such conditions is determined by both the rate of vessel occlusion and also the degee of such occlusion . Acute myocardial infarction accounts for of the most common causes of mortality worldwide accounting for deaths in . Of the people in the who experience a myocardial infarct , die . < heading > Formulation of the patient 's problem(s ) Encapsulate this in physical , psychological and social terms ( the triple diagnosis) Physical : 's progressive ischaemic heart disease and heart failure have inevitably impacted significantly on his physical exertive capacity . He is able only to walk a matter of before having to stop and catch his breath and is virtually unable to climb stairs . He is able to sleep relatively comfortably at when free from chest pain . He is frightened by his recurrent heart attacks , when they will happen , their resolution and has little idea when an attack is imminent . He has yet to come to terms with the reduction his health has placed on his physical capacity . Psychological : has experienced repeated episodes of myocardial infarction with increasing frequency between episodes . The psychological impact of what he described as ' waiting for the next ' should n't be underestimated . In addition , he has been told that his heart disease is inoperable , a state he did not appear to have really accepted at the time of interview . He appeared fairly angry at the limitations his cardiac function place on his live and his ability for independent living . Social : has a close relationship with his wife , a crucial source of support in his future care . He also maintains regular contact with local friends . < heading > Management Use the framework of RAPRIOP to structure your proposed management . to the guidelines to the writing of portfolio cases for the details of the issues to be addressed under each heading. Investigations
Low Hb concentration indicates normocytic anaemia as seen in renal disease . A low lymphocyte count may be seen in uraemia . < table/>The deranged results above demonstrate chronic renal failure . < table/>The above results demonstrate impaired renal function , presence of increased urinary protein indicative of glomerular damage . Cardiac enzymes : Enzyme - linked immunosorbent assay is used to detect troponin T and troponin I , proteins forming part of the myocardial cell structure which when present in the bloodstream indicate myocardial cell damage . Their levels rise within of an , and remain elevated for . Troponin T 2.54 ( high ) indicative of . kinase ( MB isoenzyme ) is derived solely from cardiac muscle and begins to increase after infarction , decreasing post - infarction . Electrocardiography - ST segment depression in leads ( 1 mm ) , V 4 - V 6 demonstrating LV hypertrophy . Broad complex in lead V indicating left bundle branch block . Echocardiogram - indicated the left ventricle was not dilated , however there was moderate impairment of left ventricular systolic function . The mitral valve was thin and opened well . Moderate mitral regurgitation was demonstrated . Mild to moderate tricuspid regurgitation . No vegetation seen . Renal tract ultrasound - generalised increased echogenicity of the renal cortex consistent with chronic renal disease most likely of renovascular origin . No renal obstruction seen . Normal bladder and prostate . < heading > Reassurance and explanation The chest pain you have experienced is due to some damage to your heart . The narrowing of of your heart vessels that was discovered in the angiogram you had reduces the blood supply to the muscle of the heart . This results over a period of time in a heart attack as has happened to you on occasions previously . The you had taken and then the subsequent one in the ward have indeed shown you have suffered another heart attack . This was confirmed by of the blood tests you also had taken on admission . Whilst in hospital , we aim to monitor and treat any complications of this heart attack which may emerge such as a disturbance in the rhythm of your heart and also to optimise your breathing which seems to be troubling you at present . We will consider discharge when your breathlessness is reduced and you are no longer experiencing chest pain . If you should have any questions whilst in hospital do n't hesitate to ask . < heading > Prescription / medical intervention Close monitoring of renal function and electrolyte balance is crucial in all individuals who have had a MI especially so for . Renal function may be deranged or worsened as a result of reduced renal perfusion in cardiogenic shock . may precipitate cardiac arrythmias , this compounded by hypokalaemia . Monitoring full blood count is also useful as a leucocytosis is common following acute MI . For individuals with angina , anaemia has been shown to precipitate acute MI . This must be adressed in anaemic . < list> In A+E: Frusemide 80 mg 80mgTirofiban 20ml / hr 300 mg POOxygenMorphine 5 - 10 mg IV Plan , commenced on the : < /heading > Continue O2As indicated by renal impairment omit ramipril for hoursNot for recatheterisationAdminister GTN , morphine , metoclopramide , cocodamol as requiredRepeat bedside echocardiogramOptimise hydration and seek renal opinion to optimise renal function Observation was transferred to the cardiac intensive care unit and then to a general cardiac ward A+E where he should receive regular monitoring and observations including oxygen saturation and heart rate . His respiratory , cardiovascular and renal function needs to be optimised prior to discharge . His pain relief should be adequate to keep him comfortable whilst in hospital . He should be closely monitored for complications of myocardial infarction e.g. emergent arrythmias , cardiogenic shock , emboli and exacerbation of his existing cardiac failure . is well nourished and hydrated and is unlikely to require special supplementation during his hospital stay . < heading > Referral and team working GP - post - discharge monitoring and supportCardiologist - optimise cardiovascular function and assess exercise toleranceNephrologist - optimise renal - dietary advice and support regarding cholesterol content of dietHeart failure nurse led team Advice and Prevention A low - fat , high - fibre diet is recommended fluid intake Regular exercise of a tolerable intensity Continue use of as required Consider future use of home oxygen < heading > Outcome A description of the progress of the patient as far as possible . This should include consideration of further issues to be resolved . Where appropriate you should contact by telephone patients who have been discharged home. is uncertain as to his discharge date . He was relieved as to the explanation concerning his current infarction and felt he had been fully informed regarding his condition and the treatment he is receiving . Recent blood tests show a stabilisation in his renal function and no emergence of arrythmias or emboli following his . < heading > Evidence based care and issues for research A brief consideration of the evidence base required for the diagnosis and management of the patient 's problem(s) Aims for treatment of are to ( i ) relieve pain , ( ii ) restore / optimise blood supply to the heart , ( iii ) reduce incidence of complications , ( iv ) prevent or reduce frequency of recurrent ischaemia and infarction , ( v ) reduce mortality and ( vi ) minimise the side - effects associated with medication . Concerning the management of acute : : Systematic review evidence has shown that aspirin reduces mortality , reinfarction and stroke at post - infarct when compared to placebo . Regarding harm , no significant difference was found in rates of cerebral haemorrhage or those bleeds requiring transfusion between the treatment options . ß - blockers : both systematic review and randomised controlled trial evidence has shown that ß - blockers produce a reduction in mortality than when compared with placebo . Metoprolol for example , if administered immediately reduces rates of reinfarction and chest pain post - infarct compared to if treatment is delayed but has no significant effect on mortality at either or . ACEIs : Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors have been shown to reduce mortality post - infarct when compared with placebo if administered within of acute myocardial infarction . However caution is required in individuals such as , as they may increase renal dysfunction or persistent hypotension . Nitrates : Evidence concerning efficacy of nitrates is conflicting . For those with acute myocardial infarction prior to thrombolysis , nitrates have been shown to reduce mortality when compared to placebo . Randomised controlled trial evidence however , in the same circumstance , no significant difference between nitrates and placebo . Eplerenone : systematic trial evidence has shown that in patients with severe heart failure the addition of eplerenone ( aldosterone receptor antagonist ) to standard medical treatment including , angiotensin receptor antagonists , diuretics and ß - blockers decreases mortality when compared to placebo . When compared with thrombolysis , primary percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty has been shown to reduce mortality , non - fatal re - infarction and stroke . Early invasive cardiac revascularisation providing the distal grafts are in adequate condition as is unfortunately not the case for reduces mortality at both post - infarct when compared with medical treatment alone in those individuals who have developed cardiogenic shock within of acute myocardial infarction . < heading > Commentary A commentary on issues of health care delivery , ethical issues or disability relevant to the patient and/or problem Impact on your learning Describe what you have learnt from this case Aetiology and natural progression of ischaemic heart disease . Factors determining prognosis . The importance of a multi - disciplinary team in patient care . Management of both chronic and acute heart disease . Impact of diagnosis of a chronic illness and unsuitability for surgery . Biopsychosocial model of health.",0 "< heading > INTRODUCTION Information Communication Technology 's ( ) application into tourism has revolutionized the industry ; nowadays , the rapid development of Internet and computerized systems promote the change and become a key force . Nowadays , has changed tourism industry structure all around the world ( Ma et al . , ) , especially in distribution , whose initial purposes is ' information , combination and travel arrangement services ' defined by ( ) . ( CRS ) , ( ) , and Internet , all of them play significant roles in facilitating tourism distribution . travel becomes of the most popular products sold over the internet ( O'Connor , ) . Facing the trend , this essay is going to explore tourism distribution channels on the Internet . It begins with a literature review of electronic distribution in travel and tourism industry from different angles . The essay chooses and evaluates different distribution channels on Internet from consumer perspective . Based on the consumer 's experience , it sets out to discuss those implications from organisation perspective . It is aimed to provide valuable recommendations for tourism organisations at the end . < heading > LITERATURE REVIEW < /heading > To provide information and to facilitate customer purchase are main functions of distribution ( , ) . Services and information are delivered by various distribution channels to match information to the right consumers , time and place ( Go and Pine , ) . Besides , distribution is also of the most important marketing strategies and the largest cost in the marketing budget ( Buhalis , ) . In tourism industry , distribution channels are made up from principals , intermediaries and consumers . Some examples are shown below . < table/>From the adoption of from airline industry in , conversion to in , tourism organisations use as an important tool to exchange information , deliver reservation and communicate with customers . Particularly World Wide Web offers industries unique opportunities ( , ) and enables principals to communicate directly to consumers via their own website ( , ) . Consequently , principals benefit from cost reduction , revenue growth , more efficient and effective marketing search , database development , and customer retention ( et . al , ) . However , it changes the relationships between principal and intermediary ( , ) . Intermediaries , who are parties between principals and final consumers , deliver information and assists purchase ( , ) . Nowadays GDSs is treated as ' traditional eTourism eMediaries ' and challenged by new eMediaries - Web agents ( Buhalis , ) . Disintermediation and re - intermediation are issues raised by Internet together with the emergence of ecommerce model ( Ma et al . , ) . is the elimination of intermediaries , for example , hotels cut off travel agencies and sell directly to consumers via their own websites . It is believed that would replace traditional distribution channels ( Buhalis , ) , especially from its key force - Internet ( Inkpen , ) , traditional travel agencies will disappear and a new kind of organisation will be formed with new products and new business models ( Bloch and , ) . However , O'Connor ( ) argues travel agencies are good at searching and packaging loads of information into valuable advice to customers , so that their role is getting more important . This is a controversial topic with many arguments . At the same time , new channels are structured on Internet . Since Internet decreases the entrant barriers , new players enter and provide new added - value services , such as new Web travel agent . To survive , old intermediaries chase the trend and build their website on Internet as well , for example , is a portal website of . In sum , new online assistants are needed for online sellers to reach customers , provide added value and generate revenue , all of these contribute to the phenomena of re - intermediation ( , ) . Some consumers prefer intermediaries , some like buying from principal directly . No matter how the things change , Internet shifts the bargaining power to end users and reduces the switching costs ( Porter , ) ; so the ultimate winner is always the consumers ( , ) . In the next section , ' the winner ' is going to choose some travel products via Internet distribution channels ; and the evaluation of each channel is discussed afterward . < heading > CONSUMER AND PRODUCT < /heading> Consumer Profile < /heading > This is a family , who lives in , has been living in for . The father is a university professor and the mother works in a government department . They have daughters , and . This family love sports , especially the father and the daughter ( Basketball is her favorite ) . They rarely book anything ahead of time , reason is because of their busy work , and the other factor is the personal characteristics of father , family decider and buyer . The motivation for this trip to is because children wish to go to , especially the little one . Family market is always the core of park industry ( , ) , this family choose in rather than Universal is because has a powerful brand image and awareness . Both parents are busy around and they have more available time during . They plan to leave on th and get back on th . The budget for this trip is , including flight , hotel , park ticket and car hire . Even though their income is about higher middle class , tradition tells them try to save if possible . < heading > Product and Distribution Channels < /heading > In this trip , the family needs round trip tickets ( economy class ) from to , a hotel room for , tickets and car rental . They searched Travelocity URL , Hotels.com URL and principal websites URL , URL , URL and found nearly the same products with different prices ( ) . They desired day trip plan can be found in . < table/>Package from includes automatically when booking a hotel . However , did n't offer this , so customers have to book tickets which provide fewer benefits from principal websites . < picture/> REVIEW OF EVALUATION ASPECTS < /heading > The section introduces and reviews important elements involved in distribution channel for further evaluation . < heading > E - Business Typology Tapscottal . ( ) classify basic types for e - business by dimensions of differentiation : control and value integration . Adapting to travel and tourism industry ( , ) , they are travel aggregator ( e.g. , ) , travel marketplace ( e.g. , ) , travel integrator ( e.g. , Eurovacations ) , alliance ( e.g. , opodo.com ) and distributive network . This essay will focus on the channels selected by customer : aggregator - Travelocity and integrator - Hotels.com . Aggregation benefits customers from goods selection , prices , organisation to provide convenient purchase and fulfill the transaction ( Tapscott et al . , ) . ' Selection and convenience ' is the main theme of aggregators . Travel aggregators package tourism products according to average travelers ' needs to meet large group of customers ( , ) . Travelocity is a web - based travel agency owned and operated by . It concentrates on selling flight ticket , hotels and car hire and provides information of destination and special offers ( , ) . Integrator is adapted from ' value chain ' of . ( ) typology . The task of integrator is to identify customers ' needs , then design and build product to meet specific customer requirement . Travel integrators design and customize holidays for individual customers , who are driven by value . is a subsidiary of and a leading provider of lodging worldwide . It offers a - stop shopping source for travelers and reservation ( ) . < heading > Website Effectiveness < /heading > On internet , prospective consumers communicate via Web sites and convert interests into action and sales ( et al . , ) ; an effective Web site leads to the success of business ( , ) . Besides , the considerable costs in setup , advertising and maintenance , as well as the fierce Web competitions make Website evaluation necessary ( Tierney , ) . Moreover , analyzing the effectiveness of a site is critical in assessing and revising the strategy to overcome problems ( Chaffey et al . , ) . There are a variety of ways to evaluate website effectiveness . For example , ( ) set factors for evaluation - access to Web - site , content , graphics , structure , user friendliness , navigation , usefulness , unique features , online transactions and site usage fee ; Abelsal . ( ) develops user - based design criteria including the measured elements : use , content , structure , linkage , search and appearance in the order of importance ; and Gilly ( ) extracts factors contributing to ' eTail quality ' , which are fulfillment / reliability , Website design , privacy / security and customer services ; . ( ) consider a ' 6C ' strategy is critical to Website effectiveness , which including capture , content , community , commerce , customer orientation and credibility . In this case , the user - based design criteria ( Appendix 2 ) are adopted for evaluation . To consider users in web design process is to stand in the position of prospective customers , evaluating Website from consumer perspective enables organisations to approach consumers and satisfy them . Given no method is perfect , some elements in other criteria will also be considered during evaluation . < heading > Branding < /heading > Branding is the process of developing a recognized name for the goods and services of seller ( Buhalis , ) . Generally speaking , a successful brand offers buyer or user unique added values that match their needs and keeps it in competition ( de Chernatony & McDonald , ) . It is especially important for services and intangible products . Similarly , Internet brand names , which are substitute for physical facilities for trust building , matter even more . Furthermore , brand recognition is important in building trust ( Turban et al . , ) . According to and ( ) , of the factors that enhance a Website ' trust development is ' predictability factor ' , which includes brand reputation and brand credibility . Normally , there are ways to build brand on Internet ( Chaffey et al . , ) . The most common is to use the established brand , such as , . The way is to partner with existing digital brand e.g. , Yahoo ! and the one is to create a brand new digital brand such as Travelocity , . < heading > Pricing Transparent pricing is a feature of e - commerce . Focusing on low price , competition is migrated to price on Internet ( Porter , ) . Even though customers realise the fact that there 're different prices for the same products online they do n't know where can they find it ( , ) . To response , ' Guaranteed Best Rate ' is strategy used by hotels and some intermediaries . < heading > Legal and Security < /heading > Privacy is an important legal and social issue in the , where the customers live . On Internet , the protection of privacy is supported by specific legislation such as , Consumer Empowerment Act ( Turban & King , ) . Privacy policy may vary in different , whilst Privacy Seal is public recognized to guarantee customers , such as , ( Appendix 3 ) . Besides , security is another principal issue in promoting e - commerce for both buyers and sellers ( Chaffey et al . , ) . It has always been a restraint for Internet shopping ( , ; , ; , ) . Thus , guarantee security is the initial requirement before any commercial activities involving sensitive information take place ( Adam et al . , ) . There are main elements involved in security issues - authentication , authorization , availability , confidentiality , integrity , nonrepudiation of origin and privacy ( Appendix 4 ) . In addition , transaction security is guaranteed by certain technology . The industry standard encryption is always used to protect data from theft during transmission . < heading > Booking and payment procedure < /heading > Matzler and Pechlaner ( ) emphasized booking process is an important part of service chain , which contributes to service quality . When combined with a successful E - payment procedure with customer preferred features independence , security and ease of use are of ( Adam et al . , ) , reservation and purchase can be delivered to consumers effectively . < heading > EVALUATION AND The next page is results of evaluation and comparison , all the factors and feedbacks are listed in the . To sum up the purchase experience from customer 's view , travel agency is the easiest way to book and possibly is the final choice . ( To page ) < table/>(Continue page ) Because customers spend the least time but get the best price . delivered their ' best rate guarantee ' , which gains customers ' trust , so that it is very possible that customers would shop with them again . As a travel aggregator , Travelocity does n't fulfill the value proposition of optimum selection and convenience , especially for the park ticket problem . Besides , there 're some other flaws in their vacation package . For example , airlines in ' flight + hotel ' package are very limited and customer can not choose the best one . < table/>
Compare with the other channels , booking with principals is time - consuming . However , consumers can not get a lower rate if buy directly from them . is the destination principal , by using differentiated park ticket as a strategy ; it attracts customers to book . Apart from packaging hotel and park ticket , also tries to add air and ground transportation into their package . However , it does n't work well at the moment , because searching a flight or car in takes such a long time and sometimes ends up with no result ( especially for car hire ) . Even though website design is satisfactory on average , consumer feels the booking process is too mechanistic and lack of social presence . About security issues , without reminding consumer is not likely to check privacy seal or any security guarantee . Even though terms and conditions are listed before purchase , it is rarely read by consumers . < heading > IMPLICATION AND RECOMMENDATION < /heading > Regarded as of the most important and successful distribution channels , Internet enables consumers to search travel products , compare prices , make reservation and purchase ( et al . , ) . In the near future , Internet is continuing to be prime channel for travel products and can generate greater services expectation . More consumers will trust Internet and shop online ( , ) . In such a dynamic competitive environment , it is a must for principals and intermediaries to improve themselves , gain competitive advantages and win customers . Referring from customer experience , the essay is going to discuss implications in the following part and recommendations are provided to intermediaries , principals and all organisations at the end . < heading > Implication < /heading > First of all , customer experiences reveal that brand recognition is a critical factor in selecting channels . As ( ) pointed out , prospective consumers prefer to communicate with established travel web of good reputation . For this reason , branding is an important concern for organisations . In addition , organisations should pay attention to branding strategy as well . It seems most consumers perceive digital names of established ' bricks & mortar ' business are their existing traditional brand names , particularly those with more awareness . The failure of 's online portal URL also shows that creation of a new digital brand should be prudent . , being the most common ways to gather personal information , registration is required by most websites ( , ) . It is a way to build effective customer relationship , because the more an organisation knows about its consumers , the better it will be able to satisfy them ( and , ) . , the customer had no problem during booking and payment ; however , organisations can not assume that all consumers are ok with it . Some consumers do fear Internet and Online purchase . Therefore , the web design must be able to assist new customers ( , ) , such as providing Toll - free number , email links should be place every page . Interactivity of Web site worth noting . , legal and security issues should be stressed from both sides . Even though it is argued that security issues often raise concerns when collect information or pay online ( , , ) , how many customers check the privacy seal or ? How many read terms & conditions even though they are told to ? So organisations should increase consumers ' awareness of ' self - protection ' . This would benefit both consumers and organisations . Finally , besides the criteria used in to assess Web site effectiveness , ® technical evaluation and LinkPopularity are tools for organisation . ® checks load time , HTML check & repair , browser compatibility , spell and link . Appendix 9 shows the checking result . Generally all the websites can provide good links ; but load time , which is the most important factor for websites , is not favourable in this group . The other tool LinkPopularity tells organisation how popular their site is , the result is more helpful when compare with competitor . For example , is less popular than its competitor ) . < heading > Recommendation < /heading> To All Organisations < /heading > In the era of Internet , Web site is critical to the success of business ( , ) , developing and maintaining high - quality Web site should always be staying in agenda of all organisations . Besides easy - use and useful content , consumers also need interactivity . So that interactive helper , high quality photograph , feature comments from previous customers and personal recommendations are suggested by ( ) for a good Website design . Furthermore , a Web - based community can be built to enhance B2C & C2C communication , trust and social presence ( , ) Many authors emphasize that understanding consumer behaviour is crucial for both existing and potential business ( , ; , ; , ; , et al . , ) . Organisations should make better use of personal information collected from registration in order to strengthening customer relationship and knowing their target audience . Trust is the foundation of successful customer relationship ( Papadopoulou et al . , ) and customer retention ( , ) , since brand recognition contributes to trust building ( Turban et al . , ) a trustworthy brand image is the best weapon for all organisations . Meanwhile , . ( ) suggest trust is also based on security . Considering the previous implications , organisations is better to raise customers ' awareness of security issue when purchase ( e.g. , ) and notify or highlight some important policies ( e.g. , Travelocity ) . Needless to say , all of these should be based on a completed and established legal and security system . < heading < /heading > To aggregator , a fixed package and price can hardly satisfy customers any more especially when price is not a competitive advantage in Internet era ( Porter , ) . After fulfill its value proposition , aggregator must customize everything includes pricing ( Tapscott , ) . Simply aggregation is hard to meet consumers ' need , only adopt customization and flexibility can them compete with other intermediaries . To integrator , since they 've already good at customizing travel products to customers , adding value in service , provide ' service - enhanced customer solution ' should be their next proposition ( ) . In a word , consumers would prefer personalized , customized and individualized products ( , ) , and ' - stop - shop ' of personalized tourism product will be key to success for all intermediaries ( , ) . < heading > Principal Price war is continuing and it 's always the major issues for principals . Intermediaries and many hotel brands ' Website offer ' best rate guarantee ' to attract gain customers , but seldom destination , car or airline companies do . It is predicted that future theme parks and attractions will offer more value pricing ( Milman , ) , however , a long strategy is not based on pricing . Backup by brand , Resort hotel would not be a commodity product . As aforementioned , brand is the best weapon especially to such a powerful brand as . In addition , their distribution channel can be improved by assisting and cooperating with intermediary ( e.g. , Travelocity ) . At present , attempts to aggregate travel products . ' Add ground / air transportation ' is a good idea to ' focus on their core business and let partners do the rest ' ( Tapscott , ) , even though it does n't work well at the moment , a proper support can help destination gain competitive advantage by either maintaining price leadership or differentiation ( Ma et al . , ) . To small airline and car companies , cooperation or partnership may be a good way . < heading > Traditional travel agency < /heading > It is noted that destination principal still needs travel agency , as well as consumers . Facing so many distribution channels , consumers desire more advice and guarantee ever than before ( , ) ; to meet the new demand , traditional travel agencies had better change their role to ' infomediary ' and consultant ( Morgan et al . , ; Holjevac , ) . < heading > CONCLUSION When doing business on the Internet , the only assumed constant is change . In future , distribution models are more complex , multi - dimensional , open and flexible ( O'Connor , ) . ' , better and innovative service ' is needed for all organisations ( Tapscott , ) . No matter principals or intermediaries , who can adapt to the dynamic world quickly and flexibly who will be the winner . ","< heading > INTRODUCTION There 's a saying : Xiao Tze , they are either in or on the way to ) . Recently , the trend of visiting becomes more and more popular in . is named as ' Paradise of Xiao Tze ' and regarded as the most typical destination by public ( itch of , no date ) . It is really interesting to find out the reason behind this noticeable societal phenomenon , especially for manager . They should learn why and Xiao Tze are bonded and take this opportunity to better understand their characteristic customers , satisfy them , facilitate tourism industry and finally benefit tourism industry . This essay begins by introducing the consumer group and the tourism destination . Then marketing segmentation is used to analyze the tourist characteristics and the framework of , ) is applied to explain consumer behaviour in leisure travel . During discussion , a series of recommendations is presented to manager . Let us begin with the ' leading actors ' : Xiao Tze and . < heading > XIAO TZE Xiao Tze is a very popular term used in society nowadays . It represents a newly emerged lifestyle that no academic literature has discussed ever . Given the remarkable tendency , the topic was raised by newspapers , magazines and such publications . For example , the behaviour of is discussed in a ' comic sociology ' - Various facets of the life of ( 2001 ) by ( a large publication ) in Reading Section of their website . It gives a comprehensive description of . Accordingly , Xiao Tze are people around 25 - 35 ; well - educated , most have studied overseas and been influenced by western culture . They live in big cities such as , ; have stable job with secure income . They work hard and know how to enjoy life using disposable income and time . Even though they are not wealthy , they are not hesitated to spend money in things they really like , such as travel . Most of them are web surfer , so Internet is a necessity in their life for keeping touch with friends , searching information etc . Like the ' Yuppie ' of the was defined by , briefcase ( Solomon , ) , Xiao Tze define themselves by certain ways . For example , using brand products such as LV bags ; having ' elegant ' interests , such as watching classic films . It is difficult to say how this lifestyle has come out ; however , it is not a unique phenomenon so far . In , a similar group ' ' was heralded by an journalist in his book - BoBos in : The New Upper Class and How They Got There . David named the new upper class ' Bourgeois Bohemians ' that mixed ' 60s - style liberalism ' with ' - style conspicuous consumption ' . ( , 2000 ) The is quite similar to Xiao Tze , when west meets east , ' Bourgeois Bohemians ' are what we see now - Xiao Tze . < heading > LIJIANG Lijiang is a famous tourist destination for main attractions : Jade Dragon Snow Mountain , Tiger Leaping Gorge , The First Bend of the Yangtze , and The Ancient Town of . Especially the old town , which was named as a by in , is the ancient capital of the Naxi people who have a long history and rich cultural heritage , in terms of music , script , architecture and clothes . is ' a dreaming garden for people longing for a haven of peace different from 's modern cities ' . ( of , ) . People who have visited give comments like this : "" seems to have a magic power to attract me there ; I will never be tired of it . "" "" A short stay in refreshed my spirit and gave me new vigor to everyday life . "" "" Tired of city life 's hustle and bustle , I especially love the peace and quiet of . "" "" Naxi people and their culture , the strong cultural atmosphere makes special . "" ( Sina travel forum , no date ) Tourism in has developed quickly in and a dramatic increase in domestic tourism contributes to of tourists to . ( Duang , ) , tourism has replaced agricultural industry become the backbone of local economy . And the output of culture tourism occupies a big amount of the total tourism income ( , ) . Needless to say , tourists are economic source of , and the performance of destination manager directly leads the development of local economy . < heading ( ; cited in and , , p68 ) emphasized the importance of marketing segmentation as a helpful tool in developing marketing strategy . By dividing the market and grouping consumer with same characteristics in terms of needs and wants , marketing segmentation helps manager to identify customers ' need and want to meet their expectation . ( and , ) There are different variables of categorization . ( ) summarized main variables in terms of geographical , socio - economic , psychographic and behavioural for generic market segmentation . In tourism market , ways are defined by and ( ) , which are purpose of travel ; buyer needs , motivations , and benefits sought ; buyer behaviour / characteristics of product usage ; demographic , economic , and geographic profile ; psychographic profile ; geodemographic profile ; and price . In this study , the tourist segment is mainly based on tourist psychographic profile . Given each method has both strengths and weaknesses and many authors suggest using more methods in order to predict tourist consumer behaviour accurately . ( Robinson , ; and , ) Some other variables will also be considered . As there 's no primary research for this specific tourist segment , statistics of can not be provided here . Therefore , their characteristics are summarised from Various facets of the life of . < heading < /heading> Age : - 35Family life cycle : young , single ; young , married , no childrenOccupation : various but all have stable job position and incomeEducation : highly educated such as college / university graduates , most have oversea study experiencesLocation : big cities such as , Shanghai Psychographic Profile < /heading> Social Class - Xiaokang < /heading > A Lifestyle Segmentation of Chinese Consumers Research ( CMMS , see appendix ) classified urban consumers to social classes based on education level , possession of durable products ( e.g. , home appliance car , computer ) and financial products ( e.g. , credit card ) , which reflect consumer power of purchase . Xiao Tze belongs to ' ' class , in which people live in a satisfactory condition , with sufficient possessions for a comfortable living . < heading > VALS Lifestyle - Fashion directed < /heading > The research also defined psychological directed groups on value and lifestyle , which includes tradition directed , zhongyong directed , achievement directed and fashion directed . The psychological characteristics of fashion directed group are : sociable , sensitive to advertising and promotion , ambitious , show - off , impulsive , like fashion and style . < heading > Fashion Follower According to its characteristics , can be located in the slot ' Fashion Follower ' , which is quite similar to the ' Outer - directed ' group mentioned by and ( ) . < figure/>
Motivation'Set of needs which predispose a person to participate in tourist activity ' ( Pizam et al , ) and is usually identified as socio - psychological forces that promote tourists to travel ( , ; cited in and ) . Crompton ( ) summed up motives for pleasure tourists and suggested usually motive influence tourists ' decision . To Xiao Tze : Fasionability and ( ) suggested it can be a major consideration when choosing a holiday destination , which applies to fashion - directed Xiao Tze . ' Consumption constellations ' Solomon ( ; cited in and King , , p5 ) revealed that individual consumption behaviour expresses a specific lifestyle , they purchase a certain products to define , communicate and perform their social roles . , ) "" is the right place for you to enjoy a peaceful life , where the ordinary scene of high buildings , noisy cars and foul atmosphere in most cities under industrialization is seldom seen , "" said , a painter from . ( of , ) Cultural motives Tourism is considered as a way to enlarge knowledge , enhance self - cultivation and conduct cultural exchange in traditional culture , which are psychological motives for people to travel . ( Zhang , ) The cultural heritage of is an important motivator . < heading > PURCHASE - CONSUMPTION SYSTEM IN TRAVEL
The use of ( PCS ) in travel and tourism enhances understanding of travel behaviour before , during and after trip , as well as the relationship of variables involved in the stages ( , ) . This model is chosen because it involves tourists ' consumption behaviour during trip , which is not noted in other models . Given that tourism is the backbone of economy , tourists ' spending behaviour during trip that gives directly benefit to local economy must interest tourism manager . There are variables ( V ) in the model , including personal and environmental factors in pre - trip stage ( BOX 1 ) , which influence decision making and planning before and during trip ; variables in during - trip stage ( BOX 2 ) , which are the elements formed a trip ; variables in post - trip stage ( BOX 3 ) , which are the outcomes of the experiences and influence future travel . The stages are interactive , BOX decision triggers BOX 2 , the experience in BOX results evaluatioin and satisfactin in BOX 3 , finally evaluation becomes an important personal influence in BOX 1 . Woodside and King ( ) believe a relevant theoretical construct in this model is image . It plays a significant role in influencing tourist destination choice ( Beerli and , ) and and McCleary ( ) pointed out overall that image of a place is formed by cognitive and affective evaluations and dependent upon individual attributes . Additionally , information source and socio - psychological motives are found to be important components in building a destination image . Information source emphasizes cognitive evaluation and socio - psychological motive is related to affective attributes of image . Furthermore , perceived image after visit influences satisfaction and intention to repeat the visit , which depends on if destination can fit the image customer perceived and meet their expectation . ( Chon , ; cited in and , , p623 ) < heading > Pre - Trip < /heading > Providing ' Paradise of Xiao Tze ' has already been the public image of with peacefulness , relaxation and cultural heritage , it is a very positive influence related to psychological characters in decision making . Associated with a social image , tourist destination attracts tourists from the same class ( , ) ; the more similar between tourists ' self - image and their image of visitors to the destination , the more motivated they are to visit the destination ( , ; cited in and , , p627 ) . So in this stage what destination manager should do is to enhance positive image , beware and reduce negative using appropriate information source ( a considerable factor in all stages ) . As Xiao Tze are open to media persuasion , V3 can catalyze or consolidate them to choose . The choice of media and distribution channel ( ) should be effective . For example , Internet is important for Xiao Tze to gather information , so must have a visitor website with abundant information . < heading > During Trip After chose destination , tourists select the tourism products in BOX 2 , where levels happen in sequence and previous triggers the subsequent . Most consumers see destination as a kit rather than a finished product , they can choose a range of way to make their own experiences . ( and , ) The way of travelling does n't affect what they choose in the kit . For instance , a resident travel research ( ) showed that urban residents choose package holiday and like to travel independently , but no matter which way they choose , of them will decide their itinerary first rather than simply follow package holiday ( Source : ) . < heading > Suggestions on Level 1 & Level 2 Tourism bureau had better make all travel - related industries in work together to provide qualified kit . can be created by using qualitative comparative analysis to maximize the possibilities of finding ( , ; cited in and King , , p5 ) . For example , attractions , accommodation types , route options can make up to possible plans . According to tourist segment , destination manager can help tour operators design such possible decision paths into holiday package . Most tourists visit for both natural scenery and cultural environment . It is said enjoying and visiting and the Baisha Murals are musts ( , ) . Meanwhile , research shows that people in ' ' class are more interested in the place with strong cultural atmosphere ( source : research a life style toward ) . For example , a ' Naxi culture tour ' may meet interests and expectation . Likewise , different tours can be designed to meet different benefits sought such as adventure tour , tour of relaxation . What 's more , accommodation and activities are key ingredients . 's tourists do not take accommodation just as a place to stay ( , ; cited in and , ) , the hotel choices are usually influenced by psychographic concepts : value , lifestyle , vacation style and benefits ( Zin , ) ; as well activity choices are influenced by tourists ' value ( Madrigal and , ) . Then the cultural tour is better to have representative local accommodation rather than modern hotels , and more cultural activities the people can learn something and participate in . The purpose is to give more than expected , so that tourist can be fully satisfied and their intention to return will be triggered ( V19 ) . < heading > Suggestions on Level 3 < /heading > Level 3 is an area without plan before trip , but tourist purchase of gift or other products do happen during trip . It is showed that high information visitors , those with prior search , spend more , participate more , more positive and more intent to return compared to low information users and nonusers ( Woodside and King , ) . Fodness and ( ) emphasized information search is related to length of stay , number of attractions visited and entertainment expenditure . It is recommended that destination provide more external information ( Crotts , ) such as booklet about local shopping , activity , dinning so as to stimulate the spending of tourists and eliminate coercive consumption . Tourism bureau manager must realise that this is a revenue generated stage directly benefit local economy . Providing right and sufficient information makes tourists spend willingly . < heading trip < /heading > It is usual for customer to purchase a brand that they are satisfied ( , ) What about in tourism ? If what has been done previously can make satisfied customers , will customers visit again ? Crompton ( ) revealed that cultural motives in tourism based on novelty or education , so tourists prefer to go to unvisited place and probably will not re - visit . Xiao Tze are good customers in spending . welcomes them to visit repeatedly . Affective image influences word of mouth and repeated customers ( and ) , so the idea of perceiving as a place escape everyday environment and relax can be added during trip . Afterward , manager needs to develop new tourism products for repeated visitors and to ensure them gain new experiences . At the same time , new ways to visit old destinations can be developed for time visitor . ( Frommer , ) Apart from these , thing worth noting but not mentioned in the model is seasonality ; this is a critical factor in domestic travel market . Most people travel in ' , and , what causes terrible travel peak seasons . Obviously a peak season can hardly satisfy who wish to escape , knowing this manager should provide ' best travel time ' especially to Xiao Tze . It can both minimize mass tourism impact on destination and create more satisfied tourists . < heading > CONCLUSION < /heading > Associated with motivation , psychological characteristics , destination image and information source , Xiao Tze travel behaviour is better understood during discussion using marketing segmentation and as tools . The last recommendation is to conduct a primary research of ' characteristic customer ' because Xiao Tze and are strongly bonded .",1 "In his provincial novel ) , as the omniscient narrator , remarks : < quote>""Here , as everywhere , the Unfulfilled Intention , which makes life what it is , was as obvious as it could be among the depraved crowds of a city slum . The leaf was deformed ... the lichen ate the vigour of the stalk , and the ivy slowly strangled to death the promising sapling . "" < /quote> Hardy , . The Woodlanders(1887 ) . : , . pp53 . < /fnote > This excerpt demonstrates the symbolic use of nature and landscape to convey the social , political and scientific upheavals that occurred within extensive reign from to . The proliferation of scientific material , notably ) , the periodic economic depression inflicted by passed in that resulted in starvation and depraved living conditions as highlighted in The Condition of the Working Class in England ( ) and the passing of in , allowing the industrial middle class to vote , created a deep - rooted instability that was reflected in the themes covered by regional novelists . As highlighted in the above quotation , these were themes of , class conflict , nostalgia for lost community and even divergence among the sexes . By employing landscape and symbolic geography novelists were able to express these developments and changes in individuals and communities . Interestingly , each of the novelists wrote at different periods of the Victorian era , therefore I will examine portrayal of , during the ' hungry forties , ' in her industrial novel ( ) , the ' golden age ' bucolic pastoral ( ) ) , and explore Wessex in Tess of the ( 1891 ) and The Woodlanders ( . ) then , I will examine the novelists ' use of landscape to explore the conflicts that existed between different social classes . As highlights in the fiction of "" landscapes ... are inseparably connected with the lives of her characters . "" Indeed embodies the unbreakable link between southern prosperity and northern misery that comprises the broader theme of class conflict in . Freidrich Engels portrayal of working class filled with "" the heaps of debris refuse ... and standing pools for gutters [ which ] would make it impossible for a human being in any degree civilised to live in such a district "" highlights this working class misery . The chapter entitled ' is symbolic then of the social divide between the ' golden stillness ' of Helstone and the ' purpose - like ' and ' hopeless ' streets of . The significance of this title is emphasised at the conclusion of the novel , when shows the roses he brought from Helstone , perhaps a symbol representing the union between and the social classes they embody . In contrast , the riot of angry mill workers who mob 's home , is an obvious motion of conflict . Gaskell relates the ' fierce unearthly groan ' they emit , filled with the ' demonic desire of some terrible wild beast for the food that is withheld from his ravening . "" This animalistic imagery equates the mill workers with nature , thus presenting 's behaviour as unnatural . Similarly , the mutiny that occurred upon 's ship is perhaps a direct reflection of this riot between and the mill workers and 's reminder that conflict between the classes was universal , irrelevant of location or landscape . Certainly , Gaskell wishes to emphasise the unnaturalness of due to its removal from nature . mistakenly concludes the screen of cloud , which she ' had taken to foretell rain ' is in fact ' black , un - parlimentary , smoke . "" This motif is explored further when abolishes the autonomy of his workers by referring to them as ' hands , ' via metonymical classification and patronises them by employing the father - child metaphor , that ' masters would like their hands to be merely tall , large , children ... with a blind unreasoning kind of obedience , ' used by paternalists during the era , to define his relationship with his mill workers . Similar to 's work ethic is love of money and material possessions that symbolise the destructive nature of industrialisation . states that in "" realism the details reverberate with significance and the images are as much a part of the consciousness of the characters as representations of material reality . "" His obsession with counting money whose ' form and colour were like the satisfaction of thirst to him ' and attachment to ' the brown pot ' he breaks are symbolic of industrialisations consciousness of capitalism . Significantly , its poisoning effects are mirrored in Silas ' mental degradation in the form of ' catalepsy ' fits . Like , Silas must fight this individual desire in favour of a moral responsibility to . created many memorable heroines , but the most intricate of his characters was , his "" partly - real , partly - dream country "" as he described it in the preface to Far from the Madding Crowd ( . ) Originally a south - western region of ruled by the Saxons , Hardy clearly wanted to evoke connotations of antiquity , essentially though has come to embody an entire culture that is predominately rural and pre - industrial . Like in Eliot 's North and South , Grace in The Woodlanders embodies the class conflict ; she ' combined modern nerves with primitive feelings . "" The cruelty of nature in which ' stoats ' suck ' the blood of the rabbits ' and ' etiolated arms of ivy ... grope in vain for some support ' reflects these conflicts . "" Grace then is the pivotal figure , who has to choose between town civilisation and country life in choosing between Fitzpiers and Giles . "" Grace compares Fitzpiers presence in , to like finding ' a tropical plant in a hedgerow . "" Whilst , is listening to the drunken Fitzpiers criticisms of his family , the trees take on the appearance of ' sentinels ... pikes ... lances ' in reflection of violent thoughts . These instances show that "" the trees , whether viewed as subjects or as objects , are the medium through which the community lives and expresses itself . "" The gardens of , in The Woodlanders , are essentially man - made with nature being restricted to only ' an old tree here and there ' and ' an endless shearing of the heavy armed ivy ... and a continual lopping of trees and shrubs . "" Similarly , Fitzpiers ' garden is ' so regular in [ its ] plan that they might have been laid out by a designer of the time . "" These images are in direct contrast with ' home within the forest and symbolic of the class conflict . Often the theme of depicting conflict between the classes is addressed by the authors extending the boundaries of landscape into the interior landscape within the homes of individual characters . 's aunt 's residence at that is filled with lavish fabrics of ' white muslin ' and ' crimson damask sofa[s ] , ' lies in stark contrast to the home of and among ' the crowded narrow streets ' of . In ( ) the Red house belonging to the ' is an eyesore among the traditional cottages and firmly establishes the division of classes , for when meets a local ' there was no pleasant morning greeting between them ... because the sweet flower of courtesy is not a growth of such homes as the Red house . "" Hardy effectively establishes correspondence between location and the quality 's they denote about the types of community who inhabit them . 's home is ' a fancy farm ' made from modern brick a ' rich red colour ' in stark contrast to the surrounding green ' fertile and sheltered ' land of , where is from . Not only is his modern dwelling in conflict with the traditional homes in the Vale of Blackmoor , but it is ' built for enjoyment pure and simple ' and it 's intrusion upon the landscape signals Alec penetration of . is an ' exotic ' and ' fashionable watering - place , ' ' a lounging - place on the English Channel ' entirely in conflict with the surrounding countryside and symbolic of the social divide between the aristocracy and rural artisan class . In living room at is filled with ' showy furniture , ' ' a red - shaded lamp ' all in a ' style unlike that of the structural parts of the building as it was possible to be . "" Even the urban interloper Fitzpiers acknowledges that ' the window curtains were closed ' because it was raining . is literally trying to shut herself off from nature . Her abode is in direct contrast to the bustling , functional home of that is a higgledy assortment ' of all sorts of buildings ' In further contrast , is the room that functions as ' kitchen , parlour , and bed chamber all in one ' belonging to . The discrepancies between the homes only serve to embellish the divide between rich and poor . < fnote > Duthie , . The Themes of . : , . pp26 . < /fnote> Flint , K. ed . , . , : , . < /fnote> Gaskell , . ( ) . : Penguin Classics , . Pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp175 . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Levine , George.ed . , . : , . < /fnote> Eliot , George . op cit . pp < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> . Hardy , . Op.cit pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Hardy , Thomas The Woodlanders op cit . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> William , . Op.cit . pp159 < /fnote> Hardy , Thomas The Woodlanders op cit . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp112 . < /fnote> Gaskell , E. op . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Eliot , George . ( ) . : Wordsworth Editions Limited , . pp . < /fnote> Hardy , Thomas . Tess of the ( 1891 ) . : Penguin Classics , . pp < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Hardy , . The Woodlanders op cit . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote > Issues of class conflict are often concurrent with conflicts between the sexes . Gaskell originally entitled the novel ' but after pressure from her editor , she was encouraged to change it to , because it was thought to be more ' expressive of the opposite people brought face to face by the story . "" These events mirror struggle to maintain autonomy , for just as realised , so too does , that is ' a middle class woman with the agency and sexuality [ to ] throw into question the dominant ideologies of gender and therefore class . "" Indeed , the violent imagery depicted at the riot between and the mill workers is equally matched by 's brutal decline of 's marriage proposal , with sexual desire figured as physical violence , when she delivers ' a sound blow with her fists . "" Alternatively , the pathetic fallacy Gaskell employs within the title of chapter thirteen ; ' A soft breeze is a sultry place , ' is subtly laced with sexual connotations denoting the growing romance between and . Interestingly , in it is the lack of a female mother figure , ( particularly in the family ) which is often equated with nature , that results in selfish behaviour in conflict with community ideals . < fnote > Gaskell , E. op.cit pp vii < /fnote> Ibid . , ppxxii < /fnote>.Ibid . , pp < /fnote > In Hardy 's Tess of the D'Urbervilles Tess is portrayed as an emblem of nature with ' a flower - like mouth ' similar to a ' peony , ' she is ' a fresh and virginal daughter of Nature . "" Alec 's rape of her then almost constitutes an assault upon the body of the rural peasant class to which she belongs . However , "" Romantic ideologies upholding natures ' holy plan ' clash with a notion of nature 's randomness and cruelty "" for during her rape the ' gentle roosting birds ' and ' primeval yews an oaks ' look on undisturbed . Similarly , during her courtship with Angel at Talbothay 's Dairy they walk through an ' uncultivated ' garden filled with ' rank ' and ' offensive ' smells . These ' sticky blights ' ' stain ' her skin . Although the imagery is symbolic of the biblical Garden of Eden , I also feel that 's descriptions of nature carry sinister undertones that perhaps signal 's abandonment of her in the future . Unlike 's preference for realism , favours the idea of ' negative capability ' as promoted by , who urged readers to stop ' reaching after fact and reason ' and be ' content with half knowledge . "" This explains 's employment of several motifs in Tess of the to communicate conflict between the sexes . The colour red can be traced throughout the novel , particularly when the rose has given ' pricked her chin ' and draws blood , prophesising ' loss of virginity and 's mastery over her . Later , a ' scarlet blot ' of blood on the ceiling signals ' murder of and the final assertion of her will over . Hardy also employs the motif of the sun to mirror ' state of mind and the effect of 's mastery over her . Before her rape she has ' a private little sun for her soul to bask in , ' however after the rape the suns rays are ' ungenial and peering . "" Throughout her courtship with Angel the ' sun itself was hidden ' and sits ' like a great inflamed wound in the sky . "" Until finally after the murder of Alec , her sense of freedom is accompanied by ' a shaft of dazzling sunlight . "" In employs similar techniques to those he used in Tess of the to highlight tension between the sexes . I concur with , who feels "" certain types of landscape tend to become associated with certain patterns of feeling and action . "" Open commons and fields are often the sphere of action and Fitzpiers affair with occurs because on ' open ground she had placed herself at his mercy . "" In contrast , 's uses rain with pornographic intent to symbolise Fitzpiers lust for , which increases until ' it is wetting [ her ] dress . ' For , the forest takes on a gothic transformation with the ' half - dead oak , hollow , and disfigured with white tumours ' during Fitzpiers ' affair with and , like , she is left hypnotised by Fitzpiers ' mastery over her , as mirrored in the landscape of ' the outbuildings , the garden [ all of which ] wore that aspect of mesmeric passivity . "" Mr Melbury 's treatment of his daughter can be compared to the wood used to make walking sticks , which has been moulded ' as the have been said to mould human beings into grotesque toys by continued compression in infancy . "" During Graces ' relationship with , Hardy employs the pathetic fallacy of ' fog ' to mirror 's mental confusion about her feelings . Indeed , their separation is so unnatural ' that the morning could not penetrate the trees . "" In , contrast we are reminded of the unnaturalness of her union to Fitzpiers captured in the out - of - season strawberry beds in his garden , that echo those grown by Alec in ' glasshouses ' in Tess of the . This aberrant union is emphasised again through the ill omen of ' the falling mixture of rain and snow . "" Finally , during the bark stripping < fnote > Hardy , Thomas . Tess Op.cit . , pp114 . < /fnote> Ibid . , . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Hardy , Thomas . cit . pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Hardy , Thomas . Tess op.cit pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Duthie , . op.cit . pp . < /fnote> Hardy , . The woodlanders . op.cit . pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote is ' encaged amid the mass of twigs and buds like a great bird . ' She is confined to her artisan class and will never gain the education needed to win heart . The use of landscape was an ideal vehicle through which to explore the recent implications of upon community . Although ( ) was published prior to the publication of Origin of the Species ( ) theories of evolution and natural selection had already been hinted at in 's ( ) and . ) Accordingly , Gaskell effectively highlights this ' struggle for existence ' between and his mill workers , who ' jostled each other aside in the Mart ... as they did in life , in the deep selfishness of competition . "" Those characters that exist outside the norm of community are ignored , like 's ' weak ' sister Fanny , or silenced by nature through death , like who drowns ' i ' th ' brook . "" Similarly , discourages from leaving to find work in the because she knows the change in landscape , away from his community would ' eat [ him ] away like rust . "" Even eventually realises that the survival of his mill rests upon group solidarity , so he builds a ' dining - room ' believing there is ' nothing like the act of eating for equalising men . "" Correspondingly , in Eliot 's ' parable ' Silas Marner Eppie acts as Silas ' salvation by ' link[ing ] him once more with the whole world ' and the skeleton of , who worked against the community and its ideals , is found dead in ' the stone - pit ' and thus returned to his native soil . In 's work , remarks "" industrialism can certainly be brutal but so can nature . "" ' discovery of the pheasants that have been shot and whose ' rich plumage [ were ] dabbled with blood ' is a violent re - enactment of ' rape . eventually faces death because she exists outside the community and such transgressors will not survive according to . With echoes of King Lear Hardy sees Tess ' like a fly on a billiard table of indefinite length , and of no more consequence to the surroundings than that fly ' and similarly with echoes of ' men every one of whom walked in his own individual way the road to dusty death . "" His final reminder that ' the pale and blasted nettle - stems of now lingered nakedly in the banks , young green nettles of the present spring growing up from their roots , ' seems to promote the survival of the species . However , by nominating Angel and as the progenitors of the species Hardy deprives the reader of a cathartic closure . Compared to 's epic whose Adam and Eve depart with ' paradise within , ' Angel and leave a lasting image of a shrunken humanity . In The Woodlanders passages highlighting the struggle for survival in the forest , where ' overcrowded branches in the neighbouring wood ... were rubbing each other into wounds ' and ' wrestling for existence , ' are interwoven throughout the text . By planting trees and are working to preserve ' the soft musical breathing ' of the trees that will not be felled until ' long after the planters had been felled themselves . "" Such images promote the survival of the species , instead of the individual . < fnote > Gaskell , E. op cit . pp408 . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp299 . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Eliot , George . op cit . pp . < /fnote> Hardy , Thomas . Op.cit pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Hardy , . The woodlanders . op.cit . pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote > With influences on group solidarity assuring survival , society began to experience feelings of nostalgia for rural communities that were quickly becoming consumed by industrialisation . herself leaves rural Helstone and even though she once ' took pride in her forest ' and ' its people were her people ' she becomes ' native ' to industrial . Her garden at Helstone , in which ' everything [ is ] falling and fading , and turning to decay , ' reflects the destiny of this rural community . This destiny is realised upon 's return . She notices that familiar landmarks like , the ' squatters roughly - built and decaying cottage had disappeared ' and ' old trees had been felled . "" The new instated has already put in ' new grates ... and a plate - glass window ' into 's old home . Gaskell 's novel is a bildungsroman of 's journey from innocence to experience , however , I feel that the fate of the countryside follows the same path , ' a great improvement it was called ; but sighed over the old picturesqueness , the old gloom , and the grassy wayside of . "" This nostalgia becomes particularly poignant when we realise that "" own predicament was partly that of . She was a country lover inescapably committed to making her home in . "" Unlike other novelists of the genre 's rural communities , like Raveloe in , exhibit resilience . "" She presented an idealised social order and way of life ... in memorial to a unified national past . "" She relates that ' Raveloe was a village where many of the old echoes lingered , undrowned by new voices . "" The conversion of the stone pit into a garden is testament to the enduring spirit of this bucolic pastoral world and the marriage of and consolidates the community . In contrast , at the end of the novella , Silas discovers that monastery has ' gone . ' < fnote > Eliot , George . op . cit . pp . < /fnote> Ibid .. , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Duthie , . , op.cit . pp . < /fnote> Levine , George.ed . , . : , 2001.pp 40 < /fnote> Eliot , George . op.cit . pp . < /fnote > An admirer of J.M.W. 's impressionist paintings , 's vast set - piece descriptions of are breathtaking in their ' painterly ' detail and help evoke a sense of nostalgia for the fading rural traditions . Tess ' innocence establish her as a totem for the dying rural community experiencing the ' ache of modernism ' , especially when contrasted with the onset of industrialisation embodied in the steam train , which with its ' gleaming cranks and wheels ' looks ' foreign ' next to Tess and the ' red tyrant ' threshing machine used at . The engineer who drives the machine is described as ' as creature from Tophet ' and although ' he was in the agricultural world [ he was ] not of it . "" Yet in opinion "" shows no consistent hatred of machinery "" instead he exposes the reader to the multitude of conflicting impressions , which he himself felt . Like Tess ' family , , in The Woodlanders loses his property to and her belief that ' it is of rather more importance to know what the man is himself than what his family is ' negates the importance of community . Grace is aware of a climate of change , when looking up to the sky she ponders on the ' new worlds being cast ' and when out walking with her father she encounters the hunt master , who is a stranger and speaks to her in a gruff manner unlike the familiar tones of the community . In another encounter with a squirrel , father and daughter notice that it ' did not run up its trees , but ... cried chut chut chut and stamped with its hind legs on the ground , ' behaviour that symbolises that nature is no longer in harmony . Even , the home of Fitzpiers ancestors , is in ' ruins . ' The novel appears to end on a note of defeat . The community seems to passively accept those urban interlopers ; Fitzpiers and who invade their bucolic pastoral world and nature fails to exert itself . < fnote > Hardy , Thomas . Tess of the . Op.cit . pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Hardy , . The Woodlanders . Pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote > In conclusion , analysis of and 's use of symbolic geography and landscape as an analogy to explore the themes of class conflict , , loss of community and differences between the sexes , has shown that despite the lapse of time between each of the authors work and the varied social settings , they all adopted the nature and landscape leitmotifs as a vehicle to make a wider social comment , ultimately expressing the often - conflicting demands of the individual and the community at a time of accelerating social change .","< quote > "" There is no private life which has not been determined by a wider public life . "" George , Eliot . Felix Holt.(1866 ) Ch . < /fnote > In this opening quotation highlights a crucial theme that pervaded not only her novels but also her private life ; the role of the outsider . 's refusal to attend church with her father between the January and May of , the translation of prominent texts ; namely ( ) and 's ( ) , and her relationship with the married secured her own status as a religious and social transgressor . These histories strongly suggest that the characters of her novel , ( ) , would experience similar rejections . Indeed , the quotation cited demonstrates the perennial ethics of a traditional , provincial community like which will not tolerate those characters who do not conform to the tenets and codes of behaviour established in this bucolic pastoral world . A character 's social and moral integrity is established by their adherence to these implicit codes . concurs that there is a "" mute recognition by which the community lives ... it is a recognition that personal good has communal determinations . "" Therefore , to explore the category of the outsider it is beneficial to analyse 's literary methods , the treatment of her characters and the intellectual tropes concerning realism , and the religion of humanity . < fnote > Van Ghent , Dorothy "" On "" in A Century of George Eliot Criticism . ed . , . : Methuen , . pp . < /fnote > David Carroll has identified anomalies that the inhabitants of seek to exclude ; they are "" the reality of sin , suffering and death "" and "" erotic desire . "" Therefore , those characters that introduce these anomalies are considered outsiders . Accordingly , the reader must also keep in mind that without the existence of typically good characters like ; Adam , Seth , Lisbeth and Mr Poyser , their antithesis 's , the outsiders ; , Dinah and would not exist , as highlights all ' men 's lives are as thoroughly blended with each other as the air they breathe . ' < fnote > Carroll , David . ' : Pastoral Theodicies ' , and the conflict of Interpretations . : , . pp75 < /fnote> Eliot , George . ( ) . : , . pp . < /fnote > First then , I will discuss briefly those characters considered insiders . Eliot portrays her protagonist , , as a ' Saxon ' who embodies the traditional values and beliefs of bucolic . His defining characteristics of strength and intellect establish him as no ' ordinary character among workmen ' and the moral yardstick by which all other characters are measured by the reader . Indeed , the religious significance of his name can easily be assimilated to Adam in the Garden of Eden . Accordingly , his employment as a carpenter is reminiscent of Jesus ' vocation . Similarly , his brother is an insider due to his obliging ' benignant ' behaviour , but is keen to highlight his inferiority in comparison to the muscular Adam by denoting the prominent ' coronal arch ' , which according to the science of phrenology that was introduced to Eliot by , is a sign of weakness in a man . Their mother , , at times alienates the readers through her constant fretting but this is overwhelmed by her enduring ' mother 's voice , ' which links her to nature and therefore the community . Accordingly , her constant residence inside the family home consolidates her status as an insider , as she never strays outside to compromise or transgress her allotted social role . < fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp212 . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote > Eliot juxtaposes 's moral integrity with 's fickle nature to establish his liminal status . Indeed , the religious connotations implicit in 's name suggest that 's betrayal of Adam is equivalent to Judas ' betrayal of Jesus . This suggestion is supported by 's ' absence ' at funeral . In his affair with , is forced to meet her , neither on a farm nor on an estate , but on ' the , ' a liminal place where they are free to explore their erotic desires without the condemnation of the community . Indeed , must undergo a symbolic death during his fight with Adam in the grove , to emerge understood but not forgiven by the community , for makes it clear to the reader that ' our deeds determine us as much as we determine our deeds , ' suggesting that is responsible for his actions and no malign fate is at work . agrees that ' Eliot was doubtful that destiny was determined entirely by character . "" Here Eliot is seen to be exploring contemporary thoughts on Determinism within her text . Indeed , was published as influential bestseller . < fnote > Ibid . , pp198 . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> In contrast to the young , Mr Irwine is constructed as an essentially good clergyman with a moral character . However , not only does his prosperity separate him from the rest of the farming community but also his devotion to his bigoted mother , . On surveying at the games , she declares ' what a pity such a beauty as that should be thrown away among the farmers . "" She physically detaches herself from the community by refusing to join the festivities . Mr 's sisters , Miss and , remain at the epistemological petticoats of the novel as ' superfluous existences ; inartistic figures crowding the canvas of life . "" The community ignores them because their sickliness is incongruent with the healthy pastoral idyll has created . They merely serve as a reminder that the aristocracy are dying out . < fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote > In contrast to the dismal and the gentry ' women who contribute nothing to the community , is the lively . She is an integral part of the community , however , it is her outspoken nature , similar to 's Wife of Bath that classifies as an outsider . Eliot makes it clear that ' she would have her word about everything ' and always ' keeps at the top o ' the talk . "" Indeed , Eliot devotes an entire chapter to having ' her say out , ' the strength of her voice and opinion emphasised by 's use of quotation marks in the chapter title . Interestingly , is never punished for her strident remarks to the Old . I feel this is because her strong dialect and comical idioms undermine the strength of her arguments . agrees that these dialects evoke "" a ballad element which denies ( her ) the possibility of articulating ideas and developing a higher consciousness . "" This suggests that would not flourish outside , yet creates the impression of larger than life character being constrained by her social role within the community . Her strength and intelligence are perhaps signals of a paradigm shift . < fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Continuing the comical motif is , whose role as teacher within also establishes an anticipation of change . However , the strong female characters , like , with whom he has several comical disagreements , will not tolerate his misogynistic attitudes that paint women as ' adders ' and ' wasps ' , which place him into the outsider category . < fnote > Eliot , George . op cit . pp240 < /fnote > Similarly , is a drunk who neglects his duties to his family and thus lives in conflict with traditional religious beliefs and is silenced , through death , for these transgressions . Likewise , uses Colonel 's status as an outsider , as a vehicle to introduce the reader to the novel . However , it is Hetty and Dinah Morris who greatly transgress their social roles . Hetty pursues her sexual desires , whilst Dinah becomes absorbed in religious fervour . Both women are ' orphan'(s ) and is not their natural home . Dinah especially is continually urging to return to . Ironically , seems to fulfil her female role , she is the quintessential rural beauty who is subservient to males . However , she wants to deny her family in pursuit of elevating her status ; < quote>'Of every picture she is the central figure , in fine clothes ; Captain is very close to her ... Does any sweet or sad memory mingle with this dream of the future - any loving thought of her parents - of the children she had helped to tend - of any youthful companion , any pet animal , any relic of her own childhood even ? Not one . ' Ibid . , pp . < /fnote > It is this denial of her family links that condemn her as an outsider . The image of the courtroom at 's trial ' haunted with the shadowy memories of old kings and queens ' reinforces her betrayal of family loyalty . She can only enter the path to redemption once she has acknowledged the importance of family , captured in the moment she longs for ' the bright hearth and the warmth and the voices of home . "" Eliot ' others ' Hetty by portraying her as never fully human ; she is consistently referred to as a ' cat ' or ' kitten ' and throughout the novel sees herself via reflections in mirrors . The ' murder of her child ' simultaneously contradicts religious beliefs and indicates her denial of the natural role of motherhood , both actions heavily transgressing the traditional ethics of . Like Tess in Tess of the ( 1891 ) , 's disruptive character is ' transported ' from , her identity removed as she becomes the nameless ' wanderer ' and she is finally silenced through death . However , many critics have criticised because "" the final treatment of is unsatisfying , "" arguing that is not equipped to develop a sense of moral responsibility . argues that she "" lives simply by the coercive morality of the community and , when this is broken , she is destroyed , she has no life apart from this . "" < fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Eliot , George . op cit . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Gregor , . ' in . ed . , baker . , . pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp < /fnote > Juxtaposed with Hetty is Dinah Morris . Eliot immediately establishes her as an agent for change , her sermon upsets the social hierarchies of life and Colonel observes the ' total absence of self- consciousness in her demeanour . "" She establishes a strong , radical feminine force in the novel that gives expression to the artisan classes . However , Dinah 's asceticism not only invites comparison between her the "" "" and the "" Magdalene "" but it also separates her from suffering and the community . In enititles ' , ' is keen to stress that whilst views herself via reflections in the mirror , Dinah looks out of a window onto the world . However , her gaze is detached and 's reason perhaps for muting her radical voice . when the female preachers are banned from preaching , is a method to teach Dinah the religion of humanity . Indeed , critic states that 's "" moral life can only arise from [ her ] reciprocal interaction with others . "" Indeed , the reader becomes aware that the community only accepts Dinah after her marriage to Adam and she has assumed the role of wife and mother . < fnote > Eliot , George . op cit . , pp < /fnote> Carroll , . op cit . pp . < /fnote> Carroll , David . ' : Pastoral Theodicies ' , and the conflict of Interpretations . : , . pp . < /fnote > In many respects , 's use of literary methods establishes the reader as an outsider . The use of dialect creates a barrier between the reader and the characters . Her complex construction of time , which is double removed , creates a sense of distance between reader and community . Similarly , events within the novel are already in motion when the reader enters the story . and already know each other , Dinah has not just arrived in , and in fact she is about to return to and 's relationship with his father has already deteriorated . Despite her extensive intellectual knowledge , Eliot wrote "" from a memory of a memory "" of her childhood spent at in . It seems she must return to her childooh to regain those feelings of love and sympathy integral to the religio of humanity that Feuerbach promoted . Indeed throughout carefully maps out the trajectory for the advanced intellectuals transition from God to good . Eliot uses Adam and Alick the Shepard as vehicles to promote this religion of humanity , which believes ' there 's the spirit o ' God in all things and at all times - weekdays as well as . "" It is love and sympathy for your fellow human beings , not faith in some obscure physical manifestation of God . < fnote > Gregor , . op cit . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote > However , it is interesting to note that religion alienates certain characters within the novel . Much like Hardy 's Tess it offers no comfort in her time of need . She views the parish as ' a prison ' instead of a place of sanctuary . It seems that a characters status as an outsider pivots on their adherence to this religion of humanity . Those who are not selfless are either integrated or silenced . < fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote > Linked to these religious ideals were 's ambitions for realism , which were inspired by the ' rare , precious quality of truthfulness ... in many paintings ... the delicious sympathy in these faithful pictures of a monotonous homely existence , ' she feels it is ' needful we should remember their existence , ' lest they become outsiders of fiction . Her ambition then is to create the literary equivalent of these paintings , as her manifesto stated in the essay shows her desire for fiction to reveal the ' commonplace : ' < fnote > Eliot , George . op cit . pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Ibid . , Introduction pp xiii < /fnote> ' We want to be taught to feel , not for the heroic artisan or the sentimental peasant , but for the peasant in all his coarse apathy , and the artisan in all his suspicious selfishness . ' Ibid . , pp xiii < /fnote > In conclusion , a sense of irony pervades the final stages of the novel , as it becomes apparent that a dialectic relationship exists between insiders and outsiders and old versus new . The reader witnesses old beliefs being forced to the outside to make way for a new code of ethics , that invites change . The old has died ; has ' plans of drainage and enclosure ' of ' new ploughs and drills ' to improve his grandfathers estate before he is informed of 's conviction ; Mr Irwine and his dated views are challenged by the figures of and Dinah . has remarked that viewed her novels as "" a vehicle for instruction or edification , "" therefore one expects 's outsiders to experience the same heavy rejection she experienced as a result of her actions , but unlike , refrains from placing her outsiders in purgatory . Their suffering is never acute . As omniscient narrator she protects these carefully constructed characters from being rejected by the reader . She opted for an eloquent conclusion to protect her fragile Victorian readers because she was a woman whose own role within community remained undefined and unaccepted until her death in . < fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote> Kettle , Arnold . The Novel in . , . . < /fnote >",1 "Free indirect discourse or style indirect libre is a technique used by writers to present the thoughts or utterances of a fictional character as if it were from their own point of view . This is achieved by combining grammatical and other features of the character 's ' direct speech ' with features of the narrator 's ' indirect ' report . It is a technique to allow the reader to interpret the protagonist 's thoughts as the author enjoys a seemingly objective stance . was a ' pioneer ' of this style and in his novel , this technique is used copiously . advantage he enjoyed was that it enabled him to find a style ' suitable to each object , each place , each circumstance [ and ] each being ' and permitted him ' to give expression to the unexpressed thoughts of incoherent people . "" This style indirect libre involves the reader in the narrative ; there is no privation to preface the tenets of the protagonists with ' il a pensé ' or - would it be direct speech - ' il me semble ' as it is either deliberately apparent or indeterminate who the reference is made by and this is controlled by the author . < fnote > Brombert , V. , The Novels of Flaubert : A Study of Themes and Techniques ( , ) , p. < /fnote> Faguet , É. , ( , ) , p. < /fnote> Starkie , , Flaubert : The Making of the Master ( , ) , p. < /fnote > The reader is often told how things are seen rather than merely what is being seen . example of this is ' description of as he frequents 's farm ; she offers him a drink . uses style indirect libre to underline the significance of this moment to . The description is , ergo , extremely detailed and it is clear that it portrays the thoughts of . He sees Emma : ' [ qui ] n'avait point de fichu , on voyait sur les épaules nues de petites gouttes de sueur . "" Flaubert manages to describe in a highly suggestive way and yet manages to keep the semblance of objectivity through the style indirect libre as it appears clear that it is who sees Emma in this way and is becoming emotionally charged as ' Elle [ Emma ] riait de ne rien sentir , tandis que le bout de la langue , passant entre ses dents fines , léchait à petits coups le fond du verre . ' He is realizing her strong erotic potential which will ' find its symbolic awakening during the dance ritual at the ball . ' < fnote > Flaubert , G. , Madame ( , ) , p. < /fnote> Ibid . < /fnote> Brombert , V. , op . cit . , p. < /fnote > This style indirect libre would initially suggest that would sympathise with as her description is through the eyes of Charles who is in awe of her . , however , ensures his rigid objectivity as , later on in the novel , the reader will be able to judge 's character for himself when the style indirect libre switches to her shared point of view , through her actions and rhetoric . The reader will see her dissatisfaction with her life and especially with Charles but ' Flaubert 's style indirect libre gives a modicum of objectivity ' to this lamentation . ' était là . Il avait sa casquette enforcée sur ses sourcils ... ce qui ajoutait à son visage quelque chose de stupide ' . It is evident that it is not the author who is making this comment but it is in Emma 's thoughts . By adopting style indirect libre Flaubert drops the real subject of the sentence and the protagonist 's true thoughts are expressed . This technique also enables to ensure that the text is impersonal while simultaneously conveying judgments of characters and events ; as ' impersonality depends not on what is said but on the fact that no identifiable narrator speaks . ' < fnote > Flaubert , G. , op . cit . , quoted in , , Flaubert : The Uses of Uncertainty ( , ) , p. < /fnote> Style indirect libre combines voices : the voice of the narrator and that of a character . It is often impossible to tell who actually is speaking as the ' speaker may be the narrator , or of the characters , or both , or neither . "" We can see this in incidents where the distinction between character and narrator appears to disappear completely ; ' Emma fut intérieurement satisfaite de se sentir arrivée du premier coup à ce rare idéal des existences pâles , où ne parviennent jamais les coeurs médiocres . It is impossible to tell here whether the narrator is quoting 's thoughts or feelings or whether he is , in fact , expressing his own opinions . The effect this has on the reading of the text is that firstly - as a result of the style indirect libre - the reader can read 's thoughts , feel her feelings , and appreciate her reactions with a much greater ease as his involvement in the text is further enhanced . , this intermittent use of ' absent ' narration creates an illusion of objectivity and detachment by pushing the character into the foreground as the narrator recedes into the background . Due to the fact that the source of the narration is indistinguishable and that there are not multiple narrators , nor does the narrator have ' a distinct set of characteristics ' , it is impossible therefore , for a narrator to be ' opposed to another narrator , or to a character . "" The sequential effect is one which underlines the authenticity and objectivity of the text . < fnote > Ginsburg , , Study in Narrative Strategies ( , ) , p. < /fnote> Flaubert , , op . cit . , p. < /fnote> Ibid . < /fnote > This style indirect libre , thus , allows to move unobtrusively between the objective and the subjective and permits him to place stress on certain characterizations . Through style indirect libre Flaubert ensures that we only see what is important to the protagonists and that we adopt their own idiom . We only see the characters through what they notice of each other through what they perceive of each other . Another example of this is where 's beauty as she lies in the hotel bed is appreciated by both and the narrator : ' rien au monde n'était beau comme sa tête brune et sa peau blanche se détachant sur cette couleur pourpre , quand , par un geste de pudeur , elle fermait ses deux bras nus , en se cachant la figure dans les mains . ' Perhaps substantiation that remains objective and that the descriptions are solely through the eyes of his protagonists lies in the trivial inconsistencies in the novel . 's eyes are such incongruities ; ' on occasion he gives brown eyes ; on another deep black eyes ; and , on another , blue eyes . Léon ... is described as having golden hair ; and later as having chestnut locks . ' < fnote > Flaubert , G. , op . cit . , p. < /fnote> Starkie , E. , op . cit . , p. < /fnote > Through his use of style indirect libre encourages the reader to see through his character 's limited point of view and the interplay between the protagonists deliberately leaves space for the reader to interpret their actions . This form of statement allows a - person narrative to exploit a person point of view thus facilitating a multifaceted presentation of character , allowing the possibility of both ironic and empathetic attitudes . example of 's use of style indirect libre to highlight the dramatic irony in the novel is 's excitement when she returns home from the forest after committing adultery with exclaiming : ' J'ai un amant ! Un amant ! ' This is placed in direct discourse as it is technically true . However , the passage which follows is in style indirect libre : ' Elle allait donc posséder enfin ces joies de l'amour , cette fièvre du bonheur do nt elle avait désespéré . ' Here Emma is disillusioned and qua reader we know this and are immediately aware of the subtle irony . < fnote > Flaubert , G. , op . cit . , p. < /fnote> Ibid . < /fnote > In conclusion uses style indirect libre in and proves it to be a particularly suitable vehicle for interior monologues often verbalising essentially pre - verbal sensations and states of mind . The style is also used to highlight the irony that is to be found in the text and to subtly control the reader and his reading of the text .","is a piece of work , of biographical intent , targeting the narration of the life of the father of . The narrator wishes to depict a portrait of her father 's life which is objective and does not suffer from bias or which becomes subjective or sentimental - a flaw she readily points out of accounts of similar intent : ' Pour rendre compte d'une vie soumise à la nécessité , je n'ai pas le droit de prendre d'abord le partie de l'art , ni de chercher à faire quelque chose de "" passionnant "" , ou d'""émouvant "" . ' This piece , however , fails to be scientific and non - emotive throughout ; it becomes instead filled with auto - reflection and removed from the intended narrative into a meta - narrative . This is partly due to the fact that Ernaux transforms herself as the narration progresses and realises that she herself is split between social classes . The fact that she fails to remain audit throughout is one of the key pessimistic views in the book , as she has failed this because of the class divisions . The themes of social conditioning and class divisions are , therefore , paramount throughout ' - the title itself hints at the importance of one 's ' place ' in society - and there are many examples in the text of alienation , guilt and schism to prove that the narrator 's views on these issues are , on the whole , pessimistic . < fnote > Ernaux , . , ( ) , p.24 < /fnote > Western civilisation is geared towards consumption under the aegis of capitalism and , therefore , in every similar society , a class structure will inevitably emerge . Social conditions and external forces - such as peer - pressure , create a certain social model or "" norm "" to which one feels compelled to abide by . There are many examples of the pressure on people to follow these artificial criteria in ' . The father of the narrator is portrayed as desperate ensure that his daughter is educated into a higher social class , perhaps so she will never feel as uncomfortable in the company of the bourgeoisie as he often does . He becomes increasingly more distant from his daughter but wishes to ensure her elevation nonetheless : ' Il me conduisait de la maison à l'école sur son vélo . ' The social conditions are so strong that the father actually , in this example , takes her daughter to a place which he knows will distance him further from his daughter . This is a pessimistic view . The idea of being educated into a higher sector of society , mirrors those of - a sociologist who outlines ' linguitic and cultural capital as significant as economic capital ' . This is mirrored in ce qui touché au langage est dans mon souvenir motif de rancœur et de chicanes douloureuses , bien plus que l'argent . ' also expresses the difference between the ' classes dominantes / classes dominées ' which also outlines and shares a pessimistic view of . < fnote > Ibid . , p.112 < /fnote> Bourdieu , , critique sociale du jugement ( ) < /fnote> Ernaux , . , ( ) , p.64 < /fnote> Bourdieu , , critique sociale du jugement ( ) < /fnote > Ernaux outlines further pessimism as regards to social conditioning and the concept of a class structure , by explaining that people who attempt to move from sector to another become alienated . This indeed happens to the narrator herself ; she , who has moved into the bourgeoisie , has a resulting split - personality . That is to say that she feels alienated from her family and her previous social class as well as herself . This is shown when she goes back to the café and reports to feel almost like an impostor . Another example of being a pessimistic view of class divisions and social conditioning is the point that her father does not fit in and even feels embarrassed when speaking to , or in the company of , those from a higher social class . Because of the class divisions and language barriers which coincide with them , he can never be himself in certain groups and this is how a person 's identity is partly lost . He is always compelled by ' La peur d'être déplacé , d'avoir honte . ' he feels always out of place and , because he has become a marchant , is afraid of making mistakes and being found out of being a paysan - ' devant les gens qui parlaient bien il se taisait, ... toujours parler ( parlait ) avec précaution ... il détestait aussi les grandes phrases et les expressions nouvelles ' . The pessimistic view put forward here is that the presence of a different class ensures that the father has always to be on his guard , he is separated from them and his daughter as he belongs to a different sphere of knowledge . The point of language further alienates her father as we discover that her mother is somewhat different ; in that she is ' soucieuse de faire évoluée , qui osait experimenter , avec un rien d'incertitude , ce qu'elle venait d'entendre ou de lire ' as opposed to him who ' se refusait à employer un vocabulaire qui n'était pas le sien . ' He is , therefore , portrayed as being left completely isolated . < fnote > Ernaux , . , ( ) , p.59 < /fnote> Ibid . , p.63 < /fnote> Ibid . , p.63 < /fnote> Ibid . , pp.63 - 64 < /fnote > The social conditions and the very fact that a class structure exists cause the narrator to feel guilty . She feels guilty when coming back to the café and also when she meets her former pupil who says to her she has failed . The narrator can not even remember the woman and feels she has failed in some way . ' "" , ça n'a pas marché . "" ... oublié pourquoi elle avait été envoyé en C.E.T. ' The arrogance of the librarians is another pessimistic view concerning the class divisions ; when the father asks for some books one of the librarians ' a choisi à place , Columba pour moi , un roman léger de Maupassant pour mon père . ' These are both non - challenging pieces . The appearance of exclusivity evoked by the librarians of the educated , higher class is a negative one . < fnote > Ibid . , p.114 < /fnote> Ibid . , p.112 < /fnote > Whilst everyone is trying desperately to fit in to a place where their identity is contradicted , people become isolated . This occurs in each generation in the book . It seems also , that the targeted ideal is actually never reached by anyone . However , there are some themes in the book which one could interpret as not pessimistic of social standing and class divisions . The father , although uneasy in certain situations , never suffers any real hardship so it could be argued that pessimism is too strong a word . The narrator is part of these class divisions and social conditions and helps to judge them , being a teacher . It is unlikely therefore that she would speak with total pessimism . Another example is that one could interpret the class divisions and indeed the social conditions as being the reason for people - such as the narrator - to become educated and want to better themselves . Although the reasons for this ( the want to fit in with a higher society ) may not be entirely just or ideal , a population filled with such sorts - those who strive to be educated - can surely only be beneficial to a society . Therefore , in this situation such class divisions and social conditions can hardly be viewed as pessimistic . The narrator indeed speaks highly of her education throughout . In conclusion , therefore , although there are a small number of examples which could be interpreted as contradicting to this statement , due to the portrayal of guilt but mainly alienation and pressure , is a pessimistic view of social conditions and class divisions .",1 "< quote>""There are no parallels in life to the concentration camps . Its horror can never be fully embraced by the imagination for the very reason it stands outside of life and death "" ( Arendt:1973:444 ) < /quote > There seem approaches to this question : the is that the holocaust was fundamentally different from our modern experience , and as such post we had to redefine our existence . The is that the is the twisted epoch of modernity . "" The principal disagreement here is one between those who perceive the in the realisation of modernity 's ownmost bureaucratic possibilities , culminating in the classification and sub - classification of populations , meticulously organised timetables of transports , and ethical displacement ; and those for whom it is the product of a pre - modern irrationalism secreted with the political culture of , a corrosive but eliminable residue . "" ( Turner:2000:236 ) This antagonistic and dialectical approach to the was presented by and her discourse on this subject is neatly surmised by in his book and the Jewish Question in which he discusses 's own change of heart on the nature of Holocaust , ' From Radical Evil to . This transposes itself on to the debate that took place during , a debate which this question implicitly alludes to : are the instruments of totalitarianism extraordinary acts of evil , or are they a distortion , or a culmination of modern political institutions ? Is Eichmann a devil or a man ? To distance ourselves from the atrocities directed towards the in , is to safely , but naively , dismiss the shock and the ' reality ' of the . But to be defeated by pessimism , the pessimism created by neighbour killing neighbour , and to diagnose modernity as terminal is to allow those forces which are most abhorrent in human nature to claim victory . "" Arendt described the as a ' rupture with civilisation ' that shattered all existing ideas of progress , all feelings of optimism , all previously engraved images of as a civilised community , all notions of the innocence of modern political thought "" ( ) But this is not an excuse for simple answers , the horrors of the ' final solution ' are not beyond are comprehension , they do however lie beyond the confines of ' modern ' political thought . The death camps raise a number of questions , and involve a wide and varied assortment of components . These components are often located and juxtaposed with their antithesis . These are perhaps the hardest to grasp , but also offer the greatest insight to the true horrors of the . "" The was born and executed in out modern rational society , at the high stage of our civilization and at the peak of human achievement , and for this reason it is a problem of that society , civilization and culture . "" ( Bauman:1989 :x ) . Yet the was infact irrational , unpunishable and unforgivable by all methods available to that society , civilisation and culture . The combination of apparent opposites I wish to discuss is the distinction made by between ' radical evil ' and the ' banality of evil ' . This is the most essential feature of the , and should always be in our mind when looking at other features of it . So before going any further we must come to terms with these ' catchwords ' . ' Radical evil ' was a phrase not created by but by , who rationalised this "" in the concept of a ' perverted ill will ' "" ( Arendt:1973:459 ) .The motives of ' radical evil ' are decipherable through the methods of enlightenment . ' Radical evil ' fitted within an existing classification system , the devil is still an angel , just one who has fallen from grace . For ' radical evil ' is not comprehensible by these methods , "" [ T]herefore , we actually have nothing to fall back on in order to understand a phenomenon that nevertheless confronts us with its overpowering reality and breaks down all standards we know . "" ( Arendt:1973:459 ) . does not offer us the meaning of this evil in the Origins of Totalitarianism , but in a letter to her former tutor she tries to offer an answer . < quote>""What radical evil really is I do n't know , but it seems to me it has somehow to do with the following phenomenon : making human beings are superfluous ( not using them as a means to an end ... rather , making them superfluous as human beings ) This happens as soon as all unpredictability , which , in human beings , is the equivalent of spontaneity- is eliminated "" ( Arendt:1996:141 ) < /quote > The Holocaust was not about hate , envy revenge : these are all to reasonable within the realms of our understanding . It was about creating an environment in which to experiment on human nature , and how to extinguish spontaneity , and even complicity in the elimination of your self . This ideas of superfluousness are examine by in her chapter The Decline of the Nation State and the Ends of the Rights of Man . The creation of the modern state was built implicitly and explicitly on the will of its citizens who intrinsically had rights . "" [ O]nly with a completely organized humanity could the loss of home and political status biome identical with the expulsion from humanity altogether "" ( Arendt:1973:297 ) People cease to have the right to have rights . Only in the death camps , in the laboratories and factories of death can the systematic deconstruction of the soul take place . And only here can people be made truly superfluous ( Bernstein:1996 : ) . The story does not end here for , for ' radical evil ' is more than ' evil motives ' , but this is not to say that the were insane , mad men on a quest of destruction . Humanity can survive in the face of maniacs : was not a devil , he was a man . "" He was not stupid . It was sheer thoughtlessness - something by no means identical with stupidity- that predisposed him to become one of the greatest criminals of that period . And if this is ' banal ' and even funny , if with the best will in the world one can not extract any diabolical or demonic profundity from , that is still calling it far from common place ... That such remoteness from reality and such thoughtlessness can wreak more havoc than all the evil instincts taken together which , perhaps , are inherent in man , that was in fact , the lesson one could learn in "" ( This passage has provoked much criticism of and resulted in exclusion from some communities . By calling this ' banal ' she is not trivialising the events of the , she is , more importantly , refusing to raise , and to ' satanic greatness ' . And this is perhaps the most disturbing twist to the , that it was in fact not extra - ordinary , not to those who those involved . "" In this context the term ' banality of evil ' was , I think , her way of saying the was ' human , all to human ' . "" ( Fine:2000:35 ) This ' banality ' of the perpetrators of these ' crimes against humanity ' this realness suggests that the transition to the ' final solution ' was not something fundamentally new . The contained recognizable elements of modernity , so much so that thoughtlessness was all that was required to enable ' production of corpses ' . The rationality of modernity was twisted under totalitarianism and its goal of total domination into something more than simply irrational , but into something outside the bounds of rationalism all together . The very institutions and modes of operation created and facilitated by modernity became the instruments of terror and death . In his essay Soliciting the Co - operation of explores how the Jews under were not only complicit in but actively aided the ' final solution ' . "" councillors and policemen were faced with a simple choice ; to die or to let others die ... Playing God was made easier by self interest "" ( ) The rationality of such actions seems unquestionable , self preservation is the driving force behind man 's rationality for many of the Enlightenment thinkers and their forefathers . distinguishes between the rationality of the actor and the rationality of the action : "" is a good guide for individual behaviour only on such occasions as the rationalities resonate and overlap . Otherwise it turns into a suicidal weapon . It destroys its own purpose , knocking down on the way moral inhibitions- its only constraint and potential saviour . "" ( ) The decision to collaborate with one 's own executors is irrational , but if such collaboration may offer redemption it is rational . It is in this ghetto situation where we see another evil of the , where neighbour must , or a least can condemn his neighbour in order to try and survive . The dehumanisation process begun by removing legal rights , then the right to freedom , then to cut away solidarity , the was much more than simply the death camps , it was so much more than extermination of people , souls and minds were erased before the body was disposed of . In this way "" argues that the was not a novum in history but the outcome of the technological rationalism of modern society and the attendant normative socialisation of modern subjects "" ( Gorman:2000:49 ) . The link between modernism is certainly a strong one ; the creation of 's depersonalised ' legal rational ' society , combined with the principles pioneered by entrepreneurs like , create the political and social space for men to be so thoughtless , unengaged and alienated with the product of their labour , that when held accountable for the deaths of over Jews , their answers are those that any factory worker might illicit , "" I just load the trains "" , "" I just cut their hair "" , "" I just do as I 'm told "" . This alienation from the product of labour , that is a fundamental trait of modernity , allows the disengagement from reality . The end product is never realised in the minds of the perpetrators . It is a grotesque paradox that after men were yoked to the production line , that humanity should find itself on the same line progressing slowly towards the furnace at the end . This however is not the whole story . is correct in his assessment of the means of the , and I do not believe that could happen in anything but a modern society . But the objective of the was something completely irrational , and this makes it irreconcilable with modernity . Even as the allied tanks closed in on the ' deportation ' of continued , "" The uselessness of the camps , their cynically admitted anti - utility , is only apparent "" ( Arendt:1973:456 ) . Indeed the resources required to maintain the death camps meant that the rest of the army was stretched beyond its limit : "" Common sense trained in utilitarian thinking is helpless against this ideological supersense . "" ( Arendt:1973:458 ) , and is perhaps one of the reasons why the allies never chose to bomb the tracks that lead east . This self - cannibalism is something that for is implicit in totalitarian regimes , the totalitarian state is infact anti - state . came to power through the democratic process , and then proceeded to chisel away the institutions and principles of that democracy from the inside , the same paradigm is apparent in totalitarianism and the state , and the and modernity . If we decide that the death camps are the fulfilment of an unknown prophecy foretold in the beginnings of the enlightenment we not only lose our innocence we lose hope . But equally the should not merely become an evil out of time like some natural catastrophe . I do not think that there are any new principles , only new lessons to be learnt ; "" the lesson that totalitarianism should have taught us is that it is an illusion to think that radical evil is impossible . ' Everything is possible . ' All of 's thinking is directed against the ever present , real danger of the eruption of radical evil . "" ( Bernstein:1996:153 ) .","< heading > Exercise 1 : Descriptive statistics ( 1 contains the data used in this exercise , which consists of assemblages of endscrapers recovered from the rockshelter site of No'kulchaear . Table 2 shows the summary statistics for each assemblage ( mean , median , mode , standard error , standard deviation , sum , sample size ) . The mean lengths of the endscrapers in each assemblage have been compared in Figure . < table/>
Exercise 2 : Normality of data ( L1) The assemblages were tested for normality in ways - production of a histogram for each assemblage ( Figures ) , and calculations , which are summarised in 3 . < table/>In the skewness / standard error and kurtosis / standard error tests , the data is normal if the values for both tests lies between -1.99 and +1.99 . As shows , all the assemblages have values in this range and are therefore normal . The histograms show that all the data have a fairly normal distribution , although has an anomalous peak at , and B and C have no data in range . < figure/>
Exercise 3 : ANOVA ( L1 , L2) The ANOVA ( analysis of variance ) test will compare the mean lengths of all assemblages to see if the differences between the assemblages are statistically significant . The significance level is set at . hypotheses may be established . < heading > Hypotheses H 0 - the differences between the mean lengths of the endscrapers of the assemblages are not statistically significant . H 1 - the differences between the mean lengths of the endscrapers of the assemblages are statistically significant . The test produced a P - value of x10 -6 ( ) . This exceeds the significance value ( i.e. is less than ) , and therefore the null hypothesis ( H 0 ) can be rejected in favour of H 1 , that the difference in the mean lengths of the assemblages is statistically significant . < table/>The ANOVA test was also applied to test the significance of the differences between mean lengths of Assemblages X and B , again at significance . The hypotheses are given below , and the results are in . < heading > Hypotheses H 0 - the differences between the mean lengths of the endscrapers of Assemblages X and B are not statistically significant H - the differences between the mean lengths of the endscrapers of Assemblages X and B are statistically significant < table/>The P - value exceeds the significance value ( ) and therefore the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of the hypothesis that the differences in mean endscraper length between the assemblages are significant ( H 1 ) . The same test was carried out to compare Assemblages X and E. The same parameters were used , and the results are in Table 6 . < heading > Hypotheses H 0 - the differences between the mean lengths of the endscrapers of Assemblages X and E are not statistically significant . H 1 - the differences between the mean lengths of the endscrapers of Assemblages X and E are statistically significant . < table/>The P - value for these assemblages does not exceed the significance value ( ) , therefore the null hypothesis is upheld . There is no statistically significant difference between the mean length of the endscrapers in assemblages X and E. < heading > Exercise 4 : Chi - squared test ( The chi - squared test is used to test the distribution of the endscrapers in relation to the distribution of animal bones on the site . This test was performed on , and the null and alternative hypotheses are given below . The observed values are given in Table 7 and the expected values calculated in by multiplying the sum for the row with the sum for the column and dividing by the total number of observations . The significance level of this test is , and there is 1 degree of freedom . < heading > Hypotheses H 0 = the observed distribution of the endscrapers and animal bones in is not statistically significant . H = the observed distribution of the endscrapers and animal bones in is statistically significant . < table/>
For Assemblage A , the calculated X value exceeds the X 2 value of at of freedom at the significance level ( ) . Therefore , the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of H 1 , that there is a statistical significance to the observed distribution of endscrapers and animal bones in this assemblage . The same calculations were performed for , for which the observed values are given in and the expected values in . < heading > Hypotheses H 0 = the observed distribution of the endscrapers and animal bones in is not statistically significant . H = the observed distribution of the endscrapers and animal bones in is statistically significant . < table/>
For Assemblage C , the calculated X value does not exceed the X 2 value of at of freedom at significance level ( ) . Therefore , the null hypothesis is upheld . < heading > Exercise 5 : Correlation analysis ( This test establishes whether there is a correlation between variables , in this case the tools : waste flake ratio and the distance to the flint source . This data is presented in , and the variables are plotted against each other in Figure . The correlation value is calculated in , and shows a very strong correlation ( > 0.8 ) between the variables . < table/>
The tools : waste flake ratio and the mean endscraper length were also tested for correlation . A correlation value of - 0.14 ( Table 16 ) suggests that there is no apparent correlation between the variables , and this is supported by the appearance of the scattergram ( Figure . < figure/> Exercise 6 : Regression ( L2) The linear regression equation is FORMULA The regression equation for the correlation between tools : waste flake ratio and distance to the source ( Figure ) is FORMULA Using this equation , the number of waste flakes in a new set of assemblages ( F - J ) can be predicted from the distance to the source of the raw material . Once the ratio is calculated , the actual number of waste flakes can be predicted using the formula : FORMULA The results of these calculations for the new assemblages are presented in . < table/ >",0